Northern landscaping
A guide to restoring the plants and soil in northern communities
“{I} advocate that everyone should get to know his or her neighbours of other
species. This basic, traditional knowledge should be passed on from parent to
child, from teacher to student. Sadly, such teachings are now rare.”
Robert Bateman
Layout of this guide
This guide is arranged in order from general ideas and things to keep in mind,
to a more specific listing of what you need to know and do to carry out a
restoration project. The Appendix contains useful details including the locations
of the ecozones, examples of actual revegetation projects in the zones,
descriptions of particular plants and how to collect and plant them, other
technical information and definitions of less common terms.
Using this guide
How you approach this guide will depend on the background you have in
northern plants and landscaping. There has been little detailed, written
information available about natural, low-maintenance community landscaping
projects in the North. This guide provides examples and updates not easily
found elsewhere. Everyone should look through sections 1-3, for a good
understanding of what you will find in the guide. If you are relatively new to
natural landscaping, the background sections on northern soils, plants and
projects found in sections 3-7, then section 11, will give you the starting points
necessary. Those with solid experience in these areas can skip sections 3-7 and
head straight for section 8, concerning revegetation techniques.
Updates on techniques
Given the relative lack of information, CMHC encourages responses to this
guide to update techniques and projects. We would like to hear about
successes and failures in your area. Please contact your local CMHC office with
a report on your project, or send your reports to:
CMHC
Suite 806, 5201- 50th Ave.
Yellowknife, NT X1A 3S9
Phone: (867) 873-2638
By facsimile: (867) 873-3922
e-mail: [email protected]
Acknowledgements
Avens Associates Ltd. has produced this manual on behalf of CMHC. We would
like to thank Aleta Fowler, the project manager in Yellowknife for CMHC, for her
interest and dedication to this guide. Cliff Wallis, Cottonwood Consultants of
Calgary, Ellen Simmons, ET Enterprises of Norman Wells, and Andrea Booth,
McCullum Environmental of Yellowknife, worked with Avens Associates Ltd. on
this guide: their technical and editorial assistance is much appreciated.
We thank most sincerely all those we contacted for information on their
projects, which adds greatly to our understanding of natural landscaping in
northern communities. Names are listed in Appendix I, Contacts. In
particular, Helen Butler, BHP Billiton, assisted greatly with a number of
technical reports and personal conversations. We also thank the Department
of Resources, Wildlife and Economic Development, Government of the
Northwest Territories, for access to information gathered on behalf of the
Department in Norman Wells.
ii
Table of Contents
1.0 PURPOSE OF THIS GUIDE.................................................................................... 1
2.0 PREVENTION IS THE BEST CURE .......................................................................... 2
2.1 Problems with traffic ................................................................................ 2
2.2 Losing soil .............................................................................................. 4
3.0 WHAT
3.1
3.2
3.3
IS “LOW-MAINTENANCE” LANDSCAPING?..................................................... 4
Use of native plant species........................................................................ 4
Importance of diversity in your planting ...................................................... 5
How succession (natural colonization) can help ............................................ 5
4.0 BASICS FOR NORTHERN RESTORATION PROJECTS ................................................. 7
4.1 Overview of ecozones............................................................................... 7
4.2 Northern soils ......................................................................................... 7
4.3 Northern plants ....................................................................................... 8
5.0 BACKGROUND CHECKLIST FOR YOUR PROJECT ...................................................... 9
5.1 Why is the site degraded? ....................................................................... 10
5.2 Who owns the land? ............................................................................... 11
5.3 What is the site’s history? ....................................................................... 11
5.4 Determine your ecozone ......................................................................... 11
5.5 Assess the condition of the site ................................................................ 11
6.0 GETTING STARTED........................................................................................... 12
6.1 Gain community support......................................................................... 12
6.2 Develop a planning process ..................................................................... 13
6.3 Set project goals and objectives............................................................... 13
6.4 Get to know the options.......................................................................... 14
6.5 Budget and fundraising........................................................................... 15
6.6 Permits ................................................................................................ 15
7.0 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................................... 16
7.1 Barriers................................................................................................ 17
7.2 Select plants ......................................................................................... 18
8.0 REVEGETATION TECHNIQUE BASICS .................................................................. 20
8.1 Choosing the right technique ................................................................... 20
8.2 Natural colonization ............................................................................... 21
8.3 Collected seed....................................................................................... 23
8.4 Commercial seeding ............................................................................... 25
8.5 Sprigging.............................................................................................. 26
8.6 Sods/Plant mats .................................................................................... 26
8.7 Cuttings ............................................................................................... 27
8.8 Rooting ................................................................................................ 27
8.9 Transplanting ........................................................................................ 28
8.10 Mass planting ...................................................................................... 28
8.11 Mulch .................................................................................................. 28
9.0 SITE PREPARATION .......................................................................................... 29
9.1 Handling soil ......................................................................................... 29
9.2 Permafrost disturbance….. ...................................................................... 29
iii
9.3 Surface preparation ...................................................................................... 30
9.4 Gravel sites ................................................................................................. 30
9.5 Burning ...................................................................................................... 30
10.0 FERTILIZING........................................................................................................ 31
10.1 What are fertilizers, and why are they needed?............................................... 31
10.2 Some cautions about fertilizer ...................................................................... 32
10.3 Alternatives to fertilizers.............................................................................. 33
10.4 Fertilizing according to species ..................................................................... 33
10.5 Fertilizing according to site differences .......................................................... 34
11.0 MANAGING AND MAINTAINING THE PROJECT ............................................................ 35
11.1 Managing the project site ............................................................................ 35
11.2 Project drawings ........................................................................................ 35
11.3 Construction notes...................................................................................... 35
11.4 Supervision ............................................................................................... 36
11.5 Maintenance and watering ........................................................................... 37
11.6 Record keeping .......................................................................................... 39
APPENDICES
A: Description of ecozones
Map of ecozones
Arctic Cordillera
Northern Arctic
Southern Arctic
Taiga Shield
Taiga Plains
Boreal Cordillera
B: Mosses and Lichens
C: Grasses, Forbes and other Herbaceous Plants
D: Woody Plants
Seeding
Cuttings (including individual, bundle and mat plantings)
Seedlings
Large Plants
Mass Planting
E:
Definitions
F:
Sources of information
G:
Sources of materials
H: Contacts
iv
“Northern Landscaping: A Guide to Restoring Plants and Soil in Northern Communities”
PURPOSE
Interested in ideas on low-maintenance landscaping for the north? This pamphlet summarizes
the manual “Northern Landscaping: A Guide to Restoring Plants and Soil in Northern
Communities”. The manual concentrates on smaller-scale planting projects within communities,
using native species. lt is not a guide to restoring contaminated sites, industrial sites, or for large
ecological restoration projects.
This guide includes information on soil and plant types for communities in Labrador, Nunavik,
Nunavut, NWT and Yukon, and also examples of projects in each Region. This information
should help you and your community make a plan specifically for your location.
PREVENTION IS THE BEST CURE
The first main section of the manual deals with prevention. The best way to achieve healthy
landscapes is to prevent damage in the first place. Careful construction techniques can prevent a
lot of damage. When restoring your landscape, not creating damage elsewhere is equally
important. Preventing foot and vehicle traffic on a newly restored landscape is vital to its
success, certainly in the early stages, and possibly long-term. This will take planning and
ongoing care, and usually requires some community involvement to achieve. Barriers may be
necessary , either in the short or long term.
PLAN FOR MAINTENANCE. ..LOW-MAINTENANCE
Another imperative to a successful landscaping project is planning for maintenance. Lowmaintenance does not mean no-maintenance. Besides protection as mentioned, watering will be
needed at the beginning of most projects, and garbage cleanup will continue long-term. Until a
natural landscape is established, your plants need help in community areas.
GETTING TO KNOW YOUR LANDSCAPE
Before planning and planting, get to know and understand your site, and northern plants.
The guide gives some additional details of what to look for in mapping out your project,
physically and over time. Suggestions include checking into:
-why/how is the site degraded?
-who owns the land?
-what is the site’s history?
-what ecozone is the site in?
-what is the topography?
-what are the microclimates? (shaded areas, wet areas, sunny exposure, windy exposure, eroded
areas, etc.);
-what plants grow on the site, or nearby?
NORTHERN SOILS
Looking at your site from aIl angles means paying attention to below ground features, bedrock,
soil depth, and permafrost. You must handle northern soils differently than soils in southern
areas. Permafrost can be easily upset when people strip off, crush or otherwise disturb the
plants. Plant cover acts as insulation. Once you disturb the plants, much more surface heat
penetrates through the ground, increasing soil temperature and leading to thawing and melting of
underground ice and frozen soils.
Plants need their native soils. If the soil is severely damaged, concentrate your efforts here first,
before you move onto planting. For the best results use some soil from the host site, and make
sure the soil is as close to the host soil as possible.
NORTHERN PLANTS
Northern plants are adapted to the deprivations of northern climates and soils. They can take in
nutrients at very low levels and/or are very efficient in using the nutrients they manage to get.
Having long life cycles is usual for north plants: processes such as flowering can be prolonged
over two or even more years. Years unfavourable for seed production probably outnumber the
favourable years. Vegetative reproduction is common in arctic plants, allowing them to
propagate even in years of severe climate. Perennials (non-woody plants that come back year
after year) are more common than annuals (those plants growing from seed each year). Though
tundra plants are low, they are not necessarily small. Much of the plants’ biomass is
underground. ..for instance, in wet tundra 95% of the plant is below ground. These factors
need to be considered in transplanting, collecting seed, taking cuttings, and other restoration
techniques.
GOALS, OBJECTIVES... AND TIME
While getting to know the physical parameters, you will need to set out your goals and objectives
for your project. In this, you will find that for long-term success, patience and diversity are
required. Diversity , which is using a variety of plant species, is necessary for the long-term
stability of your landscape. Monocultures (landscapes covered by a single species) are very
difficult to maintain, and not healthy from an ecological point of view. Pioneer species (shortlived species that quickly establish in open conditions) are very useful initially in rehabilitation
work. However, you will generally want the persistent “climax” species (those plants that grow
more slowly and persist longer) in the long term.
This is where patience comes in. Short term triumphs of rapid plant cover are often less
desirable in the long term ...a more positive trend is a plant community moving toward climax.
A northern revegetation project takes years to reach its goals. ..take time to enjoy the process.
And be sure others are aware that this is not a quick fix, but a long term aspiration.
So remember in your goals and objectives:
1. Diversity is needed
2. Take advantage of pioneer species, but not exclusively
3. Plan and set maintenance goals to allow climax growth to develop
EXPLORE OPTIONS
While patience is a must, there are many options to explore, including
-how you lay out your site,
-what planting techniques you choose,
-what construction methods are available and cost effective,
-how long the project will need construction and concentrated maintenance, and so forth. Seek
assistance. Others in the community , including naturalists, elders and educators, may be
available to give advice, or be part of your project.
TECHNIQUES
Diversity of species is healthy ecologically. It also gives you great design possibilities. The
different plants often have different ways to become established, and using a variety of
techniques is generally recommended. Restoration and planting techniques include:
-natural colonization
-seeding
-sprigging
-cuttings
-rootings
-transplanting of native sods
-mass planting
Each of these techniques is explained briefly below:
Natural colonization is not “leave it and see what happens.” It means establishing conditions
right for succession so that nearby native plants can spread into the disturbed area more quickly.
Appropriate site preparation has a lot to do with the success of this, and any other, technique.
Seeding can be done using commercially-grown, or locally collected seed. Unfortunately, there
are very few commercially produced seeds of northern native species. Those that are available
are mostly grasses, which tend to crowd out other species. On the other band, collecting native
seed can be difficult. Arctic plants tend to produce very few seeds, and in some years none at all.
Timing of seed collection is extremely important to assure ripe viable seed. The seeds of many
woody plants are best collected in late summer or fall, though there is considerable variation with
species and the weather. Seeds of some species (for example, cranberry, birch, aIder, black
spruce) remain on the land for part or all of the winter. You can delay collection of these
species.
Once seed is collected, you do not necessarily have to plant it right away ...it can be stored for
various lengths of time. The most desirable storage conditions are below freezing in airtight
containers. Some seeds, such as those of willow, aspen and balsam poplar , are very fragile, and
die within a few weeks after collection if stored at room temperature. Luckily, these species
propagate well by other means.
Seed can be used either directly (seeding projects) or indirectly (production of seedlings). Using
seed to produce seedlings will pro duce many more plants than direct sowing, and more quickly.
Directly sown seeds often lie dormant for several years. However, producing seedlings is
obviously a much more labour and time involved process than direct seeding. Spot seeding is
frequently used for tree regeneration. Seed is sown on small, prepared spots spaced on the site.
This method makes more efficient use of limited seed supplies.
Seeding done in the fall will take advantage of snow melt the following spring. If not done in the
fall, seeding should be done during snow melt in the spring. Late seedings (June or July) may
fail because of lack of moisture, unless watering is done throughout the rest of the season.
Sprigging involves harvesting small pieces of grass crown, roots and rhizomes. Half the root
material is left behind for regrowth. Not much research has been done on sprigging, particularly
of woody plants such as aspen. However, sprigging does seem to work well for a number of
species that root readily at aboveground stem nodes, such as Arctophilafulva (Pendant Grass).
Cuttings are pieces of branches cut from a woody plant (tree or shrub ), then planted. As the
cuttings don’t have roots, not all types of plants take well to this method. Willow species tend to
be suitable, being easy to collect, store, and transplant, with good survival provided sufficient
fine-grained sediment is available. Balsam poplar has also been dependable in the taiga and
boreal ecozones.
Rooting is similar to cutting, but pieces of root stock are taken, rather than the aboveground
branches. As with cuttings, poplar and willows can be easily propagated from viable root stock.
The best time for root collection is in the fall, at the time of or after the leaves have fallen. At
this time, the trees put most of their carbohydrate reserves into the rooting system. Roots kept at
the proper temperature, and without drying, still show good germination rates even after about
two months of storage.
Transplanting of native sod refers to taking up patches of intact vegetation, and transplanting
them to part of the disturbed area. Sods can be planted by hand or machine. They have the
advantage of having native soil with them, of containing a variety of species, including some
held as seed. Get as much roots as possible, both by digging low, and by the size of the sods.
This can work particularly well in permafrost areas, where root growth is restricted to the active
layer (the part that thaws each summer, rather than the permanently frozen ground below).
Lifting the sod from the frozen ground can be relatively easy, using the permafrost as the guide
to how deep to go. This manner of restoration is relatively labour intensive. However, it works
particularly well when plants on another site (or a portion of your site) are going to be destroyed
( e.g., building, road).
Mass planting is the large scale version of transplanting of sods, as it involves moving larger
shrubs and even small trees as a group, rather than individually. This requires a machine to
move the volume and weight of soil needed to ensure the plants survive. A “bobcat” type small
loader, or larger loader, can work, depending on the size of plants to be moved. This can be
particularly effective in salvaging material from a site to be overtaken by construction. Getting
good depth under the plants is important, as shrubs and trees tend to have deeper root systems
than grasses and perennials.
More details on these techniques, and projects that have used them in the north, can be found in
the full manual.
LOCATION, LOCATION, LOCATION
Collect your plants and seeds as close to the site as possible, near the same altitude, and in the
same type of soil. This helps ensure they are best suited to the exact light, growing and climatic
conditions. Collection within 200 kilometres (particularly in terms of latitude) or 500 vertical
metres is preferred. Thus, for instance, getting birch seed or plants from cities in the provinces,
such as in Edmonton or Montreal, is not recommended. Even though they might look the same,
they are still “southerners”, and not necessarily adapted to northern conditions. However, given
the difficulties of obtaining native seeds and plants, sometimes going outside these bounds is
necessary , and has indeed proven successful on occasion. Chose plants suited to the location:
match how much light, moisture, and soil as much as possible.
SITE PREPARATION
The type of site preparation will depend on the goals and objectives of the project, and the
planting techniques chosen. Preparations can include:
-correcting soil problems
-re-contouring of the site
-conserving as much topsoil or organic material as possible
-ensuring erosion is controlled through the project
-protecting adjacent area
-scarifying the surface to accept seed
-trapping snow with snow fences to accumulate organic matter and moisture
FERTILIZING
A big question in site preparation is, should you fertilize? If so, when and how much? As we
are dealing with low-maintenance landscapes, the ongoing application of fertilizers is not
appropriate (nor reasonable from an ecological viewpoint). Fertilizers tend to favour nonindigenous species. Fertilizers in the arctic in particular can have very long lasting effects
(decades). Fertilizers do not tend to help an area return to a native vegetation in the long term.
Arctic plants use nutrients differently than southern plants. Thus a standard soil test, showing
low nitrogen level, may not mean that the soil is low in the nutrients that arctic plants need.
Given these cautions, the judicious use of fertilizer can be important to initiate and accelerate
natural plant succession. Nitrogen seems particularly useful for arctic plants.
FOLLOW-UP
Keep records of your project ...where you got you materials, how you did your planting, what
your maintenance is. Not much information about restoration is specific to northern
communities. Your successes, and failures, all add to the information base in the north. They’ll
also help you in your next project!
For the full manual, please contact CMHC at:
CMHC
CHIC (Canadian Housing Information Centre)
700 Montreal Road
Ottawa, ON. KIA OP7
Web Site: http://www.cmhc.ca
e-mail (order/inquiries) at: [email protected]
toll-free number for information or order/requests: 1-800-668-2642
fax (order/information): 1-613-748-4069
« Aménage me nt paysage r dans le Nord : Guide pour rétablir le s plante s e t le sol de s
communautés du Nord »
OBJECTIF
Vous vous intére sse z à l’aménage me nt paysage r néce ssitant pe u d'e ntre tie n pour le s
régions du nord? Voici à ce propos une brochure qui résume le guide Northe rn
Landscaping : A Guide to Re storing Plants and Soil in Northe rn Communitie s. Le guide
se conce ntre sur de s proje ts de plantation de moindre e nve rgure à réalise r dans le s
communautés, au moye n de s e spèce s indigène s. Il ne traite pas de l'assainisse me nt de
site s contaminés, industrie ls ou de grands proje ts de re stauration écologique .
Ce guide livre de s re nse igne me nts sur le s type s de sol e t de plante s de s communautés du
Labrador, du Nunavik, du Nunavut, de s T.N.-O. e t du Yukon, ainsi que de s e xe mple s de
proje ts réalisés dans chaque région. Ce s re nse igne me nts vous aide ront ainsi que votre
communauté à conce voir un plan adapté à votre e mplace me nt particulie r.
LA PRÉVENTION CONSTITUE LE MEILLEUR TRAITEMENT
La pre mière se ction principale du guide traite de préve ntion. Le me ille ur moye n de
réalise r un aménage me nt paysage r sain consiste e n pre mie r lie u à préve nir le s dommage s
qui pourraie nt surve nir. De s te chnique s de réalisation minutie use s pe uve nt aide r à
préve nir de nombre ux dommage s. Lorsque vous re staure z votre aménage me nt paysage r,
il e st égale me nt important d’évite r d’e ndommage r d’autre s e ndroits. L’inte rdiction de la
circulation de s piétons e t de s véhicule s e st vitale pour la réussite d’un aménage me nt
paysage r, au début bie n sûr e t possible me nt à long te rme . Ce tte me sure e xige une ce rtaine
planification e t de s soins continus ainsi que la participation de la communauté pour y
parve nir. De plus, il e st possible que vous de vie z installe r de s clôture s à court ou à long
te rme .
PLANIFIEZ L’ENTRETIEN… UN ENTRETIEN SIMPLE
La planification de l’entretien constitue une autre condition e sse ntie lle à la réussite d’un
proje t d’aménage me nt paysage r. Un e ntre tie n simple ne signifie pas aucun e ntre tie n.
Outre la prote ction déjà me ntionnée , un arrosage se ra re quis au début de la plupart de s
proje ts, e t le ne ttoyage de s résidus de vra se poursuivre à long te rme . Jusqu’à ce qu’un
aménage me nt paysage r nature l soit établi, vos plante s auront be soin d’aide dans le s
régions communautaire s.
APPRENDRE À CONNAÎTRE VOTRE AMÉNAGEMENT PAYSAGER
Avant de planifie r e t de plante r, apprenez à connaître votre terrain et les plantes
nordiques. Ce guide vous donne de s détails additionne ls sur ce que vous de ve z
re che rche r pour établir votre proje t, physique me nt e t ave c le te mps. Entre autre , on vous
re commande de vérifie r le s éléme nts suivants :
• Pourquoi e t comme nt le site s’e st-il dégradé?
• À qui appartie nt le te rrain?
• Que lle e st l’histoire de ce site ?
• Dans que lle écozone le site e st-il situé?
• Que lle e st la topographie ?
•
•
Que ls sont le s microclimats? (zone s ombragée s, zone s humide s, e xposition au sole il,
e xposition au ve nt, zone s e rodée s, e tc.)
Que lle s plante s pousse nt sur le site ou à proximité?
TERRAINS NORDIQUES
L’obse rvation de votre site sous tous le s angle s e xige que vous portie z atte ntion aux
caractéristique s soute rraine s, aux fondations roche use s, à la profonde ur du sol e t au
pe rgélisol. Le s sols de s régions du nord e xige nt un traite me nt différe nt de s sols de s
régions du sud. Le pergélisol pe ut être facile me nt pe rturbé lorsque le s ge ns arrache nt,
écrase nt ou dérange nt le s plante s de toute autre façon. La couve rture végétale agit comme
un isolant. Lorsque vous dérange z le s plante s, une plus grande chale ur de surface pénètre
dans le sol e t e n augme nte la te mpérature , ce qui provoque la décongélation e t la fonte de
la glace soute rraine e t de s sols ge lés.
Le s plante s ont be soin de sol indigène . Si le sol e st série use me nt e ndommagé, consacre zy vos e fforts e n pre mie r lie u avant de comme nce r la plantation. Pour obte nir de me ille urs
résultats, utilise z du sol du site hôte e t assure z-vous que la te rre e st le plus près possible
du sol hôte .
PLANTES NORDIQUES
Le s plante s sont adaptée s à la pauvre té du climat e t du sol nordique s. Elle s pe uve nt
e xtraire de s substance s nutritive s à de s nive aux très cre ux ou être très e fficace s pour
l’utilisation de s nutrime nts qu’e lle s réussisse nt à obte nir. Le s plante s du Nord ont
habitue lle me nt de longs cycle s de vie : par e xe mple , la floraison pe ut se prolonge r
pe ndant plus de de ux ans. Le s année s défavorable s pour la production de graine s
l’e mporte nt probable me nt sur le s année s favorable s. La re production végétative e st
habitue lle che z le s plante s arctique s, ce qui le ur pe rme t de se propage r même pe ndant le s
année s où le climat e st rigoure ux. Le s plante s vivace s (le s plante s non ligne use s qui
re pousse nt d’une année à l’autre ) sont plus commune s que le s plante s annue lle s (ce s
plante s dont il faut re plante r le s graine s à chaque année ). Bie n que le s plante s de la
toundra soie nt pe tite s e n haute ur, e lle s ne sont pas néce ssaire me nt de pe tite taille . La plus
grande partie de la biomasse de ce s plante s se trouve sous la te rre …par e xe mple , dans la
toundra humide , 95 % de la plante se trouve sous la te rre . Il faut te nir compte de ce s
facte urs lors de la transplantation, la colle cte de s graine s, la coupe de s bouture s e t
d’autre s te chnique s de re stauration.
OBJECTIFS…ET TEMPS
Tout e n appre nant à connaître le s paramètre s physique s du proje t, vous aure z be soin
d’établir le s obje ctifs. À ce t égard, vous découvrire z que pour assure r la réussite à long
te rme de votre proje t, vous de vre z faire pre uve de patience et de diversité. La dive rsité,
qui consiste à utilise r une variété d’e spèce s de plante s, e st néce ssaire pour la stabilité à
long te rme de votre aménage me nt paysage r. Le s monoculture s (le s aménage me nts
paysage rs couve rt d’une se ule e spèce ) sont très difficile s à e ntre te nir e t e lle s ne sont pas
saine s d’un point de vue écologique . Le s e spèce s pionnière s (le s e spèce s qui ont une
durée de vie courte qui s’établisse nt rapide me nt dans de s conditions ouve rte s) sont très
utile s au début de s travaux de re mise e n état. Ce pe ndant, vous voudre z générale me nt le s
e spèce s « climax » longévive s (le s plante s qui pousse nt plus le nte me nt e t qui dure nt plus
longte mps) à long te rme .
Voilà où la patie nce e ntre e n je u. Le s victoire s à court te rme que procure nt une
couve rture végétale rapide sont souve nt moins désirable s à long te rme …une te ndance
plus favorable e st ce lle d’une association végétale évoluant ve rs le stade climax. Un
proje t de re végétation nordique pre nd des années à atte indre se s obje ctifs… pre ne z le
te mps de profite r du proce ssus. Et soye z ce rtain que le s autre s sont conscie nts qu’il ne
s’agit pas d’une solution miracle , mais d’une aspiration à long te rme .
Donc, n’oublie z pas d’ajoute r à vos obje ctifs :
1. Utilise r de la dive rsité
2. Tire r profit de s e spèce s pionnière s, sans toute fois le s utilise r e xclusive me nt
3. Plante r e t établir de s obje ctifs d’e ntre tie n qui pe rme tte nt à la croissance climax de se
déve loppe r.
ÉTUDIEZ LES OPTIONS
Même si la patie nce e st e sse ntie lle , plusie urs options pe uve nt être étudiée s, notamme nt :
• La façon dont vous dispose z votre site .
• Le s te chnique s de plantation que vous choisisse z.
• Le s méthode s de construction qui sont disponible s e t re ntable s.
• Le te mps néce ssaire à la construction du proje t e t à l’e ntre tie n, e tc. Recherchez de
l’aide. Il y a pe ut-être d’autre s pe rsonne s dans la communauté, dont de s naturaliste s, de s
pe rsonne s âgée s e t de s éducate urs, qui pe uve nt être disponible s pour vous donne r de s
conse ils ou pour participe r à votre proje t.
TECHNIQUES
D’un point de vue écologique , il e st sain d’avoir une bonne dive rsité de s e spèce s. Elle
vous donne égale me nt de bonne s possibilités pour conce voir votre aménage me nt. Le s
différe nte s plante s se déve loppe nt de façon différe nte e t il e st générale me nt re commandé
d’utilise r une variété de techniques. Le s te chnique s de re stauration e t de plantation
compre nne nt:
• La colonisation nature lle
• L’e nse me nce me nt
• Le ramage
• Le bouturage
• L’e nracine me nt
• La transplantation de gazon nature l
• La plantation e n massif
Chacune de ce s te chnique s e st briève me nt e xpliquée ci-de ssous :
La colonisation naturelle ne signifie pas de « laisse r alle r e t de voir ce qui se passe ra ».
Elle signifie qu’il faut établir le s conditions favorable s à la succe ssion de façon à ce que
le s plante s à proximité immédiate puisse nt se propage r plus rapide me nt dans la zone
pe rturbée . Comme pour toute s le s autre s te chnique s, ce lle -ci e xige une préparation
adéquate du site.
L’ensemencement pe ut s’e ffe ctue r au moye n de graine s comme rciale s ou re cue illie s
dans la région. Malhe ure use me nt, très pe u de graine s d’e spèce s nordique s sont produite s
comme rciale me nt. Ce lle s qui sont disponible s sont e n majorité de s graine s d’he rbage s
graminés, qui ont te ndance à évince r le s autre s e spèce s. D’un autre côté, il pe ut être
difficile de cue illir le s graine s indigène s. Le s plante s arctique s ont te ndance à produire
très pe u de graine s e t ce rtaine s année s, e lle s n’e n produise nt pas du tout. Il e st
e xtrême me nt important de cue illir le s graine s au mome nt opportun pour assure r qu’e lle s
sont mûre s e t viable s. Dans le cas de s graine s de nombre use s plante s ligne use s, il e st
préférable de le s re cue illir à la fin de l’été ou à l’automne , bie n qu’il y ait une grande
variation e ntre le s e spèce s e t le s conditions atmosphérique s. Le s graine s de ce rtaine s
e spèce s (par e xe mple , le s atocas, le s boule aux, le s aulne s, le s épine tte s noire s) re ste nt
dans la te rre pour une partie ou même toute l’hive r. Vous pouve z re tarde r la colle cte de
ce s e spèce s.
Lorsque vous ave z re cue illi le s graine s, il n’e st pas néce ssaire de le s plante r
immédiate me nt…vous pouve z le s e ntre pose r pour de s durée s variée s. Le s conditions
d’e ntre posage le s plus favorable s sont à une te mpérature inférie ure au point de
congélation dans de s conte ne urs he rmétique me nt clos. Ce rtaine s graine s, comme ce lle s
de s saule s, de s pe uplie rs e t de s balsamie rs, sont très fragile s e t si e lle s sont e ntre posée s à
la te mpérature de la pièce , e lle s me ure nt que lque s se maine s avoir été cue illie s.
He ure use me nt, ce s e spèce s se propage nt bie n par d’autre s moye ns.
