Contents
Preface xiii
Acknowledgements xvii
Biographies xviii
Chapter 1
Properties of the Atmosphere 1
Key Words 1
Temperature 3
FUN FACT Degree-days—A Measure of Energy
Consumption 4
Pressure 7
FUN FACT Dangerous Weather Is
Always Nearby 8
Moisture 10
Moisture Variables 10
FUN FACT Extreme Indoor Relative Humidity in
Winter 13
Phase Changes and Clouds 14
Wind 16
Test Your Understanding 17
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 18
Chapter 2
Meteorological Measurements 21
Key Words 21
Surface Measurements 23
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY A Historical
Perspective on Technology in Meteorology 23
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY The U.S. National
Weather Service 24
Rawinsondes 26
ADVANCED TOPIC Hodographs 30
Radar 30
ADVANCED TOPIC The Doppler Shift and Doppler
Radars 33
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Doppler Radar and
Tornadoes 34
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Radar Estimated
Precipitation and Flood Forecasting 35
Satellites and Satellite Imagery 36
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Soundings from GPS
and COSMIC Satellites 38
Lightning Detection 41
Test Your Understanding 42
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 43
Chapter 3
Weather Maps 45
Key Words 45
The Surface Station Model and Surface Weather
Maps 46
Pressure as a Vertical Coordinate 48
METEOROLOGY & MAPS Reading Maps 49
Constant Pressure Maps 49
ADVANCED TOPIC 500 mb Maps and Vorticity 53
METEOROLOGY & MAPS Upper Air Maps and the
Internet 56
Cross Sections 56
Test Your Understanding 57
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 58
Chapter 4
Forecasting and Simulating
Hazardous Weather 59
Key Words 59
Weather Forecasting Using Computer Models 61
Initializing and Running a Model 62
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY The Origin of
Numerical Weather Prediction 67
Output from Models 67
v
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vi
CONTENTS Limitations of Weather Forecast Models 70
The Mathematical Equations Approximate
Some Atmospheric Processes 70
ADVANCED TOPIC Synopsis of Operational NWP
Models 71
Errors in the Initial Weather Conditions 72
Inadequate Resolution 72
Research Models 75
FUN FACT A Perspective on Weather Prediction 77
Test Your Understanding 77
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 78
Chapter 5
Climate and Global Change 81
Key Words 81
Controls of Climate 82
Seasonal Cycle 83
Pressure Patterns 85
Land and Its Effects on Climate 86
Causes of Climate Change 89
ADVANCED TOPIC Determining Past Climates 90
Long Term (Millions of Years) 91
Medium Term (Thousands to Hundreds of
Thousands of Years) 91
FUN FACT Ice-Age Weather 93
Short Term (Several Years to Hundreds of
Years) 94
EXTREME EVENT The Year without a
Summer 96
Recent and Ongoing Climate Change 98
Future Climate Change 100
ADVANCED TOPIC Retreating Sea Ice and
Midlatitude Weather 106
Test Your Understanding 107
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 108
Chapter 6
Atmospheric Stability 111
Key Words 111
The Concept of Stability 112
Lapse Rates 114
Determining Stability 115
Mechanisms That Cause Air to Rise 121
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FUN FACT Thunderstorms Over Mountains 123
Stability Indices 124
ADVANCED TOPIC Stability, Capping Inversions and
Severe Storms 125
Test Your Understanding 127
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 128
Chapter7
Forces and Force Balances 131
Key Words 131
Forces That Affect Atmospheric Motion 132
The Pressure Gradient Force 132
FUN FACT Experience the Change of Pressure Across
a Hurricane Eyewall 135
The Gravitational Force 135
The Frictional Force 135
The Coriolis Force 136
Newton’s Laws of Motion 140
Force Balances 141
Hydrostatic Balance 141
Geostrophic Balance 142
Summary of Forces and Force Balances 144
Geostrophic Balance and the Jet Stream 144
STORMS AND SOCIETY Flying and the Jet
Stream 145
Test Your Understanding 147
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 148
Chapter 8
The Development of High- and
Low-Pressure Systems 151
Key Words 151
Force Imbalances 152
Curved Flow 154
Jet Streaks 157
ADVANCED TOPIC Multiple Jet streaks 159
Combined Effect of Curvature and Jet
Streaks 160
The Friction Layer 161
Effects of Heating and Cooling 163
Test Your Understanding 167
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 168
