GCSE
HISTORY A
90401A - Medicine through Time
Mark scheme
9040
June 2014
Version/Stage: 0.1 Final
Mark schemes are prepared by the Lead Assessment Writer and considered, together with the
relevant questions, by a panel of subject teachers. This mark scheme includes any amendments
made at the standardisation events which all associates participate in and is the scheme which was
used by them in this examination. The standardisation process ensures that the mark scheme covers
the students’ responses to questions and that every associate understands and applies it in the same
correct way. As preparation for standardisation each associate analyses a number of students’
scripts: alternative answers not already covered by the mark scheme are discussed and legislated for.
If, after the standardisation process, associates encounter unusual answers which have not been
raised they are required to refer these to the Lead Assessment Writer.
It must be stressed that a mark scheme is a working document, in many cases further developed and
expanded on the basis of students’ reactions to a particular paper. Assumptions about future mark
schemes on the basis of one year’s document should be avoided; whilst the guiding principles of
assessment remain constant, details will change, depending on the content of a particular
examination paper.
Further copies of this Mark Scheme are available from aqa.org.uk
Copyright © 2014 AQA and its licensors. All rights reserved.
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MARK SCHEME – GCSE HISTORY A – 90401A – JUNE 2014
GENERAL CERTIFICATE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
HISTORY SPECIFICATION A
A
Introduction

Consistency of Marking
Consistency of marking is of the essence in all public examinations. This factor is particularly
important in a subject like History which offers a choice of specifications and a choice of options
within them. It is therefore of vital importance that assistant examiners apply this marking scheme
as directed by the Principal Examiner in order to facilitate comparability with the marking of all the
other History specifications and options offered by the AQA.

Subject Content
The revised specification addresses subject content through the identification of ‘key questions’
which focus on important historical issues. These ‘key questions’ give emphasis to the view that
History is concerned with the analysis of historical problems and issues, the study of which
encourages all candidates, but particularly the more able, to make judgements grounded in
evidence and information.

The Assessment Objectives (AOs)
Assessment Objectives
AO1
Recall, select and communicate their knowledge and understanding
of history
% weighting
30
Demonstrate their understanding of the past through explanation
and analysis of:
AO2

key concepts: causation, consequence, continuity, change
and significance within an historical context

key features and characteristics of the periods studied and
the relationship between them
30
Understand, analyse and evaluate:
AO3


a range of source material as part of an historical enquiry

how aspects of the past have been interpreted and
represented in different ways as part of an historical enquiry
40
Levels of Response Marking Schemes
The mark scheme which follows is of the ‘levels of response’ type showing that candidates are
expected to demonstrate their mastery of historical skills in the context of their knowledge and
understanding of History. All candidates take a common examination paper – there is no tiering.
Consequently, it is reasonable to expect to encounter the full range of attainment and this marking
scheme has been designed to differentiate candidates’ attainment by outcome and to reward
positively what the candidates know, understand and can do.
Before scrutinising and applying the detail of the specific mark scheme which follows, assistant
examiners are required to familiarise themselves with the instructions and guidance on the general
principles to apply in determining into which level of response an answer should fall and in deciding
on a mark within that particular level.
Good examining is, ultimately, about the consistent application of judgement. This mark scheme
provides the necessary framework for exercising that judgement but it cannot cover all eventualities.
This is especially so in a subject like History, which in part relies upon different interpretations and
different emphases given to the same content.
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MARK SCHEME – GCSE HISTORY A – 90401A – JUNE 2014
B
Question targets and Levels of response

Question targets
The mark scheme for each question is prefaced by an assessment objective ‘target’. This is an
indication of the skill which it is expected candidates will use in answering the question and is
directly based on the relevant assessment objectives. However, it does not mean that other
answers which have merit will not be rewarded.

Identification of Levels of response
There are several ways in which any question can be answered – in a simple way by less able
candidates and in more sophisticated ways by candidates of greater ability. In the marking scheme
different types of answers will be identified and will be arranged in a series of levels of response.
Levels of response have been identified on the basis that the full range of candidates entered for
the GCSE examination will be able to respond positively. Each ‘level’ therefore represents a stage
in the development of the candidate’s quality of thinking, and, as such, recognition by the
assistant examiner of the relative differences between each level descriptor is of paramount
importance.