Le s graine s pe uve nt être utilisée s soit dire cte me nt (proje ts d’e nse me nce me nt), soit
indire cte me nt (production de plantule s). L’utilisation de s graine s pour produire de s
plantule s pe rme t de produire plus de plante s que l’e nse me nce me nt dire ct e t plus
rapide me nt. Le s graine s se mée s dire cte me nt re ste nt souve nt dormante s pe ndant plusie urs
année s. Ce pe ndant, la production de plantule s e st un proce ssus qui e xige évide mme nt
be aucoup plus de travail e t de te mps que l’e nse me nce me nt dire ct. L’e nse me nce me nt sur
place aux e st fréque mme nt utilisé pour la régénération de s arbre s. Le s graine s sont se mée s
sur de s e mplace me nts préparés e t répartis sur le site . Ce tte méthode pe rme t d’utilise r plus
e fficace me nt le s stocks de graine s limités.
L’e nse me nce me nt e ffe ctué à l’automne profite ra de la fonte de s ne ige s du printe mps
suivant. S’il n’e st pas e xécuté à l’automne , l’e nse me nce me nt de vrait être e ffe ctué
pe ndant la fonte de s ne ige s au printe mps. Il e st possible qu’un e nse me nce me nt tardif
(juin ou juille t) échoue e n raison du manque d’humidité, à moins d’être arrosé pe ndant le
re ste de la saison.
Le ramage compre nd la récolte de pe tits morce aux de griffe de graminée , de s racine s e t
de s rhizome s. La moitié de s racine s e st laissée sur place pour la re pousse . Ce tte te chnique
a fait l’obje t de pe u de re che rche s, surtout pour le s plante s ligne use s comme l’aspe n.
Ce pe ndant, e lle ne se mble pas donne r de très bons résultats pour un ce rtain nombre
d’e spèce s qui s’e nracine nt prompte me nt sur le nœud de la tige au de ssus du sol, comme
l’Arctophila fulva.
Le bouturage consiste à coupe r de s morce aux de branche s d’une plante ligne use (arbre
ou arbuste ), puis à le s plante r. Comme le s bouture s n’ont pas de racine s, ce tte méthode ne
convie nt pas à toute s le s plante s. Elle convie nt aux e spèce s de saule s qui sont facile s à
cue illir, à e ntre pose r e t à transplante r e t qui prése nte nt de bonne s chance s de survie à
condition d’avoir suffisamme nt de sédime nts fins. Ce tte te chnique convie nt au pe uplie r
baumie r dans la forêt boréale e t le s écozone s boréale s.
L’enracinement e st une te chnique se mblable au bouturage , mais ce sont de s morce aux
de racine s qui sont utilisés, plutôt que de s branche s au-de ssus du sol. Comme pour la
bouture , le saule e t le pe uplie r pe uve nt facile me nt se re produire à partir de racine s
viable s. L’automne e st le me ille ur mome nt pour cue illir le s racine s, lorsque le s fe uille s
tombe nt ou après. À ce tte époque , le s arbre s me tte nt une plus grande part de le urs
rése rve s de carbohydrate dans le ur système d’e nracine me nt. Le s racine s conse rvée s à une
te mpérature appropriée qui ne sèche nt pas, ont un bon taux de ge rmination même après
une période d’e ntre posage de de ux mois.
La transplantation de gazon naturel consiste à pre ndre de s parce lle s de végétation
intacte e t à le s transplante r dans une partie de la zone pe rturbée . Le gazon pe ut être planté
à la main ou au moye n d’un appare il. Le s parce lle s ont l’avantage de conte nir de la te rre
indigène e t une variété d’e spèce s dont ce rtaine s sous forme de graine s. Obte ne z le plus de
racine s possible e n cre usant davantage dans le sol e t e n pre nant de s parce lle s plus large s.
Ce tte te chnique pe ut être particulière me nt e fficace dans le s zone s pe rgisole s où la
croissance de s racine s s’arrête à la couche active (la partie qui décongèle à chaque été
plutôt que le sol e n de ssous qui e st ge lé e n pe rmane nce ). Il pe ut être re lative me nt facile
de détache r le gazon sur un sol ge lé e n utilisant le pe rgélisol à titre de guide e n ce qui a
trait à la profonde ur. Ce tte façon de re staure r e st re lative me nt e xige ante . Ce pe ndant, e lle
fonctionne plutôt bie n lorsque le s plante s d’un autre site (ou une partie de votre site ) sont
de stinée s à être détruite s (p. e x. e n raison de la construction de bâtime nts, de route s).
La plantation en massif e st la ve rsion à grande éche lle de la transplantation de gazon,
car e lle implique le déplace me nt de grands arbuste s e t de plus pe tits arbre s e n groupe
plutôt qu’individue lle me nt. Ce tte te chnique e xige le s appare ils pour déplace r le volume e t
le poids de sol re quis pour assure r la survie de s plante s. Un pe tit charge ur de type
« bobcat » pe ut être utilisé se lon la taille de s plante s à déplace r. Ce tte te chnique pe ut être
particulière me nt e fficace pour récupére r le matérie l d’un site sur le que l la construction
se ra e ntre prise . Il e st important de cre use r suffisamme nt sous la plante , car le s arbuste s e t
le s arbre s ont te ndance à avoir de s système s de racine s plus profonds que le gazon e t le s
plante s vivace s.
Le guide comple t contie nt de plus ample s re nse igne me nts sur ce s te chnique s e t sur le s
proje ts sur le sque ls e lle s ont été utilisée s dans le Nord.
EMPLACEMENT, EMPLACEMENT, EMPLACEMENT
Cue ille z vos plante s e t le s graine s le plus près possible du site , à pe u près à la même
altitude e t dans le même type de sol. Ce tte méthode vous aide ra à vous assure r que le s
plante s e t le s graine s convie nne nt aux conditions e xacte s de lumière , de croissance e t de
climat. Il e st préférable de faire la cue ille tte dans un rayon de 200 kilomètre s (surtout e n
ce qui conce rne la latitude ) ou 500 mètre s de distance ve rticale . Ainsi, par e xe mple , il
n’e st pas re commandé de re cue illir de s graine s de boule au ou de s plante s dans de s ville s
comme Edmonton ou Montréal. Même si e lle s pe uve nt se mble r être pare ille s, ce sont de s
e spèce s du sud e t e lle s ne sont pas néce ssaire me nt adaptée s aux conditions du nord.
Ce pe ndant, étant donné qu’il e st difficile d’obte nir de s graine s e t de s plante s indigène s, il
e st parfois néce ssaire de sortir de ce s limite s e t le s te ntative s pe uve nt être couronnée s de
succès à l’occasion. Choisisse z de s plante s qui convie nne nt à l’e mplace me nt. Essaye z de
re spe cte r le s be soins e n lumière , e n humidité e t e n sol le plus possible .
PRÉPARATION DU SITE
Le type de préparation du site dépe nd de l’obje ctif du proje t e t de s te chnique s de
plantation choisie s. La préparation pe ut compre ndre :
- Corrige r le s problème s du sol
- Re faire le tracé de s courbe s de nive aux du site
- Conse rve r le plus de te rre végétale ou de matière organique possible
- Assure r le contrôle de l’érosion par le proje t
- Protége r le s zone s adjace nte s
- Scarifie r la surface pour y me ttre le s graine s
- Bloque r la ne ige ave c de s barrière s à ne ige pour accumule r le s matière s organique s e t
l’humidité
FERTILISATION
Une de s grande s que stions qu’on se pose lors de la préparation d’un site consiste à savoir
s’il faut fe rtilise r la te rre ? Le cas échéant, quand e t combie n? Comme nous traitons
d’aménage me nts paysage rs e xige ant pe u d’e ntre tie n, il n’e st pas approprié d’applique r du
fe rtilisant de façon continue (ni raisonnable d’un point de vue écologique ). Le s
fe rtilisants ont te ndance à favorise r le s e spèce s non indigène s. Le s fe rtilisants pe uve nt
avoir un e ffe t durable à très long te rme , surtout e n Arctique (de s déce nnie s). De plus, à
long te rme , ils ne favorise nt générale me nt pas le re tour de la végétation indigène . Le s
plante s arctique s utilise nt le s substance s nutritive s différe mme nt de s plante s du sud. Par
conséque nt, il e st possible qu’une analyse normale du sol qui démontre un nive au pe u
éle vé d’azote puisse ne pas signifie r que le sol contie nt une faible quantité de s substance s
nutritive s que re quière nt le s plante s arctique s. En raison de ce s ave rtisse me nts, il pe ut
être important d’utilise r le s fe rtilisants de façon judicie use pour amorce r ou accélére r la
succe ssion de s plante s nature lle s. L’azote se mble particulière me nt utile pour le s plante s
arctique s.
SUIVI
Garde z de s note s sur votre proje t…l’e ndroit où vous vous ête s procuré votre matérie l,
comme nt vous ave z fait votre plantation, e n quoi consiste l’e ntre tie n. Il n’y a pas
be aucoup de re nse igne me nts spécifique s à la re stauration dans le s communautés du Nord.
Le s donnée s sur vos éche cs e t vos réussite s sont de s re nse igne me nts qui pe uve nt être
ajoutés à la base d’information dans le nord. Elle s vous se ront égale me nt utile s pour
réalise r vos proje ts suivants!
Pour obte nir le guide , ve uille z communique r ave c la SCHL à :
SCHL
CCDH (Ce ntre canadie n de docume ntation sur l’habitation)
700, che min de Montréal
Ottawa (Ontario)
K1A 0P7
Site We b : http://www.cmhc.ca
Courrie l (commande s/re nse igne me nts) [email protected]
Numéro de téléphone sans fais pour le s commande s ou le s de mande s de re nse igne me nts :
1 800 668-2642
Téléc. : (commande s/re nse igne me nts) 1 (613) 748-4069
Puisqu’on prévoit une demande restreinte pour ce document de
recherche, seul le résumé à été traduit.
La SCHL fera traduire le document si la demande le justifie.
Pour nous aider à déterminer si la demande justifie que ce rapport soit
traduit en français, veuillez remplir la partie ci-dessous et la retourner à
l’addresse suivante :
Centre canadien de documentation sur l’habitation
Société canadienne d’hypothèques et de logement
700, chemin Montréal, bureau C1-200
Ottawa (Ontario)
K1A 0P7
Titre du rapport: _______________________________________
_______________________________________
Je préfèrerais que ce rapport soit disponible en français.
NOM _____________________________________________
ADRESSE___________________________________________
rue
App.
___________________________________________________________
ville
province
Code postal
No de télephone (
) ____________
1.0 PURPOSE OF THIS GUIDE
This guide is intended to help people in northern communities establish lowmaintenance, “natural landscaping” appropriate to their region. The information
will be useful to anyone involved in a
Terminology
community revegetation project including
elected officials, contractors, schools and
There are many definitions of the terms
clubs, and other interest groups. It is not a
restoration, rehabilitation, revegetation
guide to restoring contaminated sites,
and so forth. Restoration implies that
industrial sites, or for large ecological
the condition of the site before the
restoration projects. It is suitable for
disturbance will be recreated. This is
smaller-scale planting projects within
not an attainable goal in most small,
communities. The emphasis is terrestrial
community projects, as the land is
(dryland) areas, though wetland (not fully
usually too fundamentally altered.
aquatic) areas are also considered.
Revegetation means the replacing of
some form of vegetation on a site.
Natural landscaping involves the planting of
Rehabilitation means returning a site to
a group of usually native species to meet
some use, but it may be a different use
some specific aesthetic, management or
than before the disturbance. This is
design goals. Potential project sites are often
most often the case in landscaping
already semi-natural, such as road
projects we are dealing with in this
embankments, stream edges, vacant lots or
manual.
other community lands where the plants and
soil were disturbed. Areas around homes and other buildings also have potential
for natural landscaping.
Nothing can completely restore the complexity of a natural tundra or woodland
ecosystem, with its thousands of years of accumulated history and immensely
complicated interrelationships. But planting new semi-natural areas which resemble
the original ecosystems can beautify the community and produce other benefits,
including:
•
•
•
•
•
•
creation of habitat for wildlife such as birds and squirrels;
reducing blowing dust;
protecting soils from erosion;
providing meaningful ways to educate about the natural environment;
fostering environmental awareness in a direct, hands-on, way;
building a sense of community by pursuing and achieving common goals.
Techniques described in this guidebook will help you achieve these kinds of goals
with little input of energy and resources such as water, fertilizers and fuel etc. once
the revegetated area is established. A virtually self-supporting system is the goal.
2.0 PREVENTION IS THE BEST CURE
Though this guidebook is about restoring disturbed landscapes, the best way to
achieve healthy landscapes is to prevent damage in the first place. Careful
construction techniques are critical. Damage results in a change in conditions which
interferes with the normal functioning of a biological system. It could be measured
as:
•
•
a change in drainage (becoming more dry or more wet);
a change in soil (loss of soil, soil compaction restricting root penetration,
reduced stability, reduced soil moisture, change in soil pH);
1
•
•
change of species;
loss of species diversity.
It may be too late for a particular spot in your community, but be sure you don't
damage other areas when restoring your project site. Refer to the Collection
Guidelines in Section 8.1 to help you protect other areas. Because soils and plants
recover so slowly, prevention of damage must be thought of at all times.
Prevention also means keeping your newly restored landscape from being damaged
once again. Things to watch for:
•
•
•
vehicles including all-terrain vehicles;
winter damage from snow machines, backhoes, piling of collected snow;
digging and urine of dogs.
Even foot traffic can ruin a planting!
You will have to consider fencing, signs
or other means to protect your project
from traffic of any kind.
2.1 Problems with traffic
Vehicle traffic has a much more
detrimental and long-lasting effect.
Multiple passes of vehicles kill plants,
removes the vegetative cover and starts
a process of soil compaction and
permafrost melting. Damage is
EXTENSIVE, not just intensive, meaning
that the damaged and unstable area
expands outward and downward. Frozen
strata confers stability on northern soils.
Continuation of a frozen state is key to
preserving stability.
Northern plants susceptible to
damage
In natural areas, northern plants are not
especially fragile: they are adapted to survive
and flourish in a range of difficult conditions.
Black Spruce, for instance,
grow tall in warmer, wet areas and develop
slowly in a dwarf form on the barren-lands.
Willows and junipers are found almost
everywhere in the North. But northern plants
have never developed resistance to vehicle
traffic and are easily damaged and crushed
by vehicles. Even a few passes of a vehicle
over tundra can decrease the cover of
lichens and mosses, resulting in significant
reductions in species richness which may
persist for decades.
Here are some examples of long-term damage from relatively little traffic:
shrubs: The most dramatic effect of tracked vehicles is seen on
vegetation dominated by shrubs. One study found Salix lanta (Woolly
willow) broken and moss canopy reduced by half after only one pass of a
vehicle. Dry dwarf shrub communities on sandy soil showed low resistance
to traffic even in winter.
mat-forming plants such as Saxifraga oppositifolia (Purple mountain
saxifrage) are easily damaged and recolonize an area very slowly. The
regrowth of woody and semi-woody perennials such as Salix arctica (Arctic
willow), Dryas integrifolia (White mountain-avens) and Saxifraga
oppositifolia (Purple mountain saxifrage) can be measured in millimeters
per year.
poorly-drained low and middle arctic tussock (grass-sedge) tundras
and graminoid-dominated plains are also vulnerable to physical
disturbance. When the surface plants are damaged, more sunlight
2
penetrates to the ground surface and this initiates secondary changes in the
permafrost which can be long-lasting and irreversible. Even winter traffic
can result in significant local damage where the snow is not very deep.
saturated meadows can be disturbed by just one pass of a vehicle. On
sites where saturated sedge meadow tracks filled with water after the
passage of just one vehicle, no recovery was found. Species recolonizing
wet soils such as Carex, Eriophorium, Ranunculus and Petasites do not
tolerate disturbance. In a late snowbed with solifluction soils, distinct and
up to five centimetre-deep water-filled tracks appeared from only one pass.
previously disturbed areas: Serious damage results from re-use of
stabilizing old roadbeds or other cleared areas. If a previously-disturbed
area is beginning to recover but disturbed again, the damage is more
serious.
Hills a dilemma
Hills are especially difficult to deal with,
and not just “steep” hills. Disturbance
which removes vegetation and organic
layers on slopes steeper than 5% (or 1
in 20) can have serious
consequences. This is not a great
slope; it is easy to walk and drive on a
5% slope (wheelchair ramps are 10%
slope, or 1 in 10). Vehicle traffic
exposing the subsurface has particularly
serious consequences for frozen soils on
sloping ground, or where there is surface
drainage. Interbedded soils with
alternating coarse and fine textured
material are especially vulnerable to
slides. Conventional southern techniques
of using massive earthworks to control
accelerated erosion and slides are not
valid in permafrost environments.
Bulldozing of fire-breaks near Inuvik in
1968 led to more serious changes in the
terrain than the forest fire itself, and
erosion has been a problem on
firebreaks in the 1995 Norman Wells
firebreaks.
Not all landscapes covered in this guide
are quite this sensitive. On heathlands,
where soils are very shallow, vehicle
tracks do not initiate any dramatic
secondary changes as is seen in the low
Arctic tussock tundra. On mesic tundra
(tundra that is not overly wet or dry), one
pass of a vehicle does not cause serious
damage, though moss sod and shrubs
may be destroyed and species abundance
changed. Woodlands are not as affected
by vehicle traffic, as trees continue to
shade the ground from sun even if
vehicles strip off some of the surface
vegetation.
Every effort should be made to preserve
the active layer in as undisturbed a state
as possible. The best way to achieve this
appears to be by preserving the integrity
of the vegetation-peat ground cover. If
only the living vegetation is removed, and
dead organic material remains intact on
the surface, there is less of a problem of
thermal erosion. Maintenance of snow
cover also delays the onset of thawing
and help maintain the soil in a frozen
state.
Travelling over an area only in the winter also reduces impact. In the south, tire
mats are sometimes used over an area even during the winter, to reduce the
impact of traffic. This may be important to try in the north.
2.2 Losing Soil
Erosion is a potential problem in areas with slopes, lack of vegetation, and more
susceptible soils. Silts, silty sands and fine sands tend to be more susceptible to
3
erosion because the small particle sizes are more easily detached and washed or
blown away.
To prevent erosion and problems caused by erosion during construction, try to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
minimize the duration of the disturbance;
minimize the extent of the disturbance;
retain natural vegetation whenever possible;
protect disturbed areas with temporary vegetation and mulch;
divert runoff away from denuded slopes and critical areas;
use sediment traps or basins to retain the soil particles.
Install any or all of these the erosion control measures before the disturbance
begins. The most vulnerable time that an area has to erosion is immediately after
grading and earthmoving.
3.0 WHAT IS “LOW-MAINTENANCE” LANDSCAPING?
The following points are intended to help you achieve a self-maintaining or lowmaintenance landscape. Low-maintenance landscaping is ideal for the North as it
emphasizes use of local native species, planted in a natural arrangement at the
least possible cost.
Low-maintenance does not mean no-maintenance! First of all, you will have to
continue to prevent damage, as noted above.
Secondly, though the landscape may take care of itself in the long term, some
concentrated care in the first two seasons of planting is often necessary for longterm success. See the section on “Watering” in particular.
Thirdly, when you create a natural landscape within a community, there are many
“urban” pressures that a wilderness would not be subject to: vehicle traffic,
footpaths, garbage, dust, compacted snow and so forth. In such circumstances, at
minimum some garbage removal is going to be needed in your project area.
Rocks and other non-living materials can be used in landscaping an area, though
this aspect is not dealt with in this guide. Such elements can create additional
habitat, enhance beauty, reduce dust, and certainly require little ongoing input of
energy. Boulders and rocks can be piled or contoured to more closely resemble a
natural landscape. This can help control costs associated with revegetating large
areas. It also creates microsites for water storage and wildlife habitat, and
promotes natural spread of plants.1 Remember to take care around any living
plants already growing on site!
3.1 Use of native plant species
Native plants are those that grow naturally near your community. It’s not easy to
purchase cultivated plants that are suited to northern conditions. More
importantly, native species grow better. They have evolved, over time, to flourish
in your area. They are adapted to the amount of water, sun, heat and cold in your
1
Kidd, Janet G. and Karen N. Max, EKATI Diamond Mine reclamation research program, 1999 Annual
report, ABR Inc. Environmental Research & Services, 2000
4
area. They are well suited to local soils and permafrost conditions. They are
attractive to local wildlife. They have grown for thousands of years without help
from human beings and so can produce a landscape requiring little maintenance
from you except for protection from traffic.
Check the appendices for more information on where and how to collect native
species.
3.2 Importance of diversity in your planting
Make every effort to avoid using just one type of plant at your project site or, at
least, try to restrict monocultures to small, intermingled patches. Seek to copy
nature. If a natural area near to your project contains
Neatness not
mainly four types of plants, try to mimic this in your
necessarily
planting. Your planting has more chance of surviving
without help over the
a virtue
long term.
Keeping your revegetation
There is diversity within plant species too. Individual
project site “neat and tidy” is
not necessary....removal of
plants differ slightly in their ability to adjust to
leaves, dead limbs and
environmental changes. So, diversity in your planting
natural
debris reduces the
can be increased by having several species, but also
diversity of habitats. It also
by using different plants of the same species. For
reduces the food supply for
instance, when collecting willow shrub branches to
plants and other wildlife in
propagate, cut branches from a number of different
the project area: dead
shrubs.
leaves, twigs and fallen
debris are food for insects,
Diversity is necessary for the long-term
for instance. Dead limbs
stability of your project.
provide nest cavities and
If only one species is planted, it takes more work to
harbour insects as food
maintain it. One example of this is a lawn. To make
supplies for birds.
grass lawns a uniform green, and keeping out all
other plants other than the one or two grass types planted requires fertilizer, weedkiller, watering, cutting and generally lots of effort.
Planting a diverse landscape takes more effort initially, but will tend to maintain
itself better over time. It also provides a variety of habitats valuable to local
insects, animals and other organisms.
3.3 How succession (natural colonization) can help
In a natural areas, plants change. Not only do the individual plants grow and die,
but there is a “succession”, or progressive change, of plant types. In scientific
terms, succession is a directional, cumulative change in the species that occupy a
given area through time.
Successive change may take place over a couple of years, or several hundred
years, depending on factors such as the initial conditions, additional disturbances,
the size of the disturbance and climate. Succession happens at a regional scale,
when forest fires, climate change or other large disturbances create large changes
in plant species. Succession is also a factor at small scale, when small areas are
cleared for various reasons, as watercourses and bogs dry up, along roadsides, or
when settlements and mine sites are abandoned.
5
Plants that are most suited for use in revegetation projects are those known as
“pioneers”, or recolonizers: the plants that you would tend to see filling in barren
areas naturally. Pioneer species produce many, light seeds that germinate quickly
and easily – they literally blow into a barren area and take hold. Fireweed is a wellknown example. Pioneer species grow well in open, sunny and windy conditions.
They are not usually long-lived, but they help produce soil and create sheltered
areas for the next contingent, the secondary species.
Secondary species move into an area more slowly. Secondary species are more
particular about conditions. They tend to have heavier seeds than pioneer plants,
often fruits such as berries, which are carried into the area by birds. Secondary
plants may also advance into a previously barren area by extending their roots,
branches or stems and expanding vegetatively. Willows can send up branch after
branch from underground, advancing this way until a
Climax plants
fairly large area is covered with apparently many
shrubs, all offspring of the original willow and all
eventually come to dominate
genetically identical.
an area - they create the
right conditions to reproduce
Plants that come in later in succession, when the area
themselves indefinitely (at
is no longer barren, are called “climax” species.
least until the next
Climax species produce fewer, heavier seeds, with
disturbance which throws the
more complex germination requirements. These
whole system back to an
plants tend to be more stable in the long term, with
earlier stage in succession).
longer life spans. The initial phases of succession
Pine trees hold their dead
prepares the area for the next stage, and species
branches, a perfect fire
either arrive, or “take over” when the environment is
starter and in the pine’s best
ready for them.
interest (but not the other
plants) as fire is needed to
open the pine cones for
germination.
It is easier to see succession in wooded areas. In the
High Arctic, all the plants – pioneers, secondary and
climax types - are small, vegetative reproduction is
the rule, and growth is slow. When planning a revegetation project, you should
concentrate on planting the pioneer species you know can handle barren or open
conditions, with some secondary species, with the view of creating the right
conditions for the climax types to take over.2
Ideally, nature can make this happen on its own,
eventually. Short term triumphs in terms of rapid
plant cover are often less desirable in the long term.
The critical point is that while pioneer species are
initially useful in rehabilitation work, the plant
community should be moving towards climax
species.
A northern revegetation project takes years to
reach its goals. Take time to enjoy the process! And
be sure others are aware that this is not a quick fix,
but a long term aspiration.
2
Spruce trees
expand their range by
a process known as
layering, when branches
near the ground put out
roots and eventually start
a new tree beside the
parent. Such dense mats
of spruce make it difficult
for anything else to grow.
Crawford, R.M.M. ed., Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Disturbance and
Recovery of Arctic Terrestrial Ecosystems, Rovaniemi, Finland, Sept 1995, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997
6
4.0 BASICS FOR NORTHERN RESTORATION PROJECTS
4.1 Overview of ecozones
This guide covers northern communities including those in Yukon, Northwest
Territories, Nunavut, Nunavik (northern Quebec) and northern Labrador. These
communities fall under six ecozones:
Arctic Cordillera (only three communities, all in Nunavut)
Northern Arctic (NWT, Nunavut, Nunavik)
Southern Arctic (NWT, Nunavut, Nunavik)
Taiga Shield (NWT, Nunavik, Labrador)
Taiga Plains (NWT), and
Boreal Cordillera (all Yukon communities except Old Crow).
In general, the ecozones are either above the treeline or below it. Consider this a
general indicator of what you might be planting in your project.
Appendix A describes each zone, the
communities in it, typical plants, and an
example or examples of rehabilitation
projects. You will find a map of the
ecozones at the beginning of Appendix A.
4.2 Northern Soils
Northern soils, except in the Taiga Plain
ecozone, are generally thin and perched on
rock or ice layers. They are composed
mainly of sands, gravels and fine materials
and are often shot through with ice crystals
or layers or lenses of solid ice.
Nearly all medium and fine textured soils
have permafrost close enough to the surface
to affect plant growth. Bare rock and loose
rocks cover large areas. Low in organic
materials, most northern soils hold little
water and contain few nutrients, and easily
erode or blow away. Soils which do contain
organic matter tend to be mucky, seasonal
wetland or peatlands.
In the subarctic, because soils are so
variable, you can find typical Arctic,
subarctic and boreal plants growing near
each other. Different soils in virtually the
same location will result in very different
types of plants and plant growth.
Permafrost and soil depth
Permafrost denotes “permanently
frozen ground”, but not all the
ground is frozen. The upper
surface of the permafrost is known
as the permafrost table. The active
layer (from the ground surface to
the permafrost table) thaws in the
summer. It can be as little as 20
cm deep in the northern arctic, or
as deep as
3.5 metres in the subarctic.
Permafrost is continuous in the
Arctic, except under lakes and
rivers big enough and deep enough
not to freeze to the bottom. In the
taiga and boreal ecozones,
permafrost is discontinuous.
In these zones, it tends to form
on north-facing slopes with dense
vegetation, peatlands, and
fined-grained soils.
Plant roots are confined to the
active layer, so its depth is
significant. Soils of 20-30 cm
deep result in shallow rooting
species, typical arctic species.
If you want shrubs, you need
more soil. Typically shrubs should
be grown in 45 cm of soil, and trees
in about 1 metre.
The best soils have various particle sizes.
This allows for large and small pore spaces in the soil. Large pore spaces contain
air. They allow air and water to move through the soil and provide space for root
growth. Smaller spaces - or micropores - hold water. “Ideal” soils contain air, even
7
when saturated with water (an airspace of about 30% at maximum water holding
capacity is ideal). With improved drainage, there is still some air even when the soil
is saturated, and soils are drier and deeper. These conditions will usually result in
more southerly type of plant growth.
Northern soils must be handled differently than soils in southern areas.
Permafrost can be easily upset when the plants on the surface of the ground
are stripped off, crushed or otherwise disturbed. Plant cover acts as insulation.
Once the plants are disturbed, much more surface heat penetrates through the
ground, increasing soil temperature and leading to thawing and melting of
underground ice and frozen soils.
Frost and ice mold the tundra soil and landscape. Alternating freezing and thawing
of the active layer forms the patterned land typically seen in the Arctic. The
patterns are often quite symmetrical (frost polygons). The larger materials tend to
the outside of the polygons, and the inside has smaller, finer material. Plants can
differ greatly in a small area due to the frost action. Though on a broad scale, the
landscape may look very similar, there are many tiny pockets that, from a plant’s
perspective, are dramatically different. For instance, the top to the bottom of a
frost polygon will have different soil, different moisture…and therefore different
plants. So, very small areas can have habitats for very different plants.
4.3 Northern Plants
Northern plants are adapted to make the
best possible use of the cold, thin and easilyeroded northern soils. Even though
concentrations of inorganic nitrogen are low
in Arctic soils, these soils do have large
stocks of both structural and soluble organic
nitrogen. Northern plants are able to acquire
nutrients at low levels and are efficient in
utilizing nutrients once acquired. Plant
development can be interrupted by events
such as freezing and ice encapsulation only
to continue successfully on the return of
favourable conditions.
Mosses and lichens rely mainly on nutrients
coming from the air (“atmospheric input”).
Other adaptions to nutrient-poor soils include
different forms of partial parasitism and
carnivory.