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CONTENTS Chapter 9
Airmasses and Fronts 171
Key Words 171
Airmasses 172
FUN FACT No Tornadoes from Clashing
Airmasses 172
Fronts 174
Cold Fronts 174
Warm Fronts 175
Stationary Fronts 177
Occluded Fronts 177
Dry Lines 178
Upper-Level Fronts 180
Finding Fronts on Weather Maps 182
METEOROLOGY & MAPS The Origins of
Fronts on Maps 182
Test Your Understanding 185
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 185
Chapter 10
Extratropical Cyclones Forming East
of the Rocky Mountains 189
Key Words 189
The Environment Prior to the Development of a
Cyclone 191
The Initial Development of the Cyclone 192
Initial Movement of the Airmasses 193
Early Weather Along the Fronts 194
East of the Cyclone Center 195
South of the Cyclone Center 195
Upper-Level Front, Dry Line, and Cold Front
Present 196
A Pacific Front: The Upper-Level Front and Dry
Line Aligned 197
Cold Front Only 198
Northwest of Cyclone Center 198
Summary of Early Weather 198
Storm Intensification 198
ADVANCED TOPIC The Environment on the Great
Plains During Cyclone Formation 199
The Mature Cyclone 201
FUN FACT Alberta Clippers 203
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The Dissipating Cyclone 204
Continental Cyclones and Global Climate
Change 204
Summary 205
Test Your Understanding 206
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 207
Chapter 11
Extratropical Cyclones Forming
along the East and Gulf Coasts 209
Key Words 209
East Coast Cyclones 212
The Environment Before the Development of
an East Coast Cyclone 212
The Initial Development of the Cyclone 214
STORMS AND SOCIETY Beach Erosion 215
FUN FACT Bomb Cyclones 216
Fronts, Airflow, and Weather Conditions 216
STORMS AND SOCIETY The Blizzard
of 1888 217
Storm Evolution 218
FUN FACT Snowmageddon: Back to Back
Nor’easters! 218
Gulf Coast Cyclones 220
The East Coast Storm Track 220
The Mississippi—Ohio River Valley Storm
Track 222
Forecasting and Assessing the Impact of Coastal
Cyclones 223
Coastal Cyclones and Global Climate Change 225
Test Your Understanding 226
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 228
Chapter 12
Freezing Precipitation and Ice
Storms 231
Key Words 231
Supercooled Water 232
Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere During
Freezing Precipitation 233
Freezing Rain 233
Freezing Drizzle 235
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viii
CONTENTS STORMS AND SOCIETY The Roselawn, Indiana, ATR72
Aircraft Accident and Freezing Drizzle Aloft 236
Weather Patterns Associated with Freezing
Precipitation 236
FUN FACT Wind and Ice Storms 238
FUN FACT Warm Air Aloft! 238
EXTREME EVENT The 1998 Northeast Ice Storm 240
Forecasting Freezing Precipitation 241
Distribution of Freezing Precipitation in North
America 241
Freezing Precipitation and Global Climate
Change 243
Test Your Understanding 244
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 245
Chapter 13
Lake-Effect Snowstorms 247
Key Words 247
The Large-scale Weather Pattern for Lake-effect
Snowstorms 249
Lake-effect Snowstorm Development 249
Climatology of Lake-effect Snows 251
Organization of Lake-effect Snowfall 255
Wind-parallel Rolls 255
Shore-parallel Bands 255
FUN FACT A Forecaster’s Nightmare 257
Vortices 257
EXTREME EVENTS Buffalo Snows
of November 2014 258
Lake-enhanced Snowfall 259
Lake-effect Snow and Global Climate Change 260
Test Your Understanding 261
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 262
Chapter 14
Cold Waves 263
Key Words 263
Formation of Cold Airmasses 265
FUN FACT Extreme Cold in the Arctic 265
Outbreaks of Cold Air into Middle Latitudes of
North America 267
EXTREME EVENT Bitter Cold in the Winters
of 2014 and 2015 270
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ADVANCED TOPIC Snow Cover: Nature’s
Refrigerator 273
FUN FACT A Generational perspective on Cold
Waves 275
Extreme Cold in Europe and Asia 275
Wind Chill 279
EXTREME EVENT The Greatest Arctic Outbreak
in the United States: February 1899 281
Cold Waves and Global Climate Change 282
Test Your Understanding 283
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 283
Chapter 15
Great Plains Blizzards 285
Key Words 285
STORMS AND SOCIETY Hypothermia, frostbite,
and blizzards 287
Cold, Wind, and Snow 287
Colorado Cyclones and Blizzards 289
EXTREME EVENT The Winter of Blizzards 291
FUN FACT Snow rollers 292
Alberta Clippers and Blizzards 293