Placing an answer within a Level
When marking each part of each question, examiners must first place the answer in a particular
level and then, and only then, decide on the actual mark within the level, which should be recorded
in the margin. The level of response attained should also be indicated at the end of each
answer. In most cases, it will be helpful to annotate the answer by noting in the margin where a
particular level has been reached, e.g. Level 1 may have been reached on line 1, L3 on line 5 and
L1 again on line 7. When the whole answer has been read and annotated in this way, the highest of
the Levels clearly attained and sustained should be awarded. Remember that it is often possible
to reach the highest level without going through the lower levels. Marks are not cumulative for
any question. There should be no ‘totting up’ of points made which are then converted into marks.
Examiners should feel free to comment on part of any answer if it explains why a particular level
has been awarded rather than one lower or higher. Such comments can be of assistance when the
script is looked at later in the awarding process.
If an answer seems to fit into two or more levels, award the higher or highest level.

What is a sustained response?
By a sustained response, we mean that the candidate has applied the appropriate level of
thought to the particular issues in the sub-question.
A response does not necessarily have to be sustained throughout the whole answer, but an answer
in which merely a few words seem to show a fleeting recognition of historical complexity is not
sufficient to attain a higher level.
In some cases, as you read an answer to a sub-question, it will be clear that particular levels have
been reached at certain points in the answer. If so, remember to identify them in the margin as you
proceed. At the end of the sub-question, award the highest level that has been sustained.
In other cases you may reach the end of the sub-question without having been able to pinpoint a
level. In such cases, simply record the level awarded at the end of the sub-question.
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C
Deciding on marks within a level
A particular level of response may cover a range of marks. Therefore, in making a decision about a
specific mark to award, it is vitally important to think first of the lower/lowest mark within the
level.
In giving more credit with the level, examiners should ask themselves several questions relating to
candidate attainment. The more positive the answers, the higher should be the mark awarded. We
want to avoid ‘bunching’ of marks. Levels mark schemes can produce regression to the mean,
which should be avoided. At all times, therefore, examiners should be prepared to use the full
range of marks available for a particular level and for a particular question. Remember – mark
positively at all times.
Consider whether the answer is:


precise in its use of supporting factual information

appropriately detailed

factually accurate

appropriately balanced, or markedly better in some areas than in others

set in the historical context as appropriate to the question

displaying appropriate quality of written communication skills
Note about indicative content
The mark scheme provides examples of historical content (indicative content) which candidates
may deploy in support of an answer within a particular level. Do bear in mind that these are only
examples; exhaustive lists of content are not provided so examiners might expect some
candidates to deploy alternative information to support their answers.
This indicative content must not however determine the level into which an answer is placed; the
candidate’s level of critical thinking determines this. Remember that the number of points
made by a candidate may be taken into account only after a decision has been taken about the
quality (level) of the response.

Some things to remember
Mark positively at all times.
Do not be afraid to award maximum marks within a level where it is possible to do so. Do not fail to
give a maximum mark to an appropriate answer because you can think of something (or the
marking scheme indicates something) that might be included but which is missing from the
particular response.
Do not think in terms of a model answer to the question. Every question should be marked on its
merits.
As a general rule, give credit for what is accurate, correct or valid.
Obviously, errors can be given no credit but, at the same time, the existence of an error should
not prejudice you against the rest of what could be a perfectly valid answer.
It is important, therefore, to use the full range of marks where appropriate.
Do not use half marks.
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D
Some practical points

Answers in note form
Answers in note form to any question should be credited in so far as the candidate’s meaning is
communicated. You must not try to read things into what has been written.

Diagrams, etc.
Credit should be given for information provided by the candidates in diagrams, tables, maps etc.,
provided that it has not already been credited in another form.

Answers which run on to another sub-section
If a candidate starts to answer the next sub-section in an earlier one, by simply running the answer
on, give credit for that material in the appropriate sub-section.

