The Gap between Attitudes and Behaviour in Ethical Consumerism:
Empirical Evidence from China
1. Introduction
A growing number of ethical consumers have started to use their own private consumption
behaviour to influence social issues (Muncy and Vitell, 1992). Although a large scale study
by Cowe and Williams (2000) suggested that more than one third of consumers in UK
described themselves as ‘ethical purchasers’, ethically accredited products such as Fair Trade
lines achieved a very limited market share (only 1-3%). It appears that a significant ‘attitude–
behaviour gap’ may exist in consumer ethical consumption decision-making (Deng, 2011;
Kim, Forney and Arnold, 1997). Despite research into ethical consumption increasing
significantly in recent years, few studies have explored this attitude-behaviour gap in ethical
consumerism (Bray et al. 2010). Furthermore, the existing studies are mainly conducted in
the West (Tian et al., 2011), with little attention given to emerging countries such as China.
As China has become the world’s biggest market (Tian et al., 2011), research into ethical
consumerism in China is important for both the academics and practitioners. Therefore, the
purpose of this project is to develop and test a conceptual model of ethical consumerism in
China, in order to gain deeper knowledge of Chinese consumers’ attitudes and behaviours
towards business ethics and corporate social responsibility (CSR).
This research proposal is divided into four sections. The next section reviews the relevant
literature. Following that, the proposed research methodology is discussed. The final part is
the expected original contributions of this research.
2. Literature Review
2.1 Theoretical Background
Ethical consumerism refers to consumer choices based on the social, non-traditional
components of products (Auger et al., 2003) as well as personal and moral beliefs (Carrigan et
al., 2004). Research into ethical consumerism has been focused on modelling ethical
consumer behaviour based on existing attitude-behaviour models (Chatzidakis et al., 2007).
One of the most frequently used models is the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen,
1991), which is a theory of attitude-behaviour relationships that seeks to provide an
explanation of behaviour, and links attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control,
behavioural intentions and behaviour in a fixed causal sequence (Harrison et al., 2005). Eagly
and Chaiken (1993) argued that a measure of personal moral or ethical obligation should be
added to the traditional theory of planned behaviour structure. Research by Sparks and
Shepherd (1992) also suggested that the TPB should be modified to incorporate a measure of
self-identity. In this proposed research, modified TPB will be adopted.
Most studies hold the viewpoint that ethical, socially responsible companies will be bound
to attract consumers to buy their products and services, while a company’s unethical
behaviour may result in consumer boycott (Carrigan and Attalla, 2001). However, the value
generated by a company conducting marketing strategies in a “socially responsible manner” is
controversial (Smith et al., 1996). Corporate social responsibility (CSR) can be
conceptualised economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic responsibilities (Carroll, 1979).
According to Carroll, ethical responsibilities embody those standards, norms, or expectations
that reflect a concern for stakeholders like the environmental, civil rights, and many other
forms. Philanthropic responsibilities encompass those corporate actions that are in response to
society’s expectation including business contributions to the arts, education, or the
community (Carroll, 1991). The most existing studies focus on higher level CSR activities
(ethical and philanthropic responsibilities) which are also the primary concerns in this
research. The effect of CSR on consumers’ ethical attitudes will be explored, which will also
examine some barriers which impede consumers’ ethical purchase behaviour.
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Ethical consumer behaviour is more complex and heterogeneous than may at first be
apparent (Low and Davenport, 2007). Consumers’ motivations vary, and their behaviours are
dependent on different circumstances (Papaoikonomou et al., 2011). Freestone and
McGoldrick (2008) suggested that the complexity of ethical consumer choices reflects the
complicated process of ethical decision making, which requires detailed evaluations of
personal and social benefits and harms derived from products with ethical attributes.
To sum up, based on TPB, a conceptual model linking corporate social responsibilities to
ethical consumption attitude, intention and purchase is presented in Figure 1 for empirical
examination and to explain Chinese consumers’ ethical purchase behaviour. Specific
hypotheses are developed in the following section.
Attitudes
toward
ethical
purchases
H2
CSR
information
H5
H8
Ethical
purchase
intention
H3
Consumer
ethical
obligation
External limitations
a. High prices
b. Lack of availability of ethical products
c. Other situational factors
H1
CSR
activities
H6
Ethical purchase
behaviour
H7
Consumer
self-identity
H4
Internal limitations
a. Time lag in adopting ethical buying habit
b. Unethical purchasing habit
Figure 1. The proposed conceptual model
2.2 Hypotheses Development
2.2.1 CSR Activities and Information
Prior research shows the mixed results of CSR’s impact on consumer attitude. CSR
activities can lead to consumers having positive attitudes towards a particular enterprise and
its products (Berger et al., 1996). Consumers, in assessing their buying choice, would inspect
the company’s background, attitude, and behaviour beyond quality of the product itself
(Manakkalathil et al., 1995). Carvalho, Sen and Lima (2010) suggested that consumers are
often willing to pay higher prices for products from companies they perceive to be ethical and
socially responsible. However, Sen and Bhattacharya (2001) determined, when an enterprise
discloses positive social responsibility information, consumers tend to give a lower evaluation
on product quality. They are sceptical of whether enterprises really do exercise social
responsibility behaviour (Deng, 2012). Beckmann (2007) subscribed to the view that
consumers are interested in CSR, but at the same time rather sceptical and cynical in their
views. Furthermore, the result from some research suggests that information on ethical and
unethical behaviour has asymmetric effects on consumers’ attitudes (Folkes et al., 1999).
