Plant Production
Student’s Book
FET FIRST
Level 2
W. Burger
FET FIRST Plant Production NQF Level 2 Student’s Book
© Willem Burger 2006
© Illustrations and design Macmillan South Africa (Pty) Ltd 2006
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claims for damages.
First published 2007
Published by
Macmillan South Africa (Pty) Ltd
P O Box 32484
2017 Braamfontein
Gauteng
South Africa
Text design by BrandTalk, a subsidiary of African Access
Cover design by BrandTalk, a subsidiary of African Access
Artwork by Blake Moorhouse
The publisher would like to thank the following for permission to
use photographs in this book:
Corbis, Dreamstime, Franco Esposito, Gallo images,
Ipmi Images, Photo Access, Science Photo Library,
The Bigger Picture, Yotophoto
The publishers have made every effort to trace the copyright holders.
If they have inadvertently overlooked any, they will be
pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.
ISBN-10: 0853205094
ISBN-13: 9780853205098
WIP: 1791
It is illegal to photocopy any page of this book
without written permission from the publishers.
Contents
Topic 1: Plant anatomy and physiology
Module 1 Plant anatomy and physiology
...............................2
Unit 1: Macroscopic and microscopic parts of the plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Unit 2: The role of leaves – photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Unit 3: Maximising photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Unit 4: Plant environment – climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Unit 5: Plant environment – water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Module 2: Plant reproduction
.............................................
37
Unit 1: The role of flowers in reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Unit 2: Pollination to fruit set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Unit 3: Pollination and crop yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Topic 2: Vegetable production
Module 1: Vegetable production
.........................................
50
Unit 1: Selecting the seed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unit 2: Preparing the soil for vegetable production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unit 3: Choosing vegetable crops for different soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unit 4: Choosing vegetable crops for different environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unit 5: Planting the vegetable crop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unit 6: Caring for the vegetable crop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unit 7: Hydroponics for vegetable production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
53
56
61
64
68
70
Module 2: Irrigation of crops
76
..............................................
Unit 1: Irrigation methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Unit 2: Scheduled irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Module 3: Weed, pest and disease control
..........................
90
Unit 1: Methods of weed control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Unit 2: Pest control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Unit 3: Disease control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Module 4: Harvesting and storing crops
............................
105
Unit 1: Harvesting methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Unit 2: The right time to harvest vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Unit 3: Post-harvest storage of vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Addendum 1: Student’s Portfolio of Evidence Guideline . . . . . 118
Topic 1:
Plant anatomy and
physiology
Module 1
Plant anatomy and
physiology
Overview
In this module you will …
● identify the macroscopic and microscopic parts of a plant
● explain the role of each part of the plant
● define physiology, morphology, photosynthesis and respiration
● explain photosynthesis and respiration in general terms
● discuss the plant environment in terms of climate, season, aspect,
light, temperature and water
● explain the inter-relationship between climate, season, aspect, light,
temperature and water
2
Topic 1, Module 1
Unit 1:
Did you know?
Macroscopic and
microscopic parts of the
plant
Introduction
All living things are made up of a number of chemical elements:
carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), potassium (K), phosphorus (P),
iodine (I), sulphur (S), nitrogen (N), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe),
magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl). These elements are
combined together in compounds.
A group of cells that performs a
similar function is called a
tissue. A group of tissues make
up an organ. A group of organs
that performs the same
function makes up an organ
system. An example of an organ
system is the vascular system
in a plant, which consists of
tubes that conduct minerals
and water to the leaves, and
carry food made in the leaves to
the stem and roots.
Organisms are made up of tiny cells. These cells are microscopic (very
small) in size. There are many different types of cells. For instance,
within a single leaf of a plant, there are several kinds of cells. The cells
of plants and animals are different.
Figure 1: A variety of cells
Unit 1: Macroscopic and microscopic parts of the plant
3
Classifying organisms
Organisms are classified into five kingdoms. These are: bacteria, algae,
fungi, plants and animals. Many of these organisms cannot be seen
without a microscope. Some of these microscopic organisms are
composed of a single cell (unicellular), while others have many cells
(multi-cellular). Some contain chlorophyll and make their own food,
while others do not. Some live in soil, some in the air, and others in
water.
Algae
Algae are simple organisms that live wherever moisture is abundant.
There are many types of algae, for example the long green filamentous
algae that you find growing in ponds. Other examples are the large
brown algae that grow along the coastline of the Western Cape. These
are called kelp. Many algae are microscopic and float in their billions
on the surface of the sea and inland waters. These algae are called
phytoplankton. They have a very important role to play in the
ecosystem since they are the start of the aquatic food chain.
Words &
Terms
Aquatic m
eans ‘of w
ater’. It is
used to re
fer to plan
ts and
animals, o
r process
es, relate
to seas, o
d
ceans, lak
es, dams
ponds.
or
Fungi
Mushrooms and toadstools are
examples of fungi (singular
fungus). They do not make their
own food and do not have true
roots, stems, leaves or flowers.
Mushrooms are important
decomposes in the environment.
Decomposition recycles nutrients
and keeps soil fertile for new plant
growth.