Answers which do not fit the marking scheme
Inevitably, some answers will not fit the marking scheme but may legitimately be seen as worthy of
credit. Assess such answers in terms of the difficulty/sophistication of the thought involved. If it is
believed that the ‘thought level’ equates with one of the levels in the marking scheme, award it a
corresponding mark.
Make sure you identify such cases with an A (for alternative) in your sub-total, e.g. as B2A/3. Also
write a brief comment to explain why this alternative has been awarded.
If in doubt, always telephone your Team Leader for advice.
E
Assessment of Spelling, Punctuation and Grammar
Spelling, punctuation and grammar will be assessed via question 1(d) in Section A.
Four marks will be allocated for Spelling, Punctuation and Grammar in this question.
The performance descriptions are provided below.
High performance
4 marks
Candidates spell, punctuate and use the rules of grammar with consistent accuracy and effective
control of meaning in the context of the demands of the question. Where required, they use a wide
range of specialist terms adeptly and with precision.
Intermediate performance
2–3 marks
Candidates spell, punctuate and use the rules of grammar with considerable accuracy and general
control of meaning in the context of the demands of the question. Where required, they use a good
range of specialist terms with facility.
Threshold performance
1 mark
Candidates spell, punctuate and use the rules of grammar with reasonable accuracy in the context
of the demands of the question. Any errors do not hinder meaning in the response. Where required,
they use a limited range of specialist terms appropriately.
The marks allocated for Spelling, Punctuation and Grammar will achieve a total weighting of
5% of the total marks for the qualification.
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MARK SCHEME – GCSE HISTORY A – 90401A – JUNE 2014
Question 1
(a)
What does Source A suggest about the treatment of disease in the Ancient World?
4
Explain your answer using Source A and your knowledge.
Target:
Level 1:
Level 2:
Level 3:
Knowledge and understanding applied to comprehend and draw an
inference from an historical source (AO1/AO3)
Candidates either submit no evidence or fail to address the question.
0
Answers that select details from the source or show some knowledge of
the treatment of disease in the Ancient World
E.g. the picture shows a medicine man
It shows a sketch from a cave in France of an owl’s head
It looks like a man in a costume.
1
Answers that draw an informed inference based on the source and/or
own knowledge
E.g. the painting shows a prehistoric man dressed as a medicine man.
It shows that men could paint so they might have had medical skills as they
were civilised.
Answers that develop a complex, informed inference based on the
source and/or own knowledge
E.g. more complex references such as;
Paintings usually found in the dark recesses of the caves and therefore seen
as magical.
Medicine man is dressed in mythical costume with antlers and an owl
Mask in order to make his role as medicine man important.
Medicine men must have been successful or they would not have been
painted in the caves.
•
•
2-3
4
Refers to and explains supernatural and natural treatments
Refers to other periods in the Ancient world to support how long
supernatural approaches dominated.
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MARK SCHEME – GCSE HISTORY A – 90401A – JUNE 2014
(b)
What different treatment of disease is suggested by Source B?
6
Explain your answer by referring to Sources A and B and your knowledge.
Target:
Knowledge and understanding applied to comprehend and draw
inferences from two historical sources (AO1/AO2/AO3)
Candidates either submit no evidence or fail to address the question.
Level 1:
Level 2:
Level 3:
0
Answers that select details from Source B
E.g. they can operate indoors.
The patient is not in pain.
He is having his arm bled
The doctor is wearing a hat
1-2
Answers that provide a simple comparison based on the details of both
sources
E.g. Source A shows a medicine man in a costume whereas Source B is a
doctor wearing everyday clothes. The patient in Source B is having minor
surgery. They both look important and in look in control of the situation.
Doctor in Source B has metal scalpel (flint in Source A?)
3-4
Answers that develop an understanding or draw informed inferences
about the treatment of disease based on the details of both sources
At this level expect the candidate to cover both similarities and differences for
the top of the level. One covered with a complex informed inference can also
gain top of level.
E.g. highlights differences in thinking of medicine men;
Source A suggest treatments which are based on magic(explained)
Source B looks more scientific and shows a minor operation to bleed the
patient who has an imbalance of the four humors (explained).
5-6
Shift in thinking by mediaeval period to natural cures.
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MARK SCHEME – GCSE HISTORY A – 90401A – JUNE 2014
(c)
Why was the treatment of disease different by the time of Source B?
8
Explain your answer using Sources A and B and your knowledge
