WRIT7025
SEMESTER 2,
Writing, Editing, & Publishing Program
2007
NewMedia
WRIT7025
CONTENTS
SEMESTER 2,
2007
Articles
1
Grammar Blogs: Can They Measure Up
to Printed Style Guides?
Katy Cassidy
11
Watch This Webspace: The Importance
of Online News Satire
Carody Culver
17
Computer-Mediated Communication
and Internet Language: An Exploration
of Emoticons as Medium-Specific Elements
of a Developing Internet Language
Keely Double
22
Critics Versus Bloggers: Pen to Keyboard Combat
Kate Eedy
27
The (Lack of) Freedom of Speech in Blogs
Kristie Lee Chue
32
Embracing Blackboard: Examining Students’
Behaviour in the World of E-learning
Luke Madsen
44
Knowledge and Power in New Media
Belinda Marsden-Smedley
Corporate Blogs: A New Relationship With Customers
49
Rhonda McPherson
These contributed
articles are
published with the
permission of the
authors.
© 2007. Copyright
for each contribution
rests solely with the
listed authors.
What Are the Copyright Challenges That the Internet
Poses to Authors? A Discussion of the Legal
and Practical Implications of the Protection
of Digital Works for Authors
55
Ellie O’Gorman
continued over
NewMedia
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
SEMESTER 2,
WRIT7025
2007
Blogging and Accountability:
How Certain Can Users Be of Their Liability?
63
Sarah Romig
Podcasting: A New Tool for Writing, Editing,
and Publishing
68
C. R. Tucker
In the Middle: The Internet as an Agent
for Social Change in the Middle East
72
Rod Whybird
Silent Partners on the Board:
Lurkers in Internet Discussion Communities
77
Shirin Wun
New Medium, New Writing?
83
Beth Zeme
ii
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
Grammar Blogs: Can They Measure Up
to Printed Style Guides?
Katy Cassidy
Writing, Editing, and Publishing student, The University of Queensland, Australia
G
rammar has never been a popular subject among children and adults. For
many, it brings back memories of parsing sentences and memorising rules
such as ‘never begin a sentence with and or but, nor end one with a
preposition’. Recently, however, grammar is experiencing a surge in popularity,
as evidenced by growing number of grammar web logs, or ‘blogs’. This article
will evaluate various blogs to determine whether they are useful as a grammar
reference tool. (See Appendix A for a glossary of blog-related terms.)
No longer a dry, humorless subject, grammar has become a popular topic outside the
world of linguistics and language pedagogy. New books such as Lynne Truss’s The
Girl's Like Spaghetti: Why You Can’t Manage Without Apostrophes and Patricia T.
O’Connor’s Woe is I, Jr: The Younger Grammarphobe’s Guide to Better English in Plain
English are designed to make grammar fun for children, but it is not only children
who are finding grammar entertaining. Adults, from truck drivers to soldiers,
students to teachers are subscribing to the Mignon Fogarty’s Grammar Girl podcast
(Gutierrez, 2007). In its first year of production, Grammar Girl has been downloaded
over seven million times (Gutierrez, 2007). If people tend to choose what is familiar
(Felix, 2006), then Internet users could prefer grammar blogs to printed style guides
as reference tools. An estimated 32 million adult Americans read blogs (Flynn,
2006), and, according to a blog search on Technorati, more than 800 of those are
dedicated to grammar and writing. I will evaluate a range of grammar blogs to
determine how they function as online writing and grammar resources.
What Constitutes a ‘Grammar Blog’?
Wibbels (2006) defines a blog as an online journal, which can be updated from any
computer. Unlike web sites, blogs are inexpensive and easy to maintain because the
writer, or ‘blogger’, does not need to understand HTML code to build and keep a blog
current (Wibbels, 2006). Blog platforms such as Typepad or Blogger maintain a database of the written text (Efimova, 2004), but the blogger chooses the appearance and
basic layout by using a template. The basic layout of a blog consists of a title and brief
description at the top called a ‘header’, a column of links to archives and related sites
called a ‘sidebar’, a profile link, which gives the reader basic information about the
author, and a series of texts (posts) in reverse chronological order. The blogger’s goal
is to develop a following of loyal readers, who visit the blog frequently and view it as
a source of accurate information (Ferdig & Trammell, 2004; Flynn, 2006). The text
Address for correspondence: Katy Casidy. E-mail: [email protected]
New Media, WRIT7025
Semester 2, 2007 pp. 1–10
1
KATY CASSIDY
in a grammar blog includes information about the rules of sentence structure,
punctuation, and word usage.
Criteria for Evaluating the Grammar Blogs as Web Sites
I examined the grammar blogs first against criteria for evaluating general Web sites
adapted from the Lake Forest College and Colorado State University Web sites and
Kathy Schrock’s Guide for Educators (Discovery Education online, 1996) to develop an
evaluation guide specific to grammar blogs (see Appendix B).
Resources with clear objectives, a neat and professional appearance, and a
‘predictable design’ allow readers to determine whether they are useful reference
tools (Beaudoin, 2004, p. 464; Felix, 2001; Evaluating Web Sites, n.d.). The purpose
of the blog should, therefore, be clear to the reader (Lederer, n.d.), with a brief
description under the title in the header, which allows the reader to determine
whether the blog is for entertainment or educational purposes.
The blogger’s credibility as an expert on the topic should be easy to find and
clearly stated (Kirk, 1996; Evaluating Web Sites, n.d.; Lederer, n.d.; Stapelton,
2006). Grammar bloggers should provide their full name, credentials that indicate
solid knowledge of the subject, and their e-mail address should the reader want additional information (Kirk, 1996; Stapleton, 2006). They should refer to related sites
and resources in the sidebar, and, in the case of grammar blogs, acknowledge different
theories or styles, for example, The Modern Language Association, Associated Press,
The Chicago Manual of Style (Kirk, 1996).
The blog’s content should be organised in a logical manner that facilitates navigation (Beaudoin, 2006; Felix, 2001). If the writer posts relevant images, it should
not slow the loading of the page (Evaluating Web Sites, n.d.).
A blog should be updated frequently to maintain its currency (Lederer, n.d.;
Evaluating Web Sites, n.d.). Although most rules specific to sentence structure
remain constant, spelling rules and word usage can change. For example, during the
research for this article, the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary eliminated the hyphen
from approximately 16,000 words (Rabinovitch, 2007). If a reader following British
spelling rules had subscribed to a blog that is infrequently updated or has been abandoned, they might not be aware of new spelling rules.
Criteria for Evaluating a Grammar Blog as a Teaching Tool
Academic grammar sites can be effective resources to supplement English language
courses (Beaudoin, 2004; Nutta, 1998), but in order for a grammar blog to be considered a comparable reference tool, it must adhere to certain criteria.
First, the blogger must understand grammar, spelling, and punctuation rules, and be
familiar with different styles. The blogger acts as a ‘filter for others’ (Wibbels, 2006,
p. 34) by condensing the vast information on grammar into short, meaningful, and
understandable texts (Beaudoin, 2004; Efimova, 2004; Lonfils, 2001). A post should
include several examples, and the explanations should accompany posted images of
errors, so the reader is not required to guess what the mistake is.
The author should then present the content in logical groupings (Beaudoin,
2004; Lonfils, 2001), and subdivide it with links between related elements
(Beaudoin, 2004). A good grammar blog would have posts archived by category or
2
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
GRAMMAR BLOGS
keyword, and this would allow readers to skip among related topics, reading posts
they may have missed.
Last, for the grammar blog to be a valuable reference tool, the writer must
consider the audience. Beaudoin (2004) states that grammar web sites should cater
to the four learning styles defined by Kolb (1983) in his Learning Style Inventory:
converging, assimilating, accommodating, and diverging. A blog’s search option
caters to the narrow scope of the converger, and, together with cross-reference links,
helps the diverger to explore topics of interest. Listing the archives by category and
theme gives the assimilator a clear structure of the blog and access to previous topics
and posts (Beaudoin, 2004, p. 467). The accommodator prefers ‘to systematically
cover relevant material, and only that material’ (Beaudoin, 2004, p. 467), and, therefore, would benefit from having previous posts archived by category as well,
providing that the writer clearly explains, not merely alludes to, the rules of grammar.
Corpus
In selecting blogs for this study, I looked for those that fulfilled one of the following
conditions: gave an overview of grammar, focused on one topic (the subjunctive,
apostrophe use), or listed ‘grammar’ as a category or keyword. Because many people
use the term ‘grammar’ to include writing skills, I have included blogs dedicated to
copy-editing and writing tips, providing they had a grammar category.
The corpus comprises four blogs from newspapers or journals, four from professional Web sites (supplements to podcasts or published books), two from universities,
and 28 from personal blog platforms (see Appendix C).
Discussion
Most blogs assessed for this article did not qualify as a grammar resource because they
were insufficient in three categories: purpose, writer/blogger credibility, and structure.
Entertainment was the main purpose for over one-third of the blogs, and, of
those, several had a sarcastic or disdainful tone, which would alienate readers looking
to learn from a grammar blog. Efimova (2004, p. 6) states that many blogs become
‘routers for like-minded readers’, as was the case with these. The bloggers posted
errors from signs to news; however, without explaining the error, the posts become
in-jokes for like-minded readers.
Only seventeen of the blogs included the blogger’s full name and credentials. Of
the blogs with unnamed contributors, some offered vague qualifications (e.g., ‘We’re
two sub-editors (copy editors) on a weekly UK magazine’, The Engine Room), but
without full names or e-mail links, a reader cannot verify the credentials. Kate
McCulley writes The Grammar Vandal, chronicling her quest to rid shop and restaurant signs of poor punctuation; however, her posts can give incorrect grammar
advice. McCulley copied a section of the ‘Miss Conduct’ column from The Boston
Globe (2007, August 5) in her September 11, 2007 post:
Recently I was talking with a friend about another friend’s sickness and said I
felt ‘badly’ for my sick friend's family. The friend I was conversing with interrupted me and said I should have said I felt ‘bad’ for the family. I don't dispute
my grammar slip, but was it rude of my friend to interject an admonishment
about my grammar in the middle of such a serious conversation? E.R.
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
3
KATY CASSIDY
After the reply from ‘Miss Conduct’, McCulley adds: ‘The most interesting part
about this piece, I find, is that badly [sic], in fact, is the correct term. E.R. was grammatically correct when she said that she felt badly’. Not only is McCulley’s comment
wrong, she punctuates incorrectly. Her blog profile states only that she has a university degree. However, in an article in The Boston Globe one learns that she is a
research assistant at a concierge services company and ‘an aspiring writer who
majored in English in college and grew up loving to read and spell’ (Dreilinger,
2007). These ‘credentials’ are not sufficient to qualify her as an expert in grammar.
Although she received several comments correcting her about ‘badly’ and ‘bad’, she
has not edited the original post. If readers were following her blog, but not reading
the comments (some of which were added 10 days after the original post), they would
be misinformed.
The format and structure of most blogs disqualified them as resources. A blogger’s
limited technical skills can adversely affect the construction of the blog
(Morrison, 2002). Only 19 blogs included the search option, and of those, 13 organised the archives by category or keyword. This prevents readers searching or
exploring specific topics. Lengthy posts with large paragraphs also hinder scanning.
If a good reference tool is one that can be used quickly and efficiently, then a reader
should be able to scan a post for answers. Content is also affected by the life of the
blog. Older blogs with more posts cover more topics than newer ones.
As mentioned in the case of The Grammar Vandal, the comments section in a
blog offers the readers a chance to give feedback or ask questions. However, this will
benefit the commenter as well as other readers only if the author replies directly in
an e-mail and posts the reply in the comments section. This can be arduous for solo
bloggers. Another problem with the comments section is that it can become a forum
for nasty and attacking remarks. Reading through irrelevant comments to find those
that are appropriate is a waste of time; they detract from a blog’s merit as a valuable
reference tool.
Newspaper blogs were consistently good for information and accuracy; however,
most targeted journalists, a group one expects to be familiar with grammar and
writing. Only the Triangle Grammar Guide, designed as an ‘online grammar class’, had
the general public in mind as the target audience. It also includes grammar quizzes,
which allow readers to learn where their grammar weaknesses exist.
Professional blogs were often visually distracting with many ads and loud colours.
Of the professional blogs, the transcripts for the Grammar Girl podcasts were the
most useful. The readers can link to the list of episodes to find the keywords listed.
The posts are long, but easy to scan as they consist of small paragraphs and examples
are set off from the host paragraph. Sources mentioned in the text can be found at
the end of the post under ‘references’.
Most personal grammar blogs were sarcastic rants about the misuse and abuse of
language. Just six blogs included the bloggers’ full names and credentials. A few blogs
covering specific topics would be good to follow by means of a feed or subscription:
Banned for Life on the cliché; The Copy-Editing Corner on style and usage; Literally, a
Web Log on the use of ‘literally’; and The Grammar Cop on writing tips. However,
these blogs do not include enough grammar to qualify them as resources. The only
personal blog to qualify as a grammar resource was Grammar Police, written by Shawn
Hansen (college English teacher and professional writer), and Julia Temlyn, (writer,
editor, and proofreader). Hansen and Temlyn stated the purpose of the blog clearly
4
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
GRAMMAR BLOGS
in the header, were qualified academically and professionally, catered to the four
learning styles, and wrote brief posts with examples and tables. Grammar Police also
has a feature that is missing from most personal blogs: a schedule for posts (lessons
are posted on Mondays, grammar in the news on Wednesdays, and questions or
‘potpourri’ on Fridays).
Conclusion
The majority of the blogs evaluated for this article did not qualify as grammar
resource tools comparable to printed style guides, but web log platforms such as
Blogger and Typepad have sufficient templates for a qualified grammarian to build a
useful grammar blog. In July of 2006, Technorati tracked its 50 millionth blog (Dube,
2006); if building a quality grammar blog is the responsibility of the author, finding
it is the onus of the reader.
References
Abrahams, R. (2007, August 05). Handcuffing the grammar police. The Boston Globe online.
Retrieved September 20, 2007, from http://www.boston.com/news/globe/magazine/articles/
2007/08/05/ handcuffing_the_grammar_police/
Beaudoin, M. (2004). A principle-based approach to teaching grammar on the web. ReCALL, 16,
462–474.
Dreilinger, D. (2007, July 15). Stop sign travesties! Self-proclaimed ‘grammar vandal’ goes after
public mistakes that grate. The Boston Globe online. Retrieved September 20, 2007, from
http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2007/07/15/stop_sign_travesties/
Du, H. S., & Wagner, C. (2005). Learning with weblogs: An empirical investigation. In proceedings of the 38th Hawaii International Conference on Systems Sciences, 2005.
Dube, J. (2006, August 7). How many blogs are there? 50 million and counting. Cyberjournalist.net.
Retrieved September 24, 2007, from http://www.cyberjournalist.net/news/003674.php.
Eastment, D. (2005). Blogging. ELT Journal, 59, 358–361.
Efimova, L. (2004). Understanding personal knowledge management: A weblog case. Enschede:
Telematica Instituut. In Proceedings of Fifth European Conference on Organizational
Knowledge, Learning and Capabilities (OKLC04), Innsbruck, April 2–3, 2004.
https://doc.telin.nl/dscgi/ds.py/Get/File-44969.
Evaluating web sites (n.d.). Donnelley and Lee Library, Lake Forest College. Retrieved September
13, 2007, from http://library.lakeforest.edu/help/evalweb.html.
Felix, U. (2001). The web’s potential for language learning: The student’s perspective. ReCALL, 13,
47–58.
Ferdig, R.E. & Trammell, K.D. (2004). Content delivery in the ‘blogosphere’. T.H.E. Journal,
February. Retrieved September 21, 2007, from http://www.thejournal.com/articles/16626
Flynn, N. (2006). Blog rules: A business guide to managing policy, public relations, and legal issues. New
York: Amacom.
Giant blogging terms glossary. [Weblog entry.] Quick online tips. 5 June 2006. Retrieved September
20, 2007, from http://www.quickonlinetips.com/archives/2006/06/the-giant-blogging-termsglossary.
Gutierrez, L. (2007, September 18). Grammar Girl Mignon Fogarty helps America speak and write
better. The Kansas City Star. Retrieved September 23, 2007, from http://www.kansascity.com/
238/story/280250.html
Kirk, E. E. (1996). Evaluating information found on the Internet. Retrieved September 14, 2007, from
http://www.library.jhu/edu/researchhelp/general/evaluating.
Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development.
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
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KATY CASSIDY
Lederer, N. (n.d.). How to evaluate a web page. Retrieved September 15, 2007, from
http://manta.library.colostate.edu/howto/evalweb2.html
Lenhart, A., & Fox, S. (2006). Bloggers: A part of the internet’s new story tellers. Pew Internet and
American life project. Web site: http://www.pewinternet.org/PPF/r/186/report_display.asp
Lonfils, C., & Vanparys, J. (2001). How to design user-friendly CALL interfaces. Computer Assisted
Language Learning, 14, 405–417.
Morrison, S. (2002, December 1–9). Interactive language learning on the web. ERIC Digest.
Nutta, J. (1998). Is computer-based grammar instruction as effective as teacher directed grammar
instruction for teaching L2 structures? Calico Journal, 16, 49–62.
O’Connor, P.T. (2007). Woe is I, Jr.: The younger grammarphobe’s guide to better English in plain
English. New York: Putnam.
Rabinovitch, S. (2007, September 21). Thousands of hyphens perish as English marches on. Reuters
online. Retrieved September 22, 2007, from http://www.reuters.com/article/email/
idUSHAR15384620070921
Schrock, Kathy. (1996). Critical evaluation of a Web site: Secondary school level. Kathy Schrock's
guide for educators. Retrieved September 13, 2007, from http://school.discovery.com/
schrockguide/evalhigh.html
Stapleton, P. & Helms-Park, R. (2006). Evaluating web sources in EAP course: Introducing a multitrait instrument for feedback and assessment. English for Specific Purposes, 25, 438–455.
Truss, L. (2007). The girl’s like spaghetti: Why you can’t manage without apostrophes! New York:
Putnam.
Wibbels, A. (2006). Blog wild: How everyone can go blogging. London: Nicholas Brealey.
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GRAMMAR BLOGS
Appendix A
Terms adapted from The Giant Blogging Terms Glossary
archives
the collection of a Web log’s posts; usually categorised by month in the
sidebar; can be categorised by category or keyword
blog
shortened form for web log
blogger
a person who writes a web log
Blogger
Google’s web log platform, free subscription
blogging,
to author a web log, to post a blog
blogosphere the community of web logs on the Internet
categories
a collection of topic specific posts
header
the topmost part of the web log. Usually lists the title and a brief
description of the web log
index page the front page of a web log
podcasting distributing multimedia files online by the use of feeds
post
individual articles by the author that make up the text of a blog
sidebar
the columns along one or both sides of a Web log’s main page
Typepad
SixApart’s web log platform, paid subscription
Web log
an online personal diary or journal listing texts on a specific topic,
usually dated and posted in reverse chronological order
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
7
KATY CASSIDY
Appendix B
GRAMMAR BLOG EVALUATION FORM
Name of the site: _____________________________________________________________________
URL: http:// __________________________________________________________________________
Date accessed: __________/__________/2007
DESCRIPTION:
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
PLATFORM TYPE
Circle one:
PERS
NEWS
UNIV
SITE’S TECHNICAL AND VISUAL FEATURES
PROF
YES
NO
YES
NO
Does it take a long time to load?
Are there photos, charts, pictures?
(If yes) Do they supplement the information
Are previous posts archived by category or key words?
Are there links to relevant sites on the side bar?
Is there a search option?
Are there links to resources?
Does the look of the site appear professional and neat?
SITE’S AUTHORITY
What is the name of the author (or authors)?
What are the writing, editing, linguistic credentials of the author (or authors)?
What is the author’s tone? (instructional, entertaining, ranting/disdainful)
Is author e-mail provided?
continued over
8
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
GRAMMAR BLOGS
Appendix B
(CONTINUED)
GRAMMAR BLOG EVALUATION FORM
SITE’S CONTENT
YES
NO
YES
NO
Is the title of the blog indicative of the content?
Is a goal clearly stated on the index or author’s page?
Is the content’s layout for scanning (vs. intensive reading)
Would it have been easier to use a print guide?
Are there links within the text to other sources?
Is the content accurate?
Are differing styles mentioned?
Are the posts dated?
Month/Year of first post
Most recent post (note if >6 weeks since last post)
GRAMMAR, STYLE, AND USAGE
Are there examples to support the topic/post?
Are the examples helpful?
Is the language appropriate for the target reader?
Is the coverage complete, partial, or an overview?
Is the information basic, intermediate, advanced, mixed?
NARRATIVE EVALUATION
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
9
KATY CASSIDY
Appendix C
List of Web logs
10
Name of site
URL address
The ‘Blog’ of ‘Unnecessary’ Quotation Marks
The Abuse of Apostrophes in Everyday English
Apostrophe Abuse
Apostrophism
Banned for Life
A Capital Idea
Ceeley's Modern Usage
Columbia Journalism Review
— The Language Corner
Copy-Editing Corner
Daily Writing Tips
Doc Durden's Guide to Good Grammar
and Personal Pet Peeves Presented
for Public Perusal
Dr. Goodword's Language Blog
The Engine Room
English Grammar Blog
The Gallery of ‘Misused’ Quotation Marks
Grammar Blog
Grammar Catastrophes
Grammar Cop
Grammar Geek
Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips
for Better Writing
The Grammar Lounge
Grammar Police
Grammar Syntax Errors
The Grammar Vandal
The Grammar Vulture
Grammarblog
The Grammarphobia Blog
I came, I saw, I learned
Language Czarina
Literally, a Web Log
Mighty Red Pen
OWL at Purdue
Red Pen, Inc.
Spastic: Society for Preservation
and Acknowledgment of the Subjunctive Tense
SPOGG: The Society for the Promotion
of Good Grammar
Style and Substance
Triangle Grammar Guide
You Don't Say
http://quotation-marks.blogspot.com/
http://u2019.blogspot.com/
http://www.apostropheabuse.com
http://www.apostrophism.com
http://tommangan.net/banned
http://nstockdale.blogspot.com
http://modernenglishusage.blogspot.com/
http://www.cjr.org/resources/lc/index.php
http://copyeditingcorner.blogspot.com/
http://www.dailywritingtips.com
http://cfserv.dickinson.edu/blogs/grammar
http://www.alphadictionary.com/blog
http://engineroomblog.blogspot.com/
http://english-grammar.blogspot.com/
http://www.juvalamu.com/qmarks/
http://vagrantgrammar.blogspot.com/
http://grammarcatastrophes.blogspot.com/
http://cherylnorman.com/blog
http://grammargeek.wordpress.com
http://grammar.quickanddirtytips.com/
grammargirl/
http://grammarlounge.blogspot.com/
http://grammarpolice.org
http://grammar-syntax-errors.blogspot.com/
http://www.thegrammarvandal.com
http://grammarvulture.blogspot.com/
http://spandg.blogspot.com
http://www.grammarphobia.com/
http://iconlogic.blogs.com/weblog/
http://languageczarina.blogspot.com
http://literally.barelyfitz.com
http://mightyredpen.wordpress.com/
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/OWL/
http://redpeninc.blogspot.com
http://subjunctivitis.blogspot.com/
http://grammatically.blogspot.com
http://blogs.wsj.com/styleandsubstance/
http://blogs.newsobserver.com/grammar
http://weblogs.baltimoresun.com/news/
mcintyre/blog
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
Watch This Webspace:
The Importance of Online News Satire
Carody Culver
Writing, Editing, and Publishing student, The University of Queensland, Australia
A
s more people access news on the Internet, online news satire is becoming
increasingly popular and accessible. This article will examine the significance of online news satire as a form of new media that informs and entertains
a broad global audience. The focus of this article is the three factors responsible
for the growing influence of online news satire: its use of features common to
genuine news web sites, such as daily email subscription options and video
content; its appeal to audiences through interactive technology and humorous,
politically and socially relevant content; and its authority as part of the Internet,
an increasingly credible information source. Several recent instances of online
news satire being mistakenly printed as real news suggest a growing overlap
between online news media and major mainstream media outlets.