Many northern plants take advantage of a
helping fungus to secure supplies of water
and nutrients. Mycorrihizae (meaning
fungus-root) are fungi which associate with
plant roots in a symbiotic relationship. Many
of these fungus form “fruiting bodies” which
you would recognize as mushrooms, some of
them edible. Fungal strands extend through
the soil, transport water and nutrients to
8
Strange things growing beneath
your feet
Mycorrhizal fungi, special fungi that
form a symbiotic relationship with plant
roots, are thought to play
an important role in northern plant
communities. There has not been
much research into northern forms
of mycorrhizae or northern
mycorrhizae/plant communities. It
is known, however, that mixing
mycorrhizal fungi into the soil or
inoculating the roots of individual
conifer seedlings improves growth and
survival. Even transplanting shrubs or
trees with some of the soil from the host
site improves survival and growth –this
is known as soil transfer.
Some northern areas are dominated by
mycorrhiza/plant communities. Heathtype communities, such as ericaceous
plants in association with ericoid
mycorrhizae, cover many arctic and
alpine areas, yet non-mycorrhizal plants
are also widespread and predominate
in other plant communities. Even in
places where certain mycorrhizal
associations are common, the level of
root colonization varies from plant to
plant.
plant roots, and also protect host plants from root-rot pathogens. The fungal
network also has the effect of improving soil structure, making it less susceptible to
erosion. In exchange, plants supply food energy to the fungus. Exactly which
mycorrhizal species are most important is not clear; many different types of fungi
are associated with relatively few types of plants, and the plant species affected
tend to be those which are widespread.
Long life cycles are another survival mechanism in the North: processes such as
flowering can be prolonged over two or even more years. Annuals – plants which
grow every year from seed - are not as common as in temperate areas.
Most tundra plants are graminoids (grass-like), dwarf shrubs and club mosses
which live year-to-year through various forms
Ramets
of vegetative reproduction. Clonal plants, for
example, produce new offspring (ramets)
remain connected to the main plant
without going through a sexual cycle. There
for varying lengths of time - the
can be various modes of vegetative spread,
death,
decay and disintegration
such as stolons, rhizomes and root shoots.
of older parts of the plant allow
There are varying degrees of "clonality", from
the ramets to become functionally
plants with a virtually indefinite life span, to
independent.
A ramet is genetically
those that only occasionally form clones. Parts
identical to its “parent.”
of cloning types may survive indefinitely: roots
and rhizomes of Carex bigelowii may be
functional for more than 20 years after the shoot dies!
The ability to clone gives a plant many advantages. In difficult environments such
as barrenlands, clones can locate nutrients by
Rhizomes
extending the reach of the plant without taking
much risk. Other forms of vegetative reproduction
include
rhizomes, and adaptations such as those
are horizontal underground
seen in Nodding saxifrage (Saxifraga cernua) and
stems; new roots and leafy
Alpine bistort (Polygonum viviparum), which have
shoots grow from them at
intervals, spreading the plants.
normal flowers replaced by bulbils that fall off the
This way the plant can
plant and take root.
reproduce “vegetatively” without
having to produce flowers or
There can be some disadvantages to vegetative
seeds.
reproduction. Sexual reproduction may be
infrequent and/or intermittent: there is little genetic
change, and genetic biodiversity can be limited in a given area. Clones conserve
nutrients within the living biomass, but harmful effects of pollutants can be
magnified as they live so long and have plenty of time to take in and store toxic
materials. These large root systems are also a consideration in transplanting and
in terms of soil stabilization. For instance, in wet tundra, only five percent of the
plants' biomass (living material) is above ground and visible; the remaining 95
percent is underground in roots and rhizomes.
5.0 BACKGROUND CHECKLIST FOR YOUR PROJECT
5.1 Why is the site degraded?
If the reasons for site degradation are not eliminated or reduced, restoration efforts
are not likely to be successful. Correcting the problem that created the disturbance
in the first place is essential to any rehabilitation plan.
9
The degree of degradation determines, to a large extent, what you will be able to
achieve in terms of rehabilitation and how the site should be prepared. Nearly
always, the cause of barren sites in tundra areas can be traced to a soil problem.
Plants need their native soils. They won’t survive if planted in gravel, sand etc.
even if fertilized. Soils contain elements needed for plant growth, store water and
contain microorganisms and soil life essential for plant growth. Soil is a living
community, in concert with the plants
growing on it.
Soil as a tool
If the soil at your site has been removed,
buried under gravel, blown away or disturbed
in some other way, you will have to find
some way to restore it. If the soil is severely
damaged, concentrate your effects here,
first, before you move on to planting.
Remove the immediate impact, restore the
system the best you can, make continued
improvements, and think about
sustainability.
The form of disturbances we are dealing with
in this guide are mostly physical (bulldozing,
excavating, garbage and debris). Chemical,
biotic or climatic disturbances may also be
factors in some cases:
in revegetating projects
Even if the soil looks thin and coarse,
it is crucial to salvage
it during construction whenever
possible. Seeds contained in soils
can germinate years after
disturbance. Plant roots and stems
can resprout from tundra sod. Soil
fungi - which can help with plant
survival - may be present.
The soil can be returned to the site
as a basis for revegetation after
construction, or used elsewhere on
other barren areas which need soil.
Chemical disturbances through toxic spills (e.g. oil spills) or toxic base
materials (e.g., mine tailings) are not covered in this guide. However, a
couple of points are worth pointing out regarding salt. Most plants do not
tolerate salt. If sediments, sand or gravel have been used from the shore
or ocean bed, salt poisoning of plants is likely.
Even salt applied for melting ice can be toxic to plants. Discontinuing
the application of salt will not be enough; if there is no diminution of salt
concentration in the soil, applying seed etc. to such areas is wasted effort.
Excess use of fertilizers also creates a chemical disturbance, and must be
guarded against. Excessive fertilizers in waterways disturbs the natural
balance and creates eutrophication, or lack of oxygen in the water, which
affects what plants can grow and which species survive.
Exotic species invading and taking over an area has been a problem in
various parts of Canada. Exotics are those plants not native to an area,
introduced accidentally or deliberately. In many cases, exotic plants have
no natural controls, spread beyond the area of their intended use and push
out native species. Exotics have not become a major problem in the North,
so a site is unlikely to be disturbed in this way. We are not however
immune: in some tests for suitable restoration species, Agropyron
trachycaulum (a Canadian cultivated grass) was observed actively invading
other test plots via the spread of its seed.
Grazing of revegetated areas by wild herbivores such as caribou, geese
10
and Arctic hare can be a problem. Use of preventative measures against
grazing is discussed in Appendix A: see the Southern Arctic ecozone, BHP
Billiton project.
Climatic disturbances are becoming noticeable throughout the North.
Inuit elders, in a recent compilation of traditional knowledge, reported that
plant growth is becoming more lush and that shrubs are surviving farther
north and growing larger, due to more snow and warmer temperatures. In
the Dogrib region, elders report more ice cover (affecting the ability of
caribou to reach their food) and thinner ice (resulting in more caribou
drownings). These observations are confirmed by scientific observations. It
is not clear how such changes may affect community efforts to restore
degraded lands in urban locations. It is probably best to continue to use the
growth in natural areas near the community as a guide to what you might
achieve in town.
5.2 Who owns the land?
Before a project can get underway, you need to find out who owns the land for
which the project is slated. In most cases, stewardship for town lands comes
under the jurisdiction of a Town or Hamlet council. Zoning and/or by-laws must be
checked to see how they affect your plans.
5.3 What is the site’s history?
The previous uses of the land may affect decisions you make on how to restore it.
Is it an historic site? Has it been used as a location for parking heavy equipment,
storing snow, or for landfill? Consider the context of the proposed site, as well.
What is the adjacent land use? What impact could this have on your project and
vice versa. Is there a possibility this land may be developed in the near future?
5.4 Determine your ecozone
Check the map and the description of your ecozone in Appendix A. This sets out
what may be possible, in a general way. Pay attention to the list of typical plants,
and take a copy along with you when you inventory your site. The community of
Old Crow (which is located in the Taiga Cordillera ecozone), and the Town of Hay
River (located in the Boreal Plains ecozone) are not dealt with specifically. You can
look to the nearby communities for ideas on typical conditions and plants.
5.5 Assess the condition of the site
Look, listen and spend some time with the site. You have to know the site
intimately before you decide on the size and scale of your project. Once you know
the site’s history and past land use, you will have to inventory (list and describe)
the current surface features including:
•
•
•
•
topography;
micro-climates (shaded areas, wet areas, sunny exposure, windy exposure,
eroded areas, etc.);
existing vegetation on the site, vegetation nearby;
below ground features, bedrock, soil depth, permafrost.
11
Walk the site in the summer with boots, a notebook and a shovel. Note on a map
or hand-drawing what you see growing. Dig a few test pits to check the soil depth
and type – you can compare soil conditions on the site to those where you collect
your plants and seeds. In the winter, check for signs of foot and vehicle traffic, and
note where snow tends to drift and collect. In spring, check locations of meltwater,
temporary ponds and freshets. Extend your observations to areas surrounding your
site, as well.
6.0 GETTING STARTED
There are many reasons people may want to undertake a landscaping project.
Ideas could arise from issues relating to the appearance of a particular space,
blowing dust, a classroom wanting a butterfly garden or a local group wanting to
establish a community garden. This section is intended to assist the user in
understanding what to do to help make a landscaping project happen. Once you
have done your basic research, you can get into the actual planning. We suggest
the following steps:
6.1 Gain community support
Securing the co-operation of at least your neighbours is helpful ... the local kids,
dogs, and snowmobilers will all affect your project. For community-oriented
projects, involving community members helps develop a sense of responsibility and
empowerment, and gives an increased sense of pride in the property. Consider
how possible negative reactions could be avoided
through education and information prior to the actual
It’s for the community
implementation. Seek assistance from people with
many different backgrounds.
For the project to succeed,
people must value the
establishment of a natural or
People should understand that a restoration project
semi-natural area within the
does not necessarily restore the original vegetation to
community, because it will
an area. Neither will it create a playground. The
affect their use of the land.
expectation of "landscaping" sometimes brings with it
People must share a
the notion of an expanse of lawn. As stated, this is
commitment to ecological
not the intent of the guide, but you should be aware
restoration. They must be
that this may be what others are expecting a project
willing to provide the
to achieve. Do you need to contend with people who
circumstances under which the
wish to turn a peat bog into a lawn, or Black spruce
restoration can happen,
forest into an open woodland with a lawn beneath? A
whether it means offering
quick cover of vegetation is often seen as “success”,
volunteer help, assisting with
but this can obstruct natural and sustainable
planning and/or maintenance,
vegetation.
or simply agreeing to keep
dogs and vehicles off the site.
A northern revegetation project takes years to
reach its goals. Those involved in a project must understand and accept this, or
they will be disappointed by the results. The natural pattern for Arctic tundra plants
is to form a cover slowly. Even with grass seed and fertilizer, establishing a
vegetative cover in the North takes about three years. Because the growing season
is so brief, and plant growth and reproduction are limited, time is a major factor,
particularly in tundra recovery and to a somewhat lesser extent in boreal areas.
For most projects, a committee should be formed to steer the project from a
concept to reality. Having a committee ensures that a variety of perspectives are
12
taken into consideration during all project phases, and spreads out the workload.
Ideally, the committee should include those with an immediate vested interest in
the project along with experts such as a naturalist, an elder or educators. A
multidisciplinary approach (involving many backgrounds and training) is best.
6.2 Develop a planning process
Having established a committee, the next step is to make an action plan. It should
spell out details for all aspects of the project including:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
what you already know (history of project and project site, site description
and inventory);
project goals and objectives;
your list of likely options;
budget and fundraising plans;
project design;
choice of plants and planting techniques;
site preparation;
planting and watering;
follow-up maintenance and reclamation plans;
record keeping.
6.3 Set project goals and objectives
Write down what you want the project to achieve. Goals have a lot to do with who
is carrying out the project, as well as their capabilities and resources. A careful
evaluation and explanation of the role of goals
Restoration to predisturbance
and objectives are needed at the beginning of
conditions
projects. There is no "quick fix" in this type of
landscaping. You must allow sufficient time
may not be an appropriate or possible
for ecological processes to operate, and be
goal. The original conditions may be
flexible in terms of performance schedules.
so changed that it is not possible to
restore them. Other options may be
Goals must be understood to be long-term, as
more suitable given available materials,
it will take time to bring the project to
aesthetic preferences, new uses,
fruition, and northern plants grow and spread
budget and similar factors.
slowly. Even seed collection can take time:
years unfavourable for seed production probably outnumber the favourable years.
The easiest and most desirable approach from an ecological perspective is to rely
as much as possible on secondary plant succession. Plant growth and spread may
seem sluggish, but this is the least expensive method and most likely to result in
communities of plants that are most similar to
Know what is possible
surrounding natural vegetation. Even so, there
are times when natural succession will not take
Check your ecozone and project
place, such as at sites where the soil is missing.
examples in this guide! It would be
This is why getting to know your site first is very
an unrealistic goal to aim to control
important.
thermokarst (landforms produced
by the thawing of permafrost) by
The values you have must be placed in context
planting grass, as this technique
with the surrounding community as well. How
has been proven unsuccessful in
“pretty” an area looks is often not valued as
the past. On the other hand,
much as free passage (i.e., the ability to move
revegetation of
about wherever one wants in a community).
sites in the boreal forest does
For the project to succeed, there must be
reduce thermal degradation.
community support.
13
Goals might include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
establish an area for people to come and relax;
make the site look more attractive;
involve children in a community improvement project;
establish natural or semi-natural conditions with use by people restricted;
maintain a diversity of plant and animal species;
protect the local gene pool of particular species;
redirect surface drainage;
reduce melting of permafrost;
reduce maintenance costs of a particular site;
reduce environmental impacts (e.g. blowing dust).
Once you have a general idea of what you want to achieve, set some specific
objectives for achieving those goals. Objectives state what you will do.
Objectives might:
•
•
•
•
•
•
describe how the site will be prepared for planting;
state how a raised pathway will be constructed to reduce foot traffic through
an area;
describe temporary barriers to protect an area while it is establishing, and
when/who will take them out;
name the plant species you intend to use, how many, where you will collect
them and how they will be planted;
state which people will be involved, how often and when;
state how the watering and maintenance will be done and by whom.
6.4 Get to know the options
At this point, you probably have an idea of what you’d like to see happen with the
project. Now you need to come up with enough information to support a decisionmaking process. What suitable commercial seed and plant sources are available, if
any? What are the natural seed and plant sources? Will it be a matter of involving a
few people in transplanting local raspberries, or will you need heavy equipment to
recontour the site and bring in soil? Each community landscaping project will have
its own strengths, limitations and evolution.
You may explore numerous ideas before deciding what is most suitable. Options
for the site relate to what you want to accomplish, what you can realistically
achieve given the site location, history, condition, your budget and how much
volunteer help you can summon, and what kind and amount of planting and
maintenance you can provide.
You may, for instance, lay out several options according to several proposed
budgets, or options based on different degrees of collection of local native plant
materials. Write down the options as you see them at this point, and be prepared
to discuss or change them in the next phase.
14
6.5 Budget and fundraising
The kind of project - and who is carrying it out - will
be reflected in the budget. The revegetation project
may be considered a capital or maintenance
expenditure for a community. If members of the
public are on the project committee, it may be
possible to seek additional funds through donations,
corporate sponsorships or other means. A
volunteer component may be especially important
for the labour-intensive aspects of seed collecting,
cleaning and storage. For instance, it could be
educational, fun and inexpensive to involve school
children in collecting rose hips for seeds.
6.6 Permits
Some jurisdictions require landscaping in the
bylaws; these can be very general, without
particular standards or procedural guidelines. Fence
heights and construction are more often regulated.
You should check with your community's planning
department to see if there are particular
requirements for your project.
Plan for ongoing
maintenance
As you review options, goals
and objectives, and budgeting
with your committee, keep in
mind that the project will take
several years at the least. You
will have to arrange for
someone to pick up the tab for
fixing fences, barriers and
signs, watering as necessary,
litter collection, replanting if
necessary. This is where it is
useful to have a
multidisciplinary committee,
with several responsible
observers who can arrange
to follow through with the plan
and take care of unforeseen
problems.
In the NWT,
each individual is allowed to transplant up to 20 trees of any kind and any size in a
year, provided they have a permit. There are no regulations on shrubs. Permits are
available through the local Renewable Resource office. The permit specifies where
the trees are to be collected.
In the Yukon,
a permit is required for transplanting woody species (shrubs or trees) for personal
and commercial use. Permits are issued under Yukon Timber Regulations, with the
following terms:
•
•
•
cost is 50 cents per plant;
size is to maximum of 4 metres;
a permit holder may be sent to another district to collect certain types of
plants.
A designated site is given for collection of transplants, and the sites differ according
to species. For instance, no White birch are available in the Whitehorse district;
they must be collected from the Teslin area. With requests for large quantities of
transplants, the department of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (DIAND) tends
to issue a permit for a smaller number (e.g., 15-20), checks on quality of the
operation, then decides on issuing another permit. Permits are available at any
district office of DIAND, Field Operations Section.
There are no permits required for harvesting native flowering plants, but collection
guidelines (see Section 8.1 ) should be met.
15
7.0 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
When planning a design for the site, you’ll have to consider it two ways – the way
plants and surface features are distributed around the area (a bird’s eye view), and
the way features are structured vertically (as
Natural corridors
viewed from the side).
Remembering the context of the
broader landscape is important.
Connected patches of natural
communities have a greater effect than
vegetated areas separated by roads
and buildings.
Isolated “islands” of natural habitat are
not very useful to animals, and the
plants have a more difficult time
maintaining themselves. Try to find a
way to connect your project site with
the natural environment outside the
community by planting a corridor
between them, the wider the better.
A range in the structural diversity of
vegetation increases species diversity. Taller
plants serve as “nurses” sheltering and
protecting the lower plants. In woodland
areas, for instance, plantings can include
mosses, grass and forb seeds, shrubs and
some trees, preferably all of them pioneer or
secondary types which can withstand open
and windy conditions.
Even with tundra planting schemes, use
nearby natural area as your guide and try to
establish several heights of plants at the
same time, perhaps mosses, grasses and
shrubs. Similarly, try to retain what may
already be growing on the site without damaging it – a few inches of gravel or
even soil piled on tree roots can kill the tree.
Spacing of plants is determined by several factors, including:
Goals of the planting
Do you ultimately want a thick stand of plants? Or a park-like setting of
spaced-out trees and shrubs with grass and lower plants in between? Or are
you just kick-starting a process of natural colonization?
Size of the plant materials you are using
The size and type of plant material you are using – whether it is seeds,
transplants, plugs or cuttings – should give you an idea of how widely to
space them. Keep their natural growth characteristics in mind, too. Do they
grow vertically, or spread horizontally?
Anticipated survival rate
With proven techniques of proven stock, you may anticipate a 90% success
rate. If there is an experimental aspect of your programme, perhaps
unproven stock or unproven techniques, or you are completely new to this
kind of work and are learning as you go, expect a lower rate of plant
survival and design your plan accordingly.
Suitability of microsites
Survival rate and growth rate will also be affected by the quality of the site.
If the soil is variable or too thin, or the site is comparatively dry, plan your
strategy accordingly. Perhaps conditions are so severe that the plants are
unlikely to reach their full size.
All these aspects listed above are described in more detail later in this guide.
16
Other considerations which will affect the overall design you choose:
•
•
•
•
labour requirements;
equipment requirements;
capital cost;
operational cost.
7.1 Barriers
Prevention of damage often means keeping traffic off an area. Rehabilitation will
not be successful if there is any kind of traffic on it - even foot traffic - during the
initial stages. Winter vehicles must also be
Barrier width
prevented from passing over your project area.
Repeated traffic over the same area compacts the
The width of snowmobiles is
snow, reducing the insulating capabilities of the
usually 107 cm (42"); some
snow, letting the cold through to the ground and
are 123 cm (48"). ATVs are
killing the plants underneath. In some areas
more varied in size; the
preventing damage in winter is done using tire
smaller
are usually 107 cm
mats; in other instances tire mats plus chips of ice
(42").
Mini or “kiddie
are used for temporary access to an area in winter.
machines” - not often seen in
northern communities - are
Keeping traffic off altogether is often needed not
smaller versions of ATVs
just in the short term, but longer term as well.
and snowmobiles, usually
Various types of “barriers” can be considered:
about 96 cm (38"). Small
cars are about 185 cm (73")
• boulders
wide and trucks are about
• heavy posts (bollards)
200 cm (79") wide.
• fencing
• cribbing (filled with rocks or gravel)
• planters
• grading
Placement of any barriers must be done carefully. It is often difficult to block an
entire area (people may just go around the barrier), so picking reasonable and
suitable locations for your revegetation project must be part of your planning
process. Don’t choose a major existing pathway or shortcut for planting and expect
people to stay off it. Don’t “overdo” barriers.
Boulders and heavy posts (bollards) are usually more effective in restricting larger
vehicles (cars/trucks) rather than smaller ones (ATVs, snowmobiles). In any case,
you need to place them so that they are close enough together to keep out the
intended vehicles.
Fence heights and construction are locally regulated. Fences are far and few
between in many northern communities, not because they are illegal but simply by
convention - property values and property lines are not considered important, and
people are used to having unimpeded access on their snow machines. More
recently, though, communities want to clean up and improve their appearance.
Landscaping, revegetating and fencing go hand-in-hand.
Signage can be tried, but is not often effective in eliminating traffic by itself.
Educational signs, which explain why you are trying to keep people off the area,
17
can be somewhat effective. Letting people know “This is a reforestation area”, or
“Young plants are growing here; no vehicles please” can help in compliance.
Next, think about how your plant and barrier
layout will be affected by blowing and drifting
snow. Any barrier, especially less penetrable
barriers such as fencing, can create large drifts.
In the right place, snowdrifts can be beneficial to
plant growth. In the wrong place, snowdrifts can
block roads, driveways or doors. Check any
existing barriers (in the winter) to get a clue for
how to orient yours.
7.2
Don’t confuse
drifted snow with snow piled by a
snowplow. Snowdrifts protect your
planting from cold temperatures, and
provide more moisture in spring.
Snow piled onto the site by snowplow
is compacted and heavy and could
kill your planting.
Select plants
You need plants which meet the constraints described above: pioneer types,
preferably local, intended to create conditions right for gradual natural
recolonization of the site by native species. This is best in terms of long-term
hardiness and ease of maintenance.
Appendix A lists some choices suited to your ecozone, and by this point you will
have already made your own observations about what seems to grow well in
your area. Appendix G lists some general sources of materials.
Here is a general outline of different types of plants. Try to make use of several
types and, within types, use more than one species if possible.
Mosses (also please refer to Appendix B)
Mosses may seem fragile, with their low profile and lack of roots, but
pioneer mosses are among the first colonisers of fresh landslides. Mosses
play an active role in the recovery of disturbances, and are important in
conserving nutrients.
Mosses also have many different habits they like to grow in, so (as with
other plants), matching the moss type to your location is necessary.
Unfortunately, there is no research specifically on using mosses in northern
landscaping, and no commercial moss sources in Canada. Plugs of moss
(small pieces), rather than whole carpets of moss, have been successful
elsewhere.
Lichens (also please refer to Appendix B)
Similarly, lichens have not been used in any large landscaping projects in
the North. They grow in a wide variety of conditions, including extremely
cold and dry locations, on trees and on bare rock. They thrive where little
else can grow. On soils, they are usually found on less stable soils such as
frost-heaved soils, where they don’t have as much competition from rooted
plants. Most lichens dry out rapidly, and can become dormant and remain
dormant for several years.
On the downside, they may grow only a fraction of a millimeter per year.
Lichens can reach several hundred years in age. So, while some lichens
may have potential for rehabilitation, it will be up to you to document your
project so others can learn from your experience.
18
Grasses and other Herbaceous Plants (also please refer to Appendix C)
Usually associated with lawns, grasses are a large family (108 species, in 38
genera, found between the NWT and Nunavut). They have hollow, jointed
stems and leaves in two rows on the stems. In lawns, grasses do not
flower, but when allowed to grow, grasses have tiny flowers, then seeds
form between two scales. There are many types of grass, from bunches to
turf-forming, and a great range in heights, from about 5 - 150 cm tall.
There are also a number of grass-like plants which are commonly called
“grasses”. The sedges and rushes have similarly thin leaves, but they have
solid stems and no joints. An example of a sedge is cotton-grass, important
culturally and as protein-rich food for many animals.
Forbs are non-grass-like (broad-leaved) perennials. They are commonly
called “wildflowers”, and sometimes annuals are included in this category.
Besides adding interest and diversity to your landscape, forbs play other
important roles.
Legumes (plants of the Pea (Leguminosae) family) are particularly
important forbs in revegetation work. They often have long tap roots which
are good for holding soil. Most importantly, they form an “association”
(symbiotic relationship) with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. These bacteria help
take nitrogen from its atomic form (N), and change it into a form that is
useful for the plants (ammonia). Thus legumes help improve the soil for
other species. (Note that although legumes are particularly “good” at this
ability to fix nitrogen, there are other plants such as alder (Alnus) and wolfwillows (Shepherdia) which also contribute nitrogen to the soil). Legumes
also appear to be well adapted to gravelly soils with low soil moisture and
little organic matter, and their open cover does not discourage other species
from colonizing naturally.
Annuals live only one year, and must grow fully from seed in one season.
Though annuals are typically good pioneer species, we see fewer annuals in
the North than other areas because of the short growing season.
Woody Plants (also please refer to Appendix D)
Woody plants include most obviously trees and shrubs, but also ground
covers such as bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) and semi-woody mat
forming plants such as White Mountain-avens (Dryas integrifolia). Shrubs
and trees may be more effective than grasses and legumes for stabilizing
areas because of their deeper and more extensive root systems.3 They may
also be more effective in attracting and sheltering wildlife because a greater
variety of habitats are created.
Taller woody plants encourage the further establishment of other pioneer
plant species – they provide “nuclei” for propagation of seeds which might
germinate in the litter accumulated under the trees and shrubs.
3
Hutchinson, T. C. and A.L. Kuja, The Use of native and agricultural plant species to re-vegetate northern
mine tailings, DIAND Northern Affairs Program Environmental Studies No. 43, 1988
19
8.0 REVEGETATION TECHNIQUE BASICS
Techniques for revegetating are broken down below. More specific instructions are
in Appendices B (Mosses and Lichens), C (Grasses and Other Herbaceous Plants)
and D (Woody Plants). This section lays out the range and types of techniques in
general.
Under each technique, comments are given on their use. For instance, certain
species do better when handled or propagated a certain way. The commercial
availability of native species for revegetation is mostly limited to grass cultivars.
Many other plants you’ll have to produce yourselves, or arrange for production,
perhaps by collecting seed in your area and sending it to a commercial producer.
For best results use material which is from the area to be revegetated or as close
to the area as possible. In general, the revegetation techniques are:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
natural colonization;
collected seed;
commercial seed;
sprigging;
sods/plant mats;
cuttings;
rootings;
transplanting;
mass transplanting.
8.1 Choosing the right techniques
Usually it's a good idea to use several techniques at once. For instance, studies in
Greenland showed that a combination of techniques including seeding, fertilization
and sodding (in dwarf shrub communities) proved more successful than grass and
fertilizer treatment alone. Augmenting the sowing of commercial seeds with the
collection and sowing of native seed and live plants increases the number of plant
species available. Such collections help improve the species diversity of landscaped
area, broaden the range of disturbance types that can be rehabilitated, and
ultimately provide a more successful project.
Which techniques you choose will be influenced by your overall project goals, and a
series of related matters such as:
•
•
•
•
•
•
20
budget;
availability of skilled personnel (e.g., to collect seed at the right time; to
propagate seeds indoors; to take cuttings);
availability of labour (e.g., to collect seed; to plant seedlings or cuttings);
availability of heavy equipment (e.g., is large equipment available to do
mass transplanting? can equipment be modified to take large sods/plant
mats? would taking equipment onto site do more damage than it
restores?);
need for easily visible results (e.g., must there be some visible plants right
away, to “prove” the project is working (either in the community or to those
who funded the project; does the client and community have patience to
wait for results?);
availability of seed or plants (there are few commercial sources of northern,
particularly Arctic, plants, either seed or seedlings);
•
•
•
erosion problems (e.g., is there a need for groundcover to reduce erosion?);
meeting your maintenance objectives (e.g., are you aiming for “sow and
go”, or more careful attention and watering of seedlings?);
is the technique suitable for the species you desire?
The least expensive means of revegetation
tends to be seeding with commercial seed, as
it is not expensive and requires very little
skilled labour. However, very few species are
available – using them may not result in your
long term goals being met.
Re-use of plants from your site, or a nearby
construction site, is also a very cost-effective
means. However, depending on the size of
the plants, this may be difficult if you do not
have heavy equipment. Fully-grown shrubs
and trees have large and heavy root systems.
They are difficult and expensive to move.
However, the method is rewarding in that it
quickly provides easily visible results, and
also creates micro-climates suitable for other
species to establish themselves naturally.
Carefully evaluating your goals, design, the
factors listed above, and the various
techniques listed should get you ready for
actual planting.
8.2 Natural Colonization
Unstable sites
Disturbed environments such as
unstable mountain slopes, thawing
permafrost or patterned ground with
freeze-thaw cycles tend to have
short life-cycles. Pioneer plants are
the first choice. On landslide blocks,
grasses become more vigorous and
abundant than woody plants.