Yeasts
Figure 2: Mushrooms, bread mould and yeast cells
Yeasts are another example of fungi. They are small, more or less
spherical organisms that do not contain chlorophyll. They live on
sugar in various substances and change it into alcohol. When they
change sugar into alcohol, carbon dioxide is released.
In the workplace
Yeast has a large number of commercial and technological applications. For example, yeast is used to
make yoghurt, cheese, breads and pastries, wine and beer. The species of yeast used in each case is
very specific as it influences the final flavour and colour of the product.
4
Topic 1, Module 1
Learning activity
Effect of yeast on dough
1. Follow a baking recipe to make a loaf of bread or scones – anything that requires yeast.
2. Mix exactly the same ingredients again, but this time leave out the yeast.
3. Put both mixtures in a warm place at the same time.
4. Observe what happens to the two dough mixtures.
5. Describe the action of the yeast on the sugar and flour mixture.
6. Explain what is happening at a microscopic level?
Plants
Mosses
Mosses are primitive plants. They have leaves, short stems and
underground structures called rhizomes for taking in water. Mosses
occur in places where water is fairly abundant. Mosses contain
chlorophyll and make their own food. They have no flowers and do
not reproduce by means of seeds.
Ferns
Ferns are plants that have well-developed leaves, roots and stems.
Ferns grow best in moist, shady places. They can reach a height of 15
metres in tropical forests. All ferns have a well-developed vascular
(vein) system for transporting water and minerals from the roots to
the stems and leaves.
Both ferns and mosses produce spores rather than seeds. They are also
dependent on water for fertilisation, which is why they survive best in
moist areas. True land plants developed later in geological history.
These true land plants produce seeds in a protective coating and
produce pollen that is wind, water, insect, bird or animal dispersed.
Words &
Terms
Dispersed
means ca
rried from
one place
to anothe
r. Land
plants ha
ve differen
t dispersa
strategies
l
for seeds
and pollen
These dis
.
persal str
ategies are
adaptatio
ns to life
on land
rather tha
n in the w
ate
all plants
originated r, where
.
Seed plants: Gymnosperms and angiosperms
Seed producing plants are very important to people, as they provide
our food. We also use them for fibre, timber and paper. There are two
main classes of seed-bearing plants: the gymnosperms and the
angiosperms.
The gymnosperms are seed producing plants that produce pollen and
seeds. However, they do not have flowers. Their seeds are borne on
the inside of scales. If you detach a pine cone scale, you will find a
seed, or the scars where the seed was once attached.
Unit 1: Macroscopic and microscopic parts of the plant
5
Think about it
The word gymnosperm means ‘naked seed’ meaning that the seed is
not enclosed in the ovule of a flower. Gymnosperms are all woody,
evergreen trees, shrubs or vines with needles or scale-like leaves. An
example of a gymnosperm is a pine tree.
The angiosperms also produce seeds, but their seeds are enclosed
inside the ovule of a flower. They have mostly broad leaves and
woody stems. The seeds are usually enclosed in a fruit or protective
covering. Angiosperms are the most evolved group of land plants.
They are adapted to survive in a wide range of environments from
wetlands to deserts.
Most of the clothes that we
wear, all of the paper that we
use and much of our building
materials come from
gymnosperms and angiosperms.
These natural resources are
running out as the world’s
population grows faster and
faster (exponential growth).
Although human populations
grow exponentially, natural
resources do not.
Figure 3: (A) Pine seeds develop on the surface of the scales.
(B) The seeds of flowering plants are enclosed in a fruit or protective
covering. This drawing shows a cross section through a fleshy fruit.
Learning activity
Classifying living organisms
1. Can you name the five kingdoms under which living organisms are classified?
2. Describe the characteristics of each of the kingdoms that you have learned about
3. Draw a table in your workbook similar to the one below. Fill in all the missing information.
Name of
organisms
algae
fungi
mosses
ferns
gymnosperms
angiosperms
6
Topic 1, Module 1
Where they
grow
How they obtain energy in
the form of food
How they
reproduce
Ecological
importance
Commercial
importance
The parts of a plant
Vascular tissue
All seed-bearing plants have vascular systems consisting of xylem and
phloem tissue. The xylem tissue conducts water and nutrients. The
water and nutrients are taken in through the roots and move up the
stem to the leaves. Other vascular tubes called phloem carry the food
that is manufactured in the leaves to the stems and roots.
Figure 4: Cross section through a plant stem showing the xylem and phloem
water lost from the leaf by transpiration
water and nutrients move up the stem through the xylem cells
Figure 5: Plant showing roots, stem and leaves, and the movement of water and nutrients
from the soil, into the root, up the stem and into the leaves.
Unit 1: Macroscopic and microscopic parts of the plant
7
Roots
A plant’s roots are usually long and anchor the plant in the ground.
The tip of the root is protected by a root cap. This protects it from
injury as it pushes through the soil.
Water, along with dissolved nutrients, is absorbed through the
growing tip of the root. Root hairs extend the surface area through
which absorption takes place. A root hair is a delicate tube-like
extension that grows from the outer wall of a surface cell of the root
(see Figure 6).