Ground Blizzards 294
Blizzard Safety 294
Forecasting Blizzards 295
EXTREME EVENT The Children’s Blizzard
of 1888 296
EXTREME EVENT The Great Chicago Blizzard
of 2011 296
Blizzards and Global Climate Change 298
Test Your Understanding 298
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 299
Chapter 16
Mountain Snowstorms 301
Key Words 301
FUN FACT Avalanche! 303
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Cloud
Seeding 304
Source of Mountain Snowstorms 306
Storms Along the Western Slopes of the United
States 309
FUN FACT The Chain Law 310
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CONTENTS Storms on the East Slope of the Rockies 311
Global Climate Change: Mountain Snows
and Dwindling Water Supplies 314
Test Your Understanding 316
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 317
Chapter 17
Mountain Windstorms 319
Key Words 319
The Dynamics of Downslope Windstorms 321
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY T-REX and the Hunt
for Rotors 323
Chinook Windstorms of the Rocky
Mountains 325
FUN FACT Rapid Temperature Fluctuations 326
Forecasting Chinooks 327
Santa Ana Windstorms of California 329
Katabatic Winds 332
FUN FACT Katabatic Winds in North
America 333
Mountain Windstorms and Global Climate
Change 333
Test Your Understanding 334
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 335
Chapter 18
Thunderstorms 337
Key Words 337
Ordinary Thunderstorms 340
FUN FACT How Much Water Is in a
Thunderstorm? 342
Mesoscale Convective Systems 343
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Nocturnal
Thunderstorms and Plains Elevated Convection
at Night 347
Frontal Squall Lines 350
Supercell Thunderstorms 353
FUN FACT Low Precipitation and High Precipitation
Supercells 359
Thunderstorms and Global Climate Change 361
Test Your Understanding 363
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 364
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Chapter 19
Tornadoes 367
Key Words 367
Tornado Formation in Supercells 369
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY VORTEX 372
ADVANCED TOPIC Tornado Winds 378
EXTREME EVENT The Tri-State Tornado
of 1925 381
EXTREME EVENT The Tornado Outbreak of 27 April
2011 in the Southeast United States 381
Tornado Formation within Nonsupercell
Thunderstorms 382
FUN FACTS Other Tornado-Like Vortices 384
Tornado Statistics 385
Tornado Detection 391
Tornado Forecasting 393
Tornado Safety 394
Test Your Understanding 395
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 396
Chapter 20
Hailstorms 399
Key Words 398
FUN FACT How Big is a Hailstone? 402
Hail Embryo Formation 404
Hailstone Growth 404
EXTREME EVENT San Antonio’s Billion-dollar
Hailstorm of April 2016 405
Forecasting and Detection of Hail 408
FUN FACTS Hail and “Green” Thunderstorms 408
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Radar
Polarization 410
Distribution and Impacts of Hail 411
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Hail Suppression—
Can Hail Damage Be Reduced? 415
Test Your Understanding 416
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 416
Chapter 21
Lightning 419
Key Words 419
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CONTENTS EXTREME EVENT Lightning and Forest Fires 422
The Lightning Stroke 423
Electricity and Charge 423
Charge Distribution and Charging Mechanisms
in Thunderstorms 424
Interface charging 424
Induction charging 425
The Lightning Stroke 427
FUN FACT Lightning in Hurricanes 428
Other Phenomena Associated with Electrical
Discharges in the Atmosphere 430
FUN FACT Ball Lightning 431
Lightning Safety 434
Test Your Understanding 434
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 435
Chapter 22
Downbursts 437
Key Words 437
Downburst Formation 438
Environmental Conditions Associated with
Microburst Development 440
Downburst Structure 441
Types of Microbursts 444
FUN FACT How Common are
Microbursts? 445
FUN FACT Heatbursts: Warm Blasts from
Downdrafts 447
The Problem for Aircraft 448
EXTREME EVENT The John F. Kennedy International
Airport Crash of Eastern Airlines Flight 66 450
EXTREME EVENT The Andrews Air Force Base
Microburst of 1983 451
Modern Technology to Detect Microbursts 452
Prediction of Conditions Favorable for Microbursts 454
Test Your Understanding 455
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 456
Chapter 23
El Niño, La Niña, and the Southern
Oscillation 459
Key Words 459