Relatively rich in organic matter,
blocks serve as a starting pads for
re-invasion of species from the
original tundra community. Grasses
expand to adjacent scar surfaces.
Active polygons can be mediated
somewhat with horizontally
spreading clonal plants. On highly
erodable surfaces, erosion control
mats hold the sand in place while a
grass cover is established. Using
willow cuttings to stabilize sand
slopes and level sand surfaces
have generally been successful in
the short-term, though some of the
initial results were not sustained
after the second and third years.
This technique does not mean “leave it and
see what happens.” You are dealing with a
site where the conditions have been unnatural
– you must now create conditions right for
succession so that nearby native plants can
spread into the disturbed area in a natural progression. In the middle and high
Arctic, the dominant plants are disturbance adapted and characterized by relatively
high reproductive effort, so colonization after the correcting the disturbance need
not be difficult though it is inevitably slow.
Secondary succession on tundra disturbances produces ecologically sound and
aesthetically pleasing indigenous plant communities within 20 to 25 years on most
habitat types. If the rehabilitation objective is natural tundra, then sufficient time
must be allowed for it to develop. Seeding and soil treatment techniques can
accelerate succession. Correcting soil limitations is the most effective treatment.
Natural colonization should be the preferred method of promoting plant
community development on thin gravel (less than 25 cm) and organic-rich
fill. In such situations, moisture and nutrients are not severely limiting. Probably
the most important factor is that the site is hydrologically connected to the
adjacent tundra (see section on design considerations).4
4
Alaska Rural Development Council, A Revegetative Guide for Alaska, Cooperative Extension Service
21
Wetland edges
Though easily damaged, wetlands have relatively high self-restoration ability due to
the abundance of plants with rhizomes. As long as chemical contamination is not a
factor, wetlands have been seen to re-establish total cover within a decade of
disturbance though the species composition of the re-established community may
be different from the original due to (for instance) a lack of willows, grasses, and
Sphagnum mosses. When Hylocomium splendens rhizomes remain (even though
the aerial portion of the plant is killed) then regeneration is observed.
Natural colonization of dry peatlands
Dry peat recovers from disturbance very slowly. The rate of recovery depends on
the size of the scar and its moisture status, as well as whether similar undamaged
natural areas are nearby to supply seed and other organisms. The process occurs
very unevenly, starting from wetter shallow depressions, cracks, and pieces of turf.
The primary role of the project managers would be to shield the site from further
disturbance over the long-term.
Landslides
Recovery of vegetation begins naturally from the margins (sides) of the slide and
from more stable or level pockets within the slide. The narrow marginal strip with
adequate moisture conditions and some income of organic matter from undisturbed
surroundings provides safe sites for grass seedlings and establishment of
horsetails, moss protonema and bluegreen algae.
Sand quarries
In Arctic sand quarries, bottom areas have been observed successfully recolonizing,
without human intervention, with patches of Equisetum arvense (Field horsetail),
Puccinellia sibirica (Goose grass), the pioneer mosses Funaria hygrometrica, and
Psilopilum laevigatum and in micro depressions: Eriophorum scheuchzeri (White
cottongrass), Arctophila fulva (Pendant grass), and Anisothecium vaginale.
Recovery on slopes has not been as good, and excavated sand above grade is
usually too dry for natural recolonization. In one study, excavated sand had no
growth after 5 years.
Gravel fill
Natural colonization is not a viable option for thick gravel fill, the most widespread
type of disturbance we find in human settlements. To revegetate a site with thick
gravel fill, you will have to spread organic and fine-grained material over top of the
gravel, cover that with topsoil, and do some moderate fertilizing/nutrient addition.
Even this may not be enough. Give some consideration, before any amendments,
to removing some of the fill and/or contouring the surface to enhance soil moisture
conditions. You may have to provide some long-term plant cultivation (watering,
replanting and so on) to improve survival. Legumes appear to be an essential
component to sustaining the productivity over a long-term basis in such situations.5
8.3 Collected Seed
Some of the problems with collecting native seed relate to how northern plants
University of Alaska, 1977
5
Crawford, R.M.M. ed., Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Disturbance and
Recovery of Arctic Terrestrial Ecosystems, Rovaniemi, Finland, Sept 1995, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997
22
grow and produce. Firstly, Arctic plants tend to produce very few seeds or, in some
years, none at all. Seed production is unpredictable, depending on the weather.
Unproductive seed producing years outnumber productive ones. Annuals, usually a
good choice for rehabilitation work, are uncommon in the Arctic.
However, forming a canopy cover quickly is not the natural path for tundra
succession. New stands of plants develop vegetatively and as seedlings from a
relatively few individual plants, so collecting and planting seed is often worthwhile.6
Collection Guidelines
Areas destined to be developed or destroyed in the near
future are the first choice for seed or plant collection.
Check whether you need a permit, or at least get
permission from the land owner if no permit is needed.
When collecting from natural areas not destined for
development, aim for common species or those with
large populations. Know the plants of the area before
you start collecting: do not collect rare or endangered
species. If there is only a small population
of plants, look for another area to collect.
Unless the plants are to be otherwise destroyed, take
seeds or cuttings rather than entire plants.
Don’t take all the seeds! Leave some to allow for natural
propagation and to supply animals. If an area may have
further collection done, collecting should be minimal
(10%). In more remote areas, you may take up to a third
of the seed. Don't collect seeds within the built up area of
your community. These plants have enough stresses
without the added pressure of collection. Similarly, avoid
protected lands such as territorial or provincial parks.
Timing of seed collection is
extremely important to assure
ripe viable seed. Though the
seed of many woody plants is
best collected in late summer
or fall, there is considerable
variation with species and the
weather. Seeds of some
species (for example,
cranberry, birch, alder, black
spruce) remain on the plant for
part or all of the winter collection of these can be
delayed. However, in order to
obtain the maximum quantity
and quality of seed, collection
should be made prior to the
start of natural dispersal.
You may wish to concentrate
on a few particular types of
seeds, or simply collect
whatever you can in a given
area. Roadsides and clearcuts
are good areas to collect.
Take time in advance to plan your collection. This often
means flagging or otherwise identifying
plants when they are flowering, so you can find
them when the seed is ready.
For trees, you should generally
collect within 80 kilometres or
150 vertical metres of your
site, and within the same
Lastly, keep yourself safe. It is a good idea to collect
ecological zone. For other
seeds from along roadsides, for instance, as these are
types of plants, the collection
often destined to be further disturbed and are readily
radius can expand, but it is still
accessible. However, busy highways can be dangerous,
preferable to stay within 200
so pick your site for your own safety as well.
kilometres (particularly in
terms of latitude) or 500
vertical metres. While widely
distributed Arctic species have an astounding temperature tolerance and
adaptability to large differences in day-length, these species do vary from region to
region. They show genetic differences regarding light, temperature, and other
climatic adaptations.
6
Crawford, R.M.M. ed., Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Disturbance and
Recovery of Arctic Terrestrial Ecosystems, Rovaniemi, Finland, Sept 1995, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997
23
After the seed is collected and cleaned, it must be stored for varying lengths of
time prior to use. For several species – such as blueberry and lingonberry - the
berry can be frozen and seed extracted at a later date. The most desirable storage
conditions are below freezing temperatures – a refrigerator, freezer compartment,
or deep freeze will do - in airtight containers made of plastic or glass. If a freezer
is not available, storage in a refrigerator provides the next best temperature
conditions.
Money and time
Seeds of northern woody plants have varying
tolerances to handling and storage. The majority of
the tree and shrub species seed can be stored for at
least three to four years under the proper
conditions.
Using seed from wild stands
can be expensive if
rehabilitation sites are
seeded at levels intended
to quickly produce nearcomplete cover.
The most fragile seeds are those of the willows',
balsam poplar and aspen. They must be placed in a
freezer or refrigerator as soon after collection as possible (three to five days is the
maximum time). They can die within two to four weeks after collection if stored at
room temperature.
Be careful with temperature! Putting aspen seeds in a freezer too soon may cause
the seeds to rupture - the seeds will rupture if the moisture content is too high
(which it often is immediately following collection7). Aspen seeds can be stored in a
refrigerator between -2 and 2 degrees Celsius.
After collection, seed can be used:
•
•
directly (planting the seed right on site); or
indirectly (sowing seed in nursery flats, to be planted on site later).
The latter method often produces more seedlings than direct sow. Direct-sow seeds
often lie dormant for several years. For direct sowing, harvest the “hay” as well
when you collect seed, so that mulch and seed can be distributed at the same time.
The seedbed must provide moisture for germination and nutrients for growth. This
is best provided by mineral soil or mixed mineral soil/organic matter surfaces. Pure
organic surfaces tend to dry out, which kills some or all of the seedlings.
Seeding should be planned to take advantage of high soil water content. The best
times to seed are late fall prior to snowfall or during snowmelt in spring. Late
seedings (June or July) may fail because of lack of moisture, unless water is
provided. In dry areas in the Yukon, when no mulch is being used, seeding over
snow (as long as the snow is less than 10 cm thick) is the preferred method.8
For almost all native species, fall seeding gives the best results. Seeding when the
surface has been recently scarified provides better growth on gravel sites – though
7
E.T. Enterprises, Tree planting project for the Town of Norman Wells: Aspen, birch and alder research trials,
White birch and Balsam poplar seed collection, White spruce cone collection, Herbarium of the Sahtu Region,
Town of Norman Wells and the Department of Resources, Wildlife and Economic Development, 1998, 1999
and 2000
8
Kennedy, Catherine E. editor, Guidelines for reclamation/revegetation in the Yukon, Yukon Renewable
Resources, 1993
24
care must be taken around existing vegetation. Seed sitting on the surface has a
tendency to blow away or be eaten, so some form of raking in of the seed is
recommended. Seed applications should imitate natural processes by first
establishing an open community of plants to trap snow and propagules of
indigenous plants, which will establish later. The seeded species should not
compete with naturally invading plant species.
Spot seeding is frequently used for tree regeneration. In this method, seed is sown
on specially-prepared spots which are randomly or systematically spaced around
the site. This method makes more efficient use of limited seed supplies. Areas
between spots may be seeded to grasses or other plant materials. Spot seeding
should be at a rate of not less than ten to twenty viable seeds/spot. Spot
distribution will depend on the density of the desired stand.
More details on collecting and planting of some common northern tree seeds is
found in Appendix D.
Forb seeds
Legumes are of particular interest because of
their association with nitrogen-fixing bacteria
and potential contribution to long-term
productivity. Legumes also appear to be well
adapted to gravelly soils with low soil moisture
and little organic matter, and their open cover
does not discourage other species from
colonizing naturally.
Animals want seeds too
Staff at the BHP Billiton Ekati mine
site found a potential collection
site for two local legume species,
Astragalus alpinus (Alpine
milkvetch) and Oxytropis
maydelliana (Maydell’s locoweed).
But for two consecutive years,
before biologists could collect
them, the seeds disappeared,
probably harvested by Arctic
ground squirrels. The mine met its
match, and gave up on that plot!
Although the cultivation of native legumes has
been done successfully in some areas, it can be
difficult to get seed. Some are available
commercially, and local collection can be done.
However, native perennials in general tend to
be poor seed producers, and they don't necessarily set seed each year. Seed is also
prized as a food source by animals – they might collect the little available before
you can.
Also, legumes don't necessarily come up immediately, but take more than a year to
germinate.
A number of other perennials have also been tested, either from commercial or
local sources. Some - such as Epilobium angustifolium (Tall fireweed) and Luzula
spicata (Spiked wood-rush) - do have more dependable seeds. Moss campion is
also a successful pioneer type. It has a deep taproot, and so is able to withstand
and stabilize bare, frost-heaved soil. Appendix C has more on suitable species for
each ecozone.
8.4 Commercial seeding
Non-native grasses are often used in revegetation projects because they provide a
groundcover quickly. This rapid increase is beneficial to herbivores such as caribou
and geese, and most seeded and fertilized areas are heavily grazed. Commercial
grass seeds can be encouraged by fertilizing, and returning to the area in 12-18
months to harrow. This is to make sure the first crop of seed gets into ground.
25
Over the long term, however, the initial development of a thick stand of non-native
grasses may not be good for your project. Non-native plants can crowd out the
native species, reducing opportunities for natural recolonization. Agropyron
trachycaulum (Slender wheatgrass) has been observed actively invading other test
plots via the spread of its seed. Such aggressive invaders can spread well beyond
the areas of their intended use.
Reducing the amount of grass cultivar seed in order to allow more rapid natural
colonization provides a compromise between trying to rapidly increase productivity
of a site and creating a more natural self-sustaining community.
Reducing fertilizer also cuts back on the competitive ability of the non-native types.
When non-native grasses are treated as a temporary component, intended to
improve soil conditions and foster growth of native species over the long term, they
can be a valid component of revegetation projects.
8.5 Sprigging
Sprigging involves harvesting small pieces of grass crown, roots and rhizomes.
Half of the root material is left behind for regrowth. The sprigs are replanted and
sprout new plants which have a better chance of survival than seedlings. Not a lot
of research has been done on sprigging. Research at BHP Billiton's Ekati mine
suggests that Arctophila fulva (Pendant grass),Elymus arenarius (European Lyme
grass), and possibly Puccinellia phrygranodes (Creeping
Severing the tillers
Alkali grass) readily root at above-ground stem nodes,
making sprigging a feasible method for introducing
affects not only the young
these. Find more information on this research in
tillers, but also the health
Appendix A under Southern Arctic ecozone.
of the parent plant left in
the
ground at the collection
When plants grow from rhizomes, the new shoots are
site
called tillers. There is an interaction between young
tillers and older parts of the plants. Young tillers acquire carbon and provide old
non-photosynthetic tillers with energy in exchange for nutrients. As the old tillers
finish their life cycle, resources may be re-mobilised and recycled into the young
growing tillers. The likelihood that the youngest tillers will survive increases when
there are more intact tiller generations left.
Spreading graminoids may have short and long rhizome tillers:
-short = colonizing or clumping;
-long = spreading or pioneering.
Colonizing tillers (the short ones) quickly become self -sufficient, are shorter lived
and can support the growth of pioneer tillers. Thus taking tillers close to the main
plant, not far from it, is more likely to be successful.
The clones on woody plants (such as aspen) are less well known and understood.
8.6 Sods/Plant mats
For larger disturbances, colonization can be speeded up by transplanting patches of
intact vegetation into the interior parts of the disturbed area. These “sods” or
26
mats of plants can be transplanted by hand or by machine. They have the
advantage of having native soil with them, which contains a variety of plant
species, seeds and soil organisms, and also provides an insulating cover retarding
permafrost thaw.
Get the growing parts!
Get as much root as you can.
Dig deeply and far around the
outside of the target plant
patch. Collecting sods works
particularly well in permafrost areas,
where root growth is restricted to the
active layer
of the soil (the part that thaws each
summer, rather than the
permanently frozen ground below).
Lifting sod from the frozen ground can be
relatively easy, using the permafrost as the
guide to how deep to go. A study in the
Mackenzie River area9 showed that sods are
most easily and successfully
stripped in late fall after the surface of the
ground is frozen but while an unfrozen layer still
exists between the advancing winter frost and
the permafrost table.
Even though you are lifting a mat, with soil
intact, it is still important to match as closely as
possible the host environment and the new
environment. Tussock sedges (Eriophorum vaginatum) have been easily
reestablished using sod mats, proven at 70-90% success on suitable transplant
sites.10 However, sod mats from a mesic tundra site could not be expected to do
well placed directly onto gravel pads or wet areas.11
This manner of restoration is relatively labour intensive, but works particularly well
when plants on another site (or a portion of your site) are going to be destroyed by
some development activity such as a building or road. Refer to the Appendix A,
Taiga Shield, Yellowknife project, and Northern Arctic (Iqaluit) for northern
examples of sod use.
8.7 Cuttings
Cuttings are pieces of branches cut from a woody plant (tree or shrub), then
planted. The method is well-tested and comparatively fast. As cuttings don't have
roots, not all types of woody plants take well to this method. Willow species tend
to work well, being easy to collect, store, and transplant, with good survival
provided sufficient fine-grained sediment is available. Balsam poplar has also been
dependable in the taiga and boreal ecozones. Birch is less successful.
Willows, poplars, birch, and alder all have low nutrient requirements and potentially
can do well on most sites, provided they are not too dry. A plug of saturated soil
from the area where the cuttings were taken should be placed in each transplant
hole or at the base of each cutting to provide a source of soil bacteria and
mycorrhizae to support plant growth. Shrubs and tree saplings survive and grow
better when they are planted with soil from the host sites. Bundles of cuttings called brush mats - are an option over spacing individual cuttings. Planting multiple
cuttings improve cover and density quickly. This can be particularly useful if
erosion is a concern.
9
Hardy Associates Ltd., Revegetation and Impact Assessment Studies in the Mackenzie River Region, 1980
Walker, D.A., D. Cate, J. Brown, C. Racine, editors, Disturbance and recovery of Arctic Alaskan tundra
terrain: A review of recent investigations. US Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, 1987
11
Shirazi, M.A., Haggerty, Hendricks, Reporters, The role of thermal regime in tundra plant community
restoration, Restoration Ecology Vol 6 No.1, March 1998
10
27
8.8 Rooting
Rooting is similar to cutting, but pieces of root stock are taken, rather than the
above-ground branches. As with cuttings, poplar and willows can be easily
propagated from viable root stock. The best time for root collection is in the fall, at
the time of or after the leaves have fallen. At this time, the trees put most of their
carbohydrate reserves into the root system. Roots of about 2 cm diameter must be
stripped from the soil without damage, and stored in moist burlap in a refrigerator
(not freezer) until planting. Appendix D explains the procedure in detail.
8.9 Transplanting
Transplanting refers to moving individual plants, together with their intact roots.
Plants can be obtained by digging up natural seedlings from the local area - called
wildings - or may be grown from collected seed – called seedlings. Larger shrubs
or trees can also be moved, though there is a greater risk of killing a larger plant.
Digging and moving transplants in the fall is usually more successful because the
plants are dormant and the roots (and leaves) don’t dry out as much.
8.10 Mass Planting
Mass planting refers to lifting several plants, with accompanying soil, all at once
(as compared to moving individual plants). It is the large-scale version of
transplanting of sods, as it involves moving larger shrubs and even small trees.
This technique requires a machine to move the volume and weight of soil needed to
ensure the plants survive. A “bobcat” type small loader, or larger loader, can do
the work, depending on the size of plants to be moved. This can be particularly
effective in salvaging material from a site to be overtaken by construction. Getting
good depth under the plants is important, as shrubs and trees tend to have deeper
root systems than grasses and perennials. Mass transplanting of trees and shrubs
was used successfully around the Inuvik Regional Visitors' Centre.
8.11
Mulch
Mulch is a covering placed with plants or seeds that is to enhance the survival
potential of the plants. Many types of mulches are available, both organic (such as
straw, hay, cellulose fibre, wood-chips, manure, brush) and inorganic (such as soilbinders, “tackifers”, gravel).
Mulches are intended to minimize erosion, hold seed in place, conserve soil
moisture, moderate fluctuations in soil temperature, and so on to provide the best
conditions possible for plant growth. However, along with these benefits there are
possible problems associated with mulches. Besides the cost associated with
mulches, other downsides include undesirable weed species possibly contained in a
mulch, being a fire hazard, undesirable changing the pH level of the soil, insulating
the soil in spring so that an already short growing season is delayed, and so on.
Also, if the mulch has a lot of carbon in comparison to nitrogen (for instance,
sawdust has a ratio of 440:1, straw about 80:1), the decomposition of the mulch
will “steal” needed nitrogen away from plants.
The most appropriate mulch is from the site, i.e., obtained by stripping and
stockpiling the organic layer removed in construction. As this is often not available,
28
careful consideration and use of mulch is needed. Mulches are more likely to be
useful in extreme conditions, such as particularly dry conditions, or steep or
unstable slopes. In general, mulches with longer fibres are more effective for
erosion control and germination. Hay or straw mulches appear to be more useful in
northern situations than higher carbon mulches (for instance, cellulose fibre). In
very windy areas, however, these may need to be held in place with mesh or with
tackifers (chemical to bind the straw or hay together).
9.0 SITE PREPARATION
How the site is prepared depends on the goals and objectives of the project and
types of techniques to be used. It makes sense to prepare the site - re-contour the
surface if necessary and correct soil problems - before planting begins. Have your
site ready before you purchase or collect plant material (unless you are collecting
to propagate seedlings indoors). Plants should spend as little time out of the
ground as possible.
You will have to restrict certain types of work to certain seasons:
•
•
•
frozen (winter) state - soil and permafrost are least vulnerable to damage
from heavy equipment;
thawing (spring) state - soil is the most vulnerable to damage;
dry (summer) state - intermediate vulnerability.
Sites should generally not be worked in the spring. It is better to prepare the site
in the fall and winter and, possibly, plant in the fall, so that there is no traffic on
the site in spring.
9.1 Handling Soil
Where soil handling is required and natural recolonization is planned for the project
site, consideration should be given to salvaging the sod layer (seed bank) separate
from the topsoil layer. At reclamation time, replace the topsoil layer first and then
replace the sod layer. Stockpiles of topsoil should be adequately stabilized (e.g.,
with tackifers) to prevent erosion losses.
9.2 Permafrost Disturbance
Where permafrost is disturbed, and there are problems with soil settling and
impounding of water (thermokarst), the best way to rehabilitate the unsightliness is
to follow nature's model, the thaw-lake cycle. Seeding grasses to stop thermokarst
is a futile effort. By the time the resulting vegetation produces sufficient organic
matter to restore lost insulation properties, the thermokarst will have reached a
new equilibrium. Suggested steps are:
1. till the soil and redistribute it to obtain a level and stable surface;
2. continue this for several seasons until a thermal equilibrium is reached;
3. then plant (e.g., seeding, fertilizing), or leave the site for unassisted
natural recovery.
This method takes time. However, hummock-hollow microtopography can persist
indefinitely in the Arctic without adjustments.
29
9.3 Surface Preparation
Before sowing seed, scarification is a good idea. Scarification involves ripping
through the vegetation to expose the mineral soil beneath. The topsoil isn't
removed, only scratched. Scarification helps reduce competition for seedlings, and
stirs some air into the soil.
The roughened surface
Control soil loss
creates favourable microsites
which help to shelter pioneer
Erosion should be considered right from the beginning, in
species and assist natural
planning control measures, during construction,
colonization. It also
and through the life of the project. Once there is thermal
increases the soil
disturbance (changing the temperature of the soil) from
erosion, the sub-soil starts
temperature, which is
to thaw and move. Establishing plant cover is not enough
important in the release and
to stop it. The thermal disturbance has to
growth of some species.
be corrected first, then planted.
There is no rule for depth of
Erosion is soil loss caused by water or wind. You can
scarification, but generally it
decrease
it by decreasing water or air pressures/forces
should reach into mineral
that cause erosion, or increasing the resistance of an
soil. A plate with teeth and
area to erosion.
chains can be dragged
behind a skidder (any
To decrease water forces, try:
machine in the bush) to do
-reducing the slope to decrease speed of water
the scarification, or it can be
flow;
done by hand for smaller
-detaining runoff (temporarily “storing” or ponding
areas.
runoff);
-diverting water flow away from critical areas;
For planting of seedlings, an
-spreading out the flow (examples: increase the
exposed mineral soil
sinuosity of the channels, increase the channel
width, have the water flow over a rougher
seedbed is not a necessity.
surface).
For areas with newly laid
To increase erosion resistance, try:
topsoil, it is important that it
-protecting the surface with plants that form a
not be too loose, or there
dense cover at the ground surface;
will be too much air in the
-reinforce the soil with fibers or cementing
soil. Topsoil should be firm
products;
enough that only a light
-use synthetic erosion control products where
footprint is made if it is
necessary.
walked on.
9.4 Gravel Sites
Synthetic erosion control products can be thought of
as “soft armour” which helps plants get a foothold
on slopes or in drainage channels. These erosion control
products include erosion control blankets
and geocellular containment systems.
Gravel fill has low water
holding capacity and is
nearly devoid of essential
nutrients for plants. If the
gravel is more than 80 cm thick, there is pretty well no natural recolonization that
can take place.12 Constant applications of water and fertilizer can make plants
grow, but given that this would be an economically and ecologically unsound
approach, some alternative site preparations are suggested here:
12
Crawford, R.M.M. ed., Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Disturbance and
Recovery of Arctic Terrestrial Ecosystems, Rovaniemi, Finland, Sept 1995, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997
30
•
reduce gravel thickness to allow plant roots to reach moisture and
nutrients;
• mix fine-textured soil (silts and clays) into the upper surface of the gravel
fill to increase its moisture and nutrient-holding capacity;
• spread soil over top of the gravel surface;
Acid soils
• trap snow with snow fences to help
accumulate organic debris and moisture.
are typical of coniferous
forests and peatlands, so
Stockpiling and respreading of organic and fineacid soil is not “bad.” The pH
grained material over the gravel prior to seeding
scale goes from 1 to 14, with
improves the moisture and nutrient characteristics of
7.0 being neutral and low
the site, and also provides viable seeds, roots and
numbers acidic. A soil is
13
Some project sites
rhizomes of native species.
considered acidic if it has
have seen significant improvements with as little as
a pH below 6.6.
7-8 cm of silt loam added to the surface of gravel fill.
In this case, the compacted gravel should be tilled to
It is very low and very high
loosen it, before putting on any topsoil.
pH values that cause
problems for plants. These
are usually associated with
chemical
contamination, not
9.5 Burning
natural
conditions.
There may be a place for controlled burning as part
of your site preparation. Burning temporarily
increases the thickness of the active layer (thawed soil) and reduces surface
irregularities due to lowering of the permafrost table. Burning is quite a specialized
tool, suited to particular areas and situations, and so should be looked at on an
individual basis.
10.0
FERTILIZING
Should you fertilize? If so, how much? And when? The answer to these questions
depends, in part, on your goals and what techniques are appropriate to your
project. This manual focuses on low-maintenance landscaping, so ongoing use of
fertilizers is not recommended. However, judicious use of fertilizer may help initiate
and accelerate natural plant succession.
Organic fertilizers
10.1 What are fertilizers, and are they
needed?
Fertilizers give plants nutrients. Plants need
nutrients to grow. Usually, these nutrients are
in the soil or leaf litter (though some plants take
all or some of their nutrients from the air or
other means). In coniferous forests, much of the
nutrient store is found in the leaf litter (rotting
needles, leaves and organic matter) on the
ground. In Arctic ecosystems, a larger
proportion of the nutrients are found in the
surface organic layer of the soil rather than in
Micronutrients such as zinc and
copper are not usually listed in soil
tests or provided in standard
chemical fertilizers. They are
supplied by organic materials.
Some are available commercially,
such as prepared organic wastes,
dehydrated sludges, plant and
animal meals, industrial
byproducts and animal manures.
Organic fertilizers also help reduce
soil compaction, increase levels of
soil organic matter, and help
plants resist diseases.
13
Alaska Rural Development Council, A Revegetative Guide for Alaska, Cooperative Extension Service
University of Alaska, 1977
31
the standing crop of plants or in the litter.
Plant roots operate most efficiently at taking up nutrients when the pH conditions
are right. The pH is a measure of how acidic or salty the soil is. If pH is very low
(an acid soil), or high in salts (a basic soil), then even if the nutrients are in the
soil, they are not available for the plant to take up.
The main macronutrients needed for plant growth are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P)
and potassium (K). “N,” “P” and “K” are the three first letters shown on packages
of standard fertilizers. Nitrogen is needed for vegetative and reproductive growth
(“greening things up”). Phosphorus is important for root development, flower and
fruit production.
Potassium is a general conditioner, improving the plants' disease and cold
resistance and root development. The term “potash” is sometimes used in
referring to potassium. The name potash derives from boiling wood ashes in a pot
to use for fertilizer; usually today it is mined. Plants can cope to some extent with
low potassium levels, e.g., slower growth, less
Arctic oases
fruit. But since the plant needs potassium to
grow at all, it will slowly die if it does not get
The Arctic does feature a few forms
enough.
of “super-nutrient oases.” It is easy
to spot the locations of ruins of Inuit
Soil bacteria and mycorrhizae play important
houses hundred of years old in
roles in making soil nutrients available to
summer - the fresh green plants
plants. Refer to the section 4.3 on northern
growing around them stand out
plants for a discussion on mycorrhizae.
against the more barren landscape.
Certain grasses grow near these
old homes, taking advantage of a
10.2 Some cautions about fertilizer
slightly greater nutrient
concentration in the surrounding
As important as plant nutrients are, more is not
ground.
necessarily better. In general, northern plants
are adapted to low nutrient levels. Adding
Musk-ox meadows, goose meadow
nutrients by fertilizing is not usually necessary
and goose nesting sites, bird cliffs
and may even be damaging.
and animal burrows create small
oases
of lush green vegetation in an
Fertilizers don't work “independently”. The soil
otherwise gray landscape. Some
fungus mycorrhizae, for instance, deliver
plants are rarely seen in the Arctic
mainly phosphorus. Fertilizing with
unless associated with animal dung.
phosphorous discourages mycorrhizae, and
Bacterial action and decay are
thereby diminishes the other benefits
extremely slow due to low soil
associated with the mycorrhizae. As another
temperatures, dry climate and short
example, fertilizing with nitrogen, while
summers. The fertilizing effect of
increasing the growth of the stem and leaves,
animal dung or carcasses often
can slow down root growth. Northern plants
continues for
need their extensive root systems to help them
a very considerable time.
survive winter and reproduce.