The Significance of Online News Satire
According to an Internet news article posted in July 2007, a recent United States
(US) study ‘suggests that Iraqi citizens experience sadness and a sense of loss when
relatives, spouses, and even friends, perish, emotions that have until recently been
identified almost exclusively with westerners’ (Study: Iraqis May Experience Sadness
When Friends, Relatives Die, 2007, July 25).
This is one of many sardonic news pieces to be found online at The Onion,
arguably the Internet’s most famous satiric newspaper, and one of numerous humour
web sites that are updated daily with spoof news content.
Whether it takes the form of an article, a video, or a photograph, online news
satire is becoming an increasingly relevant genre of new media. There are three
major reasons for its significance:
1. News web sites function as distinct entities from their print counterparts — by
appropriating the appearance and features common to genuine news web sites,
news satire appeals to audiences as a viable form of alternative news media.
2. Many people now use the Internet as their primary source of news (Pavlik, 1999).
For the growing number of younger audiences who favour humour web sites to
keep abreast of political news and events (Watley, 2004a), the role of news satire
is to inform as well as entertain.
3. On several occasions, mainstream media outlets have published online satirical
pieces as genuine news; if online satire is so readily confused with real news, it
may ultimately influence people to consider the Internet to be a more trusted and
credible news source than its traditional print media counterparts.
Address for correspondence: Carody Culver. E-mail: [email protected]
New Media, WRIT7025
Semester 2, 2007 pp. 11–16
11
CARODY CULVER
The Purpose of News Satire
News satire is not a recent phenomenon: In 1729, Jonathan Swift shocked audiences
with his satirical pamphlet, A Modest Proposal, which suggested that the Irish
working class might solve their economic problems by selling their children as food
for rich Englishmen (Swift, 1792). Although many readers found the pamphlet
offensive, Swift had a distinct purpose: he used irony to attack the tyranny of English
rule in Ireland, and the passivity of the Irish people in the face of their exploitation.
Satire continues to function as a form of social commentary — although
humorous and entertaining, it also aims to make a serious point. Journalist Tim Feran
(2006) argues that we are currently ‘living in … the latest golden age of political
humour’, since ‘people [now] are taking their comedians seriously and the politicians
as a joke’. This sort of cultural climate, when coupled with the accessibility and ubiquity of the Internet, allows online satire to flourish.
Online news satire should first be considered in its context as part of the new
media’s most significant manifestation: the Internet.
Online News Satire and the Internet
Online news satire has existed for almost as long as the Internet itself (Watley,
2004a). The Internet ‘allows its users to be … producers as well as consumers’ (Flew,
2002) which allows audiences to become active participants in the process of
constructing meaning. After the Internet became widely available during the 1990s,
news media quickly established its presence online. However, simply replicating
print media in a web site format ‘fails to take advantage of the capabilities [of the
Internet]’ (Flew, 2002). The ‘information richness, diversity of sources, and lack of
government controls’ that characterise the online environment need to be exploited
for news items to function as a dynamic, interactive form of new media. Patrick
McAfee argues that audience feedback, never-ending deadlines, and highly targeted
news marketing and delivery are key factors for online news media to perform
successfully (Flew, 2002).
Online news satire web sites successfully appropriate this formula to inform and
entertain an increasingly diverse audience. The success of many satirical news web
sites relies on how their creators establish audience appeal. Flew points out that
many print newspapers establish an online presence as a means of generating alternative revenue, since newspaper readership is declining across the globe (Flew, 2002,
p. 88). The Internet, however, is an audience-centred medium. Sonia Livingstone
(1999) argues that ‘Internet communication opens up considerable potential for
reframing the relation between public and private … and for reframing knowledge
hierarchies through various forms of democratic participation’ (p. 63).
Both genuine news web sites and satirical news web sites exploit the interactive
technology and democratic nature of the Internet, thus emphasising the difference
between online and print mediums. Podcasts, e-mail subscription options, reader
comment facilities, and streaming video content are now standard features of most
news web sites. Online news satire continues to evolve with technology in order to
maintain its growing readership; The Onion and Random Perspective now both feature
mock news video content (Heffernan, 2007), and Deadbrain ‘welcomes contributions
from readers with the promise of bringing their writing to a wider audience’
(Emerson, 2006). The ease with which news footage can now be replicated or
12
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WATCH THIS WEBSPACE: THE IMPORTANCE OF ONLINE NEWS SATIRE
doctored online with programs such as Adobe Photoshop means that the creators of
satiric news can easily and cheaply establish an authentic looking online presence
(Watley, 2004a). This only strengthens the authority and influence of the opinions
that online satire writers express.
The Audience Appeal of Online News Satire
Satirical news web sites are so powerful because their interactive, audience-based
approach is combined with sardonic, entertaining social commentary that has broad
appeal, particularly for younger readers. Larry Pryor, Executive Editor of the Online
Journalism Review, claims that
people between 8 and 28 are … getting a lot more of their information from humour
sites … the Internet is providing a new resource that allows people to access topical
satire and humour, and to participate in it, more readily. (Watley, 2004)
Andy Borowitz, comedian and creator of The Borowitz Report, an online satirical
newspaper, argues that ‘the [current] political satire boom is actually making people
better informed’ (Feran, 1999). More people are choosing satirical news over the real
thing — in 2004, the Long Island Business News reported that an online video that
took a comical look at US presidential candidates John Kerry and George W. Bush
‘drew more visitors than the web sites of [both candidates] combined’ (Schachter,
2004, August 27).
Most online news satire has a distinctively political flavour; US President George
W. Bush and the recent Iraq War are the subject of many articles on popular web sites
such as The Borowitz Report and BSNews. Modern western society is lampooned in
pieces such as ‘Government Authorises Forming of No-Smoking Death Squads After
Voting for Smoking Ban’ (Dickson, 2006, February 15), and a recent spoof story
about a family who ‘doctored photographs of their missing child to appeal to the
sympathies of the nation and compel them to help in the search for her. She was
made blonde, perky, and possessed of a gorgeous smile … it turned out that she was
actually a dark-haired, chubby child with a big gap between her front teeth.
Apparently certain news networks were going to sue the parents for the damage their
daughter’s appearance was doing to their ratings. (Guedes, 2005, July 12)
The popularity of online news satire is on the rise due to word of mouth. When
in 2001, three friends launched spoof online paper The Framley Examiner, ‘[their]
marketing efforts consisted of sending three dozen emails to friends on the day The
Examiner went online’ — the site was soon receiving several thousand visitors per
day (Astill, 2001). Satire site Deadbrain claims that its traffic swelled over 600%
during January to September 2004 through word of mouth marketing alone
(Deadbrain — Advertise, n.d.).
Another major factor in the popularity of online news satire is that audiences can
actually contribute to web site content. Discussion boards and reader comment facilities allow readers to participate in sharing information and opinions. According to
Andrew Barry (2001), this element of interactivity facilitates ‘flexibility, user choice,
creativity, and individual discovery’. Audiences of online news satire can actively
engage with web site content, which may encourage a desire to develop and maintain political awareness.
The popularity of online news satire has significant implications for the future of
both new and traditional media.
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
13
CARODY CULVER
The Growing Influence of Online News Satire
There have been several recent instances of satirical online news being mistakenly
printed as genuine news. This demonstrates just how influential online news satire,
particularly political satire, has become. When it infiltrates the mainstream media, it
functions not simply as entertainment for readers; it reinforces certain political
messages, exposes current political trends, and ultimately strengthens the credibility
and influence of the Internet as an information source.
In 2005, the satirical web site Unconfirmed Sources posted a doctored photograph
of US President George W. Bush in Kabul with Jonathan Idema, an American
citizen convicted in 2004 for running a private prison in Afghanistan and torturing
hostages, and Afghan President Hamid Karzai. The article accompanying the
photograph claimed that ‘President Bush met with Americans Jonathan Keith
Idema, Edward Carabello, and Brett Bennett in a show of support. The three were
convicted in 2004 of running their own private prison and torture chamber in
Kabul [and] have steadfastly maintained that they were doing the work of the US
government and not acting independently … White House spokespersons … cited
them as true entrepreneurs for their efforts in promoting the globalisation of the
war on terror’ (Abides, n.d.)
The article and photograph were picked up by the Kashar World News in
Pakistan and the Syrian Arab News Agency in Syria — both ran it as a genuine story
(Cramer, 2006). Although the piece was intended as a humorous, if damning, indictment of the Bush Administration, the fact that it was taken for real news by two
separate media outlets is significant. The mistake suggests that in the current political climate, the idea of US Government-sanctioned torture chambers is not beyond
the realm of plausibility. Presenting this material as truth encourages audiences that
may already be strongly opposed to the politics of the US government to form
stronger opinions about the actions of world leaders such as President Bush. It also
demonstrates the power of the Internet—originally just an online piece, this news
item ultimately reached a much greater audience when it was distributed via the
mainstream media as well. That it was given credence as a genuine news item when
it came from an online source shows that even the mainstream press regard the
Internet as an increasingly reliable and credible information portal. Larry Pryor
argues that online news satire has:
shaped up the press in fundamental ways [and] provid[es] feedback into the major
media. Things that are unearthed by blogs that may get only 20,000 readers a day end
up actually influencing millions of people because [they] get filtered back through the
mainstream media. (Watley, 2004a).
When online satire is mistaken for truth, it can have surprising consequences. In
1997, Tom Way, a computer science professor at Villanova University, created a satirical web site entitled the Dihydrogen Monoxide Research Division (www.dmho.org),
which presented disturbing information about the supposed health risks of dihydrogen monoxide (DMHO):
[It] is colourless, odourless, tasteless, and kills uncounted thousands of people each year
… Prolonged exposure to its solid form causes severe tissue damage. Symptoms of
DMHO ingestion can include excessive sweating and urination, … a bloated feeling,
nausea, vomiting, and body electrolyte imbalance. For those who have become dependent, DMHO withdrawal means certain death. (Watley, 2004b)
14
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WATCH THIS WEBSPACE: THE IMPORTANCE OF ONLINE NEWS SATIRE
Dihydrogen monoxide is actually another name for water. However, many readers of
the web site were not aware of this. In 2004, the Alisa Viejo municipality in
California ‘very nearly passed a law banning foam containers at city-sponsored events
because they contained DMHO’ (Watley, 2004b). As Tom Way points out, ‘satire
and parody can be valuable forms of social commentary … if Jon Stewart [host of
satirical TV program The Daily Show] is joking about it, the story picks up a little
importance, and you may actually pick up a newspaper to see what he’s talking about’
(Watley, 2004b).
Incidents such as the DMHO misunderstanding can operate as ‘valuable public
lessons’ (Watley, 2004b) and underscore the importance of information literacy. As
an information resource, the Internet now operates almost as a ‘critic of mainstream
media’, which will have a potentially major effect on ‘how [people] approach media’
(Watley, 2004b). The Internet offers a plethora of information from a vast range of
sources and viewpoints. For an audience, this diversity of information is of greater
value than the news available to them via print or broadcast media, which may
present only one side of a particular story.
Conclusion
Online news satire is more than entertainment; it has the power to educate, inform,
and influence readers. The Internet is an increasingly important tool for audiences
across the globe, who seek a diversity of viewpoints and information, and online
news satire plays a vital role in this process. By appealing to diverse audiences
through humour, politically and socially relevant subject matter, and web site
features such as video content and e-mail subscription options, online news satire
wields growing influence as a form of new media.
References
Abides, D. (n.d.). Bush, Air Force One make emergency stop in Afghanistan. Unconfirmed Sources.
Retrieved September 20, 2007, from http://www.unconfirmedsources.com/?itemid=1540
Astill, P. (2001, December 6). Instant notoriety from a standing start! Hold the Front Page. Retrieved
September 20, 2007, from http://www.holdthefrontpage.co.uk/funny/2001/12dec/
011206fram.html
Barry, A. (2001). Political machines: Governing a technological society. London: Athlone Press.
Cramer, K. (2006, March 5). Blog satire mistaken as news by agencies in Syria, Pakistan. Boing Boing.
Retrieved September 20, 2007, from http://www.boingboing.net/2006/03/05/blog-satiremistaken.html
Deadbrain — Advertise. (n.d.). Deadbrain. Retrieved September 20, 2007, from http://www.
deadbrain.com/guide/advertise.php
Dickson, B. (2006, February 15). Government authorises forming of no-smoking death squads after voting
for smoking ban. Random Perspective. Retrieved September 20, 2007, from http:/
/www.randomperspective.com/page.asp?1news/3/019
Emerson, N. (2006, April 10). Clicking with comedy. BBC News. Retrieved September 18, 2007,
from http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/1/hi/1/magazine/5404246.stm
Random Perspective. (2004, June). Check Please! Retrieved September 20, 2007, from http://checkplease.humorfeed.com/issues/0101/2004junerandom.php
Feran, Tim (2006, September 20). Politics is a funny business: Elected officials provide satirists with
plenty of material.’ Knight Ridder Tribune Business News. 20 September 2006. 20 September 2007
http://proquest.umi.com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/pdqlink?did=1130723021&sid=6&Fmt=3&
clientld=20806&RQT=309&Vname=PQD
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
15
CARODY CULVER
Flew, T. (2002). New media: An introduction (2nd ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Guedes, G. (2005, July 12). You’ve been Onioned! IT Web — The Technology News Site. Retrieved
September 18, 2007, from http://www.itweb.co.za/sections/columnists/justbrowsing/guedes
050712.asp?O=FPC
Heffernan, V. (2007, April 2). The Onion speaks and sounds familiar. The New York Times.
Retrieved September 18, 2007, from http://proquest.umi.com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/
pdqlink?did=1248133501&sid=1&Fmt=3&clientld=20806&RQT=309&Vname=PQD
Livingstone, S. (1999). New media, new audiences? New Media and Society, 1, 59–66.
Pavlik, J. V. (1999). New media and news: Implications for the future of journalism.’ New Media and
Society, 1, 54–59.
Schachter, K. (2004, August 27). Online political satire draws more visitors than candidates
websites. Long Island Business News. Retrieved September 20, 2007, from
http://proquest.umi.com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/pdqlink?did=684677101&sid=2&Fmt=3&cl
ientld=20806&RQT=309&Vname=PQD
Study: Iraqis May Experience Sadness When Friends, Relatives Die. (2007, July 25). The Onion.
Retrieved September 18, 2007, from http://www.theonion.com/content/news/study_iraqis_
may_experience
Swift, J. (1729). A modest proposal. [Renascence Editions, 1999] Retrieved September 15, 2007,
from http://www.uoregon.edu/~rbear/modest.html
Watley, E. F. (2004a, June). Online satire and journalism: An interview with Larry Pryor.’ Check
Please! June 2004. 20 September 2007 http://checkplease.humorfeed.com/issues/0101/
2004juneOJR.php
Watley, E.F. (2004b, June). The satire that almost became law. Check Please! June 2004. Retrieved
September 20, 2007, from http://checkplease.humorfeed.com/issues/0101/2004JuneDHMO.php
Way, T. (September . Dihydrogen Monoxide Research Division. 29 September 2007. 20 September
2007 http://www.dhmo.org
16
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
Computer-Mediated Communication
and Internet Language:
An Exploration of Emoticons as
Medium-Specific Elements of a
Developing Internet Language
Keely Double
Writing, Editing, and Publishing student, The University of Queensland, Australia
A
s computer-mediated communication (CMC) becomes an increasingly
prominent mode of social interaction, an Internet language has simultaneously developed to combat the communication challenges presented by this
new medium. Many researchers and social commentators argue that CMC and
Internet language should develop within the boundaries of ‘traditional’
language standards. This is an inadequate way of considering the phenomenon
of CMC as it does not recognise the Internet as a new medium with specific
communication characteristics. A proliferation of medium-specific elements,
including emoticons, are used in CMC in an attempt to combine written and
spoken forms of the English language in an unprecedented manner. Opinion
remains divided on the usefulness of emoticons. This essay explores their function within their medium and concludes that they respond appropriately to the
demands of CMC and are an essential development in the evolving language
of the Internet.
Computer-mediated communication (CMC) and the language of the Internet have
been discussed in popular media and academic writing since the early 1990s. In an
article published in the Houston Chronicle in 1993, Joel Garreau comments that
‘computer mail is really more like talk than mail’ and describes the Internet as a
‘burgeoning but passionless medium’. Rezabek and Cochenour, in a paper presented
in 1994, identify a lack of nonverbal cues in CMC. This essay focuses on emoticons
as one aspect of an evolving Internet language, which also includes abbreviations
and acronyms. Standard punctuation marks arranged to represent facial expressions
formed the original emoticons. Instant messaging software such as MSN Messenger
now provide graphic representations of these ‘text emoticons’ and numerous additional symbols. In this essay, the word ‘emoticon’ refers to both text and graphic
emoticons. This essay argues that emoticons are a necessary development in CMC
and Internet language. The argument is supported by three main concepts: that as a
new medium the Internet demands a new language, that the impersonal nature of
CMC makes interpretation of text and tone ambiguous, and that humans use both
verbal and nonverbal cues to clarify and convey emotion.
Address for correspondence: Keely Double. E-mail: [email protected]
New Media, WRIT7025
Semester 2, 2007 pp. 17–21
17
KEELY DOUBLE
New Medium, New Language
In 2002, CNN anchorman Michael O’Brien raised the question ‘what is it about
email that requires these emoticons? I mean, years and years of written correspondence over the ages, nobody ever had to do a sideways smiley face’ (CNN: Saturday
Morning). Journalist Paul Andrews comments that ‘a cleverly constructed sentence,
finely wrought witticism or deft turn of phrase needs nothing to clarify or punctuate.
It’s a thing of beauty’ (1994); however, Neil Randall’s report ‘Net Lingo’ examines
the growth of Internet language and highlights medium-specific issues. Randall
points out that not everyone who communicates on the Internet has the ability or
inclination to construct beautiful sentences (2002). In addition, the fast-paced environment of the Internet demands immediate responses rather than perfect phrasing.
This requires creative language developments in order to convey nuance (Randall,
2002) and to lend an informal, everyday quality to communication while maintaining this immediacy (Walther & D’Addario, 2001).
American author John Updike believes that live languages change and reminds
language purists that ‘language is made and reformed in the daily commerce of men
and women, and needs constant renewal to find written equivalents for actual experience’(The New Yorker, 1996). Randall reinforces the idea that change and language
go hand in hand. Internet language combines spoken and written communication in
a way unlike anything that has come before it. It attempts to capture the essence of
speech in the much slower act of writing (Randall, 2002). Huffaker and Calvert’s
research indicates that Internet users quickly establish themselves as ‘dynamic’,
‘friendly’, or ‘talkative’ by including emoticons in their communication (2005). In an
article for The Sunday Times Tim Cox agrees that Internet communication is often
hurried, and that an emoticon can be used to add tone when tone needs to be added
quickly (2007).
Ambiguity in Interpretation of Text
Rivera, Cooke, and Bauhs discuss the loss of face-to-face and voice-to-voice cues in
CMC. The emotional information that would ordinarily be supplied by facial expression or voice inflection is not communicated and misunderstandings frequently
occur (Rivera et al., 1996). Researchers and social commentators agree on this point
unanimously; however, opinion remains divided on whether or not emoticons can
help with this difficulty. Wolf notes the ambiguity of emoticons themselves, using the
symbol :-Q as an example. This emoticon indicates either that the ‘user/writer
smokes’, or that the ‘user/writer is sticking their tongue out’ (Wolf, 2000). Rezabek
and Cochenour concur that a symbol with little or no meaning in a community is
unlikely to be used frequently (1994). McCoy warns that emoticons may not always
be cross-culturally recognised, and that the more abstract an emotion the more difficult the emotion is to capture (2000). Cox suggests that these symbols that are
supposed to simplify and humanise CMC can be elitist, and create a different
communication gap (2007).
Alternatively, Randall predicts that emoticons, like all new language developments, will integrate and develop accepted definitions over time (2002). He draws
comparisons between the gradual development of emoticons and the everyday use of
words such as Internet, World Wide Web, cyberspace, and email, which originally
began their lives as technical jargon. Walther and D’Addario’s research supports this
18
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION AND INTERNET LANGUAGE
theory with a clear consensus on the definitions of the two most common emoticons.
The :-) emoticon indicates happiness, or a joke, and the :-( emoticon indicates
sadness. The ;-) was also widely interpreted as a joking or flirting icon (2001).
Huffaker and Calvert report similar findings (2005). Randall goes so far as to label
the :-) emoticon as a new punctuation mark (2002).
Research conducted by Wolf (2000), Huffaker and Calvert (2005), and Derks,
Bos, and Grumbkow (2007) yielded similar results in acknowledging continuing
emoticon use. Results show particularly that :-) symbols were used to clarify positive
or neutral statements and to convey positive emotion. The second most popular
emoticon was the ‘mini-smiley’, in the form of :) (Wolf, 2000). Walther and
D’Addario’s results suggest that verbal content consistently outweighed emoticon
contribution. In Walther and D’Addario’s research, participants evaluated simulated
sentences paired with various emoticons, and recorded their interpretations of the
simulated messages. Participants were not required to produce their own
messages/respond to the messages of others, nor were they given the opportunity to
use emoticons for themselves. This method may not be the most effective when
assessing the function of emoticons, as it explores one aspect of emoticon use —
recipient interpretation — but completely ignores the other–the sender’s willingness
to supplement a textual message with nonverbal cues.
Ambiguity in Interpretation of Tone
Humour, irony, and sarcasm can be difficult concepts to convey in CMC. Several
writers advocate the use of emoticons to clarify tone. Hancock acknowledges the risk
in trying to be funny online. The lack of face-to-face interaction and timely feedback
and the inability to judge whether or not the recipient has ‘got’ the intended humour
of a comment emphasise the impersonal nature of the medium. A well-placed
emoticon can ensure that a humorous comment is not taken seriously (Hancock,
2004). Scott Fahlman created the original :-) and :-( symbols in 1982 with the idea
that they would be used to express emotion, and claims that the symbols came about
as a direct result of a misinterpreted comment posted on the Carnegie Mellon
University electronic billboard (Pele, 2005). Fahlman suggested the use of a :-) to
indicate when a statement was not meant to be taken seriously. Research indicates
that emoticons can help clarify an ambiguous statement, but can they express
emotions or concepts by themselves, without words?
An Alternative to Words
Rezabek and Cochenour explore the ability of visuals to communicate volumes with
just one image (1994). Emoticons proliferated with the growth of the Internet;
however, the idea of using images (or any other form of nonverbal communication)
to express emotions and feelings is not unique to the medium. Derks, Bos, and
Grumbkow clarify that, although emoticons can act as substitutes for the absence of
visual cues in CMC, they should not be interpreted in the same way. Physical reactions, including facial expressions, are often involuntarily and unconsciously
communicated. In CMC, these expressions become deliberate elements of communication (Derks et al., 2007). In this way, emoticons distinguish themselves as independent units of communication and demonstrate their potential to do more than
simply clarifiy the written word. The fact that emoticons are used implies that indiNew Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
19
KEELY DOUBLE
viduals feel a need to express their emotions with shorthand syllables instead of text
(Derks et al., 2007).
Imagery can have a positive impact on retention, and the use of visual cues
within a text produces a more positive attitude than text alone (Walther &
D’Addario, 2001). Words are not the most appropriate form of expression for all situations. McCoy describes various methods of nonverbal expression in CMC. These
include using colour, using two-dimensional and three-dimensional avatars (cyber
personalities), and downloading specialised typography to express personality or
sentiment. Emoticons do not have to co-exist with a textual phrase. They can be
used to establish moods or impressions (Huffaker & Calvert, 2005).
Conclusion
Popular media and academic writing will continue to focus on Internet language as
the language continues to develop. Studies of the medium reveal specific characteristics and concerns, and researchers observe an emerging language featuring
unique elements such as emoticons. When assessing the usefulness of emoticons,
researchers should consider the medium for which they are intended, the function
they serve within that medium, and whether or not they fulfil the needs of the
people using that medium.
Emoticons are a necessary development in CMC. Research highlights emoticons’
ability to convey tone quickly, responding to the medium-specific demands of immediacy. Emoticons clarify ambiguous textual statements and can add tone to a
frequently impersonal medium. In addition, they show potential as individual units
of communication, which can be used instead of words to express concepts or
emotions that may otherwise be difficult to convey in a textual medium. Updike
promotes language as a live and ever-changing force that adapts to its environment
(1996). Randall applies similar theories to his work, maintaining that the Internet
combines written and spoken elements on an unprecedented scale, and demands
language flexibility and change (2002). The use of emoticons as individual symbols
of expression is a subject area worthy of future research, as CMC continues and
Internet language becomes evermore popular.