Target:
Explanation and understanding of the different ideas and attitudes and
how they might change over time (AO1/AO2/AO3)
Candidates either submit no evidence or fail to address the question.
Level 1:
Level 2:
Level 3:
0
Answers that select details from sources
OR
Answers that say how the sources are different
Source A is from prehistoric times and Source B is from medieval times
Source A is a painting Source B is a drawing
It is clearer what is happening in Source B. A copy has had to be made of the
cave paining so you can see what it is in Source A.
1-2
Answers showing simple reasoning about differences based on
changes over time, place or author
E.g. they knew more about disease and infection by time of Source B.
Medical books had been written by this time. They knew about natural
causes.
3-5
Answers showing developed reasoning about differences based on
changes over time, place or author
E.g. references to:
• Writing and production of books (communication) discusses impact.
• Civilised – living in towns and not nomadic leading to growing body of
knowledge
• Religion tasking over from simple superstition, growing scientific
knowledge (Science and Technology)
• Spread of ideas from the Greeks/Romans/Chinese/Muslims
(communication)
• Impact of individuals e.g. Galen, Hippocrates (Individuals).
6-8
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MARK SCHEME – GCSE HISTORY A – 90401A – JUNE 2014
(d)
Throughout history many factors that helped to improve the treatment of disease.
How important has the role of the individual been in improving the treatment of
disease compared with other factors?
8
Explain your answer. You may use Sources A, B and C and your knowledge of
different factors.
SPaG
Target:
An understanding and evaluation of causation (AO1/AO2/AO3)
Candidates either submit no evidence or fail to address the question.
Level 1:
Level 2:
4
Answers that provide general statements, describe single factors or
factual details about disease and infection
Covers a single factor; individual, Government, technology, medical
knowledge and communications. Candidate will probably focus on an
individual. They may focus on Pasteur as he is the focus for Source C.
0
1-2
Answers that comment briefly on several factors, to do with
improvement in disease and infection
May tend to focus on a list of factors with few comments. May list more
factors than comments upon.
3-4
E.g. the understanding of the causes or disease and infection was improved
by a lot of factors including, chance, the individual and government. The
individual was very important. People like Louis Pasteur were very important.
Sir Alexander Fleming was lucky in discovering penicillin.
Level 3:
Answers that recognise and explain several factors to do with
improvement in disease and infection in specific detail
Science and technology, the individual, chance, war and communications.
Individual factors are covered and candidate begins to link them together
effectively.
5-6
E.g. links to Source C and the benefits of technology and the ability to
produce large quantities of penicillin. Sees the importance of education and
the written medical books. Development of communications to share ideas in
the late 19th century.
Level 4:
Answers that develop out of Level 3 and evaluate the relative
importance of individual factors or come to a summary assessment
about the factors involved or provide details of the links between
factors
The key will be the relative importance of each factor linked to the pace of
change. There should be a clear evaluation within the answer. Candidates
will be expected to make clear points backed up with historical evidence and
an evaluative explanation.
NB: Discount factors solely linked to surgery. Candidates who link the
individual to the contribution of other factors e.g. Scientific and Technological
developments should be placed at Level 4 e.g. Pasteur needed the
microscope to confirm Germ Theory.
7-8
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MARK SCHEME – GCSE HISTORY A – 90401A – JUNE 2014
Question 2
(a)
Choose one of the factors below which has influenced the development in public health.
•
•
Government (e.g. through Public Health Acts, the Liberals’ Social Reforms)
Science and Technology (e.g. public health facilities in the Roman period,
housing in the 20th century)
4
Describe the influence of your chosen factor on the development of Public Health.
Target:
Understanding of the key features of the period (AO1)
Candidates either submit no evidence or fail to address the question.
Level 1:
Level 2:
0
Answers that show recognition and simple understanding of the key
factor
E.g. Governments;
• Roman Government
• Impact of the church (medieval)
• Town councils (Municipal councils) 16th–17th centuries
• 19th century central government
• 19th century Boards of Health
• 20th century Liberal reforms
• 20th century labour Government – NHS
1-2
Answers that explain and show understanding in a broader context of
the factor
E.g. Science and technology:
• Government encouraging a pro-active approach.
• Scientific investigations – Edwin Chadwick, John Snow
• Building abilities of Romans and Victorians
• 20th century research.
3-4