Fertilizers near waterways can easily leach into the water system, and create
problems not only on the land, but in the aquatic system as well.
Fertilizers tend to favour non-indigenous species, and both native and nonnative grass species. Initially it was thought that heavy fertilization would improve
32
native plant colonization, but this is now known not to be true.14 Fertilizers do not
help lands return to a natural condition in the long term. On test plots fertilized
once, for instance, effects of fertilizer were still evident in soil tests and in species
composition 24 years later.15
Standard tests are not necessarily appropriate in determining fertilizer
requirements for Arctic plants, since they have adapted to use nutrients differently
from southern species. Even though concentrations of inorganic nitrogen are low in
Arctic soils, these soils do have large stocks of both structural and soluble organic
nitrogen. Arctic tundra plants “short-circuit” the mineralization step of
decomposition by directly absorbing amino acids.16 A soil test showing low nitrogen
in the soil does not necessarily mean conditions are poor for Arctic plants (the
mineralization rates underestimate nitrogen supply rates to plants). The large
differences among species in their capacities to absorb different forms of nitrogen
also leads to many different niches in a small area. So, testing is a useful guide,
but caution again must be advised against overfertilizing based on standard
southern soil standards.
10.3 Alternatives to fertilizers
As noted, Arctic plants absorb amino acids directly from organic matter, rather than
“waiting” for nitrogen to be made available from the soil. The nutrients are
contained in the organic matter, not in the soil itself. If you want to retain
nutrients, you have to retain the organic matter.
One way to make up for the loss of organic matter is to use compost. Composted
materials improve nutrients and help reduce soil compaction. The decaying activity
in compost shows that it is alive with microbes.
Composting
Microbes make nutrients more available to plants.
10.4
Fertilizing according to species
is generally thought of as
suited to home gardens.
However, compost can be
extended to other plantings
with very beneficial effects. A
community composting
programme might even
become part of the initial
stages of your project!
Different species have different fertilizer needs.
Commercial plants usually need more. In projects
which feature both commercial seed mixes and
native seeds and plants, fertilizer should be used
sparingly. Growth of native species may be
hindered because commercial species out-compete
native species when high rates of fertilizer are
applied. Fertilizers benefit grasses (commercial or native) more than forbs. To
encourage grasses, more fertilizers are needed, but to encourage a more diverse,
natural pattern of species over the long term, use little or no fertilizer.1718
14
Walker, D.A., D. Cate, J. Brown, C. Racine, editors, Disturbance and Recovery of Arctic Alaskan Tundra Terrain: A
review of Recent Investigations. US Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, 1987
15
Crawford, R.M.M. ed., Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Disturbance and Recovery of Arctic
Terrestrial Ecosystems, Rovaniemi, Finland, Sept 1995, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997
16
Kielland,K. Amino-acid absorption by Arctic plants – Implications for plant nutrition and nitrogen cycling. Ecology 75:
2373-2383. 1994
17
Crawford, R.M.M. ed., Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Disturbance and
Recovery of Arctic Terrestrial Ecosystems, Rovaniemi, Finland, Sept 1995, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997
18
Bliss, L.C. ed., Botanical Studies in the Mackenzie Valley, Mackenzie Delta Region and the Arctic Islands,
Task Force on Northern Oil Development, DIAND, 1973
33
Transplanting woody plants
Conventionally, for woody plants, organic soils are not fertilized while mineral soils
are more likely to be fertilized prior to planting. However, Low Maintenance
Landscaping19 points out that new research suggests that adding soil amendments
to planting holes may do more harm than good. If a plant is surrounded by a small
space of good soil in a less-hospitable area, its roots will tend to remain within the
good soil instead of reaching across the soil interface. In essence, the roots
become as “pot bound” as a house plant can be. Over the long term this limits
plant growth and vitality, and may lead to an early death when the small amount of
good soil is exhausted.
It is better to choose plants which are suited to the existing conditions. There is
then no interface between soil types, and the plant can quickly send its root system
throughout the soil volume.
There is some debate over use of fertilizer with transplants. In conventional
plantings, the fertilizer is mixed thoroughly with the soil or delivered in the form of
pellets in with the planting. Broadcast fertilization is
A light hand
not usually recommended. However, Low
Maintenance Landscaping recommends - if any
In most cases – sites with
fertilizer is used - a high-phosphorus fertilizer can be
no chemical damage, no
added after planting to help support root
erosion problem, moderate
development.
moisture, and close to existing
natural areas – it’s best to use
Some types of plants take up more nitrogen than
little or no fertilizer. These
others. Ericaceous species (heath family) generally
kinds
contain the least amount nitrogen. Willows, poplars,
of sites have a reasonable
birch, and alder all have low nutrient requirements.
ability to recover naturally.
The highest nitrogen use is by sedges.
Fertilizer won’t help,
but might hurt.
Conifers are generally efficient users of nutrients.
Many of the nutrients in coniferous forest may be locked up in litter. Nutrient
cycling is often slowed by mosses if they are present in the ground layer. Mineral
cycling is typically low. Fertilizer pellets will likely improve survival of plantings.
Pellets should be placed in individual planting holes. A broad-scale fertilizer
application is generally not needed.
Some soil amendments may be useful on severely degraded sites, however. One
such amendment that appears to improve growth and survival is the inoculation of
mycorrhizal fungi on the site or on the roots of individual plantings.
10.5
Fertilizing according to site differences
When doing soil analyses, do several for similar areas. Soil tests can give
extremely variable results. A number of samples are required to provide some
measure of confidence in the data. Each different type of area should have its own
set of tests done. Different parts of your site can vary considerably, and may need
different treatment.
For highly erosion prone sites, some annual grasses, with N:P:K fertilizer (50 kg/ha
19
Alberta Government, Environmental Resource Centre, Alberta Naturalization Network Society, LowMaintenance Landscaping, Edmonton, 1995
34
of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) is worthwhile if quick, low-growing
vegetation is needed.20 However, cuttings (e.g., willow, alder, poplar) are also
worthwhile on slopes (depending on moisture) and may need less fertilizer.
Gravel fill has low water holding capacity and is nearly devoid of essential nutrients
for plants. Applications of water and fertilizer can help in this situation. However,
some interventions - such as placement of organics and fine materials over the
surface - will be needed along with fertilizers to increase the moisture and nutrientholding capacity of gravel. Significant improvements have been reported with as
little as 7-8 cm of silt loam added to the surface of gravel fill. Fertilizing at
moderate levels (50 kg/ha of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) before seeding
or transplanting promotes site recovery. Including legumes in the seed mix, which
have been inoculated with appropriate bacteria, also works well on these kinds of
poorer sites.
Some research suggests that depressions, when disturbed, will probably require
higher rates of fertilization to overcome nutrient deficiencies than will slopes and
upland sites, but this is an impression only, requiring more field work.
Highly acidic soils may need fertilizers (as compared to soils that are closer to
neutral pH), as plants have a harder time retrieving the same nutrients from acid
soils. For native species a 6-8-6 N:P:K organic fertilizer was best in tests done in
acidic conditions near Cape Bathurst, NWT.21
11.0 MANAGING AND MAINTAINING THE PROJECT
11.1 Managing the project site
Unless you are doing all the work yourself, on your own property, eventually you
must turn your goals, objective, and design into very specific instructions so that
everyone knows what to do, what not to do, and when.
In larger projects, this is usually done with “working drawings” and “specifications”.
These are papers given to a contractor to specify precisely what work you want
done. These are legal documents, with very a very particular format. Usually, in a
project requiring full working drawings and specifications, you will have to hire a
landscape architect. Even if you project does not require this degree of detail,
there are many points that need to be clearly documented before you start. This
documentation could be in the form of drawings and written notes prepared by you
or someone on your committee.
11.2 Project drawings
Project drawings will give a picture of the layout, so you know where a particular
technique is to be used and where particular species are to be planted. You will be
able to accurately predict quantities, and fairly accurately predict costs.
20
Alaska Rural Development Council, A Revegetative Guide for Alaska, Cooperative Extension Service
University of Alaska, 1977
21
Hutchinson,T. C., A.L. Kuja, Use of native and agricultural plant species to re-vegetate northern mine
tailings, DIAND Northern Affairs Program Environmental Studies No. 43, 1988
35
The project drawings should also show what not to do: again, preventing damage
is critical. Project drawings should clearly point out where, for instance, materials
such as topsoil can be stored while construction is taking place. A construction
zone should be determined, marked on the drawings, and then marked off on site.
The construction zone is the only area that people should be allowed to use any
equipment, store materials, and generally work on the project.
Other items that may be necessary to mark include:
•
•
•
•
vehicular access areas (show the only areas where vehicles are allowed to
drive to get to stockpiled materials, routes to take to move plants, etc.);
underground utilities (so they are not damaged during construction);
plants to be removed (e.g., because they are dead or diseased, in the way
of construction);
plants to be moved (to a different area of the site).
11.3 Construction notes
Notes included with your drawings should also help make prevention of damage the
key. The notes can include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
any necessary details explaining laydown areas/construction zone;
how waste material will be removed as disposed of (what is removed, how
frequently, by whom, to where);
general notes on clean-up (what should be cleaned, what left, sidewalks to
be cleaned daily etc.);
any permits or licenses that have been obtained/are needed;
any suspected underground utilities that can't be marked;
co-ordination with other events scheduled in project area (e.g., if you are
planting in a school yard, is there a baseball tournament scheduled in the
middle of your project? for a community centre ... is there a July 1st
celebration with lots of people to be kept off your project while in
progress?);
explanation of any site clearing (what is to be cleared, what it to be reused,
either topsoil or plants).
Construction notes, especially, should outline how
to protect plants:
•
•
•
11.4
avoid damaging plants and plant roots of
any woody vegetation not being cleared;
no traffic, storage or dumping of materials
or other disturbance allowed to the root
zones of plants;
any damage to roots should be cut back to
uninjured tissue and kept from drying out
until the roots are re-covered with soil.
Supervision
Be a good neighbour
Construction notes should
pinpoint anything that might
create a conflict with plants and
property next door. Fences can
be bumped by heavy equipment
or pushed over by stockpiled soil.
Roots of trees may extend into
your construction zone
and end up being cut or
damaged by your operations.
Supervision of construction may be as simple as the project manager working side
by side with a few volunteers, making sure they know what to do, and answering
any questions that come up. If you project is too extensive or long-lived to be
36
“do it yourself”, or involves outside contractors doing some of the heavy work,
then some clear ongoing means of supervising the project is needed.
A start-up meeting for construction is a first priority. The purpose is to bring
together the main players, make sure everyone agrees on the vision and how
construction will proceed, and agree on how
A clear vision
everything will be recorded. Of course, if everyone
on the project has been involved since the
Some people might see the
beginning, mostly this will be logistics. However,
area as “messy” if it isn't
most often, at least some additional “labour”
“cleaned up” ... whereas you
volunteers will be needed, and maybe even
see it as a habitat for wildlife.
some outside help contracted. Here is where the
Others may bring in their own
overall vision for the project is important.
transplants or broadcast some
fertilizers they've been using on
Depending on the type of project, it may be best
their garden, just to help ...
to mark any construction zone/special trees to be
whereas you see this as a
protected/laydown areas etc. from the drawings
detriment to the plants you're
before getting everyone on site to a start-up
using and the long-term goals.
meeting. In other cases, this may be done as
part of the start-up meeting itself. One way or another, this must be done before
construction actually begins.
Logistics means clearly defining the schedule and responsibilities on site. There is
no point in getting the plants to the site before site preparation is done, for
instance! Your committee will have to decide:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
who is responsible for deciding on schedule changes and co-ordination?
(e.g., shifts in weather, delays in getting plants etc.)?
are there any problems with the marked construction zone? should it be
changed?
who will explain the construction zone to each volunteer?
who will be on site at any one time who knows which plant, or which seed,
is which (so they can be put in the proper place?)
what are your emergency procedures in case of accidents?
how will standards of construction be met? (e.g., who will explain
procedures? check workmanship of volunteers?)
when are further site meetings to be held? (regular schedule? when
project manager calls? end of construction only?)
who will keep the record documents, and where? (see 11.6 for additional
discussion on record keeping).
11.5 Maintenance and watering
The amount of maintenance, particularly watering, will vary with the location of
your project and the techniques you use. Generally, the more mature the plants
are at the time of planting, the more maintenance is required. Particularly when
transplanting is done, your low-maintenance landscaping may not seem like low
maintenance for the first two years. During that period, the plants are developing
roots systems and acclimatizing to the area – you won’t see much obvious growth.
37
Following is some advice from Low-Maintenance Landscaping22 regarding
transplanted material. “Watering is a very important part of establishing a site.
Newly planted materials need lots of water to bring nutrients to the roots and help
them heal from the trauma of transplantation. Plan on watering once
approximately every ten days, depending on the amount of natural rainfall. As with
most plants, infrequent heavy waterings are better than frequent light showers.
Thorough watering encourages deeper root growth and discourages root rot and
pests.”
Watering artificially
can be very expensive, but there
are ways to keep watering costs
lower. In a small planting, plants
can be watered by hand. Fill the
saucer-shaped depression around
each plant with water, let it soak it
in, and fill it again. In larger
plantings, soaker hoses or drip
hoses use much less water than
a standard sprinkler system.
Sprinklers can lose up to 80
percent of the water they put out
through evaporation and the
needless watering of non-green
areas. Watering in the early
morning or late evening and on
cloudy days also helps reduce the
amount lost through evaporation.
If your site is not too large, it is best to test each
area for water need before watering. Trees and
shrubs should be watered only when the soil is
dry to a depth of about 25 cm. Soil around
perennials, ground covers and grasses should dry
out to about 4 cm. If natural precipitation has
been adequate, do not irrigate just because ten
days have gone by. Too much water is a bigger
killer of newly-planted trees than too little.
The first season of growth will require the most
water, with about half as much needed the
second season. After that, properly-chosen
plants may not need supplemental water at all.
While seeded areas may need less watering, the
seeds do need adequate moisture to germinate,
and once they have sprouted, they have little
reserve to deal with drought. More sprouted
seeds putting in good roots (a greater “take” on
seeding) will generally result from some watering until roots are well established.
After that, properly chosen species will need little watering care. Prolonged or
repeated saturation of the soil hurts seedlings more than it helps.
A challenge in some communities may be grazing by
hares or other herbivores. In tests at BHP Billiton’s
Ekati Mine (see Appendix A, Southern Arctic ecozone)
the use of Deer Away and Tree Guard had little effect in
deterring hares, though Deer Away seemed effective
against grazing by caribou. It seems most important to
use in the first couple of seasons; after that, plants are
adequately established and it is not required.
In addition to watering (and any herbivore repellents), a
maintenance schedule should be set before construction
begins for items such as:
•
•
•
22
sign upkeep (replacement, repair, updating);
litter pick-up;
vandalism repair (broken branches etc.);
Catching rainwater
If your landscape
can safely contain a
rainbarrel, you can have a
cost-effective way of
collecting water for
irrigation. Be sure to
consider the safety
aspects of having a rain
barrel on site - such as
the attraction for children
and the potential for
vandalism - before
installing one.
Alberta Government, Environmental Resource Centre, Alberta Naturalization Network Society, LowMaintenance Landscaping, Edmonton, 1995
38
•
•
weeding (taking out exotic species to allow native species to become
established);
review of procedures and updates to maintenance instructions.
Many of the “weeds” that you might pull out of a vegetable or flower garden – such
as Fireweed - are the very plants you should be encouraging at your revegetation
site. Again, this comes back to making sure everyone understands the vision for
the project ... natural landscaping does not look like a lawn and flower bed! In
Arctic areas, weeding is not much of a problem at all as there are very few exotic
species – if you find it growing at your project site, it probably belongs there! In
boreal and taiga areas, however, there are exotic weeds that you may wish to keep
out of your planting if you feel they may overrun or discourage the native species.
11.6 Record keeping
There have been many revegetation trials but no surefire methods or sources yet
established for natural landscaping in the North, particularly in the Arctic. As part
of planning, it is important to write down what is done, under what conditions, and
how well it works. It should include:
•
•
•
•
•
the history of a site;
soil characteristics and site preparation techniques used;
plant cultivation treatments applied, and for which species;
maintenance techniques;
success and failures.
Keep a record set of documents for your site during construction. No matter how
detailed your plan, things always seem to change somewhat during construction.
Did the plants or seed types change at all? Locations change? Quantities change?
Accurate records help track what areas are reclaimed, the effectiveness of various
techniques, and the potential problems that may occur under certain conditions. It
is equally important to keep track of what doesn't work, as well as what does!
39
APPENDIX A:
DESCRIPTION OF ECOZONES
This appendix describes ecozones, large ecological areas of the earth's surface representative of very
generalized units characterized by various biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors. Ecozones do not
correspond to political boundaries, though human activities and cultures tend to be distinctive to ecozones at
a very broad scale. Canada is divided into 15 ecozones; six of the northern ecozones are covered in this
guide. For each ecozone, this appendix:
•
•
•
lists communities;
summarizes the climate, soil and vegetation; and
describes a couple of revegetation projects.
Ecozones may further be divided into ecoregions based on distinctive regional ecological factors such as
physiography, soil water and fauna but these are not described in this guide. Descriptions of ecozones, with
the much more detailed descriptions of ecoregions, can be found in A National Ecological Framework for
Canada (Ecological Stratification Working Group, State Of the Environment Directorate, Environment
Canada, 1995).
A-1
Map of Ecozones
A-2
The Arctic Cordillera ecozone has three communities, all in Nunavut:
Broughton Island
Clyde River
Pond Inlet
Climate:
-cold desert
-mean daily July temperature: +5 deg. C
-mean daily January temperature: -38 deg. C
-precipitation:250 mm
-high winds
Frost-free days: south 40, north 20
Typical soils: virtually non-existent
Vegetation: . Ice and bald rock dominate 75% of this ecozone. At lower elevations, a few species of plants
grow in sheltered valleys, braided streams, south facing slopes watered by late-melting snow, and fertilized
areas near animal dens and bird sites. Typical plants include:
-mountain avens
-purple mountain saxifrage
-Arctic poppy
-moss campion
-Arctic white heather
-mountain sorrel
-river beauty
In geological terms, parts of this region are risen above sea level fairly recently: this is reflected in the plant
communities which contain more primary and secondary succession species and little climax-type
vegetation. An important moss in parts of the zone is Rhacomitrium lanuginosum.
A detailed list of vascular plants, mosses, lichens and other fungi covers the communities of Clyde River and
Pond Inlet can be found in Botany of the Canadian Eastern Arctic: Part III, Vegetation and Ecology by
Nicholas Polunin, (Mines and Geology Branch, Bulletin No. 104 of Biological Series No. 32. Canada
Department of Mines and Resources, Ottawa. 1948).
Projects:
Since vegetation tends to be naturally sparse, revegetation is likewise difficult. For instance, at Polaris Mine
on Victoria Island, their “land reclamation and beautification” programme does not include any revegetation.
As the land was quite barren – basically gravel - before the mine went in, Polaris was only required to doing
cleaning, removal of equipment and recontouring of the land.
In Clyde River, studies were done of how natural recolonization by plants took place following moving of
houses. Festuca baffinensis (Baffin Fescue) was the most common species. Draba spp., Epilobium
latifolium (River Beauty) and Alopecurus alpinus (= borealis) (Mountain Meadow-foxtail) appeared to be
the natural recolonizers. Natural recolonization of gravel thicker than 80 cm is virtually non-existent.
Abandoned dwellings from the Thule culture stand out on the landscape due to their anomalously lush
vegetation and varied floras occurring on otherwise relatively barren and floristically impoverished beach
ridges. One of the most important local benefits of such archaeological sites may be the development of a
bank of viable seeds which could respond rapidly to future patchy disturbance.
A-3
The Northern Arctic ecozone, while sparsely populated, has 21 small communities in the NWT,
Nunavut, and Nunavik:
NUNAVIK
Akulivik
Kangiqsujuaq
Ivujvik
Salluit
NORTHWEST TERRITORIES
Holman
Sachs Harbour
NUNAVUT
Arctic Bay
Baker Lake
Cambridge Bay
Cape Dorset
Gjoa Haven
Grise Fiord
Hall Beach
Igloolik
Iqaluit
Kimmirut (Lake Harbour)
Kugaaruk (Pelly Bay)
Pangnirtung
Repulse Bay
Resolute Bay
Taloyoak (Spence Bay)
Climate:
-cold desert
-high winds
-mean daily July temperature: +5 - +10 deg. C
-mean daily January temperature: -30 to -35 deg. C
-precipitation: 100-200 mm
Frost-free days: 20
Typical soils:
Permafrost thaws to depth of only a few centimetres in summer. Much of the area has no soil and consists
of shattered limestone and sandstone with rock outcrops. Permafrost lies beneath the entire ecozone; the
constant freezing and thawing creates unstable soils that form somewhat geometric or regular shapes know
as patterned ground. Calcium carbonate can collect on high Arctic soils, known as calcification.
Vegetation:
Sheltered places are oases that can include sedge meadows, heath tundra, but much of this region is virtually
devoid of plants. Though the area is often barren, oases can be relatively productive. In the valley of Lake
Hazen, on Ellsemere Island at 82 degree N, there is a High Arctic oasis where more than 110 species of
flowering plants have been found.
Though the number of plant species is very low (about 300 compared with 3,000 in southern Canada),
mosses and lichens are relatively abundant. Over 600 species of mosses and lichens are found in the
Northern Arctic compared with about 500 in the more temperate latitudes. The plants of the Arctic Islands
(including Baffin Island), have a relatively large percentage of endemic species (species found only in that
location). Kimminut, in particular, is known for its luxuriant vegetation compared to other parts of Hudson
Strait. Some plant species only grow along the sea-shore, such as Elymus arenarius (European Lyme Grass),
Carex maritima (= incurviformis) (Coastal Sand Sedge), Stellaria humifusa (Saltmarsh Starwort). Plants
known to be more resistant to soil movement are Dryas integrifolia (White Mountain-avens), Kobresia
myosuroides (Pacific Bog Sedge) and Salix arctica (Arctic Willow). An important moss in parts of the zone
is Rhacomitrium lanuginosum.
A-4
Plants include:
-Arctic fleabane
-woolly lousewort
-mastedon flower
-Arctic poppy
-Arctic willow
-white Arctic heather
-Arctic bladder campion.
A detailed list of vascular plants, mosses, lichens and other fungi can be found in Botany of the Canadian
Eastern Arctic: Part III, Vegetation and Ecology by Nicholas Polunin, (Mines and Geology Branch, Bulletin
No. 104 of Biological Series No. 32. Canada Department of Mines and Resources, Ottawa. 1948). In this
ecozone, it covers the communities of Arctic Bay, Cape Dorset, Kimmirut and Pangnirtung.
Projects:
In Iqaluit, landscape architect John Laird worked on a community revegetation project - an elder's park. The
planting of sods went O.K., he reports, though they had a problem he called the “kid factor” with the sods
being walked on too much. He felt that if people could be kept off, they would have seen better growth.
The sods were dug by hand, so were not large. In theory, transplanting could take place throughout summer;
but he suggests timing when the plants are not in bloom, and it is not too dry (not mid-summer).
A-5
The Southern Arctic ecozone has communities in the NWT, Nunavut, and Nunavik:
NUNAVIK
Aupalak
Inukjuak
Kangiqsualujjuaq
Kangirsuk
Puvirnituq
NORTHWEST TERRITORIES
Paulatuk
Tuktoyaktuk
NUNAVUT
Arviat
Chesterfield Inlet
Coral Harbour
Kugluktuk (Coppermine)
Rankin Inlet
Sanikiluaq
Whale Cove
Climate:
-cold desert
-high winds
-mean daily July temperature: +10 deg. C
-mean daily January temperature: -30 deg. C
-precipitation:200-400 mm
Frost-free days: 40-80
Typical soils: eskers, thin soil underlain with permafrost
Vegetation:
Plants in this ecozone tend to be very uniform; the uniformly dry, continental climate and the low and
moderate relief does not generally provide a variety of plant habitats. Also, the land is “young” in
geological terms, having “recently” been covered by continental ice sheets. The plant communities tend to
be unstable and pre-climax. Comparatively few of the species or races of vascular plants are endemic (found
only there).
Warmth-loving plants near the northern limits of their ranges are often confined to stoney, calcareous soils.
These microhabitats may supply the necessary temperatures, water and aeration. Typical species in various
habitats include:
Upland tundra, calcareous soils
Dryas octopetala (Eight-petaled Mountain-avens)
Arctostaphylus rubra (Alpine Bearberry)
Carex scirpoidea (Canadian Single-spiked Sedge)
Salix glauca (Gray-leaf Willow)
Dryas integrifolia (White Mountain-avens)
A-6
Betula-Ledum tundra
Betula glandulosa (Bog Birch)
Ledum palustre (=decumbens) (Marsh Labrador-tea)
Salix arctica (Arctic Willow)
Vaccinium vitis-idaea (Bog Cranberry)
Vaccinium uliginosum (Alpine Blueberry)
Dicranum elogatum
Cetraria cucullata
Betula-Eriophorum tundra
Eriophorum vaginatum (Tufted Cottongrass)
Betula glandulosa (Bog Birch)
Ledum palustre (=decumbens) (Marsh Labrador-tea)
Vaccinium vitis-idaea (Bog Cranberry)
Carex lugens (Spruce Muskeg Sedge)
Aulacomnium turgidum
Sphagnum lenense
Wet meadow
Carex aquatilis (Water Sedge)
Salix fuscescens (= arbutifolia) (Alaska Bog Willow)
Sphagnum squarrosum
An important moss in parts of the zone is Rhacomitrium lanuginosum.
A detailed list of vascular plants, mosses, lichens and other fungi can be found in Botany of the Canadian
Eastern Arctic: Part III, Vegetation and Ecology by Nicholas Polunin, (Mines and Geology Branch, Bulletin
No. 104 of Biological Series No. 32. Canada Department of Mines and Resources, Ottawa. 1948). In this
ecozone, it covers the communities of Chesterfield Inlet and Coral Harbour.
Projects:
Research has been ongoing at the BHP Billiton Ekati Mine site for several years. Though not communityoriented the research details many plants found in the southern Arctic ecozone, and the successes the
company has had with revegetation. Some are specifically mine oriented (e.g., revegetation on the diamondmining tailings), but good information is beginning to emerge on natural re-colonization, wetlands, and
eskers.
Common species observed at six water diversion channel constructed at BHP included Carex aquatilis
(Water Sedge), Carex rotundata (Round-fruited Sedge), Epilobium angustifolium (Tall Fireweed),
Equisetum variegatum (Variegated Scouring-rush), Salix planifolia (Diamond Leaf or Tea-leaf Willow), and
mosses. The Carex spp. probably resprouted from tundra sod, as the plants were too mature to be seedlings.
The Arctagrostis latifolia (Polargrass) and Epilobium found along the diversion channel may have come
from seed dispersed from plants along the airstrip, which was seeded in fall 1996. These species also
naturally occur in the mine site area, but they are not locally abundant near the diversion channel, so it is
unlikely that the seed came from native stands of these species. Two other species, Eleocharis sp. (Spike
Rush) and Hippuris tetraphylla (Four-leaf Marestail) probably established from propagules transported from
Grizzly Lake via Grizzly Creek. These species typically are emergents in lakes and ponds.
Various studies were done on willows, particularly Salix planifolia (Diamondleaf or Tea-leaf Willow). The
methods for collecting and storing willows followed guidelines described in Streambank Revegetation and
Protection: a Guide for Alaska (Muhlberg and Moore 1998).
A-7
HARVESTING
The Salix cuttings were harvested from shrubs at several locations in the mine site area in May 1999 while
the plants were still dormant. They were cut as long (1.5 m) whips 1.5–3.0 cm in diameter, trimmed of all
side branches, and stored frozen in bundles of 20–30 wrapped in plastic sheeting.
PLANTING
A plug of saturated soil from the shrub collection area should be placed in each transplant hole or at the base
of each cutting. Place the cuttings in the ground with only one or two leaf buds exposed above the soil line,
thereby maximizing the stem surface area available for root establishment.
Willow cuttings need adequate moisture to establish. The spacing of plants can be determined by several
factors, including:
-size/type of transplant/plug/cutting
-expected size in several years (e.g., does plant with horizontal growth habit or vertical, are
conditions severe so plant unlikely to reach full size)
-goals of the planting (e.g., ultimately want thick stand? some shrubs in mainly forbs and grasses?)
-anticipated survival rate (e.g., with proven techniques of proven stock, may anticipate a 90%
success; with proven technique of unproven stock, anticipate less success, and so on down)
-suitability of microsites (e.g., appropriate depth of soil; appropriate moisture).
PLANTING INDIVIDUAL CUTTINGS
Planting was scheduled for June, but snowbanks delayed planting until early July. The willow whips were
cut into segments (0.75–1.0 m) and planted into holes created using steel pry bars. A plug of saturated soil
from the shrub collection areas was placed in each transplant (Helm and Carling 1992). Cuttings were
planted with only one or two leaf buds exposed above the soil line, thereby maximizing the stem surface
area available for root establishment. The distance between cuttings was 15 cm where the sediment was of
sufficient depth to hold the cuttings in place. Otherwise, the cuttings were placed more randomly, wherever
deep sediment pockets occurred. Cuttings were transplanted within a zone (approximately 1.0 m wide) from
just below the waterline (-5 cm) to the upper streambank, to ensure that adequate moisture was available
while the cuttings were forming roots.