References
Andrews, P. (1994, June 19). Put on a happy face, but not in my e-mail! The Seattle Times.
Calvert, S. L. (2005). Gender, identity, and language use in teenage blogs. Journal of ComputerMediated Communication, 10, article 1.
Cox, T. (2007, April 15). Let’s be clear, communicators hide their emoticons :-). The Sunday Times.
Derks, D., Arjan, E. R., & Grumbkow, J. V. (2007). Emoticons and social interaction on the
Internet: The importance of social context. Computers in Human Behaviour, 23, 842–849.
Huffaker, D. A., & Garreau, J. (1993, October 26). That personal touch: Emoticons humanise
computer mail. Houston Chronicle.
Hancock, J. T. (2004). LOL: Humor online. Interactions, 11, 57–58.
McCoy, A. D. (2004). Understanding and evaluating emotion and expression in virtual communities. University paper. Accessed on 19.09.2007, Google Scholar.
O’Brien, M., & Sieberg, D. (2002, September 21). Smile: Look at emoticons [Transcript of television broadcast]. CNN Saturday Morning.
Pele, A. (2005). The prevalence of the English language in communicating on the Internet. Revista
de Informatica Sociala, II, 82–87.
20
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COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION AND INTERNET LANGUAGE
Rezabek, L. L., & Cochenour, J. J. (1994). Emoticons: Visual cues for computer-mediated communication. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the International Visual Literary
Association, Tempe, Arizona.
Rivera, K., Cooke, N. J., & Bauhs, J. A. (1996). The effects of emotional icons on remote communication. Paper presented at the Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Vancouver,
British Columbia, Canada.
Updike, J. (1996, December 23, and 30). Fine points: Why we should still care about Fowler seventy
years on. The New Yorker. 142–149.
Walther, J. B., & D’Addario, K. P. (2001). The impacts of emoticons on message interpretation in
computer-mediated communication. Social Science Computer Review, 19, 324–345.
Wolf, A. (2000). Emotional expression online: Gender differences in emoticon use. Cyber
Psychology and Behavior, 3, 827–833.
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
21
Critics Versus Bloggers:
Pen to Keyboard Combat
Kate Eedy
Writing, Editing, and Publishing student, The University of Queensland, Australia
T
he rise of Internet has seen a dramatic change in the way that the arts, and
specifically literature, are reviewed and discussed within society. It is welldocumented that the space devoted to writing about books in mainstream
newspapers is steadily decreasing, and that there is an ongoing debate
regarding the relative merits of ‘traditional’ reviewers and their online counterparts. With the thousands of literary web logs, or ‘blogs’, present on the
Internet, ‘traditional’ book reviewing is, as the Motoko Rich (2007, May 2) for
the New York Times terms it, ‘imperiled’. But the critics are not taking the
decrease in their numbers lightly.
For all the traditionalist warning bells, it is worth noting that ‘the explosion of blogging among book lovers corresponds with a general rise in the use of blogs among the
computer literate’ (Nawotka, 2005, February 16). The culture of reading is one that
lends itself to discussion, and it seems inevitable that eventually this discussion
would find its way onto the Internet. Blogs may be seen as the modern-day equivalent of coffeehouses for their role in encouraging comment and debate. Gary Kamiya
(2007) believes that ‘from a cultural perspective, the new democracy of voices online
is a wonderful thing. But writers have an odd and ambiguous relationship with their
readers, and the reader revolution is having massive consequences we can’t even
foresee’ (n.p.).
Earlier this year, the Atlanta Journal-Constitution terminated the position of its
book editor. Their offices were picketed by protestors outraged by the decision, and
e-mails to the newspaper’s editor ‘received an automated response stating “We are
not killing our book coverage or book pages … We will be using freelancers, established news services, and our staff to provide stories about books of interest to our
readers and the local literary community”’ (Adriani, 2007). Considering that there
is hardly a lack of writing about writing, the question is why the public consider
published criticism to be more culturally important than blogging. The main
problem many see in blogging is not only amateurism, but also a lack of judgment
and critical distance. Ayelet Waldman’s summary is that ‘the entire blogosphere is a
first draft’ (quoted in Kamiya, 2007, p. 3).
Many authors have blurred the lines between their published work and blogging,
by either having their own blogs or by guest blogging on established sites. One such
author, Katharine Weber (2007), writing about critical (both print- and Internetbased) reaction to one of her novels, says:
Address for correspondence: Kate Eedy. E-mail: [email protected]
22
New Media, WRIT7025
Semester 2, 2007 pp. 22–26
CRITICS VERSUS BLOGGERS
I have been really blindsided by a certain kind of criticism … which prompted me to
succumb to the temptation of commenting (now that Amazon has added yet another
layer of comment opportunity, so the hall of mirrors of consumer product ratings of the
reviews can create even more ‘content’).
The reactions to print and online criticism parallel the way in which the criticism is
created: because it too is being judged for publication, a letter to the editor is more
likely to be measured and considered than a spontaneous comment in response to a
blog entry.
The National Circle of Book Critics recently surveyed its members on the ethics
of book reviewing. One member, Adam Kirsch (2007), believes that in the context
of the reduction of book reviewing in print, the survey ‘seemed a bit like rearranging
the deckchairs on the Titanic’. He despairs that:
the corporations that own most newspapers refuse to acknowledge that cutting book
review coverage is a short-sighted, even cannibalistic, business decision. Book review
sections seldom pay their way with ads, but they are a vital connection with the most
dedicated and valuable part of a newspaper’s audience — people committed to reading,
and in particular to print. Cutting that audience loose is not just bad for America’s
literary culture; it is bad for the future of newspapers. (n.p.)
Kirsch’s main objection to literary blogging is based, mainly, on a snobbery made
difficult by its subjectivity, and it is one that is evident elsewhere. His claim is that
‘the whole point of a review is to set one mind against another, and see what sparks
fly. If the reviewer lacks an individual point of view, or struggles to repress it, there
can be no intellectual friction, and therefore no interest or drama’. But he contradicts himself by writing in the same article that ‘book bloggers have also brought
another, less salutary influence to bear on literary culture: a powerful resentment.
[They] tend to consider themselves disenfranchised’. If this ‘powerful resentment’ is
not enough to spark interest or drama, surely nothing is? It is reductive and insulting
to consider all bloggers, people writing about the act of reading, to be failed writers,
embittered as the result. The inconsistency continues, because ‘there is no such thing
as an objective judgment of a work of literature; aesthetic judgment is by definition
personal and opinionated. Nor would a perfectly objective book review even be desirable’. Kirsch’s so far unjustified disdain for bloggers does not stop there:
literary criticism is only worth having if it at least strives to be literary in its own right,
with a scope, complexity, and authority that no blogger I know even wants [emphasis
added] to achieve. The only useful part of most book blogs, in fact, are the links to
long-form essays and articles by professional writers, usually from print journals. (n.p.)
By summarily dismissing the writing of anyone who is not paid to write, he further
incites their fury — and he should know better, for, as he further patronises, ‘hell
hath no fury like a blogger scorned’.
Unfortunately, many professional writers seem to share Kirsch’s views. Richard
Ford, Pulitzer Prize-winning author (most recently of the controversially titled The
Lay of the Land), has never looked at a literary blog. ‘Newspapers, by having institutional backing, have a responsible relationship not only to their publisher but to
their readership,’ Mr Ford said, ‘in a way that some guy sitting in his basement in
Terre Haute maybe doesn’t.’ (Rich, 2007). Whatever his objections, it seems odd
that Ford, a novelist of contemporary America, would so deliberately ignore the
largest development in contemporary literary culture, especially as the lines between
print and online work become less clear.
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
23
KATE EEDY
John Sutherland, academic, author, and former Man Booker Prize judge, sparked
controversy when he ‘wrote a piece in a Sunday paper in which he expressed his
anxiety about what “the web is doing to the craft and ethics of reviewing”’, claiming
that ‘[web reviewers] are content to work for no money because they “enjoy shooting
off their mouths”’ (quoted in Cooke, 2006). Rachel Cooke (2006), in defence of
reviewers, said ‘in essence, that they were useful because they know a lot (also, you
know who they are, unlike so many faceless bloggers and internet reviewers who hide
behind the anonymity the web provides)’. Her research included a day spent reading
literary blogs. ‘So much of the stuff you read in the so-called blogosphere is so awful:
untrustworthy, banal and, worst of all, badly written’. ‘Badly written’ is a fair (if
subjective) criticism. But ‘untrustworthy’ seems less justified. While a published
critic can build a reputation, or a readership, who follow the critic’s views, this reputation and readership can only come from being read. Readers can make their own
judgments, and by following the critic’s advice they can come to their own conclusions as to whether they ‘trust’ the critic. Surely the same rules apply to bloggers —
any reader can determine for themselves whether or not they ‘trust’ the blogger
purely by testing that blogger’s beliefs against their own. Cook (2006) explains that
Nick Hornby, for example, is an important critic ‘because his words are measured,
rather than spewed, out; because he is a good critic, and an experienced one; and
because he can write. The trouble is these qualities are exceptional, which is why
they must be paid for’ (n.p.). Hornby’s talent is not in question, but her justification
of his significance — and by extension all critics’ significance — is lacking. Avoiding
the fairly simplistic assertion that he is a ‘good critic’, her point that these are qualities that make a critic worthy of being a professional do not necessarily rule out some
bloggers, just as they should rule out some published critics. Her problem, as with
many others, seems to be one of accountability. Bloggers do not have to answer to
anyone in the same way that published critics do. They can be anonymous, and what
they post is entirely their decision.
One blog, dovegreyreader, is the work of ‘a Devonshire-based bookaholic, sockknitting quilter who happens to be a community nurse in her spare time’. in an
article in The Bookseller, Lynne Hatwell (2007) says:
I update daily and that’s important because people know they can log in regularly and
find a new post so I probably spend upwards of a full day per week writing, editing and
doing background research and of course apart from that I read the books I write about.
I read every book cover to cover and if not I will say so, but those books rarely make
the blog.
While these two sentences may not be a prime example of her editorial thoroughness, the intention behind them begins to displace the notion of blogging as a
stream-of-consciousness jumble of words ‘spewed out’.
Traditional reviewers may not respect bloggers, but the publishing industry has
not been slow to see their potential. In one of her entries, Hatwell (2007) reveals
that she had avoided reading Alice Sebold after a friend had adverse reaction to
The Lovely Bones, until ‘the lovely ladies at Macmillan sent me a proof copy of
[Sebold’s] forthcoming book The Almost Moon’, and, ‘having read it I knew the
time had come to tackle the rest of the Alice Sebold oeuvre and the MacLadies
agreed, hastily dispatching Lucky and The Lovely Bones’ (n.p.). Such publicity, at
the cost of a book and its postage, is obviously extremely beneficial to publishers.
Just as booksellers have always been offered advance copies of books, it makes just
24
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
CRITICS VERSUS BLOGGERS
as much sense to distribute them to bloggers as well — a blog is (potentially) read
by far more people than a bookseller could handsell the same title to.
Similarly, Scott Pack, formerly the chief buyer for Waterstones, now writes Me
and My Big Mouth. On his page he gleefully quotes the Guardian as calling him ‘the
most powerful man in the books trade’. It is difficult to say whether the statement
was made while he was selecting the stock for over 300 Waterstones stores, or now,
when he has the ability to reach a mass readership, who may not necessarily live in
the United Kingdom, or physically visit bookstores.
Several novelists have discussed their own attitudes to blogging. Ayelet
Waldman and her husband, Michael Chabon, spoke on a panel together where
they raised the issue of how blogging affected their fiction writing. Chabon had
suspected that the effect was one of immediacy — he was concerned that an event
or thought that might otherwise have slowly developed into the inspiration for a
story might instead be expunged immediately as a blog entry, never to be considered again.
This immediacy is probably the largest issue in the debate: that blogs are
(generally) not edited by another party, they are not necessarily thought out, or
allowed time to be carefully considered. The process of traditional reviewing is a
reflexive one. The piece is first written then judged by an editor, then by a larger
audience who holds the named writer, the editor, and the publication as jointly
responsible for the work. Removing those processes via a free blog site can also
remove caution and thought — and the need for decent writing. Without this
mediation, most blogs cannot achieve the critical legitimacy or relevance of
published work. But to dismiss the entire blogging community, who are, after all,
very enthusiastic readers — as unhelpful is unnecessary and unjustified. As
published critics decrease and blogging increases, critics who insult bloggers only
insult the readership they probably share. As long as people are reading, blogging
is inevitable, and further support could see it begin to become an increasingly
accepted form of criticism.
References
Adriani, L. (2007, April 19). Atlanta’s literary community rallies against newspaper’s elimination of
book review editor position. Publishers Weekly. Retrieved September 15, 2007, from http://
publishersweekly.com/article/ca6435021.html
Cooke, R. (2006, November 26). Deliver us from these latter day pooters. The Observer. Retrieved
September 18, 2007, from http://observer.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,,1956873,00.html
Hatwell, L. (2007, September 24). Alice Sebold. dovegreyreader. Retrieved September 27, 2007,
from http://dovegreyreader.typepad.com/dovegreyreader_scribbles/2007/09/alice-sebold.html
Blogs. (n.d.). The bookseller. Retrieved from http://www.thebookseller.com/blogs/44291-reading-forpleasure.html
Kamiya, G. (2007, January 30). The readers strike back. Salon. Retrieved September 24, 2007, from
http://www.salon.com/opinion/kamiya/2007/01/30/writing/index1.html
Kirsch, A. (2007, June 12). The scorn of the literary blog. The New York Sun. Retrieved September
26, 2007, from http://www.nysun.com/article/56368
Newton, M. (2005, March 22). Ayelet and Chabon: Blogging kills your fiction. maudnewton.com.
Retrieved September 28, 2007, from http://maudnewton.com/blog/?p=4912
Pack, S. (2007, September 27). Me and my big mouth. Available at http://meandmybigmouth.
typepad.com/scottpack/2007/09/out-of-my-contr.html
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
25
KATE EEDY
Nawotka, E. (2005, February 16). Literary blogs fill a niche. USA Today. Retrieved September 27,
2007, from http://www.usatoday.com/life/books/news/2005-02-16-literary-blogs_x.htm
Rich, M. (2007, May 2). Are book reviewers out of print? The New York Times. Retrieved September
26, 2007, from http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/02/books/02revi.html?n=Top%2F
Reference%2FTimes%20Topics%2FSubjects%2FN%2FNewspapers
Schaffert, T. (n.d.). Teresa Weaver’s view of reviews. Poets and Writers. Retrieved September 23,
2007, from http://www.pw.org/mag/0709/newsschaffert.htm
Weber, K. (2007, August 14) Reviewing the reviewers. the litblog co-op. Retrieved September 25,
2007, from http://lbc.typepad.com/blog/2007/08/reviewing-the-r.html
26
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
The (Lack of) Freedom of Speech
in Blogs
Kristie Lee Chue
Writing, Editing, and Publishing student, The University of Queensland, Australia
B
logs give anybody with Internet access the opportunity to publish their
opinions on the Internet. This democratisation of the Internet is helping
build a sense of community among people, and is a useful medium to share life
experiences as well as specialist knowledge. However, freedom of expression
may be affected in the future, as blogs are being used as the basis of employment dismissals and legal action. A review of the current literature, as well as
examination of popular blogs has been carried out to determine whether
people are aware of the pitfalls associated with blogging and whether this
affects what they publish on the Internet.
Web logs (commonly known as blogs) allow almost anybody to publish their
thoughts on the internet. Blogs have been in existence for many years, but it is only
through fairly recent advances in software that the popularity of blogs has surged
(Du & Wagner, 2006). Blog web sites such as LiveJournal and social networking sites
with blog capabilities such as MySpace allow the average person with limited technical knowledge to create their own blogs. Technorati (n.d.), a search engine for
blogs, currently tracks 107.6 million blogs. Millions of people contribute to this
phenomenon, but there are hidden consequences to their actions. What people write
may leave them open to legal action, or have their employment terminated.
Are bloggers’ freedom of speech and expression of personality being stifled by a
fear of litigation or fear of damaging future and current employment prospects? This
is an important research question, since what we write and publish over the Internet
can have wide-reaching effects. This article presents a review of previous studies into
who is blogging, what they are blogging about, and the consequences that can arise
from this. Even though many corporate and business blogs exist, only personal blogs
will be discussed here.
What is Blogging?
Blogging was named the number one technology trend in 2005 by Fortune magazine
(Lorenz, 2005). People can blog about any topic they choose, such as political
commentary, technical advances, or advice about an area they specialise in. Blogs are
also widely used as online journals, where people chronicle their thoughts on
everyday life. A survey conducted by the Pew Internet and American Life Project
showed 37% of respondents write primarily about their life and experiences (Lenhart
& Fox, 2006).
Address for correspondence: Kristie Lee Chue. E-mail: [email protected]
New Media, WRIT7025
Semester 2, 2007 pp. 27–31
27
KRISTIE LEE CHUE
Blog entries are usually shown in reverse chronological order, and are written
in a less formal style than websites (Mercado-Kierkegaard, 2006). They are regularly updated, can contain pictures and links to other sites, and allow readers to
leave comments (Du & Wagner, 2006; Mercado-Kierkegaard, 2006).
Estimates vary on how many blogs are published on the Internet. In October
2005, reports stated that over 100 million blogs had been created (Riley, 2005).
In 2005, only 23 million blogs were being tracked by Technorati, which shows just
how fast blogging has gained popularity (Mercado-Kierkegaard, 2006). The
founder and CEO of Technorati claims that every second, 4.6 web logs are being
updated and 12,000 new blogs are being created each day (Du & Wagner, 2006).
MySpace (n.d.), a social networking site, currently hosts 156 million blogs.
However, it is unclear how many of the blogs counted are being maintained and
updated regularly.
The Benefits of Blogging
People can benefit from writing regularly, even if they are only writing for themselves. The Pew Internet survey found that just over half of the respondents do not
publish their writing anywhere other than the Internet (Lenhart & Fox, 2006).
Fifty-two per cent of bloggers said they wrote for themselves and not for an audience (Lenhart & Fox, 2006). Writers have suggested that blogging benefits people
who wish to improve the quality of their writing because it forces them to write
regularly, to think about the kind of writer they are, to give them ideas for writing,
and to stop them from being too conscious about writing (Booth, 2006). However,
some people do not view blogging by the general public with much favour. ‘Most
blogging is sheer exhibitionism … the self-absorbed ramblings of an individual
blogger’ (Long, 2006).
Why Do People Blog?
In general, there is no money involved in writing blogs (Drezner, 2004). Eightyfive per cent of respondents in the Pew Internet survey stated that making money
was not a reason they blogged. The majority of bloggers write to express themselves
creatively and to document and share their experiences with others (Lenhart &
Fox, 2006). In 2007, a survey was conducted to determine why people contributed
to the Internet for free. The results of this showed that the motivation to blog is
led by numerous factors. It has been suggested that many people use blogs as ‘advertisements’, either for their current business or to demonstrate their skills to future
employers (Oram, 2007). Others claim they blog for purely altruistic reasons, with
one respondent to the study stating ‘it’s part of my personality to give advice,’ and
another stating ‘helping out is spiritually important to me’ (Oram, 2007).
Negative Consequences of Blogging
Many people seem unaware that any person, anywhere, can access personal information that they have posted on the Internet. They write blogs criticising coworkers, list ‘drinking’ or ‘drug-taking’ as favourite pastimes, and post scantily clad
pictures of themselves. The persona they portray over the Internet can differ drastically from their persona at home or in the workplace. This can lead to a range of
28
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
THE (LACK OF) FREEDOM OF SPEECH IN BLOGS
negative consequences, such as legal action, criminal charges, termination of
employment or failure to gain employment.
Legal action can arise over blog contents. For example, Gavin Sheridan was
threatened with legal action by John Gray, author of Men are From Mars, Women are
From Venus, after claiming in his blog that Gray was a fraud. His post linked to
another website that made the same claim: Gray’s university degrees were not from
accredited institutions (Sheridan, 2003). Some months after this blog was posted,
Sheridan received a letter from Gray’s lawyers demanding a public apology and
corrections to the blog (Sheridan, 2004). This is an example that even linking to
someone else’s claims can lead to legal action. In Australia, ‘it is no defence to say
that what is published is merely a repetition of a statement that was previously
published and that it did not incur prosecution. In principle every person who
repeats or republishes a defamatory statement faces the same liability’ (Webb, n.d.).
Bloggers must also be aware that comments left on their blog by others can also leave
them open to charges of defamation, and the ‘current consensus is that the blogger
must know the scope of their liability across the planet’ (Webb, n.d.).
Posting unfavourable blogs about employers or co-workers can lead to disciplinary
action or termination of employment. A survey conducted by the Society for Human
Resource Management showed 3% of human resource professionals had disciplined
an employee for blogging (Lorenz, 2005). Employees from Starbucks, Kmart, Wells
Fargo, Delta Air Lines and Friendster have reportedly been fired for blogging
(Lorenz, 2005). Even when the blog does not mention work, employees may still be
vulnerable. ‘It doesn’t matter if you blog about skydiving or pornography. If your
employer feels the blog makes you a poor representative of their corporate values, the
executives have the freedom to disassociate themselves from you’ (Barry, 2005). A
notable example of a person being fired after writing about work colleagues is
Heather Armstrong, whose online pseudonym led to the coining of the word
‘dooced,’ a term used to describe when someone has lost their job because of the
content of their blog (Mercado-Kierkegaard, 2006).
Employers are taking the precautionary step of checking potential employees’
online information. According to one recent study, 20% of employers use the
Internet to conduct background checks. Of these, 59% use the information to influence their decisions and 25% have rejected at least one candidate based on ‘dubious
personal information’ (Derbyshire, 2007; Ferguson, 2007). According to another
report, ‘as many as 50% of employers and 75% of job recruiters concerned about
alcohol/drug use, violence and similar problems check out potential employees on
the web’ (Humphries, 2007). A manager of the researching company states that ‘the
rise of search engines such as Google means that potential employers are never more
than a few clicks away from information about you’ (Ferguson, 2007).
The political situation of countries can also affect bloggers’ rights. In China,
people must register to blog or else face criminal charges (Mercado-Kierkegaard,
2006). All blogs within China are monitored and unregistered sites are reported to
the government. Bloggers are not allowed to write or comment on certain topics.
This also occurs in other countries, such as Iran and Singapore (MercadoKierkegaard, 2006). It is possible that other countries may follow suit and introduce
regulations, causing bloggers to be even more cautious about what they write.
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
29
KRISTIE LEE CHUE
Preliminary Research
Du and Wagner (2006) examined the factors that contribute to the success of
particular blogs. They found that the features of a blog, as well as its content and
social value, all contribute to the popularity of a blog. To try to limit the variability
caused by the type of blog tool used, analyses should be conducted on blogs that
stem from one website. In this case, MySpace blogs were chosen because they are
numerous, can be categorised, and are linked to profiles of the writers
An examination of the ten most popular MySpace blogs showed a narrow range
of topics being discussed. Two of the blogs were about MySpace layouts, two were
about competitions being run through the web site, and one was about the new
changes to the web site. The other five were more personal entries. One person,
Coqueto, wrote his own response to a ‘Dear Abby’ letter, obviously playing for
laughs. Hope, a professional soccer player, wrote an apology over comments she
made that were widely broadcast over television. Tila also wrote about an issue that
was brought up over the television, after being criticised by the Christian Church
for her new television show about bisexuality. Maven’s blog is a musing on life and
people’s insecurities, while the last was written by actor Zach Braff, giving an
update on his current work.
The content of all five of these blogs shares similar elements. They all ask the
reader questions and provoke comments, which is an indicator of a good blog.
They are all articulate, with few typos and punctuation errors. It seems that each
of the writers do consider their potential audiences carefully, as none of them make
any remarks that could be defamatory or damaging to their reputations, even
though they may be discussing a controversial issue. A look at one other blog entry
chosen at random from each of the writers (with the exception of Hope, who had
written only one entry) shows the same result, although it is clear that Coqueto
does not seem like the sort of person who would censor himself, as his banner at
the top of the blog reads, ‘express yourself fully, damn the consequences’.