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The Southern Oscillation 461
Evolution of an ENSO Event 463
Consequences of El Niño 464
ADVANCED TOPIC ENSO and Hurricane
Activity 466
EXTREME EVENTS El Niño and “Snowmageddon”
in the Winter of 2009–2010 467
The La Niña Phase of the Southern
Oscillation 469
Monitoring the Southern Oscillation 470
ADVANCED TOPIC The Strange El Niño of
2015–2016 470
El Niño and Global Warming 471
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Monitoring the
Tropical Pacific Ocean 472
Test Your Understanding 474
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 475
Chapter 24
Tropical Cyclones 479
Key Words 479
EXTREME EVENTS Hurricanes Katrina (2005) and
Sandy (2012)—Two Strikes on Our Vulnerable
Coastal Cities 484
EXTREME EVENT The Record Setting Hurricane
Season of 2005 486
Worldwide Hurricane Occurrences 488
Hurricane Tracks 489
Hurricane Structure 490
Tropical Cyclone Formation and Intensification 496
Trigger Mechanisms for Thunderstorms in the
Tropics 496
The Environment Required for Tropical Cyclones
to Form from Thunderstorm Clusters 500
How Thunderstorms Organize into a
Hurricane 502
Destructive Forces in a Hurricane 508
Storm Surge 508
Other Disastrous Forces in Hurricanes 509
Forecasting Hurricane Tracks and Intensity 511
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Hurricane
Research 511
Global Climate Change: Potential Effects
on Hurricanes 514
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CONTENTS Test Your Understanding 515
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 516
Chapter 25
Floods 519
Key Words 519
EXTREME EVENTS Worldwide Floods 521
Types of Floods 523
FUN FACT Watersheds, River Stages,
and Floodplains 524
North American Flood Weather Patterns 525
Flooding Following Landfall
of Tropical Cyclones 525
Flooding from Other Tropical Weather
Systems 526
Flooding from Mesoscale Convective
Systems 527
EXTREME EVENTS Mississippi River Floods 529
Flooding from Frontal Overrunning 533
Flooding Compounded by Snowmelt 534
Flash Floods of the Desert Southwest 535
Flash Floods Along the East Slope
of the Rocky Mountains 536
West Coast floods 540
Flood Forecasting and Safety 542
STORMS AND SOCIETY The Cleanup—Who’s
Responsible? 544
Global Climate Change: Potential Effects
on Floods 544
Test Your Understanding 546
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 547
Chapter 26
Drought 549
Key Words 549
EXTREME EVENTS Drought Disasters Occur
Worldwide 550
Indices of Drought 552
Causes of Drought 553
Drought in the Central United States 554
The Drought of the Early 2010s 557
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The Drought of 1988 559
FUN FACT Hotter Days and Cooler Nights during a
Drought 559
The Drought of the 1930s: The Dust
Bowl 561
STORMS AND SOCIETY Drought and Population
Migration in the United States 562
Drought in the Eastern United States 563
Drought in the Western United States 565
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY New Methods for
Monitoring Drought 570
Historical Perspective on Drought 570
FUN FACT River Flows and Water Rights in the
West 571
Global Climate Change: Potential Effects on
Drought 572
Test Your Understanding 573
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 574
Chapter 27
Heat Waves 577
Key Words 577
EXTREME EVENT Recent Heat Waves around
the World 578
Measures of Heat Stress 578
EXTREME EVENT How High Can the Heat Index
Go? 581
Meteorological Conditions Associated with Heat
Waves 582
WEATHER AND SOCIETY Heat Disorders and
Safety Tips 583
Urban Heat Island Effect 586
Memorable Heat Waves in the
United States 587
Heat Waves of 2012: Record-Setting Spring
and Summer Temperatures 587
The July 1995 Heat Wave: Chicago and the
Midwest 590
Heat Waves of the 1930s 593
FUN FACT The 1930s and the Advent
of Air-Conditioning 595
Global Climate Change: Potential Effects
on Heat Waves 595
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xii
CONTENTS EXTREME EVENT The Russian Heat Wave
of 2010 597
Test Your Understanding 598
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills 599
Appendix A
Units, Conversions, and
Constants 601
Appendix B
Blank Maps and Charts 604
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Appendix C
Geography Overview 608
Appendix D
Watches, Warnings, and
Advisories for Severe and
Hazardous Weather 610
Glossary 613
Index 635
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