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MARK SCHEME – GCSE HISTORY A – 90401A – JUNE 2014
(b)
Which of these factors was more important in the development of Public Health?
•
•
Government (e.g. through Public Health Acts, the Liberals’ Social Reforms)
Science and Technology (e.g. public health facilities in the Roman period, housing
in the 20th century)
4
Explain your answer. Try to include both factors in your answer.
Target:
Evaluation and understanding of the key factors (AO1/AO2)
Candidates either submit no evidence or fail to address the question.
0
Level 1:
Describes the importance of one factor
E.g. biographical accounts of the work of (say) Pasteur, Koch, Fleming.
1-2
Level 2:
Answers that comment briefly on both factors in a simple comparison
E.g. there were improvements due to both factors. Science provides the
reasons and governments have the power to change things.
OR
Answers that consider one factors’ contribution to the development of
public health
e.g. Science and technology:
• Scientific ideas – miasmic theory(some truth)
• Scientific investigations – Edwin Chadwick, John Snow
• Building abilities of Romans and Victorians
• 20th century research.
Where evaluation focusses on single factor (L2)
3-5
Level 3:
Answers that explain and evaluate both factors contribution to the
improvements in the prevention and cure of infections and disease
Clearly evaluates the contributions of both factors. May come to a conclusion
that one factor was more significant than the other at certain times.
E.g. the Romans improved public health but they did not really have the
scientific knowledge to understand the effect of what they did. They just knew
it worked. By the 19th century people were beginning to understand the
causes of disease end infection and had the ability and the desire to do
something about it. In conclusion the most important factor was…
6-8
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MARK SCHEME – GCSE HISTORY A – 90401A – JUNE 2014
Question 3
(a)
Choose one of the public health problems below.
•
•
The Great Plague of 1665 to 1666
Cholera in the 19th century
4
What did people at that time think caused the epidemic disease you have chosen?
Target:
Understanding of the key features of the period (AO1)
Candidates either submit no evidence or fail to address the question.
Level 1:
0
Answers that show recognition and simple understanding of the public
health problem
Great Plague
• Spread by animals
• Sent by God
• Miasmic Theory
• Position of planets, comets and stars
1-2
Cholera
• Water (John Snow)
• Miasmic Theory
• Living conditions
• Quality of drinking water
• Condition of River Thames
• God
Level 2:
Answers that explain and show understanding in a broader context of
the public health problem
May link cases to known medical knowledge at that time.
3-4
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MARK SCHEME – GCSE HISTORY A – 90401A – JUNE 2014
(b)
Which epidemic disease was more successfully dealt with at that time?
•
•
The Great Plague of 1665 to 1666
Cholera in the 19th century
8
Explain your answer. Try to include both epidemic diseases in your answer.
Target:
Evaluation and understanding of the key features of the period (AO1/AO2)
Candidates either submit no evidence or fail to address the question.
Level 1:
Level 2:
Level 3:
0
Describes the importance of one epidemic disease
E.g. in the nineteenth century there were great steps forward like
understanding how cholera was spread.
1-2
Answers that comment briefly on both epidemic diseases in a simple
comparison
E.g. there were improvements in both periods. The Great Plague eventually
disappeared thanks to the Fire of London and rebuilding London.
OR
Answers that consider one periods’ contribution to the improvements in
public health
E.g. the work of government in the 19th century…may link to changes to
follow in the early 20th century.
3-5
Answers that explain and evaluate both epidemic diseases contribution
to the improvements in public health
Clearly evaluates the contributions of both periods. May come to a conclusion
that one period was more significant than the other at certain times.
E.g. improvements in the 19th century were more effective with the setting up
of fresh water supplies, and sewerage disposal which is still having a positive
effect today.
6-8
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MARK SCHEME – GCSE HISTORY A – 90401A – JUNE 2014
Question 4
(a)
Choose one of the periods below which influenced the development of surgery and
anatomy:
•
•
The Renaissance (c1450–c1700)
The 20th century
4
Describe surgery and anatomy in your chosen period.
Target:
Understanding of the key features of the period chosen (AO1)
Candidates either submit no evidence or fail to address the question.
Level 1:
Level 2:
0
Answers that show recognition and simple understanding of the key
period chosen from the question
Answers will show simple recognition of chosen period
E.g. in the Renaissance they were allowed to cut up bodies.
E.g. in the 20th century they can do key hole surgery and heart surgery.
1-2
Answers that explain and show understanding in a broader context of
the period chosen
Answers will show knowledge of some distinctive features of the chosen