Future Directions
The blog-writers listed above could be contacted and interviewed to determine
whether what they write is affected by their awareness of possible negative consequences. Large-scale surveys could be conducted online to determine how much
people know about the negative consequences of their blogging. Bloggers could
also be asked if they have experienced negative consequences due to their blogs. It
would be interesting to find out whether people actually care if there are negative
reactions to their blogs. Some people may very well write inflammatory blogs deliberately to cause a stir.
Conclusion
It is crucial that bloggers understand that what they write for the internet becomes
public the second they hit the ‘post’ button. Every blog has the potential to offend
or cause the blogger’s reputation to be called into question. The consequences of a
hot-tempered rant online could be life-changing. This is a complex issue that could
potentially affect millions of people. The ramifications stemming from a humble blog
30
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
THE (LACK OF) FREEDOM OF SPEECH IN BLOGS
have legal, social, and ethical implications attached to it. This is an issue that needs
to be researched further.
References
Barry, B. (2005). The muzzled life. Retrieved September 30, 2007, from http://www.nashvillescene.com/
blog/pitw/archives/00000469.shtml
Booth, A. (2006). Five secret benefits of blogs for writers. Retrieved September 28, 2007, from
http://copywriter.typepad.com/copywriter/practice_your_writing_skills/index.html
Derbyshire, D. (2007, March 29). Bosses are watching your blog antics too. The Daily Telegraph.
Drezner, D. (2004). The power and politics of blogs. Retrieved September 30, 2007, from
www.utsc.utoronto.ca/~farrell/blogpaperfinal.pdf
Du, H. S., & Wagner, C. (2006). Weblog success: Exploring the role of technology. International
Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 64, 789–798.
Ferguson, T. (2007). Want a job? Clean up your web act. Retrieved September 30, 2007, from
http://www.news.com/Want-a-job-Clean-up-your-Web-act/2100-1025_3-6171187.html
Humphries, L. (2007). The impact of social networking tools and guidelines to use them. Retrieved
September 28, 2007, from http://www.llrx.com/features/goodgoogle.htm
Lenhart, A., & Fox, S. (2006). Bloggers: A portrait of the Internet’s new storytellers. Retrieved
September 30, 2007, from http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/PIP%20Bloggers%20Report%20
July%2019%202006.pdf
Long, T. (2006). You, to, can right like a blogger. Retrieved September 27, 2007, from
http://www.wired.com/culture/lifestyle/commentary/theluddite/2006/04/70733
Lorenz, K. (6 Apr 2005). Avoid getting fired for blogging. Retrieved September 30, 2007, from
http://www.cnn.com/2005/US/Careers/04/05/blogging/index.html
Mercado-Kierkegaard, S. (2006). Blogs, lies and the doocing: The next hotbed of litigation?
Computer Law and Security Report, 22, 127–136.
MySpace. (2007, October 1). Available from http://www.myspace.com
Oram, A. (2007). Why do people write free documentation? Results of a survey. Retrieved September
30, 2007, from http://www.onlamp.com/pub/a/onlamp/2007/06/14/why-do-people-write-freedocumentation-results-of-a-survey.html
Riley, D. (2005, October 10). The blog herald blog count October 2005: Over 100 million blogs
created. The Blog Herald. Retrieved October 1, 2007, from http://www.blogherald.com/2005/
10/10/the-blog-herald-blog-count-october-2005/
Sheridan, G. (2003, November 17). Men are from Mars … Gavin’s Blog. Retrieved September 29,
2007, http://www.gavinsblog.com/2003/11/17/men-are-from-mars/
Sheridan, G. (2004, March 17). My blog has been threatened with legal action by author John Gray.
Gavin’s Blog. Retrieved September 29, 2007, http://www.gavinsblog.com/2004/03/17/my-bloghas-been-threatened-with-legal-action-by-author-john-gray/
Technorati. (n.d.). Retrieved October 1, 2007, from http://www.technorati.com
Webb, L. (n.d.). Bloggers and moderators liable for blog comments. Retrieved September 29, 2007,
from http://www.dba-oracle.com/oracle_news/2005_9_1_liable_blog_comments.htm
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
31
Embracing Blackboard:
Examining Students’ Behaviour
in the World of E-Learning
Luke Madsen
Writing, Editing, and Publishing student, The University of Queensland, Australia
T
his article examines the e-learning program Blackboard and how students
are engaging with it in two courses at The University of Queensland (WRIT
7025 and WRIT 6030). After collecting statistical data from the Blackboard
general discussion forums of these two courses, a discrepancy became apparent
between the volume of use for each course: one course had a third the number of
students than the other, yet both courses shared similar numbers of threads and
posts. By regarding these forums as ‘social spaces’, the socioconstructivism theory
of learning was used to explore why this discrepancy exists. Also, by asking
students for their views on using Blackboard, it was expressed that the social space
created by Blackboard and the forums was a strong motivation for them to use it,
but only by the students in the course with fewer people. This research was fruitful
in establishing why the students who use Blackboard do so diligently; however, it
was less fruitful in establishing why students are not using Blackboard. Therefore,
it is in this area of e-learning that further research is needed to continue to grow
the e-learning area to become a useful teaching resource.
‘Academia, by its very nature, is open and thrives when ideas flow between people
rapidly and easily’ (Hills, 2003, p. 21), and such is the benefit of e-learning.
E-learning refers to computer-enhanced learning programs and dozens of these
programs have been implemented in many industries around the world, particularly
education. Little deliberation is needed to surmise the positive qualities that
e-learning has had on education: e-learning has given students the ability to be
autonomous learners, the ability to access information anywhere at anytime, and the
ability to extend class time via online discussion boards.
Having used e-learning for the past 2 1/2 years that I have been studying at The
University of Queensland, coupled with the fact that universities have had the time
to test out different e-learning programs such as Blackboard and Moodle to find
which is best for them, I believe that e-learning is coming out of its infancy. That
being said, the focus of research into e-learning must shift from the technology to the
practice of its use because, ‘if we focus too much on the technology and not enough
on how it is used, we will continue to fall short’ (Rosenberg, 2001, p. xv).
With this in mind, I began to explore the general discussion boards of two courses
I am taking this semester, Academic and Corporate Editing, and Professional
Communication (for the rest of the article I will refer to these courses by their course
codes, 7025 and 6030, respectively). While exploring every thread and post in the
Address for correspondence: Luke Madsen. E-mail: [email protected]
32
New Media, WRIT7025
Semester 2, 2007 pp. 32–43
EMBRACING BLACKBOARD
general discussion forums, I was looking for what kind of things students were posting
(though this goes hand in hand with the subject matter they are studying), what posts
were getting the most responses, and what percentage of students were posting to gather
evidence of how students are using these discussion boards and how that might be
affecting their learning.
However, during the course of the research, a large discrepancy appeared between the
percentage of students posting in the general discussion boards in 7025 and 6030.
Consequently, the focus of the research moved away from how students are using the
discussion boards (though I still examine this in the article), to exploring why this
discrepancy exists. Part of the possible reason for this will focus around the fact that 7025
contains only Writing, Editing, and Publishing (WEP) students (students who study the
postgraduate WEP program), while 6030 contains most of the WEP students in 7025,
and the rest, approximately half the class, are students from other programs.
The Pedagogy of E-Learning
To date, the academic work on e-learning has focused on issues such as the positive
effects on education that e-learning has been able to provide to today’s student, the
types of students who are thought to benefit most from e-learning, and the merging
of traditional teaching theories and practices with e-learning technology.
Todd Kent and Robert McNergney (1999), in their book Will Technology Really
Change Education? From Blackboard to Web , explore the expectations of e-learning
from a seemingly pessimistic perspective: ‘New educational technologies promise to
change forever the way students learn and teachers teach — yet again’ (p. 1). They
trace the influence other technologies such as film, radio, and television had (have)
on education to postulate how they foresee e-learning will affect education. They
conclude that:
Believing students can shape their own learning productivity simply because they have
access to a digital network is equivalent to turning them loose in a library and
expecting them to benefit spontaneously from the vast resources contained on the
shelves. Real teachers know that content represents only an opportunity for learning;
learning occurs when students engage the content (p. 59).
Marc Rosenberg (2001) says his book, E-learning: Strategies for Delivering Knowledge
in a Digital Age, is timely, as ‘We are on the verge of a major sea change in learning.
Internet technologies have fundamentally altered the technological and economic
landscapes so radically that it is now possible to make quantum leaps in the use of
technology for learning’ (p. xv). Like McNergney, Rosenberg gives a short history of
technologies for learning, outlines the benefits of e-learning, and explores its use in
a organisational context.
Individual Preferences in E-Learning (2003) by Howard Hills charts the problem of
a mass training and development medium such as e-learning being at odds with the
learning needs of the individual. Hills is quick to point out who will benefit most
from e-learning: ‘e-learning is very good for learners who are motivated and understand how to get the best from the learning materials’ (p. 6). With regard to elearning affecting students’ learning positively, Hills suggets that the ‘best hope for
that [e-learning] is in designing a unique experience for each learner that takes
account of their preferences’ (p. 168). But, ultimately, Hills can only offer a ‘learning
model’ that may or may not prove effective (p. 155).
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
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In the proceedings of the conference The Ethics and Equity of E-Learning in Higher
Education (2001), Elaine Martin and David Webb explore how teaching practices will be
influenced by e-learning and vice versa, in their article Is E-Learning Good Learning?
They, too, are quick to outline the positive qualities of e-learning, such as ‘the ability to
deliver or communicate with several hundred … at the stroke of a computer key appears
to be an unqualified advantage’ (p. 49). They offer worthwhile argument that teachers
are still vital to students’ learning in a virtual environment, which becomes relevant in
the discussion section of this article.
Since e-learning practices are a new area for study for academics who have a vested
interest in e-learning practices among students, the pedagogy of how people learn and
study should also be explored to find the most suitable approach for studying e-learning.
This is why John Gardner’s and Bryan Holmes’s (2006) book E-Learning: Concepts and
Practices comes closest to providing avenues for studying how students may be using elearning. Like other academics, Gardner and Holmes outline the positive qualities of elearning: e-learning ‘offers new opportunities for both the educator and the learner to
enrich their teaching and learning experiences through virtual environments that
support not just the delivery, but also the exploration and application of information’ (p.
10). More importantly, Gardner and Holmes explore various theories of learning such as
behaviourism, cognitivism, socioconstructivism, and communal constructivism. The
most suitable of these theories becomes pertinent when e-learning environments are
constructed as social spaces.
While e-learning, for the most part, takes place in the comfort of a student’s home,
they are still taking part in a virtual society, with the fundamental difference between elearning discussion boards and the millions of discussion boards on the Internet being
that students know each other and have face-to-face contact every week. The socioconstructivism theory of learning, ‘underpins our understanding of how individuals learn in
a social context’ (Gardner & Holmes, 2006, p. 77), which makes it the most adequate
choice for analysing e-learning environments. As further evidence of this point, the
main elements of socio-constructivism theory ‘may be summarised as learning in a
context that is: social; reflective; authentic; and scaffolded’ (Gardner & Holmes, 2006,
p. 84). The appropriateness of these elements of socio-constructivism theory will become
salient during the exploration of research findings in the next section, particularly among
the comments by the students themselves, as they advocate the ‘sense of community’ the
discussion boards have been able to provide.
Findings
The e-learning program used at The University of Queensland is Blackboard. In the
courses I have taken at the university, Blackboard is used for downloading course
profiles and accessing course materials such as lecture notes and lecture readings,
among many other resources. I have even completed courses in which Blackboard is
used for taking the course in its entirety. But for this article, the aspect of Blackboard
that I have focused on is the general discussion forum.
In this forum, students are encouraged to start threads about any issues that arise
in class that may not get dealt with adequately enough for their understanding, any
articles of interest a student may come across that they think will be stimulating to
the rest of the class, and even to start a thread requesting students post their thoughts
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(positive or negative) about Blackboard to help with a research article (see
Appendix 1 for examples of these posts).
From each comment posted, these are the positive and negative points that were
brought up:
Positive
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
allows students who aren’t comfortable with commenting in class to participate
encourages people to delve further into the subject matter
posts build on subject matter discussed in class
students can get to know each other/opens paths for communication
extends class time
students have an opportunity to clarify points they didn’t comprehend in class
convenience for accessing course material/uploading homework and assignments
provides a stimulating distraction from other uni work
valuable networking tool
encourages a sense of community.
Negative
•
•
•
•
creates more work
technological difficulties/clunkiness of the user interface
provides distraction from uni work
have to filter out the ‘background noise’ and retain the ‘good stuff’/unnecessary
responses
• might replace face-to-face debate
• often too many posts to read
• another possible stress for those who feel they should be posting but struggle to
find the time.
TABLE 1
General Discussion Data: 7025 Versus 6030
Academic and Corporate Editing
(7025)
Professional Communication
(6030)
No. of students
21
64
No. of threads
62
56
270
255
No. of posts
Average no. of posts/thread
4.4
4.6
Average no. of views/thread
38
41
No. of threads with posts > 5
17
17
No. of students that started threads
15
21
No. of students that posted,
but didn’t start threads
4
11
No. of students that didn’t post
2
32
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LUKE MADSEN
As well as asking students to post their opinions of Blackboard, I went through the
general discussion forums and collected statistical data (see Table 1: all activity in
weeks 1to 7, semester 2, 2007).
Discussion
As mentioned earlier, while doing this research I was taking note of the range of topics
people were posting and what particular posts were getting responses. The statistical data
of how many posts there were per class and the percentage of students posting, as can be
seen in the table above, shows a significant discrepancy between the classes and their use
of Blackboard. So, instead of addressing the question of how are students using
Blackboard, it seems more important to address the question of why are most of the
students in 7025 using the general discussion forum frequently (and may I go so far as to
say with some joy), while only half of the students in 6030 are posting (most of whom
are in 7025 and are WEP students)?
As discussed earlier, the socioconstructivism theory is appropriate for studying
e-learning because students are ‘learning in a context that is social; reflective; authentic;
and scaffolded’. Before I discuss why it is important to examine the discussion forums
with this theory, I will address the listed elements.
By looking at a couple of students’ comments about Blackboard, it can be established
that they feel that the discussion forums are social spaces: ‘I quite enjoy Blackboard for
the sense of community it encourages’ (Coralie Amato) and ‘Blackboard has helped
enormously with getting to know other students. I think in some ways it promotes faceto-face interaction, providing talking points that can be expanded on or responded to’
(Keely Double).
The ability to post thoughts into the general discussion forum at their convenience
gives students time to think (reflect) about any issues that arise in class that might need
clarifying. This ability to reflect is an important function of e-learning because students
‘are able to guide themselves in determining “where they are” in their learning and what
the next steps should be’ (Gardner & Holmes, 2006, p. 99).
If an authentic learning environment can be judged by the learning material used
and posted in the discussion forums, then the discussion forums for 7025 and 6030 are
just that, because these two courses are writing courses and the materials posted for
discussion are not constructed examples, but rather are found by students through their
interaction with newspapers, books, and online sources.
Last, scaffolding refers to the ‘process in which learners are assisted to reach new
levels of knowledge, skill, or understanding’ (Gardner & Holmes, 2006, p. 95). If this
were not the goal of these discussion forums, then I would be inclined to argue that
posting to, and viewing the forums, would be a superfluous exercise.
So, why is it useful to examine the discussion forums in a social context? Because the
‘sense of community’ that WEP students feel within their group is one of the reasons that
they are so willing to post, and, from the other point of view, is a reasonable hypothesis
as to why so few of the non-WEP students in 6030 are posting. A good example of this
is the fact that, out of the possible 42 non-WEP students, only three answered my plea
for responses to the value of Blackboard in the 6030 discussion forum; the other students
that replied were WEP students who knew me. Also, the traffic (about a dozen views)
the thread received before anyone posted a reply further demonstrates the reluctance of
students to post. Furthermore, even after polite encouragement from the lecturer, only a
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few more students posted. And then, after a request from the lecturer to post Blackboard
comments for her sake, the number of students who posted a comment stands at half.
Another example of WEP students’ willingness to post is a WEP course I took last
semester, WRIT7015 Issues in Contemporary Publishing. Out of a class of no more than
25 students, there were 20 participants in the general discussion forum; again, the
majority of the class were contributing to Blackboard.
Since I am one of them, I can attest to the fact that there is camaraderie among WEP
students, compounded by having relatively small classes and spending more than one
semester together. But, perhaps more importantly, participating in a small class gives a
greater connection with the teacher, which can directly contribute to greater performances by students. This notion is addressed alongside e-learning by Martin and Webb
(2001): ‘used wisely, these tools [e-learning] … enable good teaching and learning to still
occur with less classroom contact time but this contact, connection and lively interaction between student and teacher (and subject) remains essential to deep, meaningful
learning’ (p. 59). Conversely, ‘lectures … especially with large groups, can be fairly stiff
and formal occasions with rather fixed, even rigid, agendas where the lecturer can appear
to be this remote “expert”’ (Martin & Webb, 2001, p. 59). Again, this is a reasonable
hypothesis why so few of the non-WEP students are posting to the general discussion
forum. Two students commented that they didn’t contribute to Blackboard because other
students were addressing their queries, but this doesn’t account for the fact that it is a
course requirement to post on Blackboard and some students are not.
Unfortunately, apart from asking them directly, there is no means to discern why
these students are not posting. But, discerning why students are not posting is exactly
what needs to happen if e-learning will continue to grow as an educational resource,
because ‘an effective e-learning strategy must be more than the technology itself … it
must also focus on … building a learning culture’ (Rosenberg, 2001, p. xvi).
Conclusion
‘Academia, by its very nature, is open and thrives when ideas flow between people
rapidly and easily’ (Hills, 2003, p. 21); and so e-learning should be embraced, albeit
with a prudent resolve. Gardner and Holmes feel that because ‘the scope for
e-learning’s future development is so wide … it is with some trepidation that we
attempt to paint a picture of the future’ (p. 147). One reason for trepidation is the
possibility that teachers will cease to be necessary in the conventional sense, just as
some students feel that on-line communication through discussion boards will stifle
face-to-face communication. For Rosenberg, ‘there is an enduring and important role
for traditional classroom learning … people who believe technology will replace
great teachers in front of classrooms of highly motivated learners are misguided
(2001, p. xvii). But where is the balance between teaching — at the extreme,
hundreds of students at a time — and fostering personal connections that encourage
students to get the most out of e-learning facilities such as the discussion forums? As
we move forward, it is these problems that educators will need to address because elearning is quickly becoming the norm for teaching practices in tertiary education.
References
Gardner, J., & Holmes, B. (2006). E-Learning: Concepts and practice. London: Sage.
Hills, H. (2003). Individual preferences in e-Learning. Aldershot: Gower.
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
37
LUKE MADSEN
Kent, T. W., & McNergney, R. F. (1999). Will technology really change education? From Blackboard to
web. Thousand Oaks, CA: CorwinPress.
Martin, E. &, Webb., D. (2001). Is e-learning good learning? Presented at the The Ethics and Equity
of E-Learning in Higher Education. Melbourne, Australia: Victoria University.
Rosenberg, M. J. (2001). J. E-Learning: Strategies for delivering knowledge in the digital age. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Appendix 1
The Value of Blackboard Comments
Academic and Corporate Editing
I think Blackboard adds an interesting dimension to the course. There was nothing
like this at the university where I was an undergraduate, so initially I was a bit taken
aback at the idea of using a discussion board as part of my studies. I think I was almost
a bit afraid of Blackboard during my first semester (lame but true). One of the best
things about Blackboard is that it allows those who aren’t so comfortable with talking
a lot in class to contribute in a slightly different way. I think it also encourages people
to delve a bit deeper into the subject matter of the course — there are always lots of
posts that build on concepts that have been raised during class. When you only have
a couple of contact hours per week, it’s good to have a forum like Blackboard to further
discuss what you’re learning about. And it helps us get to know each other! I can
understand why some people might not be so keen on Blackboard. It does create extra
work, since we’re all expected to contribute regularly. I’m sure it’s not much fun if you
hate computers — as others have discussed before, sometimes it just doesn’t work the
way it should, like when it times you out or eats your post or something. Such is the
joy of technology. (Carody Culver)
The most interesting thing about message boards, like Blackboard, is that it gives
everyone a chance to say what they feel. I think people are far more willing to speak
their mind if they aren’t sitting right in front of the audience they are addressing. This
type of freedom can quickly digress into something very ugly, but in an academic
setting, it is so helpful. As Carody pointed out, it helps the more timid students participate in discussions. It also allows students to continue with points that they didn’t
have time for in class. Blackboard is a wonderful extension of class time. If you can’t
quite remember a detail in class, it can be posted here at your leisure. I’ve been
impressed with the willingness of students to participate and help one another with
ideas and research on this Blackboard site. With this sort of positive participation, it’s
an excellent learning resource. (Carlie Tucker)
Love?
Love something that is damaged?
Love something that is as temperamental as a human?
Love something that can hurt you twice as much as you care for it?
Love something that is used (and abused?) by different people in different ways?
Love something that can leave trails – bad ones to forget, good ones to walk through
again and again?
Love something that can open your eyes to the boundaries of weakness,
and kindness?
Love something that can lead you on to places you never would have found
on your own?
Love something that is never boring?
Isn’t love a strong word? (Shirin Wun)
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Appendix 1 (CONTINUED)
The Value of Blackboard Comments
Academic and Corporate Editing
My thoughts on the subject of using Blackboard are that it is a great resource, plenty of
scope for communication with other students that otherwise you may not be able to get to
talk to. (Rhonda McPherson)
What I love about blackboard:
1. It beautifully disguises the fact that I am terrible at filing important bits of paper.
Having all the course information on blackboard spares me the embarrassment of
always having to chase up new copies of outlines, profiles, assignment sheets, etc.
2. Reading the forums provides a wonderful distraction from doing my own work (such as
now).
3. Provides a useful spot to ‘deposit’ other interesting tidbits, such as weblinks, upcoming
conferences, jobs, etc.
4. The convenience of uploading homework and assignments
What I don’t love about blackboard:
1. A clunky interface — am hoping to drag my studies out long enough to enjoy iStudent
or similar.
2. See point 2 (What I love about blackboard) above.
3. Ok — this next point is probably contentious and will make me sound like I am 100years-old, but I don’t like the ‘consumerist’ aspect of blackboard - just like everything
else — open 24/7, consume information, consume ideas, consume opinion, consume
education in great quantities to then filter out the ‘background noise’ and retain the
‘good stuff’.
4. While it offers some opportunity to continue discussion after class, it shouldn’t replace
the ‘think on your feet’ and feisty face-to-face debate, which are also critical components of postgraduate study. I completed my previous postgrad study in 1994. We didn’t
have e-mail, let alone Blackboard. Every week we had to debate/discuss a journal article
(a little like journal club) — they were often only 30 minute sessions, but have left a
lasting impression. I wonder if online forums will do the same (yes, sounding 100
again). (Paulette Baumgart)
What I love about Blackboard:
• The extension it provides on the coursework we cover.
• It provides distraction from work.
What I don’t love about Blackboard:
• The interface — particularly the forum. For a course that has a high volume of posts,
the forum is not at all user friendly — it doesn’t promote threads with replies to the first
page, so you have to go searching for new replies. It also doesn’t have an edit function,
so any embrassing* gaffes are there for all eternity, leading to ridicule and ruin. (Peta
Enbom)
*Embarrassing gaffe inserted deliberately for the purposes of illustration.
I think Blackboard is a pretty good idea. It wasn’t around when I was doing my undergrad
degree (that makes me sound so old but it was only a couple of years ago), so it took me
some time to get used to using it. I find it can be quite difficult to navigate. It’s such a pain
just getting to the discussion board.
I think the home screen should group our subjects by semester and not by course code. It
gets a bit annoying having to read all the course codes to find the ones from this semester.
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
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LUKE MADSEN
Appendix 1 (CONTINUED)
The Value of Blackboard Comments
Academic and Corporate Editing
Why not have the most current ones at the top? I don’t know what all the other bits on
the home screen mean, either.
I find it very handy that we can get all our lecture readings and assessment criteria and
such from one spot. But I get confused as to whether things are under ‘learning materials’
or ‘resources’ since I think these are basically the same thing.