Survival of the transplanted willow cuttings was highly variable among the diversion channel stations,
ranging from 22% to 89%, with mean survival was 64.5%.
OTHER LOCATIONS
Salix planifolia (Diamond or Tea-leafed Willow) shrub cuttings were planted elsewhere, but were not as
successful as in the wet diversion channel (only 26% survival). Problems included:
-an insufficient period of time for the cuttings to establish
-due to a late freshet, the cuttings were not planted until early July, resulting in a loss of two weeks
of the growing season, which already is short.
-heavy grazing by caribou.
BUNDLES
This planting technique is designed to promote the establishment of a clump of willows, rather than single
shrubs. It was done using:
-bundles of 10-15 cuttings
-shallow trenches (15 cm deep) were dug into the soft sediments of the channel bank and a bundle
placed lengthwise in each trench.
-the trench was then partially backfilled with the removed sediment (and natural soil inoculum),
leaving the ends of the cuttings in the bundle exposed.
Two of the three stations where willow bundles were planted had leaves sprouting. In general, it appears to
be somewhat less successful than individual cuttings
A-8
BRUSH MAT
Like bundles, brush mats are designed to establish a more dense willow stand.
A brush mat is simply a group of cuttings placed horizontally under a shallow layer of sediment, slightly
crisscrossing one another. The mat of cuttings is lightly covered with soil to promote root establishment.
Again, this appeared to be less successful than individual cuttings, with 32% of the cuttings that formed the
brush mat sprouting leaves. This technique requires a large area of exposed substrate.
DETERING GRAZING
To minimize potential impacts from grazing herbivores two non-toxic, antiherbivory compounds (Tree
Guard® and Deer Away®) were applied to the cuttings in early August. The compounds were applied
manually using a pump sprayer. Grazing of transplanted willows was observed to be minimal, indicating that
the application of the herbivore repellent in early August was effective. (Willows were grazed without the
herbivore repellent).
Deer Away seemed to work a lot better than Tree Guard. It worked particularly on caribou, though seemed
to have no effect on grazing by hares. It seems most important to use in the first couple of seasons; after
that, plants are adequately established and it is not required.
A remaining challenge, however, is deciding how much time the cuttings should be allowed to grow before
applying repellent. In some cases, leaves were grazed immediately after bud burst. If cuttings are treated
with repellent before leaves emerge, they will have to be treated again after leaf out. The initial application
may be an effective enough deterrent to ward off future grazing attempts, but this hypothesis has not yet
been tested. Once the cuttings become well established (2-3 years), grazing will not be a major concern
because the cuttings will have sufficient reserves to withstand grazing.
COMMERCIAL SEEDING
16-16-16 [N-P-K]) was applied at 440 kg/ha and the seed mixture
Arctagrostis latifolia (Polargrass)
Deschampsia caespitosa (Tufted Hairgrass)
Festuca rubra (Red Fescue) and
Poa alpina (Alpine Bluegrass)
was broadcast at 33 kg/ha using a spreader attached to a quad.
Mean plant cover was 28% and was dominated by
Festuca rubra (Red Fescue) (11%),
Poa alpina (Alpine Bluegrass) (9%),
Deschampsia caespitosa (Tufted Hair Grass) (6%).
The remaining cover included small unidentified grass seedlings (1%), Betula nana (= pumila and
glandulosa) (Bog and Swamp Birch) (0.2%), and Epilobium angustifolium (Fireweed) (0.2%). Species also
found in the area but not along the transects included Arctagrostis latifolia (Polargrass), Calamagrostis
purpurascens, Carex rotundata (Round-fruited Sedge), and Polytrichum spp.
LEGUMES
Mine personnel found potential collection site for two legume species, Astragalus alpinus (Alpine
Milkvetch) and Oxytropis maydelliana (Maydell’s Locoweed) in the Ekati mine site but the seeds were
harvested (probably by Arctic Ground Squirrels) before they could collect them for two consecutive years,
so they gave up on that plot
Seeds of native forbs collected in Yellowknife were:
Astragalus eucosmus (Elegant Milk-Vetch)
Oxytropis deflexa (Locoweed)
A-9
Hedysarum mackenzii (Licorice Root),
Epilobium angustifolium (Tall Fireweed), and
E. latifolium (River Beauty).
Seed was collected in Yellowknife in 1998, cleaned, sorted, and stored frozen. Seeding done in the fall took
advantage of snowmelt the following spring. These were allowed to grow a season without competition
from grasses. The intent was to then broadcast some commercially available seed of native-grass cultivars
in the same areas (i.e., after the forbs had a chance to establish without competition).
SPRIGGING
Sprigs of the aquatic Arctophila fulva (Pendant Grass) were harvested by hand in early
July (just prior to transplanting) from a small pond
-sprigs were collected with at least two nodes with adventitious roots to improve chances for
establishment in the transplant areas.
-planting scheduled for June, but snowbanks delayed planting until early July.
-planted approximately 15 cm apart, in deeper water (10–50 cm) than the willow cuttings and in
areas where the stream velocity was low or negligible (e.g., quiet nearshore areas and behind rock
wing deflectors).
-survival of the transplanted grass sprigs ranged from 54–99% ( x =73%) and many sprigs produced
additional tillers
The Arctophila fulva (Pendant Grass) sprigs transplanted in Kodiak Lake have performed well after the first
two growing seasons. Mean density increased from 18 sprigs/m2 in 1998 to 30 sprigs/m2 in 1999 and mean
cover increased from 11% to 14%. This grass has excellent potential for establishing emergent vegetative
cover. Survival was high at most channel stations, and density increased relatively rapidly in Kodiak Lake
(after two growing seasons). It is recommended, provided sufficient fine-grained sediment is available and
sufficient slow-water areas are available. While Arctophila fulva is useful for establishing emergent wetland
plant communities, it is unlikely to be successful in creating more terrestrial (palustrine) wetland
communities,
A - 10
The Taiga Shield includes all of the Labrador communities, two Nunavik communities, and the
shield communities in the NWT. The land in general has been “scraped” bare by ancient glaciers,
so many rock outcrops are found throughout the region.
LABRADOR
Davis Inlet
Goose Bay/Happy Valley
Hopedale
Makkovik
Nain
North West River
Postville
Rigolet
Sango Bay
Sheshatshui
NUNAVIK
Kuujjaaq (Kuujjuaq)
Tasiujaq
NWT
Dettah
Lutselk'e
Rae-Edzo
Wha Ti
Yellowknife
Climate:
-long cold winters, short cool summers
-mean daily July temperature: +17.5 deg. C
-mean daily January temperature:-27.5 deg. C
-precipitation:250 mm
Frost-free days: 70-100
Typical soils: Thin soils or pockets of soil on a between rock outcrops, permafrost. There can be a large
variation in types of soils, from rapidly draining, coarse-textured soils, to well-drained, fine-textured soils, to
poorly drained peatlands, and soils dominated by ice. Organics develop mostly through peat accumulation
associated with wetland vegetation. Some sods form that also accumulate organics.
Vegetation:
Plants can vary greatly in a small area, especially on hummocky ground. Lichens typically grow on the less
stable parts of hummocks, with the heath shrubs such a Labrador tea on the more stable areas.
Plants include
-black spruce
-larch
-white spruce
-paper birch
-trembling aspen
-jack pine
-willow
-alder
-blueberry
-cranberry
-crowberry
-dwarf birch
-wild rose
-soapberry
-sedges
-mosses
A - 11
Projects:
A: Kuujjuaq, NV
CMHC sponsored a research project through the University of Laval titled “Renaturalisation of Scoured
Surface in the Surrounding of the Dwelling of Kuujjuaq Nordic Village”. The project was intended to:
- determine how to develop efficient methods to restore the vegetation cover near new housing by
selecting the local vegetation that perform according to the local conditions and to produce and
grow these plants on the site;
- sensitize people to their surroundings and educate them in propagation of local plants including
cutting twigs, use of rooting hormone and fertilizers, harvesting and growing of local seed, use of a
greenhouse and transplanting.
Local species studied on the site were:
Deciduous Shrubs: Tea-leaf Willow (Salix planifolia) and Rock Willow (Salix vestita), Green Alder
(Alnus crispa), Bog Birch (Betula glandulosa),
Coniferous: Common Juniper (Juniperus communis), Tamarack (Larix laricina)
Heath Family (Ericaceae): Common Labrador Tea (Ledum groenlandicum), Northern Labrador Tea
(Ledum palustre), Bog Bilberry (Vaccinum uliginosum)
Grasses: (Gramineae): Poa alpina (Alpine Bluegrass), Agropyron violaceum (Slender Wheatgrass)
Legumes: Oxytropis hudsonica (= borealis) (Boreal Locoweed)
A number of fairly detailed and useful recommendations came out of this study.
From the experiment on Salix planifolia (Tea-leaf Willow) and Salix vestita (Rock Willow) with addition of
root hormone and fertilization, they found that the use of root hormone on twigs made no significant
improvement in rooting. [Note: studies in Norman Wells, NWT did find improvements with rooting
hormone]. They found that the twigs need five growing weeks for rooting and production of stems.
Fertilization increased the biomass of roots and stems. They report that the harvest of cutting twigs should
be done in spring without distinction of sex. Salix vestita (Rock Willow) grows one meter high and is
recommended for aesthetic reasons, as is Salix planifolia (Tea-leaf Willow), which grows to two meters.
From the experiment on Ledum groenlandicum (Rusty Labrador-tea), Ledum palustre (Marsh Labrador-tea),
Vaccinium uliginosum (Alpine Blueberry) with root hormone, they found that root hormone increased the
amount of roots of the two Ledum sp. but needs supervised water control. The addition of root hormone did
not seem to affect the amount of roots of Vaccinium uliginosum (Alpine Blueberry). The use of Ledum
groenlandicum (Rusty Labrador-tea) was recommended only with reservations on disturbed sites as it grows
better in humid areas. Ledum palustre (Marsh Labrador-tea) showed a certain potential for the restoration
of disturbed sites. Vaccinium uliginosum (Alpine Blueberry) is not recommended because of the low amount
of roots produced.
From the experiment on Juniperus communis (Common Juniper) twigs with fertilization, it was found that
rooting with twigs is complex. Female twigs form more adventive roots than male twigs because
fertilization inhibits formation of adventive roots on male plants. The variability in formation of the roots
was influenced by the production of stems. The study reports that juniper is recommended with reservations:
if it is used, the female plant without fertilization is recommended.
From the experiment on Larix laricina (Tamarack) with the use of root hormone on cutting twigs, no
adventive roots were formed on the twigs after five weeks of experimentation. The study concluded it is not
a good idea to use cut twigs of Larix laricina (Tamarack). It is better to use the seed method.
A - 12
From the experiment for the production of plants from seeds of Alnus crispa (Green Alder) and Betula
glandulosa (Bog Birch) under controlled light exposure and fertilizer, researchers found that the germination
rate is high. They highly recommended shrubs for renaturalisation of scoured surface areas. They report that
it is better to grow the seed in greenhouse, store them with protection for the first winter and plant them next
spring between mid- and end of June. Fertilizing with nitrogen slowed down root growth but increased the
growth of the stem and leaves.
They combined four species on a sandy terrasse habitat (natural habitat for the species):
Legumes: Astragalus alpinus (Alpine Milkvetch) and Oxytropis hudsonica (= borealis) (Boreal
Locoweed) were very good to fix atmospheric nitrogen
Graminaceous plants: Agropyron violaceum (Slender Wheatgrass) and Poa alpina (Alpine
Bluegrass) showed very good production of biomass
They found Oxytropis hudsonica (= borealis) (Boreal Locoweed) was more abundant than
Astragalus sp.(Milk-vetch).
Legumes should be part of the mixture because they have the capacity to fix atmospheric nitrogen.
Other species can be used in the mixture, such as:
Trisetum spicatum (Narrow False Oat), Calamagrostis canadensis (Bluejoint) and Deschampsia
caespitosa (Tufted Hair Grass)
Elymus arenarius (European Lyme Grass) is the most abundant grass in the surrounding area, but
because of its height (1 meter +) it should not be cultivated close to the other grasses.
Campanula rotundifolia (Harebell) and Epilobium latifolium (River Beauty) are abundant in the
region.
The final recommendation was that collecting local seed of graminoids and legumes and combining them in
a mixture is very good for restructuring the soil.
B: Yellowknife
A stand-alone Legislative Assembly Building was built in Yellowknife in the 1990s. The site - on the edge
of Frame Lake - included a disturbed peat bog, rocky outcrops, wetlands, and spruce/tamarack woods.
Landscaping included rehabilitation on the peat bog, prevention of damage to non-constructed parts of the
site, and rehabilitation along the roads and parking lots.
Peat Bog
The first main hurdle was to reach agreement that the peat bog should be rehabilitated with peat bog species,
and not be changed into an agricultural grassland. Since much research had been done on the Norman Wells
pipeline involving rehabilitation with cultivated grasses, there was an early tendency to use this type of
approach. However, the project landscape architect (Cornelia Hahn Oberlander) was clear that the landscape
overall should be “true to nature”, and she would be using only plants that were already existing on the site.
Two main rehabilitation techniques were used on the bog: firstly, preventing disturbance and allowing
natural recolonization, and secondly, transplanting of sods/plant mats. The sods were obtained from an
adjacent portion of the peat bog that was to become a parking lot. A forklift was modified by attaching a
steel plate, with very low edges angled to help cut the sods, onto the forks. This was used to lift mats of
cloudberry from the proposed parking lot, and take them over to the disturbed bog. The sods were taken in
spring, because the area needed to be stripped immediately for further construction (waiting until fall may
A - 13
have been better, but the construction schedule did not allow this). The mats were about 2.4 m x 2.4 metres,
and 30-35 cm deep (to permafrost). The surface of the peat area where the mats were to be placed was
roughened in advance, to accept the mats. The mats were carefully tamped down by foot, and flowers
removed (to give more energy to the plants roots). This technique was quite successful, with a good take on
the transplanted mats, even though there was no follow-up watering or other maintenance. One problem
was the depth of the mats, as it was difficult to get them off the steel plate. Mats as wide (2.4 m), but less
deep (perhaps 1.5 m) would be more suitable. Other small plants (a few bog-loving shrubs such as bogrosemary) were also individually transplanted to assist in the rehabilitation. There was less success with
these plants.
One main difficulty in terms of protection was to keep the contractor from using the peat bog as a “laydown” area for their construction supplies. It was an inviting area to use: virtually beside the building, flat,
and without many trees or tall shrubs to get in the way of laying down and taking up materials. The
necessity to stay off the bog was written into the contract, and other layout areas (further from the building)
were designated as acceptable. This was also made clear to the contractor foreman during the initial site
meetings. Even so, on a few occasions early in the project, the landscape architect was required to have the
contractor move items off the bog. Eventually, it became second nature, and the bog was well-protected
With these plantings, and the fact that people and traffic are kept off the bog, it is returning well to its natural
state.
Protection
The Legislative Assembly Building actually projects into the water on one edge; on the other sides it is
basically surrounded by trees. The trees are within about two metres of the buildings; great care was needed
in terms of construction to retain the trees. As with the peat bog, the retention of trees was written into the
contract. A penalty clause was also included. At one point, trees were taken down on site, and immediately
an investigation, with a proposed penalty procedure, was begun. No further trees outside the construction
zone were cut. The trees are surviving very well.
An interesting side note is that a number of years later, some of the MLAs asked that the original “true to
nature” concept be changed at the entrance to the building. They wanted to see the willows, spruce and
tamarack taken out, only the jack pines left, and grass put in. An assessment was done, but it was explained
to the MLAs that the jack pines would not tolerate this type of change to their home, and so the matter was
dropped.
Seeding and Planting
Not everything could be protected or simply taken from the site. The edges of the parking lot, roads, a roof
garden, and the walkway leading up to the building all needed to be planted in some way. Some of the
species on-site were available commercially, such as bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) and wild rose
(Rosa acicularis). However, it was decided to use plants actually from the site, rather than from Alberta, the
only commercial source of such plants. Seeds were collected from some species (such as rose) for
propagation in southern greenhouses; tissues cultures of other plants, such as prickly saxifrage (Saxifrage
tricuspidata) were taken, and clones made in the same greenhouses.
Generally, the plantings survived well, except the roof garden. The prickly saxifrage took about 50% after 2
years, and less after that. The worst areas were near air outlets, where no growth occurred (not
unexpectedly). Over the years, some seeding with various native species was attempted. However, the most
successful has been a general “recolonization” from nearby plants. A few willows, birch and stunted jack
pine are growing on the roof, in about 150 mm of soil.
Most of the seeding attempted has not been particularly successful. However, using plugs of perennials
from Alberta of locally native plants was much more successful. Oxytropis splendens (Showy Oxytropis)
did particularly well.
A - 14
Taiga Plains
NWT
Akalvik
Colville Lake
Deline
Enterprise
Fort Good Hope
Fort Liard
Fort MacPherson
Fort Providence
Fort Simpson
Fort Smith
Hay River
Jean Marie River
Nahanni Butte
Norman Wells
Rae Lakes
Trout Lake
Tsiigehtchic
Tulita
Wha Ti
Wrigley
For the purposes of this guide, Old Crow is included with Taiga Plain ecozone.
Climate:
-long cold winters, short cool summers
-mean daily July temperature: +15 deg. C
-mean daily January temperature: -27.5 deg. C
-precipitation:250-500 mm
Frost-free days: 60 north, 100 south
Typical soils: sedimentary bedrock with some areas of rich, well drained soils
Vegetation: Dense boreal forest. The plant communities are relatively simple, dominated by a few species
well adapted to poor soil conditions. Forest fires that destroy several thousand hectares of trees are not
uncommon, and many taiga plant species benefit from the regular cycle of fires.
Plants include:
Trees:
-black spruce
-white spruce
-jack pine
-tamarack
-paper birch
-trembling aspen
-balsam poplar
Shrubs:
-willow
-alder
-Labrador tea
-leatherleaf
-blueberry
-lingon berry
-currants
-roses
Other:
-mosses
-lichens
-sedges
A - 15
Some typical species in various habitats include:
White spruce on recent alluvium:
Alnus crispa (Green Alder)
Arctostaphylos rubra (Alpine Bearberry)
Tomenthypnum nitens
Hylocomium alaskanum
White spruce stands on uplands with non-calcareous parent material:
Vaccinium vitis-idaea (Bog Cranberry)
Empetrum nigrum (Crowberry)
Rosa acicularis (Prickly Wild Rose)
Ledum palustre (=decumbens) (Marsh Labrador-tea)
Ptilidium ciliare
Cladonia mitis
Peltigera aphthosa
White spruce stands on uplands with calcareous parent material:
Dryas octopetala (Eight-petaled Mountain-avens)
Arctostaphylos rubra (Alpine Bearberry)
Cassiope tetragona (Arctic Heather)
Potentilla fruticosa (Shrubby Cinquefoil)
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (Bearberry)
Upland tundra, calcareous
Dryas octopetala (Eight-petaled Mountain-avens)
Arctostaphylos rubra (Alpine Bearberry)
Carex scirpoidea (Canadian Single-Spiked Sedge)
Salix glauca (Gray-leaf Willow)
Dryas integrifolia (White Mountain-avens)
Betula glandulosa (Bog Birch)
Ledum palustre (=decumbens) (Marsh Labrador-tea)
Salix arctica (Arctic Willow)
Vaccinium vitis-idaea (Bog Cranberry)
Projects:
In 1997, the Department of Resources, Wildlife and Economic Development in Norman Wells, NWT
contracted ET Enterprises of Norman Wells to do a series of revegetation projects on the firebreaks. The
projects were initiated in the spring of 1997, and were ongoing until the fall of 2001. The projects were
spurred by results from the extensive fires in the Sahtu region of the NWT in 1995. At that time, major
firebreaks were constructed around the town of Norman Wells.
Since then, erosion has taken hold in a number of areas along the firebreaks and there is public
dissatisfaction with the treeless appearance of the firebreaks. Deciduous stands in the boreal forest are more
fire resistant than pure coniferous stands. By planting deciduous species in an area where highly flammable
spruce and tamarack grew previously, a more permanent firebreak can be created. The cover and root
systems created by these trees help maintain the stability of the soil and protect the areas otherwise prone to
erosion. In addition, the deciduous forest is more aesthetically suited to the landscape than a grassed
firebreak.
Thus, seed collection, root collection and planting experiments of Trembling Aspen (Populus tremuloides),
White Birch (Betula papyrifera) and Green Alder (Alnus crispus) were was initiated in 1997 and 1998.
A - 16
Four methods were used:
1) seedlings planted from a southern seed source
2) seedlings planted from a local seed source
3) direct seeding from a local seed source
4) root cuttings from nearby aspen and birch
Southern seedlings
Seeds from Trembling Aspen in the Fort Nelson, AB region were grown by the Canadian Forest Service in
Edmonton. The seedlings were boxed and shipped from Edmonton to Yellowknife via truck, and then from
Yellowknife to Norman Wells by air. The shipping process took between 3 to 4 days. The seedlings arrived
in good condition.
Seedlings from the Fort Nelson region were planted in 5 different test plots in 1997.
Local Seedlings
Aspen seed was collected from Norman Wells in the spring 1997. Seed set was poor for aspen in 1998 and
1999, so no seeds were collected. For more discussion on the seed collection method, refer to Appendix D,
Woody Plants. The seed was then sent to be grown by the Canadian Forest Service in Edmonton (Al Nanka,
Forest Practice Specialist). The size of the seedling plugs varied between a 615D and a 415B.
From a local seed point of view, all that was completed in 1997 was the collection of aspen seeds. In 1998,
three additional plots were added from seeds that were collected from Norman Wells (one plot measuring
white birch, another plot measuring White birch, alder and Trembling Aspen, and a third plot comparing the
growth of planted Trembling Aspen with naturally regenerating aspen). The growth was then monitored
until the fall of 2001.
Discussion of Seedlings
A total of about 165 aspen seedlings were studied since 1997, and another 45 since 1998. In total, over
13,000 seedlings have been planted in the Norman Wells region since 1997. In 1999 1000 White Birch from
local seed were planted, but were not monitored as part of the study. These discussions concern the aspen
seeds only.
Some seedlings were grown in Norman Wells by Produce North, in their greenhouse. Produce North
normally grow vegetables and flowers, so their method of growing seedlings may not have been the same as
those grown by the Canadian Forest Service. The seedlings from the Canadian Forest Service came in plug
form, whereas the seedlings from Produce North were in small pots. We can assume that fertilizer amounts
used by the Forest Service and Produce North will vary, thereby adding more variables in the final growth
analysis.
In theory, local aspen seed should be genetically better adapted to conditions in their area of origin or
provenance. Trees from a different provenance are genetically different and using a local provenance would
be considered most likely to survive. They are more adapted to the length of the growing season. The
shortening day length in the autumn is the cue that allows the plant to adapt physiologically to the oncoming
winter season. The maximum allowable distance within an acceptable provenance range is 2 ½ degrees
latitude and 1200m in elevation. Fort Nelson is 59 degrees latitude, while Norman Wells is 65 degrees
latitude. This accounts for a 6-degree difference in latitude. The elevation difference is negligible. One
would expect to see the Norman Wells seed stock exhibit a healthier growth habit. However, from the
results to date, Fort Nelson seed source seems to be outperforming the local source. These results may be
because in the first five years of growth, good sound nursery practice and well-planted trees have the most
profound effect on the growth of the seedlings. The seedlings can continue to thrive on the nutrient reserves
that are within the plugs during the first few years. It is possible that monitoring after five years will show a
greater success with the local seedlings.
A - 17
The seedlings in scarified plots appeared to be doing quite well at the end of 2001 season, with the exception
of a few seedlings that have been trampled by quads or ski-doos. Unscarified plots are less successful.
Although the trees might look healthy initially, unsound root systems can ultimately leave poor results. As
noted, a poor root system, or not enough root tips, could show up as late as five years after planting. There
have been many instances of the trees dying off and then in the following year, a new tree has sprouted from
the old root system. This is occurring with a number of the planted trees in all of the plots that are not
gaining much in total height.
Direct Seeding
Direct seeding of White Birch was done in the fall of 1999. The area was approximately 30m x 20m, and 5L
of birch seeds were used. The seeds were distributed with an Earthway seeder. The birch seeds were mixed
with milk powder. This method was suggested by the Canadian Forest Service. Milk sticks to the
lightweight seed and gives it more mass prior to dispersing.
This area was checked in the fall of 2000, and at that time, no White Birch germinates were present.
Additional trials were recommended, using a number of smaller areas (5x5m), and ensuring that the seeds
are viable by doing a germination test, prior to seed dispersal.
Other Seed Collection
White Spruce cones were collected on August 22, 1998 (an earlier than normal collection time, due to a
warm season). These have been stored in a long-term seed bank managed by Forest Development Service
in Hay River. For more on the seed collection method, please refer to Appendix D, Woody Plants, Seeding.
Root Cuttings
Aspen and birch roots were collected from September 17 - 23, 1997 when approximately 2/3 of the leaves
had fallen. The temperatures ranged from -2 to 20 degrees Celsius. The cuttings were given to Produce
North, but they were not successful with them. Produce North and ET Enterprises both had limited
experience with this procedure. The cuttings were not sealed with paraffin wax to seal in the moisture after
cutting the roots. It is hard to say which factors could have resulted in the poor success rate.
Herbarium
In addition to these experiments, a herbarium was started for the Sahtu region of the NWT. Over 200 plant
species were collected from the region including trees, shrubs, herbaceous plants (including the
wildflowers), graminoides (grasses, sedges and rushes), mosses and lichens. Most of the species were
collected in the Norman Wells area. A few species were gathered from the Mackenzie Mountains, the
Franklin Range, Ft. Good Hope, Colville Lake, Bennett Field and Tulita. In addition to the collection, a
photo was taken of each of the plant species. Two sets of the mounted specimens and photographs were
done; one set is at the Government of the NWT Department of Resources, Wildlife and Economic
Development office and the other set (unlaminated) at the Norman Wells Historical Society.
A - 18
Boreal Cordillera ecozone
This zone has extensive mountains and valleys separated by wide lowlands. It contains all but one
of the Yukon's communities.
Climate:
-cold, subhumid to semiarid with long cold winters and short, warm summers
-mean daily July temperature: 9.5 to 11.5 C
-mean daily January temperature: -13 to -23 C
-precipitation: varies considerably; from less the 300mm (in rainshadowed valleys) to 1500 mm
The cold of the winter can be broken by warm chinook winds. In the summer, moist Pacific air frequently
causes sudden, often violent storms.
Typical soils:
-glacial drift, colluvium (materials deposited by gravity on slopes and at the base of slopes)
and outcrops
-permafrost is widespread
-ice dominated soils in the northern and upper elevations
-more varied and deeper soils in the southern and lower, warmer elevations
Vegetation:
The types of plants and the lushness of their growth are strongly influence by their position on mountain
slopes. As elevation or latitude increases, trees grow smaller in stature and number. The vegetation cover
ranges from closed to open canopies over much of the plateaus and valleys. At higher elevations, there are
extensive areas of rolling alpine tundra characterized by sedge-dominated meadows, and lichen-colonized
rock fields are common. Treeline is generally at 1000 to 1400 metres, with a very short frost-free period.
Wildfires are not as common in this ecozone as in the Taiga Plains and Taiga Shield. Large parts of the
Yukon were never glaciated, so there is a much more varied flora than elsewhere in the north, including
endemic and isolated species.
Plants include:
Trees:
-white spruce (generally lower elevations)
-black spruce
-subalpine fir (generally lower elevations, absent in the northwest of ecoregion)
-lodgepole pine (absent in the northwest of ecoregion)
-trembling aspen
-balsam poplar
-white birch
Projects:
Dawson City, YT
John Mitchell of Han Construction described work done for Tr’ondek Hwech’in involving housing projects
in Dawson. Building houses on tailings in Dawson has led to a good method of physically capping the
tailings, so that they can later accept landscaping.
There are large amounts of cobbles (averaging 20 cm) left as part of placer gold mining operations around
Dawson. Permafrost is variable throughout Dawson, but in the tailings areas, the ground is thawed down
about 9-12 metres. Water goes through the cobbles virtually instantly.
To retain some water and form a suitable bed for construction, a fine white quartzite (from “white channel”,
and old riverbed high above town) is used as a cap. A lift of about 30-60 cm of the material is packed down,
without using any filter cloth or other geotextile. (A “3/4" minus” crush material can also be used). The
A - 19
quartzite is angular and abrasive even when broken down, so it holds onto itself. There is then very little
water percolation through this cap. It is quite stable. To date, there has been no landscaping done on the
capping material, but they believe that landscaping shouldn't be a problem. In other areas, problems have
occurred with landscaping because of permafrost melt, and then instability. Once vegetation was removed,
the ground water changed, and then the permafrost melted, making long term stability problems. Frozen
fines and organics were areas with the most problems. However, since the capping material is stable, it will
be fine for landscaping on top of. When landscaping is done, it needs to meet by-laws that are meant to
retain the historic character of the town (for instance only certain kinds of fences are allowed).
Whitehorse, YT
Arctic Alpine Seeds is the only “North of 60” Canadian supplier of reclamation grasses, wildflowers and
legume seed. They have been in operation since 1985. Most of their seed to date has been collected in the
Yukon, or purchased from Alaska and Alberta. They have not had large quantities available. However, they
have begun planting forbs for collection, and are aiming to have 1-2 species of Hedysarum, 1-2 species of
Oxytropis, icelandic poppy, lupine, and possibly others available as soon as 2003. They are also beginning
to offer perennial plugs as well as seeds.