Figure 6: The structure of a root hair
Learning activity
Observing roots and root hairs
1. Place radish seeds on wet cotton-wool and cover them with an upside-down glass. If you use
coloured cotton-wool, you will be able to see them more easily.
2. Keeps the seeds well-moistened.
3. When roots appear, look at them carefully with a hand lens.
4. Note the parts of the roots and the size of the area for taking in water.
5. Make a sketch of what you see.
8
Topic 1, Module 1
Think about it
Leaves
The leaves of seed-bearing plants have a complicated structure. A
typical leaf consists of three parts: the blade, the slender stalk and the
leaf base. The vascular bundles extend into the leaves, where they are
called veins.
The outer layer of cells in a leaf is called the epidermis. The epidermis
covers the whole leaf surface and protects the tissue within. Beneath
the epidermis are long, large cells that are packed closely together and
form one or more layers. These cells are called palisade tissue and are
usually on the upper side of the leaf.
Under the palisade are loosely-packed cells which have open spaces
between them. These spaces form a network of air spaces in the leaf
tissue that allows for the movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide
into and out of the leaf.
The loss of water vapour from a
plant is called transpiration.
Transpiration takes place mainly
from the stomata openings.
Some water loss also occurs
from the epidermal cells. Plants
that grow in dry areas have very
thick epidermal cell walls and a
thick protective waxy cuticle.
The stomata of these plants
usually close during very hot
periods to minimise water loss.
Words &
Terms
Modified
mea
different in ns changed or
some way
carry out
in order to
a special
function
Figure 7: Venation in the leaf of a typical dicotyledonous (A) and monocotyledonous (B) plant
Some of the cells in the epidermis have modified structures. They
occur in pairs and are called guard cells. Between two guard cells is
an opening called a stoma (plural stomata). Carbon dioxide (CO2)
enters the leaf through the stomata, and water vapour and oxygen
(O2) leave through the stomata.
Unit 1: Macroscopic and microscopic parts of the plant
9
Figure 8: Cross section through a leaf showing the cell structure
Learning activity
Observing plant leaves
1. Find as many different kinds of leaves as you can. Try to find leaves that are thick, thin, broad,
narrow, hairy, smooth, etc.
2. Hold the leaf and its leaf stalk in a strong light and use a hand lens to look at them. Make clear
sketches of the different leaves, each with its characteristic network of veins. The different
patterns of veins found on leaves are called venation.
Assessment activity
Studying the whole plant – plant parts and their functions
Dig up a whole plant carefully ensuring that the roots are not damaged. Carefully rinse the soil off
of the roots. Be careful not to injure the roots.
The roots
1. Examine the roots with a hand lens. Most crop plants (like vegetables) have a tap root which is a
long main root with smaller branching roots.
2. Draw a sketch of the root and label the different parts with the function(s) of each part:
● The root cap at the tip of every root
● The absorption area of the root
● The root hairs and the area where they are found.
10
Topic 1, Module 1
The leaves
1. Examine the leaves with a hand lens. A typical leaf consists of three parts: the blade, the stalk
and the base. Make a sketch of a leaf of your plant and label the different parts with the
function(s) of each:
● The blade
● The stalk (petiole)
● The leaf base
● The veins.
2. In your sketch, distinguish whether your leaf has:
● veins that branch out (net-veined), or
● parallel veins, or
● simple lobes, or
● compound leaves (e.g. three leaflets per leaf).
3. Indicate where the openings in the leaf (the stomata) occur.
The stem
Examine the stem of the plant with a hand lens. The stems of different plants have different
functions.
1. Draw a sketch of the stem of your plant and indicate its function in this specific plant. It may be
to:
● Keep the plant upright.
● Store food in the form of carbohydrates.
● Position the leaves for maximum photosynthesis (sun exposure).
Assessment activity
Collecting and studying external plant parts
Find as many different kinds of roots as you can.
Look for as many different kinds of plant stems as you can.
Find as many different leaves as you can.
See how many different flowers you can find.
On a large sheet of paper, attach these different plant parts using any of the following:
staples, strong glue, masking tape, Prestik, sellotape, needle and thread (to sew the parts onto the
paper), or any other way that you can think of.
Label each of the plant parts and write down its function.
Unit 1: Macroscopic and microscopic parts of the plant
11
Assessment activity
Observing internal organs of a plant
1. Collect ovaries from different flowers and note the ovules and their attachment.
2. Cut a cross-section of an ovule. Use iodine to stain the ovule and observe the ovule under the
microscope. Make sketches of the ovule.
3. Label your sketches.
Assess yourself
Assess yourself using the following criteria
1 = not achieved; 2 = not yet competent; 3 = competent;
4 = outstanding
1
2
3
4
1. Classifying organisms
2. Investigating the effect of yeast in baking
3. Analysing the parts of a plant
4. Observing roots and root hairs
5. Observing leaf venation
Unit summary
In this unit we classified some living organisms, with special emphasis on angiosperms as these are our
most important crop plants. We also leaned some plant anatomy relevant to the farmer.
12
Topic 1, Module 1