The discussion board is great — as long as people contribute. I had a subject last
semester where the entire class had to work on one group project together. We were
meant to use Blackboard to post all our ideas and progress but it didn’t really happen
as well as it could have, with some people rarely posting and others never reading the
posts. I think the forum is good so that we can talk about things mentioned in class in
greater detail. I like that we can share our ideas that we might not have time to get
across in class or might not be strictly on topic. I think it can help give people a sense
of who everyone else in the class is even if you don’t get much chance to talk to them
in person. It’s also good for people who don’t really like speaking up much in class, like
me. I sometimes feel a bit overwhelmed by the forums, though. I want to be able to
read everything but I just do not have the time to do it. I had a nightmare once that I
was on Blackboard and the general discussion for one subject had over 800 unread
messages on it.
I would also like it if the discussion board was easier to navigate and use. I always get
a warning pop-up message and all I can see is the title ‘Warning — Security’ and
nothing else in the box. The spell checker is ridiculous (and I didn’t even know it was
there until this semester). For some reason I have been blessed and never had posts
disappear but I know it’s a big problem for other people. There are also useless functions. Why are we able to search for certain posts and group them together, but not be
able to edit anything already posted? I can see why we shouldn’t be able to edit just
anybody’s post, but surely we should be able to edit our own. And why do people use
the flags and clear flags?
Maybe if I had had an explanation of the ins and outs of Blackboard I wouldn’t wonder
about these things. Are there courses available? The site really ought to be idiotproofed. While I’m writing this the page has started going completely crazy for some
unknown reason. As I type, the number ‘2’ for the attachments section immediately
below keeps flicking on and off. Now the little icons for the tools on the sidebar are
doing it, and the little buttons at the top that are for font, bold, italic, attachments etc
have all disappeared. Argh!! I think it must know that I’m criticising it and it’s trying
to screw round with me so I’ll abandon the attempt. (Kristie Lee Chue)
Pros: We can continue to discuss ideas that have been brought up in class, for the rest
of the week. And there is never enough time for everyone to say everything they are
thinking of during two contact hours. Also, if I come across an interesting article or
piece of information during the week, I can post it and enjoy the fact that I have
contributed something I know others will enjoy. I have just started WEP this semester,
so it was only three months ago that I walked into the classroom not knowing anyone,
and I actually think that Blackboard has helped enormously with getting to know
other students. I think in some ways it promotes face to face interaction, providing
talking points that can be expanded on or responded to. On the other hand …
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Appendix 1 (CONTINUED)
The Value of Blackboard Comments
Academic and Corporate Editing
Cons: It can be extremely distracting. For example, I just got online to study for the
editing tests, and here I am on blackboard. Additionally, and yes, I know, in apparent
contradiction to my ‘pros’ statement, some Monday evenings I get home, flop down on
the couch, open up my trusty laptop, and find myself … on Blackboard. I go into 7025
class discussion, only to discover that there are already three or four new threads since
four o’clock in the afternoon. I start reading and responding, flicking back and forth
between threads, and then I realise, people are already responding to my responses.
This often makes me think, why haven’t we just hung round after class chatting if
we’re all going to go home and get straight on BB anyway? I guess I just don’t like the
idea that online communication will one day eclipse face to face communication. I am
stubbornly anti-Facebook, and mySpace and whatever other ‘friend’ communities I
receive numerous ‘invitations’ to every week for this reason. But that’s getting off the
point. (Keely Double)
I’m not sure I’m going to contribute anything new to this discussion. Sorry, Luke!
Like Keely, I think that sometimes it almost discourages face-to-face interaction —
why hang around after class to talk if you know you can just post whatever you’re
thinking later? One of my friends, who does OT, was appalled that we are expected
to contribute to BB. She thinks it’s an example of the continuing encroachment on
free time, the separation of academic/professional/social lives, etc.
But overall, I like it. I like having the time to think about what I want to say before
possibly embarrassing myself with incoherence, like I might in class. I like being able
to link to things of interest, and reading things linked by others that I would probably otherwise never have seen. Plus, it helps to create a sense of community, and
rapport with people you don’t know very well. (For example, Shirin and I have never
really had a long conversation in person, but thanks to BB I know she’s funny, and
thorough [and a little too good at the four word reviews for my liking. How can I
match that?]).
And it’s nice to have all the course information in one place (one place I can always
access — I’m with Paulette on this one).
I do really, truly wish that there was an option for preferred name though. I don’t
hate Katherine, but I’ve been Kate since birth. And I spent all last semester
wondering who that hilarious ‘Mary Cassidy’ was, and mistakenly calling Meg
‘Meggan’. (Katherine Eedy)
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
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LUKE MADSEN
Appendix 1 (CONTINUED)
The Value of Blackboard Comments
Professional Communication
I think Blackboard is a valuable learning and networking tool. It is great to be able to
voice opinions, and learn more through it. My only qualm with it is that it is probably
overused, and takes a great deal of time just to check all the messages, let alone
respond. Also, some of the answers are unnecessary, I feel — time wasters for readers.
If you have heaps of spare time, that may not be a problem for some, but for those
strapped for time, it can also be another source of pressure (i.e., I should be posting! I
should be reading the posts, etc). However, despite my reservations, I would much
rather have Blackboard than be without it. It makes you feel like part of a community.
(Joanna Gaudry)
Well, I know that’s targeted at me (how did i crack the subtle code?!). I don’t have
heaps of time, I just allot my time differently. I don’t clean my house much (at all),
weed or mow (I’ve weeds taller than Imogen), I’ve taken a break from fostering retired
greyhounds, I only fold laundry when the pile becomes taller than me, etc. I used to
run marathons (training runs for 3+ hours) but I broke my hip in the last one (ageing
stinks). So I post before I stretch for physio exercises or while meals are in ovens. If I
had time to train for marathons while working full time, i can do 30–40 minutes on
blackboard as an unemployed f-t student.
What is also helpful is having a large network of friends in computers, design, and
writing. They know I’m in this program and send me links all the time about design,
language, writing, etc. I post them. Very little of what I post are things I find by
searching. They’re in my in-box. If I like them, they get bookmarked. It’s a little like tom
sawyer and the picket fence. One benefit of ageing is the accumulation acquaintances in
interesting jobs. A benefit of having a goofy personality is that even the briefest
encounter is remembered.
What I enjoy about blackboard is that it’s the one place to see personalities show
through. The class is in a huge lecture hall. Without blackboard, it’s just an anonymous
class. No, not all comments will be academic in nature. Some are just simple responses.
I don’t read every post, and I don’t expect everyone to read mine. (Katy Cassidy)
No, Kate. Not at all. Your responses, while numerous (to say the least) are humorous,
intelligent and informative. We need a Blackboard Queen Bee, and you fit that bill
very well. I just don’t have time to read all your posts! I think you must live on hyperdrive energy levels!
Your comment that the Blackboard forum is like an informal class is very true. We
learn so much from each other on this space about professional communication issues,
and in a way, we also slowly get to learn more about each other. I’ve been surprised at
how revealing and personal some people have been when they are able to go almost
‘in cognito’ under the shield of written words. Some of the material is very touching.
So thank you all, and keep those comments coming. Annoying, funny, irrelevant,
whatever — they are all part of this virtual community. Another dimension to
learning and entertainment. (Joanna Gaudry)
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Appendix 1 (CONTINUED)
The Value of Blackboard Comments
Professional Communication
I have to admit that Blackboard was a bit intimidating when I first started at UQ. I found
the UQ website difficult to navigate and therefore avoided even trying to find the little
Blackboard link.
However, in time I learned to love Blackboard as it is an effective way to keep on-top of
your classes. Myeslf and many of the COMU/JOUR students use this communication tool
to post work for assessment, organize group meetings and get feedback on assignments.
In short — Blackboard is a valuable learning tool, but the un-organization of the
UQ website and the variety in the Blackboard set-up for each course can be confusing.
(Deborah MacDonald)
At first, blackboard was a challenge and I resisted. Certain courses forced me to
embrace the concept and I am now very happy and impressed with what Blackboard
has to offer. It has also helped in my professional life as my company has started using
similar forum-type concepts and I am not afraid to contribute (unlike my older
counterparts). (Palmina Bonaventura)
I quite enjoy Blackboard for the sense of community it encourages and the ability
to get answers and opinions fairly quickly.
The negatives of blackboard, for me, are the ‘clunkiness’ of the user interface
(iframes, applets, etc.) and how slowly it runs. I don’t see why they don’t run an
easier to use interface such as the ones many public forums are using out there on
the net. (Coralie Amato)
Yes, it is rather slow. Also, it is annoying having to waste those extra few seconds
having to open up attachments. I prefer reading material which has been cut-and-paste
straight into the initial post screen.
When I first started at UQ, I wondered if those who posted more, or got more
responses, were perhaps more ‘in’ with the WEP clique, if you know what I mean. Now,
I just think it is a friendly, open space where people are not judged, whatever they post.
It allows a great deal of creative freedom.
I used to only check the Blackboard a few times a week. Now I feel compulsed to view
it at least once a day. It is great, but perhaps also a procrastination device for getting
onto ‘real’ work/study. I enjoy the interface though. I usually start off my study/work
periods by checking the Blackboard. It gets me into study mode — a gentle way in
when I don’t feel like studying. (Joanna Gaudry)
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
43
Knowledge and Power in New Media
Belinda Marsden-Smedley
Writing, Editing, and Publishing student, The University of Queensland, Australia
D
uring the Tudor period, when social and political changes swept England
constantly, Francis Bacon (1561–1626) first coined the now-clichéd
axiom: ‘Knowledge itself is power’. In the 21st century, the use of and access to
knowledge is far wider than Bacon could have foreseen.
Castells (2007) examines the interplay between the communication and power relationships in the technological context. Castells argues that the new media has
become the social space where power is decided and links are formed by politics,
media politics, the politics of scandal, and a crisis of political legitimacy in the global
context. Bacon’s ‘knowledge’ readily translates as information, data, news, and political spin. The advent of the Internet and the new media has given rise to the network
society. Interactive, horizontal networks of communication make it possible for nonprofessional communication to take place (including the reporting of information),
for example, Tsunami survivors in 2005; interrogating the news-makers, for example,
non-professionals asking questions of political candidates in the Democrat debates;
and commenting on the news via the plethora of politically motivated blogs.
The widespread availability of the Internet and the role of the ‘citizen journalist’
has changed the way that people view information. At the same time, there are risks
that are still to be fully revealed. Razer (2007), in reviewing three new books about
the ‘booming online culture’, concludes her examination of the texts:
Great and terrible thinkers alike have been banging on about the erosion of meaning
for longer than most people registered on Facebook have been alive. The dwindling of
truth, the privileging of simulacra and the disappearance of final authority are topics
that have occupied critics for much of the 20th century. The mechanics of Web 2.0
may accelerate our decline into a poorly punctuated SMS hellscape. They also allow
us to participate in a robust future as critical readers. (Razer, 2007)
The ramifications of the clash between new and traditional media was reviewed by
Berman et al. (2007). Their analysis hinged on the fact that new media is experience-driven rather than merely content-driven. The expansion into virtual worlds,
such as ‘Second Life’, where consumers were expecting to participate rather than just
view content will only continue. Additionally, the gender divide has all but disappeared, with half of all regular one million consumers, or ‘residents’, being women.
Traditional media organisations must address the issues, and quickly, or lose market
and consumer share.
Users are asking themselves questions such as: ‘What information do we want to
read and what do we want to pass on? What happens when someone finds out that
they have been filtered out? Are people only linking with their ‘friends’? (Fuster and
Morell, 2007).
Address for correspondence: Belinda Marsden-Smedley.
44
New Media, WRIT7025
Semester 2, 2007 pp. 44–48
KNOWLEDGE AND POWER IN NEW MEDIA
YouTube is a video-sharing service that allows users to post video clips, video
diaries/journals, events and other video items so that anyone can access them over
the internet. Users are drawn in and may take on roles such as commentator or
creator of postings. It has an added attraction in that it is free; users can log on, open
an account, and upload videos in a variety of formats. Other users can perform
keyword searches, view content, save items in their online account, and embed items
in blogs or websites. Many YouTube viewers take advantage of the online discussion
facility and post comments or participate in online discussions. YouTube also hosts
contests and challenges and encourages all participants to act responsibly. The issue
of ‘acting responsibily’ is one that appears regularly in discussions related to a wide
range interactive online activity.
YouTube is actually only one of a range of video-sharing services; other social
networking services include AOL Video and Yahoo video. In 2006, Google
purchased YouTube for $1.65 billion. The price tag alone tells us that the service,
while free to use, was considered by Google to have significant potential value.
Several commentators are predicting the death of culture as a consequence of the
widespread use of the YouTube and related media. Compare the Google purchase to
the much lower priced sale of FaceBook to Rupert Murdoch for $550 million.
Who Are the Users?
Before the advent of the Internet, communication in the public arena was the province
of the professional journalist in print, radio, and television. The last two decades of the
20th century featured the rise and rise of global media organisations, such as Fox News,
CNN, and News Limited, in English language broadcasting. The political impact of
these mega-media organisations has been significant for governments around the
world. The increasing use by politicians of staged news event and press conferences
gives rise to the supposition that not all the information that appears in the traditional
media (television, radio, print media) is complete and/or unbiased.
Lovink and Rossiter (2007) postulate that ‘non-democratic’ does not mean ‘antidemocratic’ or elitist but rather it ‘has proven of strategic importance to loosen the ties
between ‘democracy’ and the ‘media’, where they mean the traditional ‘old’ media.
Users can choose from a much wider range of material to view than formerly, and are
able to pass it on, with or without commentary, to other users. Filtering occurs when
users choose what to read and then pass on their choice to other viewers. The politics
of filtering may well be exercising the minds of advisers to politicians seeking election
or re-election. Both the Republican and Democratic Parties in the United States (US)
are making use of the new technology in the lead-up to the 2008 American presidential election. The range of users uploading their questions and comments, and then
commenting on the posts is huge. (http://www.youtube.com/democraticdebate for the
Presidential Debate Youtube site). The issues raised, and the commentaries made, are
of significant interest to the campaign managers. In the US voting is not compulsory,
and research has shown that there is a considerable proportion of the eligible citizenry not enrolled to vote.
The Australian Context
Survey data, collected in 1998, (Mcallister 1998) examined the extent of political
knowledge in Australia and attempted to analyse its consequences for political
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
45
BELINDA MARSDEN-SMEDLEY
literacy, competence, and participation. The results showed that, while the relationship between knowledge and attitudes and behaviour had improved from a previously conducted survey on similar basis, there appeared to be only a small increase in
participation. A decade on, the question must be asked: has participation in the
political process in Australia increased?
During August 2007, the Australian Electoral Commission (AEC) commenced
an extensive advertising campaign encouraging young people to enrol to vote, and
voters who have moved their residential address to inform the AEC of their new
address. Estimates of the number of non-enrolled young people, between the ages of
18- and 25-years-old have been put as high as 300,000. In a close electoral contest,
this could influence the results in any number of marginal seats.
It cannot be said that Australian political leaders have had a smooth ride in the
new media. John Howard published a somewhat lack-lustre video clip on climate
change on 16 July 2007, which was almost immediately lampooned. At last count,
the lampooned versions had registered significantly more ‘hits’ than the original
version. Kevin Rudd, on the other hand, published on FaceBook some months earlier,
and appears to be more at ease with the new media, has not attracted the volume of
negative postings. This may have as much to do with Howard’s longevity as Prime
Minister, in contrast to the prospect of a fresh face on the hustings.
Of power-making, Castells (2007) says that the ‘fundamental battle being fought
in society is the battle over the minds of the people’. This battle may also be
compared to that waged by advertising, as well as for political campaigning and,
perhaps, the active encouragement in Australia for increased and improved civics
education in schools (Civics and Citizenship web site, Civics Research Centre, The
University of Sydney).
National Assessment in Civics and Citizenship was introduced in 2004 and
students in years 6 and 10 in schools around the country were tested. The second
testing is due to take place in 2007. One of the goals in the National Goals for
Schooling in the Twenty-First Century paper specifies that students, when they leave
school, ‘should be active and informed citizens with an understanding and appreciation of Australia’s system of government and civic life’. This still does not address
Mcallister’s (1998) concerns regarding participation in the political process as
distinct from demonstrating knowledge about the political process.
The Australian Government Civics and Citizenship web site has a number of
articles that address different aspects of civics education. Some, such as Kilner’s
article written for The Age Education Unit (2007), seek to bolster the role of newspapers as not only the source of the news, but the most reliable commentary. He does
suggest that students’ work be placed on a school’s intranet so that all students may
see it. However, there is no mention of strategies that use online news services, blogs,
wikis, or other forms of new media. The not-so-subtle message to teachers to pass
onto their students is that ‘real’ news is found in newspapers. What, then, would
students make of politically motivated blogs, YouTube postings, and other internetbased media by and about political figures and policies in Australia and overseas?
Jacobs (2007) takes a different tack altogether. She assumes that students are
using new media for social networking, accessing information, commenting on data
and otherwise interacting in cyber space. To this end, the ‘tips and trends’ that she
discusses are designed to assist better quality postings on blogs, suggestions for
improving YouTube uploads, and advice about critical literacy.
46
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
KNOWLEDGE AND POWER IN NEW MEDIA
While Jacobs is user-focused, Berman et al. (2007) are on the side of big media
business, the amount of advertising space that they could lose, and the projected
decline in readers/consumers. They conducted a comprehensive survey of new and
traditional media. In their analysis the message that came through was that ‘if you
cannot beat them, then join them’; the question is how to do so. In contrast to other
researchers , they viewed the new media as being a ‘wild frontier market where
youthful demographics are the prize and tech-savvy adventurists lead the way’.
Strategies suggested involve ascertaining the method by which traditional media
organisations can compete, or hold their own, with the new media. Not unnaturally,
the traditional media would prefer to use professional rather than citizen journalist.
Of the seven recommendations, the focus is on the delivery of experiences, and joint
ventures with both open and walled online communities. Organisational intranet,
password-protected wikis, and so forth are the walled communities referred to here.
Richtel (2007) is not of the same view: his sources demonstrate that there are as
many over 55s using new media as 18- to 34-year-olds, and they are not as fickle as
the younger viewer: ‘The older demographic has a bunch of interesting characteristics … not the least of which is that they hang around’.
Johnson (2007) warns of the trend for organisations to present reconstructed
histories of the origins of the organisation. Storytelling, which blurs the lines
between fact and fiction, and encourages users to participate in the process, makes
issues of critical literacy and verification of data major issues. The persuasive rhetoric
based on telling a good story, and then inviting the user to add to it, to comment on
it, or add their own story is very seductive and appears to work. Advertising is
evolving into entertainment and not just about displaying a product; many advertisements make their way onto YouTube. New media has provided ‘the interactivity
to perfect the marketing process’.
Knowledge, information, data, and political ‘spin’ are all to be found in new
media. The large media organisations are fighting to maintain their hold and
authority on the media and are having to compete on terms that they no longer
control. Consumers are demanding information, experiences, and interactivity.
Knowledge may still be power, but the power, like the knowledge is more widely
spread. Francis Bacon may not have approved.
References
ABC News (online). (2007, August 13). ‘Rudd has too many web friends’. Retrieved September 20,
2007, from http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/08/13/2003758.htm
Berman, S. J., Abraham, S., Battino, B., Shipnuck, L., Neus, A. (2007). New business models for
the new media world. Strategy & Leadership, 35(4), 23–30.
Castells, M. (2007). Communication, power and counter-power in the network society. International
Journal of Communication, 1, 238–266.
Fuster, M. & Morell I. (2007). The four lines of inquiry. Networked politics: Rethinking politics in an era
of networks and movements. Institute of Network Cultures, Berlin.
Jacobs, M. (Spring, 2007). Do you YouTube? Tips and Trends: Instructional Technologies. ALA.
Retrieved July 29, 2007, from www.ala.org/ala/acrlbucket/is/iscommittees/webpages/
emergingtech/techtips/spring2007.html
Johnson, P. (2007). Selling through storytelling: New media promotion or propaganda, assessing challenges
and opportunities. Retrieved September 20, 2007, from http://archive.nmc.org/
events/2007summerconf/materials/NMCJohnsonSellStory.doc
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
47
BELINDA MARSDEN-SMEDLEY
Kellner D., Share J. (2007). Critical media literacy: Crucial policy choices for a twenty-first-century
democracy. Vol 5(1), 59–69.
Kilner J. (2007). Newspapers and their role in teaching civics in the classroom. Civics and Citizenship
Education — For Teachers. Retrieved September 28, 2007, from http://www.
civicsandcitizenship.edu.au/cce/default.asp?id=9342
Lovink, G. & Rossiter, N. (2007). Ten Theses on non-cemocratic electronics: Organised networks
updated. Networked Politics: Rethinking Politics in an Era of Networks and Movements. Institute of
Network Cultures, Berlin.
Mcallister, I. (1998, March). Civic education and political knowledge in Australia’. Australian
Journal of Political Science, 33(1), 7–23. DOI: 10.1080/10361149850697
Razer, H. (2007, September 5). Who’s afraid of the world wide web?’ The Australian Literary Review
Book Reviews of The Cult of the Amateur: How Today’s Internet is Killing our Culture and
Assaulting our Economy by Andrew Keen, Allen & Unwin (2007); Wikinomics: How Mass
Collaboration Changes Everything by Don Tapscott and Anthony Williams Atlantic (2007), The
Book is Dead (Long Live the Book) by Sherman Young, UNSW Press (2007).
YouTube and Australian Politics. Retrieved September 28, 2007, from http://www.
tamaleaver.net/2007/07/05/facebook-and-australian-politics/
48
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
Corporate Blogs:
A New Relationship With Customers
Rhonda McPherson
Writing, Editing, and Publishing student, The University of Queensland, Australia
T
his article discusses the traditional methods of advertising and the way in
which web logs (blogs or ‘conversational media’ [Fitzgerald, 2007]) are
changing attitudes to those traditional methods, summarises the emergence of
blogs, illustrates their increased popularity in corporate forums, and outlines
some of the positive and negative features of blogs in this environment. Blogs
may be useful to businesses to create new markets, by taking into account feedback about their products and services. They are also able to facilitate effective
communication with customers and gather information about competitors in
the marketplace. I propose that corporate blogs are helping to develop a new
business strategy that effectively promotes ‘brand loyalty’, which facilitates
open lines of communication between businesses and their customers to
provide a positive outcome for a business’s bottom line.
Marshall McLuhan’s concept of a ‘global village’ (Kappelman, 2002) was forward
thinking, yet he could not have envisaged how the Internet and the World Wide
Web would become so omnipresent. McLuhan is also credited with coining the term
‘media’ in 1964; since the advent of the Internet, that term has now been extended
to become ‘new media’.
Post-World War II, television was considered the important ‘new’ medium that was
transforming the way in which people viewed current events and were entertained.
Businesses incorporated product placement that promoted customer brand loyalty
(Chabotte, 2007). First, in the 1950s, a ‘single sponsor–single product’ method was used,
where the audience identified a particular product with a particular show. Later, in the
1960s, product placement progressed to a ‘magazine concept’ of advertising, where advertisers purchased blocks of advertising time, allowing ‘sponsors to spread their message by
reaching a larger number of consumers’.
In 1972, John Berger presented his hypothesis of advertising and its purpose in the
series Ways of Seeing that was aired by the British Broadcasting Corporation. He proposed
that advertising has a central tenet that although ‘firms compete with each other … it is
also true every publicity image confirms and enhances every other’. Further, he posited
that advertising is a ‘complete language’, which creates ‘a single proposal’. This proposal
is that ‘we transform ourselves, or our lives, by buying something more’. Therefore, advertising tries to create an ‘enviable’ image of how a customer’s life might be improved by
buying the advertised product, (car, boat, house, clothes, perfume, etc.) Berger states,
‘[p]ublicity is always about the future buyer. It offers him an image of himself made glamorous by the product or opportunity it is trying to sell’ (Berger, 1972).
Address for correspondence: Rhonda McPherson. E-mail: [email protected]
New Media, WRIT7025
Semester 2, 2007 pp. 49–54
49
RHONDA McPHERSON
Today, however, the ‘future buyer’ may rely solely on the immediacy and currency of
information available on the Internet in the form of blogs, and bloggers’ opinions on a
particular business’s products and services. As Gerard (2006) asserts, ‘the “blogosphere”
has fielded a relentless challenge to the mainstream media’. This statement suggests that
traditional methods of advertising may be superseded by this immediacy and currency of
available information.