Consumers tend to believe more easily that companies are unethical rather than ethical. Other
researchers have taken more neutral position by stating that awareness about companies’
unethical behaviour might not lead to boycotting them; rather their products are expected to
be cheaper (Creyer, 1997). Thus, the following hypotheses are proposed to be tested:
H1: CSR activities have a positive effect on consumer attitudes toward ethical
purchases
H2: Positive CSR information has a positive effect on consumer attitudes toward
ethical purchases
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2.2.2 Consumer Ethical Obligation and Self-identity
Ethical consumers may hold strong feelings of obligation for others that impact their
purchase choices (Shaw et al., 1999). According to Ajzen (1991), perceived moral obligation
is independent of effects for attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behaviour control. Such
a measure of the obligation represents an individual’s internalised ethical rules, which reflect
their personal beliefs about right and wrong (Harrison et al., 2005). In many instances the
addition of a measure of the obligation has been found to improve the explanation of intention
(Raats et al., 1995). Shepherd and Frewer (1995) used the TPB as a framework to explore
attitudes towards the use of gene technology in food production and found that the ethical
obligation has a significant independent predictive effect. A hypothesis is proposed below:
H3: Consumer ethical obligation has a positive effect on ethical purchase intention
Within both the sociological and the psychological literature, a person’s self-identity (or
self-concept) has been viewed as an important influence on behaviour (Turner, 1982). Identity
theory is concerned with the wider social context of behaviour, which links behaviour to
identifiable social characteristics (Charng, Piliavin and Callero (1988). The TPB is considered
more psychological in that it is less concerned with the wider social implications of behaviour,
focusing more on normative aspects (Shaw, 2000). Consumers make ethical consumption
choices because ethical issues have become an important part of their self-identity and as such
self-identity is found to be significant in the explanation of intention to purchase (Shaw et al.,
2000). In the area of green consumerism, Sparks and Shepherd (1992) found that self-identity
contributes to the explanation of intention over and above the contribution made by the other
theory of planned behaviour measures. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H4: Consumer self-identity is positively related to ethical purchase intention
Following TPB, attitudes towards ethical purchase are hypothesized to influence ethical
purchase behaviour via the mediating variable of ethical purchase intention. Empirical
studies have demonstrated a significant positive relationship between ecological intention and
behaviour (cf. Li, 1997). Chan’s (2001) findings also supported the classic behavioural
proposition that intention is the most immediately relevant predictor of corresponding
behaviour. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed
H5: Consumer attitudes towards ethical purchases are positively related to ethical
purchase intention
H6: Ethical purchase intention is positively related to ethical purchase behaviour
2.2.3 Barriers to Ethical Consumption
Consumers might compromise on ethics when a decision involves a trade-off between
ethics and traditional purchasing criteria (price, quality and availability) (Bray et al., 2011).
The evidence on the importance of product quality as a trade-off attribute is clear, which is
that consumers do not accept ethical company behaviour as a substitute for product quality
(Sen et al., 2001l Folkes et al., 1999). Thus, this proposed research will not discuss product
quality as a limitation to ethical consumerism. However, the evidence on the importance of
price in ethical consumer decisions is inconclusive (Papaoikonomou et al., 2011). Mohr and
Webb (2005) claimed that information on CSR can influence purchase intentions more
strongly than price. Bray, Johns and Kilburn (2011) found that financial considerations take
precedence over perceived ethical values, particularly with reference to food and other
frequently purchased items. Papaoikonomou’s (2011) survey also confirmed that some of the
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ethical products and services are too expensive which inhibit purchase. Thus, the following
hypothesis is proposed:
H7a: High prices have a negative moderating effect on the relationship between
consumers’ ethical intention and ethical purchase behaviour.
Regarding the availability factor, the lack of offers becomes an inhibiting factor that does
not allow ethical consumers to buy according to their standards (Papaoikonomou et al., 2011).
Creyer and Ross (1997) found that consumers claim that they would change their retail store
if there were no ethical alternatives. In other words, a lack of availability of ethical product
has no effects on consumers’ ethical intention and purchase behaviour. However, other
research has raised availability of products as an impeding factor for ethical consumerism (De
Pelsmacker et al., 2005). Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H7b: Lack of availability of ethical product has a negative moderating effect on the
relationship between consumers’ ethical intention and ethical purchase behaviour.