Much of their work has concentrated on reclamation grasses, such as Festuca saximontana (Rocky Mountain
Fescue) and Deschampsi caespitosa (Tufted Hair Grass). They are used in communities for lowmaintenance landscaping such as baseball diamonds and other play/sports areas. They also have done
seeding outside of communities.
In their experience, the grass seed does not require organic soil. They will take well on sandy or even
gravelly soil. As an example, they did some restoration work on a dike by the Yukon River near Dawson.
The dike was stabilized with rip-rap, then an impervious membrane laid down, the gravel, sand and grass
seed. This situation worked; grasses are commonly grown in sands in golf courses, without any organics. In
these situations, fertilizers at least to start the grasses will be needed. They typically use 300-500 kg/hectare
of 18-18-18 fertilizer, and refertilize in 12-18 months. They find less take on the grasses without fertilizing.
Picking the right grass seed is necessary. Festuca alvina, Festuca saximontana, and Agrostis scabra work
well when a low grass, without mowing, is wanted. They try to make sure people are aware of how high the
grasses will grow, and what moisture they need, before seeding, since people can be very surprised with how
tall some of the grasses can get.
They feel a success is more likely by making sure the seed gets into the ground. In the Yukon, agricultural
equipment to harrow the seed in initially, as well as 12-18 months after the initial seeding, is beneficial. If a
harrow is not available or is too large for the project, dragging a chain link fence behind an ATV, or raking
the seed in, should be done. They have found it is better for the seed to be somewhat buried (e.g., even
under small rocks), than right on the surface where they can blow away, be eaten, or dry out very quickly
when they germinate.
A - 20
Appendix B
MOSSES AND LICHENS
Mosses
Mosses may seem fragile, with their low profile and lack of roots, but pioneer mosses are among the first
colonisers on fresh landslides. Mosses play an active role in the recovery of both linear (contiguous) and
patch disturbances. Mosses are an important factor in conserving nutrients as they are extremely efficient in
intercepting all atmospheric deposition of nitrogen etc.
Mosses grow clonally mainly through branching and are an important component of the vegetation in the
polar regions. Mosses (and lichens) can't maintain their water balance. They must either grow in moist
places or be able to tolerate drought conditions (they dry up and become dormant, then upon re-wetting they
resume photosynthesis).
In creating moss communities, remember that mosses have specific needs with regards to shade, moisture in
the soil, moisture in the air, pH etc. Some types can extend over large areas (called “Carpet” mosses). Others
cover standing or fallen trees, rocks, and so on. Several different types can be encouraged in your project.
As with other plants, the first step in determining the type of moss to use is a general site analysis, including
looking for indicator mosses of a particular community. If there are already mosses close by, then there will
be a lot of spore release, so encouraging them will be easy. Once mosses are more than about 90 metres
away, natural recolonization by spores is not likely. As a reminder, the moss community you are trying to
emulate may already be at a climax stage. For revegetation, you would need to identify the pioneer species
that are typical leading up to that climax community.
Plugs are not yet commercially available, so transplanting of plugs can be attempted. These suggestions
come from Connecticut, USA, but there are no commercial planters or growers known at this time in
Canada. As with other forms of natural landscaping, patience is needed. It could take several years for
mosses to create a cover from plugs (with a 7 cm plug set out every 60 mm or so, in Connecticut it takes
about 2 years to fill in).
-plant the mosses when leaves are just coming out
-stomp down the plugs well; scratch up the area right near the plug
-water well
-needs to be watered lightly every day (e.g., 5 min. early morning)
-watering with a mixture of 1 quart of buttermilk to 2-3 gallons of water about once a month (used
to covers about 1000 sq. feet), seems to help
-no scientific studies of buttermilk known, but it seems to inhibit weeds and encourage the spores
-different mosses spore in spring, summer or fall
-in Connecticut, the pioneer mosses spore in the spring and fall (not summer)
Transplanting “carpets” of moss (say 3m x 3m) has not worked well in the south, as bugs live under the
carpet, then animals dig up the moss for the bugs. It may work better in the North. Some northern pioneer
moss species include:
Leptobryum pyriforme,
Bruym sp.
Psilopilum laevigaton
Ceratodon purpureus
Pohlia atropurpurea
Anisothecium beginale,
Funaria hygrometrica
B-1
Pioneer mosses from Clyde River, NU
Bruym pseudotriquetrum
Pogonatum alpinum
Polytrichum juniperinum
Where sand plus gravel, the species were:
Bruym pseudotriquetrum
Pogonatum alpinum
Polytrichum juniperinum
Psilopilum cavifolium
Lichens
Lichen have not been used in any large landscaping projects in the North. They grow in a wide variety of
conditions, including extremely cold and dry locations, on trees and on bare rock. On soils, they are
particularly found on less stable soils (such as frost-heaved soils). They may grow only a fraction of a
millimetre per year, and reach several hundred years in age. Most lichens dry out rapidly, and become
dormant and remain dormant for several years. Lichens are a major component of biological diversity.
Lichens are composite, symbiotic organisms made up from members of as many as three kingdoms.
(reference: www.lichen.com). The dominant partner is a fungus (kingdom Fungi). Fungi are incapable of
making their own food - they provide for themselves as parasites or decomposers. The fungus generally
give the structure to the lichen. The lichen fungus then cultivate “partners” to provide food (i.e.,
carbohydrates manufactured by photosynthesis). Sometimes the partners are algae (kingdom Protista), other
times cyanobacteria (kingdom Monera), formerly called blue-green algae. Some enterprising fungi exploit
both at once.
There is great variation in where even closely related species will grow: For instance, Polytrichum strictum
is common on Sphagnum hummocks. It remains about 1 cm above the peat moss, and indicates the driest of
the Sphagnum hummocks. Polytrichum juniperinum is found on mineral soils; P. piliferum on drier, sandy
soils.
Reproduction can be tricky for a compound organism! In terms of propagation, when the algae (or
cyanobacteria) and fungus are separated in a laboratory, they grow perfectly well separated. However, they
then will rarely re-form a lichen when placed together again.
Some lichens that may have potential for rehabilitation are:
Trapeliopsis granulosa (also called Lecidea granulosa). A common, brownish-pink crustose lichen
found on soil, on peat hummocks and sometimes rotting wood. It is an important stabilizer of
roadbanks and trails, especially in burned areas.
Baeomyces rufus. A foliose (leaf-like) lichen, often found on acidic soils; also on wood and
sandstones along shorelines. It stabilizes soils and makes them less easily eroded.
Dectylina arctica. A yellow-brown lichen with finger-like hollow “branches”. It often grows with
Mountain Avens (Dryas octopetala) or with Arctic Heather (Cassiope tetragona), as well as mosses
and other lichens.
B-2
APPENDIX C:
GRASSES, FORBES AND OTHER HERBACEOUS PLANTS
Lists from various sources of appropriate species for rehabilitation work are given in this appendix.
Mesic disturbed sites:
Calamagrostis canadensis (Bluejoint)
[NOTE: the Alberta Forest Service does not recommend Calamagrostis canadensis, as they believe
it interferes with Spruce tree seedling growth]
Arctophila fulva (Pendant Grass)
Poa arctica (Arctic Bluegrass) [known to persist and impede succession23]
Luzula confusa (Northern Wood-rush)
Eriophorum vaginatum (Tufted Cottongrass) (Hutchinson)
Mesic to wet sites
Dupontia fisheri (Fisher’s Tundra Grass), Eriophorum angustifolium (Tall Cottongrass) and Carex
aquatilis (Water Sedge) are all aggressive colonisers of mesic to wet sites.
Alopecurus alpinus (= borealis) (Mountain Meadow-foxtail) can often be found colonizing the
entire moisture range.
Eriophorum scheuchzeri (White Cottongrass) is a prolific seed producer and strong capacity for
vegetative spread--could be used for restoration of disturbed low and middle Arctic wetlands
Successful for aquatic/wet habitats
Arctophila fulva (Pendant Grass) though survival and vegetative reproduction depend on nutrient
availabilities of the substrate. Target sites with either adequate available phosphorus in mud;
without phosphorus, the new plants remain small and shoot densities usually decline over time.24
Successful native invaders of wet disturbed sites:
Eriophorum scheuchzeri (White Cottongrass)
Carex aquatilis (Water Sedge)
Senecio congestus (Marsh Ragwort)
Successful for dry sites (xeric)
Puccinellia langeana (=tenella) (Tundra Alkali Grass)
Festuca brachyphylla (Short-leaf Fescue)
Deschampsia caespitosa (Tufted Hairgrass)
Puccinellia arctica (Arctic Alkali Grass) provides cover quickly and offers little competition to
natural selection
Efficient seed or bulbil produces are most rapid re-invaders, such as:
Papaver radicatum (= lapponicum) (Lapland Poppy)
Draba spp. (Whitlow-grasses)
Parrya spp.
Saxifraga spp. (e.g., Saxifraga nivalis)
Oxyria digyna (Mountain Sorrel)
Polygonum viviparum (alpine bistort)
Slow invaders are Salix arctica (Arctic Willow), Dryas integrifolia (White Mountain-avens) are slow
invaders.
23
Crawford, R.M.M. ed., Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Disturbance and Recovery of
Arctic Terrestrial Ecosystems, Rovaniemi, Finland, Sept 1995, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997
24
Ibid.
C-1
Successful for sand dunes
Elymus arenarius (European Lyme Grass) both by seeding and sprigging.25
If the goal is to create a diverse community of plants, seeding large amounts of grasses should be avoided.
Successful for gravel
Epilobium angustifolium (Tall Fireweed) good for gravel sites
On thicker gravel fill, moisture was important to graminoids probably because the structure of grass leaves is
more susceptible to transpiration losses than forb leaves. Festuca rubra (Red Fescue) and Puccinellia
langeana (=tenella) (Tundra Alkali Grass) did better on thick fill, as they have hairy leaves (Festuca) or
prostrate growth (Puccinellia).
Arctic tundra grasses that colonize well on gravel fill:
Deschampia caespitosa (Tufted Hairgrass)
Trisetum spicatum (Narrow False Oat)
Festuca brachyphylla (Short-leaf Fescue)
Agropyrom macrourum (Wheat Grass)
Alopecurus alpinus (= borealis) (Mountain Meadow-foxtail)
Elymus arenarius (European Lyme Grass)
Forbs:
Epilobium latfolium (Broad leaved fireweed, dwarf fireweed, river beauty)
Artemisia borealis (Northern Wormwood)
Artemisia arctica (Arctic Wormwood)
Artemisia glomerata (Purple Wormwood)
Melandrium apetalum (Nodding Bladder-campion)
Papaver spp.(Poppy family)
Oxytropis campestris (Late Yellow Locoweed)
Oxytropis nigrescens (Blackish crazyweed)
Oxytropis viscida (Sticky Locoweed)
Astragalus nutzotinensis Nutzotin's milkvetch
Astragalus alpinus (Alpine milkvetch)
Hedysarum mackenzii (Northern sweetvetch)
Draba spp. (Alpine Draba, Ogilvie Draba)
Castilleja elegans (Elegant Indian Paintbrush)
Arabis arenicola (Arctic Rock Cress)
Descurainia sophioides (Tansy Mustard)
Especially good candidates for gravel fill:
Epilobium latfolium (Broad leaved fireweed, dwarf fireweed, river beauty)
Braya pilosa (Braya)
Deschampia caespitosa (Tufted Hairgrass)
Festuca brachyphylla (Short-leaf Fescue)
Festuca rubra (Red Fescue)
Artemisia spp. (Wormwood) [NOTE: Artemisia tilesii (Wormwood) quite tolerant to various
stresses, but has a tussock form and does not vegetatively spread readily.
Trisetum spicatum (Narrow False Oat)
Astragalus alpinus (Alpine Milkvetch)
Astragalus aboriginatum (Milkvetch)
25
Crawford, R.M.M. ed., Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Disturbance and Recovery of
Arctic Terrestrial Ecosystems, Rovaniemi, Finland, Sept 1995, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997
C-2
Oxytropis nigrescens (Blackish crazyweed) (Walker et al, 1987)
[NOTE: more inclusive list of other species with some merit are included in the report)
Stoloniferous species most efficient in recolonization, e.g.,
Alopecurus alpinus (= borealis) (Mountain Meadow-foxtail)
Luzula spp. (Wood-rushes)
and prolific seed or bulbil producers., e.g.,
Papaver radicatum (= lapponicum) (Lapland Poppy)
Saxifraga rivularis (Alpine Brook Saxifrage)
Oxyria digyna (Mountain Sorrel)
Stellaria monantha (Long-stalked Starwort)
High Arctic sites: under special circumstances, certain species are favoured by disturbances. Such species
have been called hemerophiles. Hemerophiles which could be useful in revegetation include:
Arctagrostis latifolia (Polargrass)
Puccinellia angustata
Alopecurus alpinus (= borealis) (Mountain Meadow-foxtail)
Poa alpina var. colpodea (Alpine Bluegrass)
Cerastium alpinum (Alpine Chickweed)26
Silene acaulis (Moss Campion) is a successful pioneer species. It has a deep taproot, so able to withstand
and stabilize bare, frost-heaved soil.
Grasses:
Arctagrostis latifolia (Polargrass) most successful colonizer (but not on very acidic sites)
NOTE: persists and impeeds succession
Deschampsia caespitosa (Tufted Hairgrass) grew well on lime amended sites (best response on
neutral pH sites)
Hordeum jubatum (Foxtail Barley) grew well on neutral to alkaline sites (from seed) and survived
severe droughts (but did not survive if pH was over 7.0; likes high phosphate fertilizers
Bromus inermis (Brome grass) grew best of commercial varieties; tolerates low water conditions
and wide pH range
Hierochloe alpina (Alpine Sweetgrass) grew poorly on all tailings27
Preliminary Reclamation Studies - Polar Gas Project by Hardy Associates Ltd., 1978, gives details on grass
species.
An Alaskan study notes that it is possible to for one person to gather enough seed from naturally-occurring
stands of Puccinellia langeana (=tenella) (Tundra Alkali Grass) to plant a hectare of open ground with
1000 live seeds/m2.
Recent studies conducted in the Kuparuk Oilfield of Arctic Alaska have shown legumes to be successful at
establishing on disturbed sites. Although the cultivation of native legumes has been successful in Alaska, it
is still unclear whether these plants will be effective seed sources in the low Arctic of the NWT.
Hedysarum is unlikely to establish in wet soils, as it is more typically associated with seasonally flooded
outwash plains.
Luzula spicata (Spiked Wood-rush) has dependable seed production and is suitable for low Arctic heaths.
26
Babb, T.A. High Arctic Disturbance Studies, [date, publication unknown; perhaps from Journal of Applied Ecology
11:549-562, 1974 with Bliss]
27
Hutchinson, T. C. and A.L. Kuja, The Use of native and agricultural plant species to re-vegetate northern mine
tailings, DIAND Northern Affairs Program Environmental Studies No. 43, 1988
C-3
Festuca ovina (Sheep Fescue) has dependable seed production and suitable for low Arctic heaths.
Where the site is being enriched with lime/dolomite, seed with plants from nutrient rich low Arctic habitats:
Astragalus alpinus (Alpine Milk-vetch), Dryas octopetala (Eight-petaled Mountain-avens), Stellaria (=
Arenaria) humifusa (Saltmarsh Starwort), Braya purpurascens (Braya), Papaver lapponicum (Lapland
Poppy).
Pitcher Plant (Sarracenia purpurea): old plants do not reestablish readily. Small plants can be moved in
early spring if they are dug carefully and kept moist after being plants. Plants from sandy areas can be
moved more readily than those from bog if a large clump of soil is taken with them
C-4
APPENDIX D:
WOODY PLANTS
Two types of propagation material are commonly used for woody plant propagation. These are seed and
vegetative material (for example, stem and root cuttings, tissue culture). These materials differ considerably
in their ability to remain viable during storage and handling. There is also a difference in genetics: plants
grown from seed have more natural variability than vegetative material. Vegetative material will need to be
planted. Seed can be directly sown, or seedlings can be grown, then these are planted.
Besides propagation, direct planting can be done by transplanting seedlings, mature specimens, or mass
transplanting.
This appendix give more details on the following methods:
Seeding
Cuttings (including individual, bundle and mat plantings)
Rooting
Seedlings
Large Plants
Mass Planting
It also has lists of characteristics of woody plants, to evaluate the appropriate habitat and revegetation
technique.
SEEDING
Spot seeding is frequently used for tree regeneration. In this method, seed is sown on prepared spots which
are randomly or systematically spaced on the site. This method makes more efficient use of limited seed
supplies. The areas between spots may be seeded to grasses or other plant materials.
Rate
For white and black spruce 285-625 g per hectare (1/4 - ½ lb per acre) have been used in Alaska, with birch
seeding rates are between 370-625 g per hectare (1/3-1/2 lb per acre). Spot seeding should be at a rate of not
less than ten to twenty viable seeds/spot. Spot distribution will depend on the density of the desired stand.
Collection
Alder
Alder seeds are very easily collected. The ideal time for collection of alder seed is in the fall. During the
summer, the alder cones are green. Later in the season, the cones turn a bronzy green color. This is the time
to collect the cones. It is best to spread the cones out on a flat surface to allow for the drying and maturation
process to continue.
White Spruce
The ideal time for collecting white spruce cones is late summer or early fall. Timing will vary with weather;
for instance, a warmer year generally gives an earlier than normal cone crop. White spruce produce a good
cone crop on a seven year cycle.
Before beginning a cone collection program, careful examination of the cone is required to ensure the crop is
mature enough for collection. Look at the exterior of the cone. It should be brown with little or no green
showing. The cones should also be examined for general condition and moisture level. Discard cones
which are prematurely browned, disfigured, or have pitch, bore holes or larvae in the cone. The cone should
feel firm and the bracts must feel crispy. Continue to observe, as you want to collect before the bracts begin
to swell. Take a sharp knife to dissect the cone down the centre. The embryo should be white, chalky and
D-1
solid, definitely not milky in appearance. Do not be misled by the cones dropping or the squirrels busy with
their winter cone collection. Although this gives you some indication, it is best to observe and examine the
cone physically. Binoculars are very effective for the initial examination of a cone crop. Once it is certain
that there is an ample amount of mature cones, the tree can be felled. Quite often, trees that are about to die
will put out an amazing crop of cones, so this can be looked for when felling trees. The genetics of the cone
crop is related to the genetics of the tree. A tall, straight tree tends to have similar offspring; a short, twisted
tree will produce seed for similar tees. Thus the tree itself, not just the availability of cone, needs to be
considered.
The seeds from white spruce can be freezer stored for many years in a clean, airtight container.
Trembling Aspen
Seeds are collected by collecting catkins, just prior to the fluff being released from the catkins in the spring.
Though aspen will naturally reproduce asexually (root suckers) and cuttings are a possible reproduction
method, seed collection method is very important for genetic variability. Aspen generate a good crop of
seeds every 4 to 7 years. Note that only female trees produce seed.
The ideal time for seed collection will vary from year to year, depending on local weather conditions. For
comparison, seed collections in Drayton Valley, Alberta, and Norman Wells, NT were compared by ET
Enterprises (2000 report)
In Drayton Valley, seed collection times were as follows:
1993 – May 24
1994 – May 31
1995 – June 10
In Norman Wells, seed collection times were:
1997 – June 19
2000 – June 20
It is difficult to predict the exact time for seed collection, however, the seeds must be harvested as near to
maturity as possible. Viability will be poor and the seeds will not ripen if the seeds are picked prematurely.
Once the catkins appear, daily monitoring of the maturation progress is essential. The ideal time for
collection of catkins is when approximately one third to one half of the capsules on the catkin have split
(showing the white cotton). Once collected, the catkins were laid out to dry on mesh screens for two weeks.
Seeds must then be extracted from the capsules. A relatively simple method follows:
-set up two soil sieves, one inside the other
-put a batch of fluff with seeds into a soil sieve
-blow air at the seeds through a mesh screen that covers the sieve (e.g., with an air compressor).
The air pressure knocks the seed off the fluff, the fluff stays in the top sieve (as it cannot squeeze through
the mesh) and the dark tiny seeds in the bottom sieve. The viability of the seed will deteriorate rapidly upon
maturity. Seed should be stored immediately in a refrigerator (between -2° and +2° Celsius) in an air tight
and clean container.
Balsam Poplar
The ideal time for Balsam seed collection will also vary from year to year. The seeds must be harvested as
near to maturity as possible to ensure seed viability. The window for the ideal collection time is very narrow
as the seeds are discharged quickly from the catkins upon maturation. Once the catkins appear, daily
monitoring of the maturation progress is essential. Balsam seed were collected on June 21, 1998 in Norman
Wells.
D-2
White Birch
Birch fruiting bodies (female flower cluster that contains the seed) may be collected in the late fall or well
into winter (e.g. usually September through November).
Prior to seed collection, the catkins will be green and appear to be “unripe”. Later on in the season, the
seeds will be more loose and ripe. The earlier green colour will brown with time.
In the fall, the catkins that are on the lower branches can be collected easily. Later in the season (winter),
catkins that are higher up can be collected without cutting the tree. By placing a large tarp around the
bottom of the tree, and then knocking the tree with a heavy object (such as a sledgehammer), you can knock
off the catkins and have them land on the tarp.
There are around 1.96 million seeds per kilogramme.
Tamarack
Tamarack (Larix laricina) can be readily grown from seed. Cones are brown when ripe and can be collected
in the fall as soon as they are ripe. Cones may be opened by heating at 49C for 8 hours. In general Larix
seed may be stored for three or more years in sealed containers at -18 to 10C. Seed germination
requirements are variable, depending on seed source. Some seed lots are may require cold stratification at
5C for 30 to 60 days. Unstratified seed can be sown in the fall, or stratified seed sown in spring. Sow seed
0.6 cm deep.28
Jack Pine (Pinus banksiana)
Jack pine may be established directly from seed or from transplants (bare root or container). Cones should
be dried immediately after collection to avoid mold development and excessive internal heating. The cones
are serotinous and need at least 50C to open. They should be dried in a kiln to 5 to 6 hours at 77C. Seeds
can be stored for 10 years at -18C at a moisture content of 5 to 10%. Jack pine seed may display embryo
dormancy and can be cold stratified at 5C for 0 to 7 days. The seeds can be sown in the spring or fall to a
depth of 0.6 cm.
Seed yield averages 1 kg of seed per 100 kg of cones. There are approximately 288 200 clean seeds per kg
on average.29
Shrubs and Forbs
Following is seeding advise from Sherk's Growing Canada's Floral Emblems
Prickly Rose (Rosa acicularis):take the seed from the hips as soon as they are ripe and sow them at once in
floats of soil, sand and peat moss or in raised beds. If you want to delay sowing until winter or spring,
simply store the seeds in a cool dry place and sow them later. Before you sow stored seeds, you must
stratify them in sand and peat at 4 deg. C. for 3 months.
Mountain Avens (Dryas integrifolia): Sow the seed as soon as it is ripe in seed pans in a well-drained, sandy
soil mixture. Sow older seed in the same way, but first stratify it at 4 deg. C. for at least 2 month.
Transplant seedlings into individual pots rather than flats to reduce transplant shock (Mountain avens have a
tap root, so are difficult to transplant).
Pitcher Plant (Sarracenia purpurea): collect fresh seed in the fall after the capsules have started to turn
28
Manual of Plant Species Suitability for Reclamation in Alberta, 2nd Edition, Alberta Land Conservation and
Reclamation Council, 1989
29
Ibid.
D-3
brown. A 1:1: acid-soil mixture of peat, soil and perlite, or a 3:1:1 mixture of peat, soil and sand, is deal.
Top this with 4mm of shredded sphagnum moss or peat moss and press the seeds lightly into it. Place the
seed pans in a refrigerator at 0 deg. to 4 deg. C for 60 days, or leave them outside in a cold frame for 60
days of cold weather. Move to a warm greenhouse or lighted room, and seedlings will soon appear. Keep
them moist all the time and transplant them into flats or pots when the first tiny pitchers are 12 mm long.
Young seedlings grow equally well in either seed mixture or a 3:1 mixture of chopped sphagnum moss and
soil. Transplant young seedlings outside in early summer and keep them well watered.
Following is from Manual of Plant Species Suitability for Reclamation in Alberta, 2nd Edition, Alberta Land
Conservation and Reclamation Council, 1989.
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (Bearberry)
Seed should be collected in the fall. Seedcrops form every one to five years. Seed displays seedcoat and
embryo dormancy. Soak seeds 2 to 5 hours in concentrated sulphuric acid; either sow outdoors in early
summer for germination the following spring, or warm stratify at 25C for 60 to 120 days, followed by moist
chilling for 60 to 90 days at 2 to 5 C. Seed treatment is time consuming, and cuttings are regarded as the
best establishment methods.
Cornus stolonifera (Red Osier Dogwood)
Seeds can be collected in July or August (as soon as ripe). One to two years can be expected between good
seed crops. Seed can be stored at -18C for 1 to 2 years before planting out. Seed has an embryo dormancy
and requires stratification at 2 to 5C for 60 to 90 days. Stratification at 5C also produces good (98%)
germination. Seed is best sown in the fall at depths of 0.6 to 1.25 cm.
Potentilla fruticosa (Shrubby Cinquefoil)
Though shrubby cinquefoil is available as nursery stock, and wild plants transplant relatively easily, seed is
an easy form of establishment. The seed is easily propagated in containers. Moist soil is needed for direct
seeding. Seedlings are durable and persistent once established. Germination rate is reported to be 53 to
82%. Seeds ripen over a wide time span so that individual collections may be prone to low viability.
CUTTINGS
Stem cuttings can be used to propagate many of the deciduous tree and shrub species in the north.
Cuttings can be planted individually, in bundles or mats. They can also be rooted in containers in a nursery
or greenhouse and handled as seedlings.
Harvesting
Cuttings can vary in size, depending on factors such as whether they will be planted as individual cuttings,
or in mats. Usually, cuttings should be 24cm to 30cm long; longer cutting can also be taken in the field and
then re-cut.
Storage
Storage can be in plastic bags with a wet paper towel wrapped around the bases to prevent drying. They can
also be bundled, wrapped in plastic and frozen. Side branches should be trimmed for storage.
Timing
Cutting are normally made in dormant state, but not deep winter (about March/April in subarctic; May in
Arctic). An ideal time to cut the whips is prior to any bud flush (in early spring), yet when the ground is
somewhat thawed if planting is to be done right away.
For Dryas integrifolia (White Mountain-avens) cutting in August is suggested30, then rooting in moist sand.
30
Sherk, Lawrence C., Growing Canada's Floral Emblems, 1988
D-4
Cuttings should be planted in the spring as soon as soil thaws where the season is short, or after the soil has
warmed in early summer for longer seasons. Later plantings may be made until July 1, if soil moisture is
adequate.
When cuttings have been stored in a freezer, no more than one day should elapse from freezer to planting.
Twigs need five growing weeks for rooting and production of stems.
Technique
For cuttings which are rooted in the greenhouse or nursery, refer to the section on seedlings (below) for
planting information.
Individual cuttings
Rooting hormone can be used to improve rooting chances. Research in Kuujjuaq showed no significant
improvement in rooting when hormone was used. If hormone is to be used, immediately dip the ends into
the rooting hormone and put them in the ground right away, or make cuttings and put them in buckets
overnight, with the rooting hormone mixed in with the water.
Planting is usually done by pushing the cuttings into the ground. If the ground is too compact a tool can be
used; the cutting needs to be in close contact with the soil. Approximately 5-7.5 cm of the cutting should be
left exposed above ground (usually one or two lead buds exposed). It is best to bury at least 3 buds. This
maximizes the stem surface area available for root establishment.
A plug of saturated soil from the shrub collection areas should be placed in each transplant hole or at the
base of each cutting to provide a source of soil bacteria and mycorrhizae.
The spacing will depend on the project objectives, and suitable soils.
Problems can occur if there is an insufficient period of time for the cuttings to establish (generally 5 weeks is
minimum). Lack of water during establishment, heavy grazing (e.g., by caribou, hares).will result in the low
survival.
ROOTING
Rooting is similar to cutting, but pieces of root stock are taken, rather than the above-ground branches. As
with cuttings, poplar and willows can be easily propagated from viable root stock. The best time for root
collection is in the fall, at the time of or after the leaves have fallen. At this time, the trees put most of their
carbohydrate reserves into the rooting system.
Starting at the base of the tree, follow one of the main roots out, gently removing the dirt from around the
root. It is important not to damage the root at any stage of the digging. Any damage may result in poor
germination. The ideal root diameter for aspen is 2-2.5 cm and cut into lengths of at least 15 cm. This same
root diameter was used for birch. Once a section of root has been located, cut the desired root. Prior to
pulling the root out, use tin or metal snips to cut the smaller roots that are holding the root in the ground.
Loosely shake the dirt and store the roots in moist burlap. The roots can be stored at +2 degrees Celsius.
Prior to storage, the ends of the roots can be dipped in paraffin wax in order to seal in the moisture. The
roots should then be lightly coated with vermiculite. Roots kept for up to 2 months still have shown to have
good germination rates.
Bundles
This planting technique is designed to promote the establishment of a clump of willows, rather than single
shrubs. They are particularly useful in stabilizing banks.