Moreover, in Beirne’s (2005) article in Brandweek, Alseth, the vice president for
brand marketing for a company that operates Budget and Avis rental cars, suggests that
‘with traditional methods of advertising, you don’t know what they are saying about your
brand … [w]ith blogs, they find you and tell you what they want’.
Alseth further states that creating blogs may allow businesses a greater return on
investment because blogs are inexpensive to set up and maintain. Individuals and businesses can discuss the ‘worth’ of the product, thus having more sway in the marketplace
than a traditional advertising campaign. In clarifying this concept, she stated that, as a
direct result of starting a blog, ‘[w]e spent a lot less on this than if we had bought one 30second commercial during prime time on a highly rated show’.
In Fitzgerald’s (2007) recent article in the Advertising Age, David Brewer, manager of
digital technologies of the brand communications company Publicis’s StarLink Chicago,
agrees that ‘marketer-created blogs have become valuable in gathering consumer opinion
to help shape products, brands and advertising’ (Fitzgerald, 2007).
Muncaster (2007) acknowledges that the potential for higher returns for businesses
comes from networking with customers: ‘[s]ocial networking sites … represent an
increasingly attractive way for corporates to market themselves to customers and build
brand awareness’.
However, as the Internet and World Wide Web new media are still evolving, the
ways that people communicate and do business remain as relevant today as they did
when McLuhan advanced his original concept of the importance of ‘understanding the
effects of technology as it relate[s] to popular culture, and how this in turn affect[s]
human beings and their relations with one another in communities’ (Kappelman, 2002).
The Emergence of Blogs
In 1969, the concept of blogging originated when Steve Crocker, a member of the
team that developed the foundation for today’s Internet (Leiner, et al., 2003), first
established the request for comments (RFC), which ‘were intended to be an informal
fast distribution way to share ideas with other network researchers’ via a file transfer
protocol site, and were used to create a ‘feedback loop’.
However, although not considered a reliable source for scholarly purposes,
Wikipedia states that blogs began between 1983 and 1990 when ‘a moderated discussion forum’ was set up to ‘allow posting in a newsgroup to be under the control of an
individual or small group’ (‘Blog’, 2007).
In any case, blogs may be defined as Internet-based free flowing individual
opinion-based methods of communication that are continually updated in reverse
chronological order (‘Blog’, 2007). The Wikipedia ‘aggregator’ page states that blogs
are managed by ‘feed aggregator’ software, which allows ‘syndicated web content to
be viewed easily in a single location’ (‘Aggregator’, 2007).
Blogs or ‘conversational media’, as Fitzgerald (2007) describes them, have
evolved and expanded exponentially and at such a rate that as at September 26,
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CORPORATE BLOGS: A NEW RELATIONSHIP WITH CUSTOMERS
2007, Technorati Inc. (2007), a company that manages blog search engines and
tracks blogs, advises that they currently track 107.1 million blogs, and that over
175,000 blogs are created every day, with 1.6 million posts per day. According to
Green (2007), Technorati Inc. estimates that only 15.5 million bloggers update their
sites. Consequently to maintain traffic on, and links to, their sites, businesses need to
update blogs regularly with relevant and interesting content.
Corporate Blogs
Due to the volume and increasing influence of blogs, businesses are accepting that
blogging is a valuable form of internal communication with their employees
(Fernández Dutto, 2005), and realising the value of external blogs that interact with
customers to build brand loyalty (Kullin, 2004). Together with the renewed awareness of ‘word-of-mouth’ marketing — ‘a message communicated by neutral parties to
wider communities’ — blogging also allows speedy dissemination of information, and
can take on a form of peer-review (Krol, 2006).
Therefore, blogs are an immediate method of communication and a valuable and
inexpensive source of market research that takes advantage of voluntary input that
is constantly being updated. The currency and immediacy of shared information is an
important advantage of online communication. For example, in a media release on
September 4, 2007, Kia Motors Corporation (KMC) launched its official global blog
‘to bring it closer to its customers, industry opinion leaders and car enthusiasts
through online dialogue’ (Korea Newswire, 2007).
It is apparent that businesses are developing and maintaining blogs to attract new
customers to enlarge their market share, to provide information on their products
and services, and to take advantage of ‘expert’ opinion that is freely available. Blogs
allow the customer to rate and to review company products, and to more easily allow
industry experts to review the business’s products and services. In addition, the
Internet provides a vast audience that values bloggers’ opinions, and encourages
debate on relevant product issues in the ‘blog community’. The value of this immediacy is limitless, as the ‘potential of a bloggers reach is infinite’ (Ferriss, 2005).
Businesses, therefore, are developing profiles in online communities so they are
visible and accessible to customers, by creating a ‘two-way communication’ (Krol,
2006). Honest and credible dialogue ranks highly in the blog community, and
thereby promotes trust in the business and their products that will aid in maintaining
brand loyalty. Aronauer (2007) states that, ‘[t]he best way to be found online is to be
active in an online community. Maintaining a useful and credible blog positions you
as an expert in your field and becomes a testament to the quality of your product’.
Positive Features of Corporate Blogs
In 2002, the web developer and software company Macromedia reported a quarterly
loss of $US305 million (Manjoo, 2002); however, in April 2005, on the last trading
day before Adobe Systems acquired the company, Macromedia was valued at $US3.4
billion (‘Macromedia’, 2007). Rather than setting up blog sites through the company
web site, starting five external blogs to appear ‘credible’ to the blog community is
reportedly one of the ways in which this company retained customer loyalty and
steadily increased its market share (Manjoo, 2002). The five blog sites, managed by
‘conversation managers’, established links with software users, and the company was
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
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RHONDA McPHERSON
able to gain immediate access to its customers (bloggers) and their opinions, and
consequently the problems customers were having with Macromedia products. These
technology-specific product blogs offered customers immediate information on new
software releases and software updates, provided feedback to the company about the
problems users were facing, and established and developed effective two-way communication between the Macromedia ‘conversation managers’ and their customers that
increased customer loyalty.
After Adobe Systems acquired Macromedia in 2005, they developed their own
free blog aggregator software (Adobe Systems, 2007) that is serviced on a separate
blog site, and provides 13 technology-based categories, which manages over 1460
‘feeds’ from bloggers. Using this free software to view blogs, receive constant updates
on posts, and link to blogs, Adesblog.com blog site states that, ‘you may get over a
hundred clicks for your every post’ (Tynyshov, 2007). This claim illustrates the scope
of the audience and the amount of influence that a blog may have in relation to a
product or service.
In further support of the consumer power of aggregated sites, Green (2007)
recently reported in Business Week that, ‘[b]y melding their own insights and opinions with the aggregated views of others, they [bloggers] are starting to gain leverage’.
Negative Features of Corporate Blogs
Equally, the negative aspect of blogs cannot be ignored. A business can create a negative blog ‘atmosphere’ by trying to control the style and content of blogs, rather than
allowing bloggers to maintain a ‘free flowing’ blog style (Manjoo, 2002). For
example, an Australian company, Fairfax Digital, hosts blogs that are associated with
its syndicated web sites. One site, RSVP.com.au, maintains a members’ blog, and in
a recent post some negative feedback from a blogger highlights the dangers of a ‘too
corporate advertising business model’:
… why don’t we bloggers demand that we make up our own topics for blogging?
I resent the fact that everything we do on this site is related to the profit margin of
RSVP. I don’t want to suddenly belong to the Nicabate, nicoffette, nicyourfags,
nicaragua or any other ‘COMMUNITY’ just because I have read the blogs. We are
all being sucked in big time people. Please be a little more assertive and think about
what you really want out of life …’. (diamondblue2, 2007, September 25)
This post illustrates the danger to businesses when they try to saturate blogs with
advertising, therefore restricting blogs to a profit-margin mentality, and thereby
possibly alienating bloggers (i.e., current or potential customers).
In a recent article in B & T Weekly, Jones (2007) also supported this view: ‘…
learn how to treat bloggers like bloggers, which starts with relating to them as individuals’ (August 10, p. 13).
Crossland (2006) concurs and warns that ‘to view blogging as another marketing
exercise is bound to lead to negative feedback from readers, who in turn have the
power to broadcast these perceptions through the world’.
Conclusion
The original designers of the Internet state that ‘the Internet is as much a collection
of communities as a collection of technologies, and its success is largely attributable
to both satisfying basic community needs, as well as utilising the community in an
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CORPORATE BLOGS: A NEW RELATIONSHIP WITH CUSTOMERS
effective way …’. This ‘community concept’ warrants further research to explore the
social networking aspects of blogs and the way that businesses are creating direct
relationships with customers (bloggers) to determine whether blogging is simply an
extension of market research, or whether, by taking into account the ‘community’
aspects of blogging that establishes ‘two-way’ communication, a corporate blog
impacts positively on the success of a business’s future profitability.
References
Adobe Systems. (2007). Latest community news (RSS). Retrieved September 25, 2007, from
http://weblogs.macromedia.com/mxna/
Aggregator. (2007, September 25). Retrieved from Wikipedia: http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Aggregator
Aronauer, R., (2007), Break through the online clutter. Sales and Management, 159(3), 27–30.
Retrieved September 21, 2007, from Proquest Database. Document ID: 1248409431
Beirne, M. (2005, November 28). Budget Rent A Car takes detour into blogosphere. Brandweek,
46(43), p. 9. Retrieved September 21, 2007, from Proquest Database. Document ID: 938153751
Berger, J. (1977). Ways of seeing. London: Penguin.
Blog. (2007, September 25). Retrieved from Wikipedia: http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Blog
Chabotte, S. (2007, January 23). A brief history of television advertising. EzineArticles. Retrieved
September 30, 2007, from http://ezinearticles.com/?A-Brief-History-of-TelevisionAdvertising&id=427382
Crossland, P. (2006, July–September). Blog marketing: The revolutionary new way to increase sales,
build your brand, and get exceptional results. Journal of Direct, Data and Digital Marketing
Practice, 8, 93–94. Retrieved September 21, 2007, from Proquest Database. Document ID:
1132624971
diamondblue2. (2007, September 25). Re: Biggest Turn Offs : Butts, Bad Breath and Smoker’s
Kisses. Message posted to http://blogs.rsvp.com.au/2007/09/biggest_turn_offs_butts_bad_
br.html
Fernández Dutto, M. (2005). Internal blogs: How to design powerful conversations that open possibilities
for action and collaboration within blogs. Conference paper presented at Global PR Blog Week 2.0,
September 19–23, 2005. Retrieved September 25, 2007, from http://www.globalprblogweek.
com/2005/09/19/dutto-internal-blogs/
Ferriss, P. (2005, November). Jumping on the blogwagon. Marketing, 110(38), p. 2. Retrieved
September 23, 2007, from Proquest Database. Document ID: 944629331
Fitzgerald, K. (2007, March 5). Blogs fascinate, frighten marketers eager to tap loyalists. Advertising
Age (Midwest Region Edition), 10, p. S4. Retrieved September 21, 2007, from Proquest Database.
Document ID: 1230934331
Gerard, J. (2006, May). Blogs: Death of the dead tree business? Financial World,
pp. 10–14. Retrieved September 21, 2007, from Proquest Database. Document ID: 1042002841
Green, H. (2007, May) The big shots of blogdom: Executives are learning to take
the 24/7 patter of online critics very seriously indeed. Business Week, 4033,
p. 66. Retrieved September 21, 2007, from Proquest Database. Document ID: 1264547821
Jones, K. (2007, August 10). Time to take some bloggin’ control. B&T Weekly, p. 13.
Kappelman, T. (2002, July 14). Marshal McLuhan: The medium is the message. Probe Ministries
International. Retrieved August 31, 2007, from http://www.leaderu.com/orgs/
probe/docs/mcluhan.html
Korea Newswire (2007, September 4). Kia launches global blog to engage customers through open
dialogue. Retrieved September, 12, 2007, from http://www.koreanewswire.co.kr/
en_read.php?id=278899&no=35&nmode=&ca=&ca1=English&ca2=&sf=&st=&of=&nwof=
&conttype=&tm=1&type=&hotissue=&sdate=&eflag=&emonth=&spno=&exid=&rg1=&rg
2=&rg3=&tt=1
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RHONDA McPHERSON
Krol, C. (2006) Word-of-mouth: Ready to grow from whisper to shout? BtoB Magazine, The
Magazine for Marketing Strategists, 7, p. 144. Retrieved September 21, 2007, from Proquest
Database. Document ID: 1073667221.
Kullin, H. (2004, July 13). How to launch a corporate blog for a professional services organization.
Conference paper presented at Global PR Blog Week 1.0. Retrieved September 20, 2007, from
http://www.globalprblogweek. com/archives/how_to_launch_a_corp.php
Leiner, B. M., Cerf, V. G., Clark, D. D, Kahn, R. E., Kleinrock, L., Lynch, D. C., et al. (2003). A
brief history of the Internet. Retrieved August 30, 2007, from http://www.isoc.org/
internet/history/brief.shtml
Macromedia. (2007, September 25). Retrieved from Wikipedia: http://wikipedia.org/
wiki/Macromedia
Manjoo, F. (2002). Flash: Blogging goes corporate. Wired. Retrieved September 20, 2007, from
http://www.wired.com/print/culture/lifestyle/new/2002/05/52380
Muncaster , P. (2007, July 23). How blogs and social networking sites can be used to commercial
advantage. IT Week, p. 20. Retrieved September 21, 2007, from Proquest Database. Document
ID: 1309360361
Technorati. (2007). About us. Retrieved September 18, 2007, from http://technorati.com/about/
Tynyshov, A. (2007, February 22). Adobe XML News Aggregator: Your free blog promotion tool.
Retrieved September 20, 2007, from http://www. adesblog.com/2007/02/22/adobe-xml-newsaggregator-your-free-blog-promotion-tool/
Works Consulted
Cook, N. (2005). Blogging for our brand: Building a business blogging community for Hill & Knowlton.
Conference paper presented at Global PR Blog Week 2.0, September 19–23, 2005. Retrieved
September 25, 2007, from http://www.globalprblogweek.com/2005/09/19/cook-hk-bloggingcommunity/
King, A. (2007). Caught short. Business Review Weekly, 29(7), 2007, 48–50. Retrieved September
21, 2007, from Proquest Database.
Steinberg, B. (2007, February 14) Minding the blog is the next big thing in managing brand. Wall
Street Journal (Eastern Edition), p. B.3C. Retrieved September 17, 2007, from Proquest Database.
Walters, K. (2007). Business blogs on. Business Review Weekly, 29(7), 2007, 61–65.
54
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
What Are the Copyright Challenges
That the Internet Poses to Authors?
A Discussion of the Legal
and Practical Implications of the
Protection of Digital Works for Authors
Ellie O’Gorman
Writing, Editing, and Publishing student, The University of Queensland, Australia
S
ince its creation, the Internet has posed challenges to copyright law and
its ability to protect the work of authors (Rosenblatt, 2000, p. 31). The
Internet provides infinite possibilities for copying, altering, and distributing information—but few mechanisms for policing potential copyright
violations. This article will examine the challenges that the Internet
presents to authors for copyright of literary works, and discuss possible solutions to these challenges. First, this article will outline the principles of
copyright law and relevant legislation. The challenges that the Internet
presents to ensuring copyright protection will be discussed in a legal and
practical context. The article will conclude with the recommendation that
authorship needs to be reconceptualised, and that authors, publishers and
editors need to be cognisant of their legal rights in the digital age.
The Internet Poses New Challenges to Authors
In 2001, the then Minister for Communications, Information Technology and
the Arts, Richard Alston, stated that ‘the Internet allows us to be consumers of a
global village of information in which everyone can be a publisher of content’
(Young, 2002, p. 75). Since its inception, the Internet has provided affordable,
worldwide access to information, and has allowed for the distribution of literary
works in a way that was not possible in the ‘old’ era of print publishing. The rise
of the Internet has changed the traditional perception of copyright, as it allows
information to ‘roam freely in an atmosphere where property rights are difficult
to protect’ (Halbert in Rosenblatt, 2000, p. 33). Freedom of information now has
a double meaning and presents a difficult test of balance to lawmakers: to
continue to allow access to information, while protecting the copyrights of
authors (Young, 2002, p. 76–77). The authority and effectiveness of copyright
law for literary works on the Internet is being challenged.
Address for correspondence: Ellie O’Gorman. E-mail: [email protected]
New Media, WRIT7025
Semester 2, 2007 pp. 55–62
55
ELLIE O’GORMAN
Copyright Law: The Basics
What is Copyright
Copyright1 is a legal right of the copyright owner (the author) to take action if their
material is used without permission, unless an exception applies2 (Australian
Copyright Council, 2006). Copyright protection derives from basic concepts of
economic rights and property ownership (Lipinski, 2000, p.50). An individual has
the right to profit from the efforts of their labour and to own and control their
creative works (Lipinksi and Britz, 2000, p. 50). Access to information is necessary if
people are to learn from and build on the ideas of others3 (Hettinger in Lipinski,
2000, p. 53). The copyright scheme encourages authors to produce and make their
work available in return for the protection of control and ownership (Lipinksi and
Britz, 2000, p. 53). The rights granted to authors are limited by the distinction
between ideas and the expression of them, the period of time a work can be
protected, and the ‘fair use’ doctrine (Shaw, 2003, p.23).
Copyright Does Not Protect Ideas
To qualify for copyright protection, there must be a literary work that is original to
the author; ideas remain free for use by all (Shaw, 2003, p.24). Copyright protects
expression of an idea only once it is fixed in a tangible medium.4 Most forms of original expressions qualify as tangible medium, ranging from a computer’s random access
memory (RAM) to notes penned on a serviette (Diotlaevi, 2003, p. 2).
Ownership rights attach whenever an expression is fixed in a tangible medium.
Generally, the owner of the copyright is the creator (Australian Copyright Council,
2007). The exception is if the work is ‘for hire’; for an employee who, in the course
of employment, creates a work, the employer owns the copyright (Australian
Copyright Council, 2007). The author’s rights include the right of reproduction,
derivation, distribution, performance, and display (Australian Copyright Council,
2007). Owners can assign or license their rights to another so that all, or a part of,
the rights are assigned to that person who then becomes the copyright owner
(Australian Copyright Council, 2007). Registration or fees for copyright protection
are not necessary in Australia (Australian Copyright Council, 2007). Notice of copyright is not essential, but it does serve as a reminder that the work may be protected
(Australian Copyright Council, 2007). The notice of copyright is the © symbol,
along with the author’s name and date of the expression.
Copyright is Not Infinite
Copyright duration is essential in preserving the public benefit of the intellectual property system (Lipinski and Britz, 2000, p. 58).5 Copyright protection lasts for the author’s
lifetime plus 70 years.6 If the work is ‘for hire’, the copyright lasts 95 years from the date
of publication or 120 years from the date of creation (Shaw, 2003, p.27).
An Exemption From Copyright Law: The Fair Use Doctrine
The fair use doctrine is a defence for those who have allegedly infringed copyright,
and allows users to impede upon the statutory rights of copyright holders (Diotlaevi,
2003, p. 3). The doctrine encourages the balance of competing rights between
authors and users, by allowing access to information and providing a check on the
author’s control. It is based on four factors: the purpose and character of the use of
the work, the nature of the work, the amount and part being copied, and the effect
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WHAT ARE THE COPYRIGHT CHALLENGES THAT THE INTERNET POSES TO AUTHORS?
on the market (Butler, 2003, p. 308). Analysis of the factors considers whether the
reason for the use of the work is commercial or non commercial, or for personal or
educational purposes (O’Donnell, 1996, p. 29). Defences based on fair use include
(1) the work is in the public domain; (2) the copyright has expired or the holder has
forfeited the rights in the work; or (3) the copyright right holder has granted permission (Matthew, 2003, p. 44).
Digital advancement means that the use of the doctrine is convoluted; it is
unclear as to what actually constitutes fair use (Diotlaevi, 2003, p. 4). The applicability of the doctrine is challenged by new technologies that make it possible to track
the use of copyrighted work through methods such as encryption, digital tagging, or
watermarking. In the digital environment, such technologies are necessary to capture
lost revenues and control the problem of plagiarism (Lipinski and Britz, 2000, p. 60).
Without the assurances that their works are protected, authors will not venture into
the digital environment, and authors argue that the incentive structure for online
publication needs to be altered in their favour, not in favour of the rights of the copyright user (Lipinski and Britz, 2000, p. 60).
Copyright Legislation
The Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) [the Act] governs copyright law throughout Australia.
The five safeguards for the protection of literary works provided for in the Act are
reproduction of the copyrighted work, preparation of derivative works based upon
the copyrighted material, distribution of the work, performance of the work publicly,
and displaying of the work publicly.7
Copyright Amendment (Digital Agenda) Act 2000 (Cth)
The Act was amended by the Copyright Amendment (Digital Agenda) Act 2000 (Cth)
[the DAA].8 The provisions of the DAA amended the Act with respect to technological protection measures, circumvention devices and electronic rights management information (ERMI) to provide greater protection for digital works9
(Gamertsfelder, 2001, p. 14). The purpose of the DAA is to make the same rights
available to authors in the online environment as is available with hard copies
(Bowrey, 2001, p. 188). The DAA provides for civil and criminal sanctions for the
use of circumvention devices, or removing or altering EMRI (Bowrey, 2001, p. 188).
It also allows courts to set additional penalties where an infringement of the first
right of digitization has occurred — where an author has chosen not to distribute
their work electronically and subsequently finds that electronic circulation has
occurred without their permission (Bowrey, 2001, p. 188).
Technological Protection Measures (TPMs)
In order for online work to have copyright protection under the Act, an author must
apply a technological protection measure (TPM) to their work. A TPM is a device
designed to inhibit the infringement of copyright in a work by ensuring that access to
the work is available only by use of an access code (e.g., encryption, encoding) or
through a copy control mechanism10 (Gamertsfelder, 2001, p. 14). There are four categories of TPMs: measures that control access to a work; measures that control the uses
of a work; technology that protects the integrity of the work; and measures that meter
access to a use of a work (Koleman and Helberger in Gamertsfelder, 2001, p. 14).
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
57
ELLIE O’GORMAN
Anti-circumvention measures: Section 116A
However, many of the processes used in TPMs are capable of being circumvented. Civil
and criminal penalties now apply if a person engages in conduct relating to circumvention devices11 (Gamertsfelder, 2001, p. 14). Section 10(1) of the Act defines a
circumvention device as a device having only a limited commercially significant
purpose or use other than the circumvention of an effective technological protection
measure. The Act does not prohibit the actual use of circumvention devices; it
prohibits the manufacture and supply of such devices (de Zwart, 2007, p. 11). Parliament
took this approach, as it was more effective for authors to seek remedies against those
who manufactured circumvention devices rather than individual users.12
The Copyright Amendment Act 2006 introduced section 116AN that outlines the
three criteria to be satisfied to bring an action in this context: (1) the work is
protected by an access control technological protection measure; (2) the person does
an act that results in the circumvention of the access control TPM; and (3) the
person knows that the act would have that result. The onus of proof is reversed so
that it is presumed that the defendant knew, or ought reasonably to have known, that
the device would be used for such a purpose. If the criteria are satisfied, then an
author can bring an action for infringement, unless an exemption applies.13
Electronic Rights Management Information
The Act now provides remedies to authors against persons who intentionally remove
electronic rights management information (ERMI). ERMI is defined in section 10(1)
as information attached to a copy of work that identifies the work and its author.
Arguably, merely attaching ‘© 2000. All rights reserved’ could fall within the scope
of this definition. However, usually more sophisticated measures will be used, such as
the use of digital watermark technology (Gamertsfelder, 2001, p. 28). It appears that
proving ERMI has been removed will be relatively straightforward, but proving that
the defendant removed or altered ERMI, on the balance of probabilities, as is
required for a civil suit, will be more difficult (Young, 2002, p. 79).
What Does Australian Copyright Law Mean For Authors?
The Law Favours the Author
The 2006 amendments indicated that the balance that was once struck between
copyright owners and users has shifted in favour of copyright owners (Gamertsfelder,
2001, p. 26). The use of TPMs has shifted the balance so that where, once, copyright
infringement would occur only where a work was copied in its entirety or substantial
parts of the work were copied,14 now, if a TPM is applied to a work, no reproduction
will be permitted, as access to the work is prohibited unless an exemption applies
(Castelluccio, 2001, p. 55). It is clear that these amendments will tip the balance in
favour of copyright owners who supply their works in digital form to the market,
particularly for those authors who adopt TPMs.