period.
E.g. the Renaissance saw a range of improvements to both surgery and
anatomy. Vesalius produced his book, The fabric of the Human Body and
Pare discovered new ways of treating battle wounds which were to become
really important in the future.
3-4
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MARK SCHEME – GCSE HISTORY A – 90401A – JUNE 2014
(b)
Which of these periods was more important in the development of surgery and
anatomy?
•
•
The Renaissance (c1450–c1700)
The 20th century
8
Explain your answer. Try to include both periods in your answer.
Target:
Evaluation and understanding of the key features of the period (AO1/AO2)
Candidates either submit no evidence or fail to address the question.
Level 1:
Level 2:
Level 3:
0
Describes the importance of one period
E.g. in the renaissance there were great steps forward with the increase in
dissection.
1-2
Answers that comment briefly on both periods in a simple comparison
E.g. there were improvements in both periods. Without the improvements in
anatomy discovered by Vesalius surgeons in the twentieth century might not
have known what they were doing when they operated.
OR
Answers that consider one periods’ contribution to the improvements in
surgery and anatomy
E.g. the work of Pare led to…in the 16th century. This led to…
3-5
Answers that explain and evaluate both periods contribution to the
improvements in surgery and anatomy
Clearly evaluates the contributions of both periods. May come to a conclusion
that one period was more significant than the other at certain times.
E.g. the period of the greatest progress was in the medieval world as during
this time Andreas Vesalius produced his book, The Fabric of the Human
Body, which gave doctors and surgeons much more information and at the
same time proved much of what Galen, from the Ancient World had done
wrong. Surgeons like Pare were able to…
In conclusion…
In the twentieth century surgery has overcome most of the problems of pain,
infection and blood loss…survival rates are much greater
Renaissance
• Vasalius
• Pare
• Harvey
• Dissection
6-8
20th Century
• DNA genetics
• Key Hole Surgery
• Plastic Surgery
• Transplantation
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MARK SCHEME – GCSE HISTORY A – 90401A – JUNE 2014
Question 5
(a)
Choose one of the individuals below who contributed to the development of surgery and
anatomy
•
•
William Harvey
Joseph Lister
4
Describe the work of your chosen individual.
Target:
Understanding of the key work of the individual(AO1)
Candidates either submit no evidence or fail to address the question.
Level 1:
Answers that show recognition and simple understanding of your
chosen individual
E.g. William Harvey discovered how the heart worked and how blood pumped
around the body.
0
1-2
Joseph Lister came up with a special spray to stop the spread of infections
Level 2:
Answers that explain and show understanding in a broader context of
the work of your chosen individual
E.g. William Harvey’s work may now have had such a great influence at the
time but it did lead to further investigations and eventually to things like blood
groups and blood transfusions.
3-4
E.g. Joseph Lister came up with an antiseptic spray. It greatly reduced the
chances of people getting infections during surgery. It did however have
problems, but once aseptic surgery developed from this it made a huge
contribution.
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MARK SCHEME – GCSE HISTORY A – 90401A – JUNE 2014
(b)
Which of these individuals contributed more to the development of surgery and
anatomy? Explain your answer.
•
•
William Harvey
Joseph Lister
8
Explain your answer. Try to include both individuals in your answer.
Target:
Evaluation and understanding of the key features of the development (AO1/2)
Candidates either submit no evidence or fail to address the question.
Level 1:
Level 2:
Describes the contribution of one individual
E.g. William Harvey discovered how the heart worked and how blood pumped
around the body. It encouraged others to study the body too.
Answers that comment briefly on both individuals
E.g. William Harvey discovered how the heart worked and how blood pumped
around the body. It encouraged others to study the body too. Joseph Lister
came up with a special spray to stop the spread of infections. It was based on
carbolic acid and sprayed the open wounds to stop the air infecting the
patient.
0
1-2
3-5
Answers that consider one individual in depth
This will be more detailed and will focus much more clearly on the
contribution made by the individual.
Level 3:
Answers that explain and evaluate both individuals’ contribution to the
development of public health in a comparison that is detailed but clearly
identifies differences as well as similarities
As well as noting the contribution made in the broadest sense the answer will
link the significance of the development to a range of other medical
development’s which followed on from their work.
E.g. Harvey and future improvements in anatomical study, the identification of
the impact of shock, blood groups, transfusions, increasingly invasive
surgery, saving lives, Blood Transfusion Service.
6-8
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