The purchase of many everyday products has a habitual character (Biel et al. 2005). When
behaviours are habitual, people fall back on routinized decision-making with little conscious
awareness (Biel et al., 2005). When habits are strong, the relationship between behaviours and
lately formed attitudes is weak. Thus, people may have established habits that are not easily
conquered even if they have formed positive attitude toward ethical purchase (Biel et al.,
2005). Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H8a: Unethical purchasing habit has a negative moderation effect on the relationship
between consumers’ ethical intention and ethical purchase behaviour.
Becoming an ethical consumer can be a slow process that takes time (Papaoikonomou et
al., 2011). Freestone and McGoldrick (2008) found that ethical consumers usually undergo a
slow change process. They claimed that individuals are gradually developing a more socially
conscientious mindset. Thus, the following hypotheses are proposed:
H8b: Time lag in adopting ethical buying habit has a negative moderation effect on
the relationship between consumers’ ethical intention and ethical purchase behaviour.
3. Proposed Methodology
The main research method for this project will be a quantitative method supplemented with
initial qualitative methods. The quantitative approach is traditionally associated with logical
positivism and is usually deductive (Gill et al., 2002). Quantitative studies, therefore, seek to
establish causal relationships among objectively specified variables, testing hypotheses
derived from predictive theories (Kerlinger, 1986). Using this approach, variables are
precisely measured and data is collected under standardised conditions using an instrument
such as a questionnaire (Shaw, 2000).
For this proposed research, to gain an initial understanding of consumer attitudes towards
CSR activities and their purchase behaviour, in-depth interviews, traditional and online
observation, and documentary analysis will be applied. This approach has the advantage of
giving depth and richness of data, whereas the combination of different techniques
triangulates data in order to increase the internal validity of the study (Papaoikonomou et al.,
2011).
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For the interviews and focus group data, following Braun and Clarke (2006), a thematic
analysis approach will be applied to interpret the qualitative data. Each interview will be
transcribed verbatim, and translated into English. Initial codes will be generated and the
interview data collated to each code. Codes will then be aggregated into potential themes, and
relevant data grouped to each theme. Themes will then be validated in reference to both
Chinese and English transcripts, and subsequently refined before interpretation in the context
of the literature.
Based on the initial study and extant previous research, the model will be revised as
needed to build a fully developed model which is relevant to the Chinese context. Next, the
revised model will be empirically tested, which is the primary focus of research.
For the main quantitative method, an approach of ‘in-built’ differentiated multiple
replication study design (Lindsay et al., 1993; Uncles et al., 2004) using cross-sectional
consumer surveys will be adopted to test the proposed conceptual model. Differentiated
replication involves deliberate, or at least known, variations in fairly major aspects of the
conditions of the study (Lindsay et al., 1993; Uncles et al., 2004). The aim is to extend the
range of conditions under which the result still holds (Lindsay et al., 1993). Exploring a result
with deliberate variations in the conditions of observation is the essence of generalisation of
findings across different contexts (Lindsay et al., 1993; Barwise, 1995). Tsang and Kwan
(1999) asserted that the lack of replication leads to a fragmented and dispersed literature with
no sense of continuity, and replicability does not mean conclusive verification, and failure to
replicate does not mean conclusive falsification. Data will be collected via modified
questionnaire surveys from consumers across different industries with the assistance of the
sponsor company, e.g. retail, tourism, private higher education, cosmetics, and food etc. The
sampling frame used in this research will be drawn from a 5,000 random sample frame which
is nation-wide, covering all the first tier cities (Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou and Shenzhen)
in China, as well as the majority of the second tier cities (e.g. Tianjin, Chongqing, Xiamen,
Nanjing, Xi’an etc.). For the quantitative data collected from the multiple replicated studies,
correlation, regression and structural equation modeling by SPSS and AMOS will be adopted.
The Structure Equation Model (SEM) will be applied to test the conceptual model of
structural relationships between CSR and consumers’ ethical attitude, perceived external and
internal limitations and consumers’ ethical intention, and ultimately, purchase behaviour.
SEM will be more appropriate in an examination of multi-dimensional issues (Hair et al.,
1998). And using SEM correctly is critical to avoid missteps that could compromise the
validity of results; to restrain from inferring incorrect conclusion; and to develop accurate
knowledge about causal relationships among variables (Fan et al., 1999).
4. Expected Original Contributions
This study will provide both theoretical and practical contributions to the understanding of the
ethical purchase behaviour of Chinese consumers. The results are expected to uncover the
major factors that might affect consumer ethical purchase behaviour including corporate
social responsibility (CSR) activities and information, consumer ethical obligation and selfidentity, and key external and internal limitations of adopting ethical buying behaviour in
China, thus filling a critical gap in the literature of ethical consumerism. Moreover, this
research will adopt nationwide data sets crossing different fields generated from multiple
replication studies to achieve better generalisation, an approach that is desperately in need in
marketing research yet rarely adopted in the academe. In practical terms, it is also hoped that
the study can contribute to policy makers’ and business leaders to better promote the idea of
ethical consumption and CSR in China.
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