The Limitation of Fair Use: Is This Fair?
The 2006 amendments to the legislation omitted the fair use doctrine in regards to
TPMs (de Zwart, 2007, p.20). This has strengthened the position of authors.
At the same time, there is concern that the rights of users have been undermined
to prevent users’ access to copyright material.15 Legal academics have suggested that
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WHAT ARE THE COPYRIGHT CHALLENGES THAT THE INTERNET POSES TO AUTHORS?
the fair use doctrine should be used to create a shield for copyright users against the
expanding contractual and proprietary claims of authors (de Zwart, 2007, p.37).
Applying Justice Kirby’s reasoning in Stevens v Sony,16 in order to preserve the
balance between owners and users, the TPM provisions should be subject to a fair use
proviso (de Zwart, 2007, p.37).
In argument against Kirby, Brennan writes that the fair use doctrine in this
context elevates the value of freedom of individuals to consume the cultural goods of
others (Brennan, 2006, p. 81). It relegates the ability of authors to be supported by
market rewards for their work (Brennan, 2006, p. 98). Copyright law traditionally
promotes creativity over materialistic consumption — anti circumvention law is best
understood as part of an ongoing attempt in public law to ensure that works of
creative expression are not made ‘sacrificial offerings to the gods of the latest technologies’ (Brennan, 2006, p. 98).
Now is the time for authors, editors and publishers to ask what are the rules to
govern the use of content in the age of the Internet; should it be a domain of private
(technological protection measures) or should it be public (copyright) ordering?
(de Zwart, 2007, p.37).
Challenges to Authors
From Print to Electronic Media
The comfort of printed documents is in the practical limitations to copying or
distributing a document (Morin, 2000, p. 20). In contradistinction, electronic documents can be easily modified, copied and distributed without the need to gain the
author’s permission. Traditionally, the ability to create and distribute unauthorised
copies of literary works is the reason why commercial intellectual work (such as
books) has seldom appeared in electronic form (Morin, 2000, p. 20).
Now there is the emergence of the e-book, where a work is first made available
online, as the future of publishing (Bowrey, 2001, p. 187).17 At its most extreme,
Bowrey fears of a future where literary works are available only online, subject to pay
per view, and copyright is rendered dead. What, she asks, would this environment do
to the culture of reading? (Bowrey, 2001, p. 188).
The arrival of the e-book does not necessarily herald the decline of the printed
book or the death of copyright (Bowrey, 2001, p. 190). Nevertheless, the question
remains as to what kind of works will continue to be published in the old formats.
The function and cultural importance of old publishing technologies will change
with the arrival of new ones. While current reading generations are comfortable with
the old formats, will the same hold for the next generation? Consequently, the
literary industry needs to be aware of the technological protection measures to be
taken to protect the copyright of authors online.
Cyberspace is a Challenge and Copyright Law is Inadequate
The conventional approach to the Internet was to assume that it was a new frontier
and beyond regulation (Bowrey, 2001, p. 183). Barlow writes that intellectual property law cannot be ‘patched, retrofitted or expanded to contain the gases of digitised
expression’ (in Bowrey, 2001, p. 183). Barlow writes that ‘copyright is dead, and as
artists, interests will be assured by following the practical values of relationship,
convenience, interactivity, service, and ethics’ (in Bowrey, 2001, p. 183).
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
59
ELLIE O’GORMAN
That thought is perhaps far-fetched. Copyright is not dead, but definitely
stretched by the challenges of the Internet, in terms of protecting online literary
works. Law is focused on trying to catch up and respond to the problems caused by
new technologies (Bowrey, 2001, p.183). The nature and pace of change with digital
technologies causes problems for this kind of approach. For example, it was only in
2006 that anti-circumvention provisions were enacted, by which time legal responsibility for many infringers of copyright had been avoided. In this way, law is, practically speaking, merely an obstacle, or an irrelevance (Dames, 2005, p. 34).
Solutions
Reconceptualising Authorship
Although many find the new media threatening, Halbert views the lack of authentication and distribution control as an opportunity to reconceptualise authorship. In
this vein, the author surrenders to the loss of control and shifts to a model of ‘democratic authorship’ under which anyone can be both the creator and audience (in
Rosenblatt, 2000, p. 35).
However, the fact remains that there will always be authors who care about credit
and remuneration and wish to maintain control and ownership over their compositions. The new media is an ideal mechanism for disseminating work to the public
(Rosenblatt, 2000, p. 36), but this does not mean that the dissemination should take
place against an author’s will.
Conclusion
The real value in the discussion of the challenges of copyright in the new media does
not necessarily lie in the ability to formulate a foolproof solution; the value lies in the
critical analysis and consideration given to the issue. If authors, editors, and publishers
are to advance in the digital era, there must be a compromise and balance reached
between right and rule, between freethinking and structured regulation. There is no
way to totally prevent others from using work without permission, but the first step for
authors is to educate themselves about the use of TPMs to restrict access and limit
copying and distribution of material. Using these devices then gives the author the
right to take legal action against people who infringe copyright online.
Endnotes
1. The United States have ‘claimed’ that the fundamental basis of copyright law
stems from the United States Constitution, Article 1, Section 8, Clause 8 that
stipulates the promotion of science and the arts by securing an exclusive right to
writings (Diolatevi, 2003, p. 1).
2. Works that are not afforded protection include titles, slogans, symbols, designs,
coloring, concepts, devices and methods. In these situations, other legal devices
such as trademarks and patents come into play, the subject matter of which is too
broad for this article.
3. The United States Supreme Court has moved from a balance test to a public
benefit testing the last quarter century — see Sony Corp of America v Universal
Studios 464 US 417 (1984) where the Court observed that the grant of monopoly
privileges was to motivate the creativity of authors.
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WHAT ARE THE COPYRIGHT CHALLENGES THAT THE INTERNET POSES TO AUTHORS?
4. The work will be in a fixed form once it is permanent, or stable enough to allow
it to be reproduced (Diolaevi, 2003, p. 2).
5. In the decision of Eldred v Ashcroft in January 2003, the US Supreme Court reiterated that copyright gives the holder no monopoly on any knowledge (Shaw,
2003, p. 27).
6. Under the Australia-United States Fair Trade Agreement.
7. In addition to dealing with copyright rights, the Act also deals with performers’
rights and the moral rights of individual creators.
8. The DAA aligns Australian law with the World Intellectual Property Organisation
(WIPO) Copyright Treaty and WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty. WIPO
has decreed that all signatories are obliged to amend legislation in order to
address the threats posed to digital intellectual property by rapid development in
technology (Gamertsfelder, 2001, p.13).
9. Copyright Amendment (Digital Agenda) Bill 1999 – Explanatory Memorandum
10. Section 10(1) of the Act.
11. Section 116A(1) of the Act prohibits the importation, manufacture, sale, hire,
promotion, advertisement, importation for trade purposes and distribution of
circumvention devices and provision of circumvention devices.
12. See Exposure Draft and Commentary — Copyright Amendment (Digital Agenda) Bill
1999.
13. There are two exceptions: proceedings cannot be bought in relation to a purpose
of law enforcement or national security (s116A(2)) and will not apply if the
person is a qualified person (defined in s116a(8)) and the person gives the
supplier a declaration stating the device is to be used for a permitted purpose [for
example: reverse engineering, error correction, security testing, Parliamentary
libraries, copying by libraries; s116A(3)].
14. See section 14(1) of the Act.
15. It was this curtailing of existing copyright user rights that the court was
concerned with in Stevens v Sony (2005) 79 ALJR 1850. Here, the High Court
unanimously held that Sony PlayStation technology which precluded the use of
unauthorised game discs was not protectable under Australia’s anti-circumvention regime as the technology did not prevent or inhibit the infringement of
copyright as required by the terms of the statutory definition.
16. See note 15 above.
17. Stephen King’s Riding the Bullet and Michael Crichton’s Timeline were released
online, King’s selling for US$2.60. The works were encrypted to prevent unauthorised copying and printing, although these codes were soon broken (Morin,
2000, p. 187).
References
Ardito, S. (2007, May). Social Networking and Video Web sites: MySpace and YouTube meet the
copyright cops. Searcher, 24–34.
Australian Copyright Council. (2007, March). Information sheet: An introduction to copyright in
Australia. Retrieved from http://www.copyright.org.au
Australian Copyright Council. (2006, August). Protecting your copyright. Retrieved from
http://www.copyright.org.au
Bowrey, K. (2001). Retrospective futures? Law, technology and copyright control in cyberspace.
Media and Arts Law Review, 6, 181–191.
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
61
ELLIE O’GORMAN
Brennan, D. (2006). What can it mean ‘to prevent or inhibit the infringement of copyright? A
critique on Stevens v Sony. Australian Intellectual Property Journal, 17, 81–98.
Butler, R. (2003, Fall). Copyright law and organising the Internet. Library Trends, 307–317.
Castelluccio, M. (2001, February). Will the copyright survive cyberspace? Strategic Finance, 52–57.
Dames, K. (2005, September/October). Copyright clearances: Fair use, action and apathy. Online
32–34.
de Zwart, M. (2007). Technological enclosure of copyright: The end of fair dealing? Australian
Intellectual Property Journal, 7, 7–38.
Diotlaevi, R. (2003). An education in copyright: a primer for cyberspace. Library Philosophy and
Practice, 6.
Gamertsfelder, L. (2001). Digitising copyright law: An Australian perspective. Media and Arts Law
Review, 6, 13–28.
Lipinksi, T., & Britz, J. (2000). Rethinking the ownership of information in the 21st century:
Ethical implications. Ethics and Information Technology, 2, 49–71.
Matthew, A. (2003, April). The risky business of publication on the internet: Exploring the jurisdictional issues raised in Dow Jones v Gutnick. Plaintiff, 56, 42–45.
Morin, J. (2000, April/June). Commercialisation of electronic information. Journal of End User
Computing, 12.
O’Donnell, V. (1996). Copyright and the new media: Some issues. Metro Magazine, 108, 29–30.
Rosenblatt, B. (2000, June). Book Review: Intellectual property in the information age: The politics of expanding ownership rights, by Debora J. Halbert. Communications and the Law June, 31–
37.
Shaw, B. (2003). Copyright in the age of photocopiers, word processors, and the Internet. Change,
35, 20–28.
Young, S. (2002). New media: Brave new world or same old same old? Southern Review, 35, 74–86.
62
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Blogging and Accountability:
How Certain Can Users Be
of Their Liability?
Sarah Romig
Writing, Editing, and Publishing student, The University of Queensland, Australia
T
he development of web logs and subsequent activity (‘blogging’) have
redefined various models of human interaction. For some, the blog is a
systematic narrative of a person’s troubles and their struggle for resolution. For
most, the beckoning of the platform and spotlight is too much and they use
their place on the web to voice important opinions on sociocultural topics.
Then there are others who see their ‘friends list’ as a dependable comfort in an
otherwise hostile society.
No matter what the reason is, blogging arrived in cyberspace as an answered prayer
to the writers, the defenders of morality, and the lonely. Personal web logs allow
anyone with an internet connection to have their own home on the internet without
paying for a web domain or designing a web page. The appeal of computer-mediated
communication is that most of these goals can be achieved on any subject, in any
context, and with a minimal risk of identifying the source. It is a new age of selfpublishing, and there is the possibility to become the richer for the experience.
The questions asked in this article do not deny the advantages of blogging as a
communication and social device, nor do they attempt to place the art of web
publishing in the hands of the computer elite. However, in this digital environment,
should there be a method of monitoring?
If offensive material is posted, who is held accountable? The Internet crosses
over several legal boundaries, with the issue of anonymity hiding the real face of
the author. This turns the pointing finger at the service providers. Companies such
as AOL, Blogger and SixApart have attempted to waive their liability by developing strict terms of service that allow them the ability to regulate and delete inappropriate content.
But how much jurisdiction do the service providers have to discontinue service
if blog entries are not accessible to the public? Does the hosting site have the right
to terminate a blog that is only sharing certain posts with an audience chosen by
the author?
There are three angles of approach to blogging and other self-produced media and
their responsibilities to the wider Internet audience: an analysis of the content of the
blog, the anonymity of the author, and that author’s own private posting practices.
Address for correspondence: Sarah Romig. E-mail: [email protected]
New Media, WRIT7025
Semester 2, 2007 pp. 63–67
63
SARAH ROMIG
Content: Clarifying a Definition
Television, music, video games, and other media are classified by their content and
appropriateness to the audience. These classifications are based on what content is
presented in the media and a general consensus as to the appropriateness of content
for audiences.
As the Internet is an international arena, there are many legal definitions of
appropriate content. These definitions are managed by national government guidelines on censorship, and vary from country to country. For example, while the World
Trade Organisation has developed a General Agreement on Trade in Services
(GATS), it recognises that there can be barriers to trade in internet-based services
(Wu, 2006, p. 274). These barriers include the rights of national governments to ban
or filter content (such as online gambling or foreign Internet services).
Blogging complicates this process. While blog service providers reside in one
country, many of the users reside outside national borders. Therefore, service
providers create a document called the ‘terms of service’, which are the rules that
one must agree to abide by in order to use a service, but service providers must take
care to write a document that is perceived by users as fair and not needlessly
bureaucratic (Wikipedia, 2007).
Within the terms of service, blog service providers specify what content is appropriate for posting through their service. Therefore, these documents need to be accessible to a wide audience so that the rules can be interpreted and adhered to.
One company that was required to change its terms of service was America
Online (AOL), who was forced to admit that ‘… the policy was a year old and obfuscated by legalese’ after a blogger made a complaint (O’Brien, 2005, p. 3). While it is
accepted that the terms of service is a legal policy, it signifies that users recognise
their rights and responsibilities when using an Internet service.
Another issue lies in how the terms of service define ‘inappropriate content’. A
blog service provider has one of two choices: either explicitly set out what content is
appropriate, or direct users to use their own moral compass along with the guidelines
of their country. Both of these solutions have mixed outcomes. Livejournal took a
stand against breastfeeding mothers who were using images of breastfeeding in their
user icons. Breastfeeding is exempt from nudity laws throughout the United States
(US) as well as countries such as Canada (ProMom.org, 2007, p. 1). The notion is
perfectly acceptable if Livejournal decided to enforce their own definition of acceptable content. However, their terms of service state:
Recognizing the global nature of the Internet, you agree to comply with all local rules
regarding online conduct and acceptable Content. Specifically, you agree to comply
with all applicable laws regarding the transmission of technical data exported from the
United States or the country in which you reside. (Livejournal, 2007)
This would suggest that Livejournal is encouraging users to obey their own national
standards, which makes comprehension more difficult as the service provider is
implementing an unknown code of standards that, according to some sources, shifts
depending on the members of the ‘abuse team’.
If accountability based on content is to be established, there needs to be a clear
outline of standards for users, where service providers either bow to international law,
or stay stringent in whatever rules they have provided for users of the service.
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Anonymity: Invisible Warriors for Opinion
How are we perceived in online conversations? Does our audience identify us as
being fellow members of humanity, or is there a barrier that we all create when we
hide behind our computer screens?
The issue of anonymity is a relevant one in online communication. Marx refers
to anonymity as a state where a person is not identifiable, with the focus being on a
social judgment rather than our own individual notion of who we are (Marx, 1999).
Although the issue of anonymity has been present in other forms (letters and phone
conversations use various techniques to not only avoid identification, but also reduce
ownership of material), computer technology also facilitates anonymity as it provides
a method of communication between people who are separated in time and space.
(Qian & Scott, 2007, p. 1429)
Anonymity has both benefit and disadvantage in regards to accountability,
predominantly involving the creation of a blog account. Providers such as Blogger
and Livejournal do not require personal information to be submitted in order to
create a journal. This system allows users to remain anonymous unless they choose
to submit personal information such as their name, date of birth, or city of residence.
For writers who are uncomfortable sharing personal information online, this can be
an advantage. (Qian & Scott, 2007, p. 1430)
Disadvantage occurs when someone has to be found liable for content on a blog.
In situations where the author of a blog cannot be established, complaints about
inappropriate content are sent to the service providers. Once again, the service
provider’s terms of service document is important, but for different reasons. The
terms of service not only attempts to regulate content, but also gives the service
provider the authority to terminate a blog in order to avoid liability for its content.
However, even applying the terms of service has its own drawbacks.
In mid-2007, the snooper group Warriors for Innocence bullied Livejournal
owner SixApart to delete journals that featured the words ‘rape’, ‘incest’, and other
terms that involved child molestation. Being pressured to take responsibility for
anonymous journals, SixApart caved and deleted over 500 journals that contained
these terms.
Livejournal (2007) states clearly in their terms of service that they are not responsible for the content that is posted on a person’s individual journal and they do not
monitor the content of individual blogs either. However, if content is reported that
is against the terms of service, Livejournal has the right and responsibility to take
action. In this context, SixApart’s actions as stated above were acceptable.
The issue that sparked the most controversy was that journals were deleted that
had nothing to do with paedophile activity. Journals that were incorrectly terminated included rape, incest, and paedophilia survivors’ personal journals, character-based RPG journals, and a discussion group for the novel Lolita (McCullagh,
2007, p. 1).
In situations where accountability has to be established by any means, it is
common for errors to occur because there are several definitions about appropriate content. Other instances of Livejournal’s errors in managing user content
involve recent expulsions of users based on user-drawn artwork of two Harry
Potter characters where SixApart decided the participants were underage
(McCullagh, 2007, p. 1).
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SARAH ROMIG
While these errors can be attributed to a miscommunication about inappropriate
content, the pressure created by an anonymous system also contributes to the
problem. In order to protect service providers from their belief that they are liable for
content, they should ask for more information (such as first and last name) for their
records. If this can be achieved, then service providers will feel safer about their
accountability in situations, and users will understand to what extent they will be
held liable for their actions.
Privacy: Protecting Users’ Rights
One of many problems associated with blogging practices involves privacy. This
issue, not far from the topic of anonymity, places fewer burdens on the author.
Rather, it focuses once again on content — specifically, who has access to the
content.
In a small, qualitative study, Nardi, Schiano, and Gumbrecht (2004, p. 8) found
that most bloggers were surprisingly open on their sites, some of them choosing to
reveal very personal information. Many of the bloggers in their sample provided
accurate identity information and even contact information (via links to personal
home pages).
In these circumstances, Internet service providers often hold users accountable
for what personal content is posted in an online blog. Users are aware of this — one
female blogger in Washington DC, writes, ‘I often edit old entries, mainly because I
don’t want to be held accountable for something mentioned in them’ (Viegas, 2005).
However, in regard to other inappropriate content, privacy is still an important issue.
In some situations, inappropriate content is not only defined by the user and the
service provider, but by those who read the blog. Corporate entities are also defining
inappropriate conduct when their employees talk about work on their personal blogs
(Horwedell, 2006, p. 31). This causes concern for users who want to communicate
freely with others, but also fear that they will lose their right to free speech.
At present, there seem to be few solutions to this issue. If users abide by a service
provider’s definition of appropriate content, then there are some blogging sites that
offer options to post entries publicly or privately. Additionally, providers such as
Invisiblog (http://invisiblog.net/) allow for users to post entries anonymously in the
first place. If users choose to post publicly, then they must accept that they are liable
for what content they publish online.
When privacy is involved, it seems as if the users are going to be held accountable for what they present on their blog, unless they choose a service that allows for
private posting. When private posting is an option, then the user must be selective
about the audience and abide by the service provider’s terms of service.
Conclusion
Overall, there are many issues to be investigated in order to understand the accountability of users when posting online. This article has attempted to look at three major
topics, where it has found that there are contradictions in documents provided by
service providers as well as conflicting definitions between terms of service and
national law.
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The best protection that bloggers can have is to be informed as to how accountable they are for their posts in the key areas of appropriate content, anonymity, and
privacy of posts.
References
Hordewell, D. M. (2006, March). Blogging Rights. Diverse, 9, 28–31.
Livejournal. (2006, 18 April). Terms of Service. Available from http://www.livejournal.com/
legal/tos.bml
Marx, G.T. (1999). What’s in a name? Some reflections on the sociology of anonymity. The
Information Society, 15, 99–112.
McCullagh, D. (2007, 30 May). Mass deletion sparks LiveJournal revolt. Retrieved September 19,
2007, from http://www.news.com/Mass-deletion-sparks-LiveJournal-revolt/2100-1025_
3-6187619.html
Nardi, B., Schiano, D., & Gumbrecht, M. (2007). Blogging as social activity, or, would you let 900
million people read your diary? Proceedings of Computer Supported Cooperative Work 2004,
Retrieved September 19, 2007, from http://home.comcast.net/%7Ediane.schiano/
CSCW04.Blog.pdf
O’Brien, K. (2005, March). AOL rewrites terms to clear blog confusion. PRWeek, 21, 3.
ProMom.org. (2007). Popular blogging site restricts use of breastfeeding photos. Retrieved
September 18, 2007, from http://www.promom.org/bf_info/pr.pdf
Qian, H., &, Scott. ( 2007). Anonymity and self-disclosure on weblogs. Journal of ComputerMediated Communication, 12, 1428–1451.
Wikipedia. (2007). Terms of service. Retrieved September 20, 2007, from http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Terms_of_Service
Viégas, F. B. (2005). Bloggers’ expectations of privacy and accountability: An initial survey. Journal
of Computer-Mediated Communication, 10, Article 12. Retrieved September 19, 2007, from
http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol10/issue3/viégas.html
Wu, T. (2006). The World Trade Law of Censorship and Internet Filtering. Chicago Journal of
International Law 7, 263–288.
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Podcasting: A New Tool for Writing,
Editing, and Publishing
C. R. Tucker
Writing, Editing, and Publishing student, The University of Queensland, Australia
W
ith the invention of the Internet and the ever-developing world of technology, the areas of writing, editing, and publishing have changed
dramatically. New media is allowing anyone to become a published author,
which has its benefits and drawbacks. This article discusses one type of selfpublishing: podcasting. It is a relatively new form of new media but it is already
being used in many different ways. This article defines podcasting and examines the benefits and drawbacks of this form of new media when applied to
writing, editing, and publishing.
What is a Podcast/Podcasting?
Podcasting gives anyone with basic technical knowledge and access to a computer
the opportunity to publish their work over the Internet. But what is podcasting and
what makes it unique? A podcast is a file available on the Internet to be downloaded
by anyone interested in the content. Anyone with a microphone, audio software, and
a personal computer can create their own podcast by following these steps:
• The author puts the content of an episode on the Internet by using a web server.
• The content is then referenced in another file known as the feed (a list of URLs
that can access the content).
• The feed is posted on a web server and the subscribing audience is notified that
the episode is available.
• Users will then download the episode of the podcast. Computers now come with
software that automatically downloads and organises podcasts that a user is
subscribed to.
It is said that ‘Much of the technological mindset behind podcasting has its origins
in the world of blogging’ (Crofts, Dilley, Fox, Retsema, & Williams, 2005). While
early podcasting may have some similarities to blogging, there are a few characteristics that set it apart:
A podcast is a downloadable file. This allows listeners to store episodes to listen
to at their leisure. Podcasts do not require a live connection to the Internet such as
streaming audio, blogs, or websites such as YouTube. Once an episode is downloaded,
users can access it at any time they like. Podcasts do not need to be reloaded.
Users have the option of subscribing to different podcasts that they are interested
in. This means that new episodes will automatically be downloaded onto a
Address for correspondence: C. R. Tucker. E-mail: [email protected]
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PODCASTING: A NEW TOOL FOR WRITING, EDITING, AND PUBLISHING
subscriber’s computer. Computer programs, such as iTunes, will organize the podcasts
for the subscriber; there is no searching or work involved.
Unlike blogs or websites, podcasts can be uploaded onto portable listening
devices (MP3 or MP4 players). Users can then listen to them whenever and wherever they choose.
Since podcasting became available in 2004 (though some will argue it was
created in 2001), it has steadily become more popular. Crofts et al. (2005) write:
‘This growth is obvious when we look at the number of podcasts hosted by just one
source of podcasts, feedburner.com: On November 1, 2004, there were an estimated
212 podcasts on this service, and by 10 January 2005 this number had reached 1090
As of late August 2005, 13,782 podcasts are hosted by feedburner.com’ (p. 3). As of
September 27, 2007, feedburner.com has 142,534 podcasts. The number of people
interested in this area of new media is growing at a quick pace, and the technology
behind podcasting has already evolved dramatically. Not only can users download
audio files but they can also view vodcasts (episodes accompanied with videos or
images), and use text to audio software to create audio files of written work.