D-5
Shallow trenches (15 cm deep) are dug, and a bundle of 10-15 cuttings is placed lengthwise in each trench.
The trench is then partially backfilled with the removed sediment along with some saturated soil from the
shrub collection areas. The about 5-7.5 cm of the growing tips are left exposed.
Brush mat
Like bundles, brush mats are designed to establish a more dense willow stand. This technique requires a
large area of exposed substrate. As with bundles, they are more suited than individual cuttings to stabilizing
banks.
A brush mat is simply a group of cuttings placed horizontally under a shallow layer of sediment, slightly
crisscrossing one another. The mat is lightly covered with soil to promote root establishment.
Maintenance
Watering may be necessary to maintain good soil moisture during the first summer, particularly with
individual cuttings. Herbivore repellents may be needed.
Species
Willows are particularly successful for cuttings. They are relatively easy to collect, store, and transplant. In
areas with sufficient fine-grained sediment and moisture, transplanting willow cuttings appears to be a
reasonably inexpensive and effective planting method. However, the further north one goes, the slower the
growth, so the growth rate and the labor required for transplant may make it desirable only for select sites. It
appears that the addition of root hormone on twigs makes no significant improvement in rooting, so is not
recommended.
Cuttings with Balsam Poplar have proven to be just as effective, if not more so, than willow in the Taiga
Plains ecozone.
From the experiments in Kuujuaq, root hormone increases the amount of roots of Ledum groenlandicum,
Ledum palustre, but needs supervised water control. The use of Ledum groenlandicum was recommended
only in moist/humid areas. Ledum palustre showed a certain potential for the restoration of disturbed sites.
Vaccinium uliginosum is not recommended because of the low amount of roots produced, even with rooting
hormone.
Larix laricina does not do well with cuttings.
Following is cutting advise from Sherk's Growing Canada's Floral Emblems
Prickly Rose (Rosa acicularis): semi-hard cuttings can be taken in July, and rooted in moist sand
and peat moss in a closed frame. Powdery mildew may be a problem.
Fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium): Plants may also be propagated by suckers, root cuttings, or
division of older crowns, in either spring or early fall.
Following is cutting advise from Manual of Plant Species Suitability for Reclamation in Alberta, 2nd Edition
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (Bearberry): evergreen cuttings taken in autumn regarded as the best establishment
methods; seed treatment is time consuming. Problems still encountered with vegetative propagation: little
success noted at Syncrude Canada Ltd. oil sand sites in Alberta. The percentage of rooted cuttings and root
volumes of cuttings were significantly increased when innoculum of endomycorrhizal fungi was added to
the rooting medium. There was also a specific interaction between a given bearberry cultivar and a
particular fungus. Methods of propagation of this species are still difficult and time consuming.
Cornus stolonifera (Red Osier Dogwood): easily propagated from stem cuttings and root cuttings.
Hardwood cuttings should be planted in autumn; softwood cuttings in summer.
D-6
SEEDLINGS
Seedlings are available commercially from nurseries, can be grown commercially from locally collected
seed or cuttings, or grown locally from locally collected seed or cuttings. This gives a few more details
about how seedlings are typically packaged, stored and planted.
Packaging
Seedlings grown in a nursery are labelled according to by the size of the “plug”, or small container, that they
are grown and shipped in. The containers have vertical ribs to help prevent the roots from spiralling. The
labels usually start with PSB, indicating plugs (P) in styroblocks (SB). Then, there is a series of 3 numbers,
and a letter. These are as follows:
1. the first digit refers to the diameter of the plug in centimeters
2. the second number (2 digits) refers to the length of the plug in centimeters.
The letter refers to the shipping container for the plugs, with the density per block. The lower the letter
in the alphabet, the younger the plant (A is less than a year old, B is a year, etc.) Common packing sizes
include:
313A: 3 cm diameter; 13 cm long; A, less than a year (these come with 198 cavities or plugs per
block and 936 cavities per meter square)
415B: 4 cm diameter; 15 cm long; B, one year (these come with 112 cavities per block - 527 per
square meter square
Seedlings may simply have their root systems wrapped in peat moss and then are stored bundled in paper
containers. The tops can be either exposed or covered.
Storage of seedlings
Seedlings can be, and frequently are, stored for various lengths of time prior to planting. The main
precautions are to store at temperatures which will keep the seedlings dormant (35to 40'F.) and protect
seedlings from excessive drying.
Once on site, again seedlings that are not able to be planted immediately must be stored correctly. They
should be taken out of their shipping boxes and set in a moist environment with ample sunlight. A ground
medium of sphagnum is preferable, but wooden planks can also be used. If seedlings are left in their boxes,
a disease called Botrytis (which is a gray mould), or other problems are likely to develop.
Seedlings must then be watered regularly to prevent drying out completely.
Planting of Seedlings
A number of site factors influence the trees' chance at survival or successful growth such as:
1.
microsite selection: even if you have chosen the correct species for a given area, there can be a
great variety within that area. Small pockets of wet ground (even 1 foot in diameter or so), small
pockets of very shallow soil over a boulder, a spot where snow stays late in the season, are all
examples of microsites that will affect the trees' chance at survival or successful growth. A number
of species, to take advantage of various microsites, is preferable to one species.
2.
competition: pioneer species tend to be good for initial rehabilitation work; but many are not shade
tolerant. This shade intolerance needs to be viewed from a seed/seedling perspective, not just from
the final growth. For instance, Trembling Aspen is a shade intolerant tree. Even if a site is clear of
trees, the shade from shrubs 1-2 metres high would give little likelihood of survival of seedlings
planted. The site would need to be clear of competition from light. In another example, lawn
grasses create a very tight barrier to most plants, crowding out most woody species. Getting rid of
D-7
the competition from the grasses is needed before great success can be met with other species.
Some grass species are more difficult than others. For instance, the Alberta Forest Service does not
recommend Calamagrostis canadensis (Bluejoint) in rehabilitation work, because it chokes out tree
seedling growth.
3.
soil quality: all taiga conifers possess mycorrhizae, and tree growth and survival would likely be
minimal without them31. Inoculation of mycorrhizae for appears to improve the growth and
survival of conifer seedlings in degraded sites.
Once the appropriate species and sites are chosen, to give the seedling maximum chance, they must be
planted with as few faults as possible. Besides actual physical damage to the plug (e.g., tearing of roots,
breaking of branches) through rough handling, common errors are:
1. J or U roots: this means the roots were not put in vertically, and the root tip curves up, resulting
in poor growth
2. shallow or deep planting: trees should be planted at the same level they came from, i.e., the level
of the soil should not be higher or lower than where they were grown.
3. air pockets: the soil around the seedlings needs to be compacted enough that there are no major
air pocket. Though there must be air spaces in the soil, if pockets are more than just small spaces
between the soil particles, then the roots do not grow properly.
The roots must be in close contact with the soil. The more care taken in the planting process the greater are
the chances of survival; this is particularly true if no additional care is to be given the plants. Planting can be
accomplished with a shovel or with one of a number of planting tools that are available. A depression should
be left around the base of the plant to catch and hold water.
Time
Fall and spring plantings have been successful. Fall planting is not recommended where weather or wind
conditions preclude snow cover. Transplanting seedlings in the spring may be complicated by frozen soil.
Density
The density of planting will be determined by the objective of the project.
Maintenance
Maintenance will depend upon management objectives and budgets. However, watering during dry periods
are particularly critical during the first growing season. Watering is a must if planting is done later than
mid-June.
Availability
The Forestry section of Government of the NWT’s Department of Resources, Wildlife and Economic
Development sometimes has extra tree seedlings left over from reforestation projects that might be available
for planting in communities. These are generally White spruce. A community wanting to check on the
availability of these surplus trees should do so in about April, through their Renewable Resource office, or
through the Forestry Manager in Fort Smith.
Forestry will sometimes also arrange with community groups (e.g., Scouts, Air Cadets) to do tree planting in
a community. The group can sometimes arrange in advance with Forestry to grow additional seedlings for
the community project. These arrangements should be done as early as possible, through their Renewable
Resource office, or through the Forestry Manager in Fort Smith.
31
Harker, D. et al, Landscape Restoration Handbook, U.S Golf Association, New York Audobon Society, 1999
D-8
LARGER TRANSPLANTS
Shrubs and saplings can be lifted, their roots carefully protected, and then transplanted to the new location.
Success depends on factors such as the species, timing, matching of sites, care taken, and maintenance.
Species
Not all species transplant equally well. Plants with deep tap roots are difficult to transplant, and should only
be taken very small (or another method used). Arctic plants have a much larger portion of the plant below
ground than subarctic and southern plants. Up to 90% of Arctic plants is below ground, so getting the roots
necessary for transplanting is extremely difficult. Mats are more likely to succeed than transplanting.
Following is transplanting advise from Sherk's Growing Canada's Floral Emblems
Prickly Rose (Rosa acicularis): move either the whole plant or take a sucker, preferably in the
spring;
Mountain Avens (Dryas integrifolia): because of the taproot, large plants usually do not survive
transplanting, and even young seedlings are difficult to move.
Timing
Plants should spend as little time out of the ground as possible, so have your site prepared and ready before
you purchase or collect plant material. If you are planting greenhouse materials in the early spring, it is
advisable to harden the plants by leaving them outdoors for progressively longer periods before planting.
Planting is best done on an overcast day with high humidity, to reduce the stress to the plant.
Plants should be moved when they are not actively growing, i.e., early spring or early fall. Planting of
nursery grown stock from containers can be done in the summer, but this is NOT the best time to transplant
wild plants. Some species seem to prefer fall or spring. Conifers seem to transplant best in the early fall,
while plants with fleshy root systems are best moved in early spring. Tamarack (Larix laricina) seems to
move well in late fall (once the leaves have fallen).
Site
Plants growing in an open, sunny location in sandy soil will do best transplanted to a similar location. If the
soil is damp and heavy, the plant will not thrive, and likely not live at all. Similarly, plants taken from shady
locations do poorly when transplanted into sunny locations. Their leaves will become sunburned, and they
are unlikely to adapt. Well-matched sites give the best likelihood of success.
As noted in Section 10, fertilizers are generally not necessary, and can be harmful.
Obtain the necessary permits for transplanting, and take care not to damage any other plants.
Technique
Preparing the plant for transplanting in advance helps reduce the shock of transplanting. Plants get their
food from the tiny root hairs at the ends of the structural roots. The more of these you get undisturbed, the
better the chance of success. Digging a trench around the plant the season before transplanting allows the
plant some time to develop feeder roots in the more compact ball of roots you can take. This “root pruning”
is similar to what nurseries do to prepare their plants. They will continually replant their stock, so that the
trees and shrubs develop the small, compact, easy-to-move balls that come with nursery-grown stock. This
trenching method takes some extra time and planning, but will help the plant adapt more easily.
Larger conifers should be sprayed with an anti-transpirant such as Wilt-Pruf or Foli-guard. These reduce
water loss from the leaves during transplanting.
D-9
Prepare your site. Dig the hole as deep as the root ball to be taken, then dig a deeper trench around it. This
way, the plant will sit on firm soil at the level it originally grew and not sink. It may be useful to lift the
tree slightly above the soil’s stain ring that marks the original position. The deeper trench allows you to put
some host soil into the hole with the tree, and any additional soil. Have water available for when the plants
arrive.
When digging the plant, slide it onto burlap or similar to hold the roots together and prevent them from
drying out. Wetting the burlap may be helpful. When transporting, keep the rest of the plant from drying
out too ... leaves left exposed to winds in the back of a truck will quickly dry out, and transplanting will not
be successful.
Do not plant until the depth has been adjusted. Once this is done, place the plant in the centre of the hole,
removing the burlap or other cover. If roots are torn, neatly cut them off. Partly fill the hole with soil, tamp
and wet. Once the water has drained, continue to fill the hole. There should be no large air pockets. Roots
cannot grow through these pockets, and eventually they will subside, leaving a hummocky surface. Tamp
sufficiently that these pockets are removed, without fully compacting the soil.
Water the plant well. Leaving a slight, saucer-shaped depression around the plant will help it gather water in
the first couple of seasons while it is establishing itself in its new home.
Maintenance
Pruning back of transplanted trees and shrubs has been recommended in the past. However, it is now felt
that better success comes with pruning only dead or injured branches when you transplant. This allows as
many leaves as possible to furnish food for the plant, and the plant does not have as many wounds to heal.
Do not paint wounds. Other pruning is sometimes done for shape, but usually a natural form is better for
natural landscaping.
Watering will be needed for until the transplanted material is established, often two seasons. Deep soaking
is preferred; trees and shrubs benefit little from frequent, light waterings. However, waterlogged soil is also
detrimental.
D - 10
TABLE
SHOWING WOODY PLANTS, INTERMEDIATE-SIZED SHRUBS
(900 mm to 4.5 metres tall at maturity)
Acid
Common name
Scientific name
tolerance
Soil
conditions
X
12 feet
12 feet
slow
X
6 feet
med
X
4 feet
rapid
X
4 feet
rapid
X
12 feet
high
Red-Osier
dogwood
Silverberry
Cornus stolonifera
med
Eleagnus commutata
med
Bush cinquefoil
Potentilla fruticosa
high
X
Prickly rose
Rosa acicularis
high
X
Red raspberry
Rubus idaeus
med
Highbush
cranberry
Virbunum edule
med
X
Cover
rate
med
dry mod wet
X
Height
at
X
X
maturity
Natural
Reprod
seed
Spread
method
stolon
seed,
root
seed,
root
seed,
root
seed,
root
seed,
root
seed
seed
seed,
root
seed, root
stolon
seed
D - 11
TABLE
SHOWING WOODY PLANT GROUNDCOVERS
(less than 3 feet tall at maturity)
Acid
Soil
Height
Common name
Scientific name
tolerance
conditions
at
maturity
Horizontal
juniper
Bog rosemary
Juniperus
communis nana
Andromeda polifolia
high
high
Alpine
bearberry
Arctostaphylos alpina
med
Red Fruit
bearberry
Arctostaphylos rubra
high
Bearberry
med
Polar willow
Arctostaphylos uvaursi
Salix polaris
Netleaf willow
Salix reticulata
high
X X ½ foot
slow
Dwarf Arctic
birch
Bunchberry
Betula nana
high
X X 3 feet
slow
Cornus canadensis
high
X
Crowberry
Empetrum nigrum
Ledum decumbens
high
slow
high
X X 1/3 foot
X 2 feet
high
X X 3 feet
Sweetgale
Ledum
groenlandicum
Myrica gale
high
X 3 feet
Cloudberry
Rubus chamaemorus
high
X X ½ foot
slow
Bog blueberry
Vaccinium
uliginosum
Vaccinium vitis-ideae
high
X X 3 feet
slow
high
X X ½ foot
slow
Narrow-leaf
Labrador tea
Labrador tea
Lingonberry
Cover
rate
Natural
Reprod
Spread
method
X X X 2 feet
med
seed
stolon
X 2 feet
slow
seed, stolon
seed, stolon
dry mod wet
½ foot
slow
seed,
root
seed
X X ½ foot
slow
seed
seed, stolon
½ foot
med
seed
seed, stolon
slow
seed,
root
seed,
root
seed,
stump
seed, stolon
seed,
root
seed
seed,
root sprouts
seed, stolon
med
seed,
root
seed, stolon
med
seed,
root
seed,
root
seed,
root
seed,
root
seed,
root
seed, stolon
X X
X X
high
X 1/5 foot
½ foot
slow
rapid
seed, stolen
seed
seed, stolon
seed, stolon,
root sprouts
seed
seed,
root sprouts
Tables adapted from: Alaska Rural Development Council, A Revegetative Guide for Alaska, Cooperative
Extension Service University of Alaska, 1977
D - 12
APPENDIX E:
DEFINITIONS
Annuals: plants that live only for one season. They do not come up a second year from roots or crown, but
have to grow new from seed every summer.
Biennials: require two years to complete life cycle. Grow vegetatively during the first year and fruit and die
in the second.
Bollard: a heavy post (wooden, concrete or metal) used to prevent vehicles from entering a pedestrian area
Erosion: detachment and transport of individual soil particles (can be by air or water). It differs from
slumping or mass wasting, which involve relatively large, intact masses of soil and rock under the influence
of gravity (rather than the influence of water or air).
Forbs: non-grass-like (broad-leaved) perennials (though sometimes annuals are includes); commonly called
“wildflowers”
Grasses: Though usually associated with lawns, grasses are a large family (with over 100 species found in
NWT and Nunavut). They have hollow, jointed stems and leaves in two rows on the stems. The seeds are
borne between two scales.
Graminoids: grasses, sedges and rushes (grasses and grass-like plants)
Herbaceous: non-woody plants (“herb-like”); the stems are soft and wither, and the plants produce seed
Indigenous: A plant (or other species) that grows naturally (without human intervention) in the region. See
also “Native”
Legume: nitrogen-fixing plants of the Pea (Leguminosae) family; often having long tap roots; often good for
holding soil
Mycorrhizae: (meaning fungus-root), a fungus associated with most types of plant roots in a symbiotic
relationship. The fungal strands extend through the soil, collect and transport nutrients back to the plant
roots, and also protect the host plants from root-rot pathogens.
Native plant: How “native” is native? On site? Within 5 km? Within last 10 years? etc. The definition
will vary. Usually, using native plants on the site means planting those originally occurring naturally
(without human intervention) from the ecozone.
Rhizomes: horizontal underground stems; new roots and leafy shoots grow from them at intervals, spreading
the plants vegetatively (i.e., without having to produce flowers or seeds).
Rudirals: first “invaders” in a disturbed landscape; pioneer species. Further south these will often include
common introduced weeds.
E-1
APPENDIX F:
Sources of information
Alaska Rural Development Council, A Revegetative Guide for Alaska, Cooperative Extension Service
University of Alaska, 1977
Alberta Government, Environmental Resource Centre, Alberta Naturalization Network Society, LowMaintenance Landscaping, Edmonton, 1995
Babb, T.A. High Arctic Disturbance Studies, [date, publication unknown; perhaps from Journal of Applied
Ecology 11:549-562, 1974 with Bliss]
Babeux, Patrice, G. Houle, Renaturalisation des Surfaces Decapees au Voisinage des Habitations dans le
village nordique de Kuujjuaq, CMHC, 1996
Bliss, L.C. ed., Botanical Studies in the Mackenzie Valley, Mackenzie Delta Region and the Arctic Islands,
Task Force on Northern Oil Development, DIAND, 1973
Crawford, R.M.M. ed., Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Disturbance and
Recovery of Arctic Terrestrial Ecosystems, Rovaniemi, Finland, Sept 1995, Kluwer Academic Publishers,
1997
Dennis, J., Arctic environment: past, present & future, Proceedings of a symposium held at McMaster
University, 1991
Ecological Stratification Working Group, A National Ecological Framework for Canada, Agriculture and
Agri-Food Canada, Environment Canada, 1996
E.T. Enterprises, Tree planting project for theTown of Norman Wells: Aspen, birch and alder research
trials, White birch and Balsam poplar seed collection, White spruce cone collection, Herbarium of the Sahtu
Region, Town of Norman Wells and the Department of Resources, Wildlife and Economic Development,
1998, 1999 and 2000
French, H. Sump Studies I: Terrain disturbances, Canada. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, 1978
Gardes M; Dahlberg A. Mycorrhizal diversity in Arctic and alpine tundra: An open question. New
Phytologist. 133(1):147-157, 1996
Government of the Northwest Territories, Naturally North -The Natural Regions of the Western Northwest
Territories, Parks and Tourism, Department of Resources, Wildlife and Economic Development, no date
(approx. 1998)
Government of the Northwest Territories, Naturally north - The natural regions of Nunavut. Parks and
Tourism, Department of Resources, Wildlife and Economic Development, no date (approx. 1998)
Hardy BBT Limited, Manual of Plant Species Suitability for Reclamation in Alberta, 2nd Edition, Alberta
Land Conservation and Reclamation Council, 1989
Hardy Associates (1978) Ltd. Revegetation and Impact Assessment Studies in the Mackenzie River Region,
Arctic Institute of North America, 1980
F-1
Harker, D. et al, Landscape Restoration Handbook, U.S Golf Association, New York Audubon Society,
1999
Heginbottom, J.A., Some effects of Surface Disturbance on the Permafrost Active Layer at Inuvik, N.W.T.
Geological Survey of Canada, Environmental-Social Program Northern Pipelines, September 1973,
Information Canada R72-9573
Hutchinson, T. C. and A.L. Kuja, The Use of native and agricultural plant species to re-vegetate northern
mine tailings, DIAND Northern Affairs Program Environmental Studies No. 43, 1988
Kennedy, Catherine E. editor, Guidelines for reclamation/revegetation in the Yukon, Yukon Renewable
Resources, 1993
Kidd, Janet G. and Karen N. Max, EKATI Diamond Mine reclamation research program, 1999 Annual
report, ABR Inc. Environmental Research & Services, 2000
Kielland,K. Amino-acid absorption by Arctic plants – Implications for plant nutrition and nitrogen cycling.
Ecology 75: 2373-2383. 1994
Kupeuna, Pamela, Community Revegetation Projects in NWT, Department of Municipal and Community
Affairs, GNWT,1987
Landscape Architect and Specifier News, vol 17 No. 11, 2001
Larsen, James Arthur, Northern forest border in Canada and Alaska : Biotic communities and ecological
relationships, Springer-Verlag New York, 1989
Lippitt L., M. Fidelibus, & D. Bainbridge, Native seed collection, processing and storage for revegetation
projects in Western U.S.A., Restoration Ecology Vol 2 No. 2, 1994
Native Prairie Guidelines Working Group, Revised Guidelines for minimizing disturbance on native prairie
and parkland areas, Alberta Energy and Utilities Board, 2000Olson, Rod & R. Hastings, ed.. Northern
ecology and resource management : Memorial essays honouring Don Gill, University of Alberta Press,
1984
Nicholson, W.E., Johnson, Younkin, Preliminary Reclamation Studies - Polar Gas Project, Hardy
Associates Ltd., 1978
Pearman, Myrna, and T. Pike, NatureScape Alberta: Creating and caring for wildlife habitat at home, Red
Deer River Naturalists and Federation of Alberta Naturalists, 2000
Peterson, E. & N. Revegetation information applicable to mining sites in Northern Canada, Environmental
Studies No. 3, Indian and Northern Affairs,1977
Pielou E.C., A Naturalist's Guide to the Arctic, University of Chicago Press, 1994
Polunin, Nicholas, Botany of the Canadian Eastern Arctic: Part III, Vegetation and Ecology, Mines and
Geology Branch, Bulletin No. 104 of Biological Series No. 32. Canada Department of Mines and
Resources, Ottawa. 1948
Porsild, A.E. Vascular Plants of the Western Arctic Archipelago, Bulletin No. 135, Department of Northern
Affairs and National Resources, National Parks Branch,1955
F-2
Pruitt Jr. W., Some aspects of the interrelationships of permafrost and tundra biotic communities. In
Proceedings of the Conference on Productivity and Conservation in Northern Circumpolar Lands, 1969
Reynolds, J., Tenhunen, J., eds., Landscape function and disturbance in Arctic tundra, Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg, 1996
Ritchie, James C., Past and present vegetation of the far Northwest of Canada, University of Toronto Press,
1984
Schwabenbauer & Associates Ltd. Landscape Architects, Naturescapes: A new approach for Edmonton's
school and park sites, Joint Use Agreement: Cooperating for Edmonton, 1999
Sherk, Lawrence C., Growing Canada's Floral Emblems, Canadian Wildflower Society, 1988
Shirazi, M.A. and H. Hendricks, The role of thermal regime in tundra plant community restoration,
Restoration Ecology Vol 6 No.1, March 1998
Smith, T. and D.W. James, Environmental Studies No.1 Sump Studies III ---Biologic Changes in Permafrost
Terra Adjacent to High Arctic Oil and Gas Wellsites, Arctic Land Use Research Program, DIAND, 1979
Sonnesson, Mats ed.. Research in Arctic life and earth sciences: Present knowledge and future perspectives
Proceedings of a Symposium held September, 1985, Abisko, Sweden, Various papers, e.g., Callaghan,
Carlsson and Svensson paper
Steffen, Robertson and Kirsten (B.C.) Inc., Mine reclamation in Northwest Territories and Yukon, Northern
Affairs Program, DIAND, 1992
Strang, R.M., Studies of Vegetation, Landform and Permafrost in the Mackenzie Valley: Some Case
Histories in Disturbance Canadian Forestry Service, Environment Canada, for the Environmental-Social
Program Northern Pipelines, Information Canada R72-8173, 1973
Vaartnou, M., Pipeline revegetation research: Alaska Highway test site progress report - 1981 Vaartnou and
Sons Enterprises Ltd., 1982
Vitt, D., Marsh, Bovey, Mosses, Lichens & Ferns of Northwestern North America, Lone Pine Publishing,
1988
Walker, D.A., D. Cate, J. Brown, C. Racine, editors, Disturbance and Recovery of Arctic Alaskan Tundra
Terrain: A review of Recent Investigations, US Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory,
1987
Younkin, W., H Martens, Evaluation of selected reclamation studies in Northern Canada, Hardy Associates
(1978) Ltd. 1985
F-3
APPENDIX G:
Sources of materials
The first “source” of materials is prevention: do less damage, and fewer materials will be needed!
Then, salvage what you have: topsoil, organic material, seeds, sods, individual plants. Salvage includes
removing mats of tundra before placing gravel, harvesting seed, separately stripping topsoil from subsoil
during excavation, and so forth. This take planning, but is absolutely worth the effort. Store all these well
(for instance, you can transplant plants from your site, to the “new” site after development...but it will
require planning for placing the plants temporarily).
Next, look to other construction sites that will be disturbed for sources of material. Expanding gravel pits,
road rights-of-ways, new subdivision...are all potential sources. Of course, ask first! The owners may well
want to use the materials themselves! Saving overburden from gravel pits, landfill areas and similarly
disturbed areas in a community may be able to be arranged with your community council.
One Canadian company is north of 60 (Arctic Alpine Seed in Whitehorse) where seed and some plugs can
be purchased. Most provinces have a plant society (e.g., Alberta Native Plant Council) that can assist with a
listing of up-to-date sources of seeds, plugs and native plants. As close to ecotype as possible...get plants
from northern parts of the provinces (within the boreal forest) rather than more southerly growers.
Seedlings in the NWT
The Forestry section of the Government of the NWTs Department of Resources, Wildlife and Economic
Development sometimes has extra trees (left over from reforestation projects) that are might be available for
planting in communities. These are generally white spruce. A community wanting to check on the
availability of these surplus trees should do so in about April, through their Renewable Resource office, or
through the Forestry Manager in Fort Smith.
Forestry will sometimes also arrange with community groups (e.g., Scouts, Air Cadets) to do tree planting in
a community. The group can sometimes arrange in advance with Forestry to grow additional seedlings for
the community project. These arrangements should be done as early as possible, through their Renewable
Resource office, or through the Forestry Manager in Fort Smith.
Mycorrhizae
Premier Horticulture Ltd, Dorval, Quebec, (1 800 667-5366, www.premierhort.com) lists one product with
mycorrhizae. PRO-MIX 'BX' with Mycorise® is listed as a general purpose' growing medium suitable for
suitable for vegetable transplants, rooting of cuttings and propagation of a wide variety of plants. The
medium (mostly peat moss) contains a mycorrhizal inoculum, Glomus intraradices.
The Boletis mushrooms, common in much of the North, are an edible mycorrhizal species. Finding people
who know about edible mushrooms may lead you to a source of Boletis.
G-1
APPENDIX H: Contacts
Newfoundland:
Madonna Bishop, Memorial University of Newfoundland (709) 737-3328
Ken Anthony, Recreation Director, Town of Happy Valley Goose Bay, (709) 896-8542
Nelson Flynn, Happy Valley Goose Bay, (709) 896-1923
Bill Jardine, St. John's (709) 724-3168
Nunavik:
Jim Walsh, Housing Manager, Municipality of Kuujjuaq, (819) 964-2943
John Ford, private contractor, Kuujjuaq, (819) 964-2796
Ian Robertson , Secretary/Treasurer, Municipality of Kuujjuaq,(819) 964-2943
Watson Fournier, Kativik Housing Bureau, Kuujjuak, (819) 964-2000
Nunavut:
John Knapp, Polaris Mine General Manager, (867) 253-2201
Bruce Parker, Planner/Development Officer, Iqaluit (867) 979-5631
Don Hutton, Technical Services, Nunavut Housing Corporation, Iqaluit
(867) 979-4421
Bob Chapel, GN Planner, Rankin Inlet, (867) 645-8115
John Laird, Landscape Architect, Iqaluit, 979-2472
NWT:
Rick Calvert Western GeoCo., Inuvik 777-3303
Eason Sawchuk, ILA, Tuktoyaktuk, (867) 977-2202
Helen Butler, BHP Billiton (867) 880-2292
Orest Watsyk, gardener, Yellowknife 873-2161
Yukon:
John Mitchell, Han Construction, Dawson (867) 993-5220
Randy Lewis, Arctic Alpine Seeds (867) 667-2756
Other:
Dr. Rene J. Belland, Director of Research, Devonian Botanic Garden, Edmonton,
(780) 987-3054
Christine Cook, Moss Mosaics, Connecticut (203) 268-3218
Labon 1-800-565-1050 (Boucherville, near Montreal)
H-1