Benefiting Writing and Publishing
With the evolution of this area of new media, how can podcasting be beneficial to
writing and publishing? In the years since its development, new software has been
introduced to make the process of creating podcasts easier. As a result, the range of
programs available for download has increased as outlined in the previous section.
This surge in popularity is beneficial to writing and publishing in the same way it was
beneficial to the area of music: more variety. Crofts et al. (2005) write, ‘From the
point of view of listeners, media fragmentation provides more choices, a greater
feeling of control over their listening, and a greater sense of community and engagement with media providers and with others’ (p. 7). With all of the new people selfpublishing their work, there is a wider range of work for listeners to choose from.
Since podcasting creates an audio file, it gives people the choice of listening or
reading. They no longer have to sit at their computer and stare at the screen; they
can choose to listen to written work. And they can choose when and where they
want to listen to it. It also allows people all over the world to easily identify and
communicate with others interested in the same ideas.
This new crowd of podcasters can benefit traditional publishing companies as
well. It gives them access to a whole new pool of fresh material. Since the number of
downloads is tracked, it is easy for big companies to see which podcasts are popular.
The search for ‘the next best thing’ could be as easy as downloading a file.
Podcasting has also found a place in education. Students have been given the
opportunity to download lectures so that they have access to them at any time. In
‘Podcasting in the Classroom’, Brian Flanagan and Brendan Calandra (2005) discuss
podcasting being used on college campuses. They write, ‘… one Duke University
student remarked, “I loved being able to listen to the lectures at my convenience, to
be able to listen to difficult portions several times, and just hear the material again”’.
Podcasts can help students develop more effective study habits by giving them
unlimited access to essential material. They can focus more in class rather than
having to divide their attention between the lecture and scribbling down notes.
They get a chance to review the material and ask questions in the following lecture.
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C. R. TUCKER
And, students will have access to a large amount of free material that could otherwise be expensive.
Podcasts are also being used in the classrooms of kindergarten through year
twelve. It gives teachers the chance to expose children to new technology at an early
age. In an article for Education Week, Rhea R. Borja (2005) writes: ‘Educators are
starting to see how podcasting can help hone students’ vocabulary, writing, editing,
public speaking, and presentation skills, says Dan J. Schmit, an instructional-technology specialist at the University of Nebraska’s college of education’ (p. 1). Letting
children use tools such as podcasting is giving them an excellent educational
foundation to improve on as they move through school. It gives them the means to
grow into excellent writers or publishers through experience writing, editing, and
producing their own podcast episodes. In a world where technology plays a key role
in everyday life, these children are getting a head start.
Stumbling Blocks
All new technology comes with a few glitches. Podcasting is no exception. It is still
relatively new and the technology is no doubt still being perfected. Creators of podcasts
have full control over the content that they put up for listeners. This is certainly a
benefit for the creator but not always for the listener. ‘Podcasting communications are
unregulated … “[t] he borderless Internet … allows people to enjoy freedom of speech
without fearing retribution” (Crofts et al., 2005). This allows some risqué material to
be posted online without any kind of disclaimer. It also allows for rude, unedited,
useless, false, confusing, and out of context material to find its way to listeners. While
there are well-established companies offering podcasts, there is also a large amount of
amateur work. Most hosting sites such as iTunes will give some information about the
podcast and its source, but this may not always be the case. Listeners should check the
source of the podcasts they’re interested in and be aware that all work submitted by
amateur podcasters might be offensive, unpolished, and inaccurate.
Copyright law has proven to be a difficult issue for podcasting. Cathy Yang and
Burt Helm write in an article for Business Week, ‘Why the conundrum? Simply put,
copyright law hasn’t caught up with technology’ (p. 1). People wishing to create their
own podcasting shows, especially those containing music, are finding it hard to get
around current copyright laws. Podcasts are downloaded, which allows the chance
for the material contained in them to be copied and shared. This poses a problem for
copyright holders who are interested in making money from their material. Since
podcasting is free, big companies are hesitant to sign off on blanket copyright agreements that will allow podcasters to use their material. If a podcaster is using original
material, then copyright is not a concern. Since there is not an immediate solution
to this issue, podcasters need to be aware of any copyright on material they want to
use and seek permission to use it.
Well-established companies are able to use other means to advertise their
podcasts, but spreading the word can be difficult for amateurs. If a person hosts their
podcasts on their own personal web page, finding a large audience will prove to be a
challenge. It is especially difficult when contending with the large number of other
amateur podcasters. When searching host sites, a listener may be overwhelmed by
the number of podcasts that are available for download. And there is no way to
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predict what users will be interested in. The only solution is to be patient. If the work
is of high quality, then word will get around.
Conclusion
Since the beginning of new media there have been many advances. New methods for
self-publishing have been developed, allowing anyone to become a published author.
One of those outlets is podcasting. There are many benefits in using podcasting that
have not been available through other forms of new media. It also has its downsides,
but like all technology, it is always evolving.
Since it is still new, all of the capabilities of podcasting have yet to be discovered.
Though it is convenient and amazing now, what is to come will no doubt be more
convenient and amazing. The areas that podcasting will be applied to will grow.
Glitches will be worked out. It is an area of new media that has the potential to
replace broadcast television as well as radio. Perhaps this technology will focus even
more on written media. In the future, books, newspapers, and magazines could be
easy-to-access, downloadable files. Soon everyone may be able to use podcasts to get
information and entertainment in an instant no matter where they may be.
Resources
Borja, R. R. (2005). Podcasting craze comes to K-12 schools. Education Week, 7. Retrieved from
http://chatt.hdsb.ca/~magps/boylit/edweek%20article.pdf
Crofts, S., Dilley, J., Fox, M., Retsema, A., & Williams, B. (2005). Podcasting: A new technology
in search of viable business models. First Monday, 10(9), 1–26. Retrieved September 24, 2007,
from http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue10_9/crofts/#c2
Flanagan, B., & Clandra, B. (2005). Podcasting in the classroom. Learning and Leading with
Technology, 33(3), 20–23. Retrieved September 26, 2007, from http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/
data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/1e/1d/f3.pdf
Yang, C. (with Helm, B.). (2005, May 25). Podcasters hit the copyright wall. Business Week.
Retrieved September 28, 2007, from http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/
may2005/tc20050525_0130_tc_211.htm?chan = search
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In the Middle: The Internet
as an Agent for Social Change
in the Middle East
Rod Whybird
Writing, Editing, and Publishing student, The University of Queensland, Australia
T
he Internet is gaining importance as a forum for the Middle East’s social
and political issues. Sites such as MidEast Web encourage online rational
discussion to promote peace and understanding in the region. The dynamics of
accessibility, public space, and private life are determining the effectiveness of
the new technology.
MidEast Web (MEW) is an Internet site that promotes peace for the Middle Eastern
region through reasoned discussion and constructive interaction. The web site has a
clear mission:
MidEast Web was started by people active in Middle East dialog and peace education
efforts. Our goal is to weave a worldwide web of Arabs, Jews and others who want to
build a new Middle East based on coexistence and neighborly relations (MidEast Web
Group, n.d.).
MEW promotes humanitarian values, and its convenors seek to create a network of
politically active and peace-loving people that crosses the traditional divides of
nationality, culture, religion, and politics. People are encouraged to contribute their
stories and perspectives on the major issues causing tension in the region. The
convenors of MEW hope that these contributions will foster understanding between
people formerly opposed to each other.
MEW is part of the growth in Middle Eastern new media giving people new
choices of expression, information, and entertainment. This means that the goals
that MEW espouses are subject to the wider issues facing new information technologies in the region.
The capacity for a web site, such as MEW, to create social change is subject to a
range of issues affecting the spread of new technologies in the Middle East.
Accessibility, the role of the technology in the public space, and the influence of the
technology upon private life are crucial in determining whether cyberspace rhetoric
can be turned into reality.
Accessibility
The initial issue for agencies wanting to introduce new technologies into the Middle
East is accessibility. In the last decade there has been strong growth in Internet
availability and the number of sites addressing Middle Eastern issues. John B. Alterman
Address for correspondence: Rod Whybird. E-mail: [email protected]
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THE INTERNET AS AN AGENT FOR SOCIAL CHANGE IN THE MIDDLE EAST
(2000) reports that much of the political Internet activity is driven by people living
outside of the region. This is evident in the listed members of MEW. They are
predominantly American, European, or from the progressive and Western-oriented
states of Israel and Jordan (MidEast Web Group, n.d.). Shaazka Beyerle (2002)
reports that pro-Israeli and pro-Palestinian communities in the West are often the
most active in supporting websites devoted to their respective points of view.
The upsurge of Internet activity in the Middle East has been limited by several
factors. Poorer nations and people from lower socioeconomic strata have difficulty
affording the purchase and maintenance of the new technologies. The prevalence of
low literacy rates also means that the technical and literacy skills needed to operate
a text-based medium are often lacking (Frohne & Katti, 2000).v Much of the
Internet operates in the English language. This restricts how much content nonEnglish speaking people can access (Alterman, 2000).
Western philanthropic efforts have sought to increase the technological capability of non-government organisations operating in the region, but various governments restrict accessibility (Alterman, 2000). Israel, Egypt, and Jordan have the most
advanced Internet networks and are liberal with information flow. By contrast, Saudi
Arabia heavily filters online content and access is largely limited to the elite of the
population (Alterman, 2000). The establishment of comprehensive networks that
match what is offered in developed nations will require significant amounts of
government and private expenditure.
Public Space
The MEW ethos of building a common reality, based on humanitarian values, relies
upon the Internet acting as a public forum. Fatema Mernissi (2006) suggests that a
public sphere is defined by its role in providing a ‘platform for rational critical
debate’. ‘The public sphere is an arena of communication in which mutuality, solidarity and reciprocity are promoted’ (Polat Karakaya, 2005). There is considerable
debate as to whether the Internet can effectively do this, either as an extension of
the existing public sphere, or as a virtual public space.
In their article examining the politics of ‘language’ and ‘body’ in cyberspace,
Frohne and Katti state: ‘As a global medium, the Internet has been characterized as
the historical opportunity to realize the utopian concept of universal communication’ (Frohne & Katti, 2000). However, Herbert Hrachovec (1997) suggests that
thinking of the Internet as inherently ‘democratic’ and ‘liberal’ is mistaken. Internetbased communication tends to create a content void that users have to fill, and the
concepts of ‘democracy’ and ‘liberalism’ are part of a mythology fostered to theme the
virtual reality (Hrachovec, 1997). The values MEW espouses are just some of the
many competing for attention in cyberspace.
Lina Khatib (2003) observes that Islamic fundamentalists are also attuned to the
idea of a ‘common reality’. Satellite television services and the Internet provide
outlets for these groups to promote an alternative ‘universal’ and ‘utopian’ vision of
global society. The spread of the new media will not necessarily overcome radical
politics. Rather, it simply provides a new battleground. ‘Cyberspace is another zone
in which conflicts are carried out and that is connected with the corporality of its
users’ (Khatib, 2003).
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ROD WHYBIRD
Research into political engagement on the Internet in the United States (US)
has found that, over time, forums tend to fragment into separate discussions of likeminded people (Polat Karakaya, 2005). At this point in the spread of the technology
in the Middle East common forums are in vogue. Only time will show whether they
follow the same trend as online political discussion in the West.
An emerging motivation for embracing an Internet ‘common reality’ is economic
reform. Governments in the Middle East are increasingly aware of the need to shift
their economies from oil to trade, requiring greater use of communication and information technology. Consequently, ‘… the Internet has laid the electronic foundation
for the information-based economy and juxtaposed the relative transparency and
financial worthiness of all national regimes’ (Hrachovec, 1997). If the Middle
Eastern regimes embrace a national ‘communication’ strategy, interaction with international partners will require higher levels of openness in their sociopolitical
systems. No longer will these regimes be able to maintain the current media restrictions that shield government conduct from public view.
Fatema Mernissi (2006) says that for Arab society to embrace the new information age is potentially a golden past revisited. ‘Just as today, Arabs were scientifically
backward in the 8th century, but their switch to communication enabled them to
catch up with other nations by using language to navigate and conduct dialogue’.
This is in stark contrast to the message of radical groups promoting a repressive and
martial foundation for the glory of Islam. Two versions of Islamic history are
competing in the new media for the sympathies of the Arab people.
The spread of information technology is reshaping the public spaces previously
controlled by national governments. Alterman (2000) says, ‘Viewers switch the
channel if they are bored with their government’s fare, and they find a panoply of
choices’. Information that is suppressed by one government will turn up on the
Internet or in the media of a neighbouring country (Sreberny, 2001). The longstanding mistrust that the Arab populace has of state-owned media agencies (Fandy,
2000) is being exacerbated by choice and the ability to check the credibility of traditional media through alternative sources (Schorsch, 2001).
Private Space
New media are expected, and intended, to have a social effect in the Middle East by
influencing private life. Fatema Mernissi (2006) states, ‘The new technologies have
destroyed the hudud, the frontier that divided the universe into a sheltered private
arena, where women and children were supposed to be protected, and a public one
where adult males exercised their presumed problem-solving authority’. Annabelle
Sreberny (2001) says that the effect of television is to mediate the private realm and
change social structures. Frohne and Katti (2000) say that the new media cuts across
traditional national, cultural, political, gender, public, and private boundaries.
The expectation of social change is not simply an idealistic imposition of the
West. Beckerman (2007) observes that there are increasing levels of politically motivated blogging that are resulting in ‘… a new culture of opening, dialogue, and questioning … the push for change here is coming from within’.
Bloggers can challenge traditional media sources by providing live and intimate
accounts of events normally only reported through state-controlled media agencies.
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They also break through the stereotypes that Middle Eastern communities have of
each other and perpetuated by both Israeli and Arab media (Beckerman, 2007).
The Internet provides more information than traditional media (Johnson &
Kaye, 2000). People who are politically engaged online are better informed, as they
have access to more information sources, and have the opportunity to check facts.
This means that people politically engaged online are carrying greater amounts of
more accurate information into the discussion circles of their community Hardy &
Scheufele, 2005).
As stated previously, one limitation to online political engagement is the fragmentation of forums into mutually exclusive discussion groups. It has also been
observed that the people who are active online are usually already politically engaged
offline (Polat Karakaya, 2005). To use MEW as an example, growth in their network
may be politically engaged people starting to use the new forum rather than politically inactive people expressing their view for the first time.
MEW, along with blogging in general, allows people to tell their personal stories
and experiences. Aspects of Middle Eastern society that are traditionally hidden are
entering the media and blurring the public and private divide. This is especially true
for women. Fatema Mernissi (2006) highlights that Al Jazeera network presenter
Imam Qradawi, in his book The Internet and Love, ‘is alerting crowds to the fact that
Arab women and youth now navigate freely on the web and communicate intimately
with strangers, escaping religious and parental censorship’.
Frohne and Katti (2000) suggest that ‘Although the structure of the Internet and
new media in general do not intrinsically serve subversive and alternative interests,
they offer a range of possibilities for subjective agency’. The Internet is offering a
broader number of people a broader number of avenues for expression, information,
and entertainment. This is leading to a shift from a community focus to individual
responsibility, something not traditionally part of education in the Middle East
(Mernissi, 2006). The new opportunity to engage in an expression of individuality is
a central motivation for many bloggers in the region (Beckerman, 2007).
The increased access to the Internet in Middle Eastern societies is creating new
communication avenues. These influence social dynamics. Conversations can be
conducted one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many, 24-hours-a-day (Polat
Karakaya, 2005). It remains to be seen if these new interactions meet the traditional
Middle Eastern emphasis upon face-to-face meetings. These coffee house and mosque
meetings were previously deemed necessary to establish the trust required for stable
social relationships (Fandy, 2000).
The Future
Use of the Internet in the Middle East is a limited franchise, but it is growing.
Accessibility is increasing, and it is finding a ready community of people wanting to
express themselves and challenge traditional values. National governments are also
beginning to change their economic priorities to embrace information technology
and pursue communication strategies in both the domestic and international arenas.
MEW can take advantage of rising social and political activism in the region. The
main limitation at this time is the policies of national governments that restrict use
of the technology. Online, the main battle is against radical groups who are using
propaganda to sway the sympathies of people in the region.
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ROD WHYBIRD
A strength of MEW is its promotion of personal and individual testimony that
thrusts previously hidden aspects of society into the public realm. The public realm
was previously limited by national and cultural divisions. However, activity of previously disenfranchised people, especially women, has the potential to bridge divides.
These may create regional consciousness approaching the ideal of a common reality
based on humanitarian values.
The greatest effect of MEW, along with many other web sites, is providing greater
choice of expression, information, and entertainment. This gives power to individuals previously curtailed by governments and circumstance. Through open and
constructive interaction on the Internet, it is to be hoped that greater understanding
will emerge. Peace, prosperity, and reconciliation may come for the people of the
Middle East.
References
Alterman, J. B. (2000). The Internet and the information revolution in the Arab world. Current
History, 99, 21–26.
Beckerman, G. (2007, January/February). The new Arab conversation. Columbia Journalism Review,
45, 17–23.
Beyerle, S. (2002, July/August). The Middle East’s e-war. Foreign Policy, 90–91.
Fandy, M. (2000, Summer). Information technology, trust, and social change in the Arab world. The
Middle East Journal, 54, 379–394.
Frohne, U., & Katti, C. (2000). Crossing boundaries in cyberspace? The politics of ‘body’ and
‘language’ are the emergence of new media. Art Journal, 59, 8–13.
Hardy, B. W., & Scheufele, D. A. (2005, March). Examining differential gains from Internet use:
Comparing the moderating role of talk on online interactions. Journal of Communication, 55,
71–84.
Hrachovec, H. (1997, July). Could democracy be a unicorn? The Monist, 80, 423–447.
Johnson, T. J., & Kaye, B. K. (2000, Winter). Using is believing: The influence of reliance on the
credibility of online political information among politically interested Internet users. Journalism
and Mass Communication Quarterly, 77, 865–879.
Khatib, L. (2003, October). Communicating Islamic fundamentalism as global citizenship. Journal
of Communication Inquiry, 27, 389–409.
Mernissi, F. (2006, March). Digital Scheherazades in the Arab world. Current History, 105, 121–
126.
MidEast Web Group. (n.d.). About the MidEastWeb Group. MidEastWeb for Coexistence RA, 2001–
2005. Available at http://mideastweb.org/about.htm
Polat Karakaya, R. (2005). The Internet and political participation: Exploring the explanatory
links. European Journal of Communication, 20, 435–459.
Schorsch, J. (2001, September/October). Alternative Web news on the Middle East. Tikkun, 16,
68–69.
Sreberny, A. (2001). Mediated culture in the Middle East: Diffusion, democracy, difficulties.
Gazette, 62, 101–119.
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Silent Partners on the Board:
Lurkers in Internet Discussion
Communities
Shirin Wun
Writing, Editing, and Publishing student, The University of Queensland, Australia
L
urking is a wide-spread online practice. However, descriptions of it are not
consistent, reflecting differences in how it is both used and viewed. The
reasons for lurking and the issues involved are partly due to the nature of the
Internet, and the direction the Internet has taken.
‘Lurking’ is a contentious word. A description of online lurking may (1) continue the
negative impression inherent in the word, (2) apply neutrality, or (3) encourage its
use. The meanings may be similar, but the connotations are not.
This unsteady foundation anticipates the issues that arise through lurking:
reasons for it, attitudes towards it, and implications of it. These issues, however, have
not formally developed into distinct categories, which may in future render the solitary term ‘lurk’ inadequate to describe this behaviour. The nature of the Internet
itself, and the different ways it is viewed and used, should also be briefly considered.
Descriptions of Lurking
Lurking is reading without posting.
Crystal (2004) describes it as ‘[t]he practice of visiting a chatgroup environment
and reading the messages it contains, but deliberately not wanting to make any
contribution to the discussion, or even wanting one’s presence to be known’, and it
has been likened to ‘eavesdropping’ (Berkman & Shumway, 2003), by a ‘spy’
(Sveningsson, 2004). More simply and less severely, a lurker is a ‘noncontributor’
(Shumar & Renninger, 2002). Positive tones can be found in netiquette rules on web
sites that encourage lurking by new members. A Microsoft Office web site (Office
Community Courtesy Chat, 2004) compares lurking to ‘wandering from party to
party, people watching, tasting some wine here, having a shrimp cocktail there’.
Background
How many lurkers are there? A survey was carried out to explore ‘informal sharing
and new methods of finding and using online resources for elearning’ (White, 2007).
It was completed by 1369 respondents aged below 18 to over 85.The charts shown in
Figure 1 indicate the proportion of contributors to lurkers in different areas.
Comprehensive research that can accurately define the extent of lurking is difficult,
Address for correspondence: Shirin Wun. E-mail: [email protected]
New Media, WRIT7025
Semester 2, 2007 pp. 77–82
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SHIRIN WUN
FIGURE 1
Levels of participation: contributors and viewers (White, 2007).
given factors such as the quantity of web sites, ease of use, and the nature of lurking
itself.
Reasons for Lurking
Guidelines in web sites for newcomers to discussion communities encourage lurking
for the benefit of both regular contributors and new visitors:
It is quite okay to be a lurker! It is actually a good idea to lurk for a while before leaping
in and sending a message. This way you get to know the people on the list and the
topics that are considered acceptable. (IT Answers at AskIT, The University of
Queensland)
[T]he domains of cyberspace vary in their ideas of acceptable behavior … If possible
take a look at the list of FAQs before you participate. (A Parent's Guide to Etiquette
on the Net)
For example, if you start talking about beef burger recipes on a vegetarian message
board don't expect a friendly reception … Always try to [lurk] first as it will allow you
to avoid some basic mistakes. (BBC Webwise)
A survey done specifically to examine reasons for lurking was completed by 1188
posters and lurkers from MSN bulletin board communities (Preece, Nonnecke, &
Andrews, 2004). Responses collected include:
• did not have time
• needed to learn more about the group
• did not feel a need to
• did not know what to say
• did not know enough about the topic
• did not have anything important to contribute
• put off by lack of quality in existing posts
• put off by lack of civility in existing posts
• did not find group active enough
• feared negative responses
• did not feel comfortable
• had language difficulties
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LURKERS IN INTERNET DISCUSSION COMMUNITIES
• disliked process required to post
• tried but unable to post
• did not know how to post
More than half (53.9%) felt that there was no need to go beyond browsing. Their
needs were met by passive observation. Over a quarter (28.3%) felt shy. They
lacked confidence in their ability to contribute to the level that they perceived was
required in the group. About 15.0% cited anonymity as a reason. Anonymity ‘in
one form or another, is implicated in most models of Internet behaviour’ (Joinson,
2003), and covers issues of privacy as well as accountability. For example, the
Mental Health Net web site states that it ‘will make no effort to verify anybody’s
real life identity, ever’ (Grohol, 1997). Lurkers may value their privacy and prefer
to go elsewhere to seek answers, rather than post a question in public.
There were fewer concerns about ‘aggressive’ (5.9%) or poor (1.4%) treatment
than the lack of quality (7.8%) or activity (6.8%) in posts. Not knowing how to
post accounted for 7.8% of the lurkers.
These results indicate that lurking occurs not so much because people do not
want to, but rather that they feel there is not enough persuasive reason to post in
that group. A lurker in one group may be a regular poster in another. It is also
worth noting that only 13.2% indicated that they had ‘no intention of posting’ —
which means that most lurkers who responded would post if they found reason to.
Attitudes to Lurking
Recommendations for lurking have been stated earlier. Lurking is useful to check
the suitability of a potentially useful or interesting discussion group, and to learn
the proper etiquette in that group before a first posting. ‘The exasperation that
experienced Usenet users feel for some greenhorns helped spawn the catchphrase
“lurk before you leap”’ (The Wild, Wild Usenet, 2001).
However, lurking has also been described as ‘anti-social’ (Rivers, 2007), and a
form of ‘voyeurism’ (Crystal, 2004). Regular posters may feel that lurkers benefit
from the discussion being conducted without contributing anything, like stealing.
Lurking can appear to be an intrusion into privacy.
Several methods have been proposed to change lurkers into contributors.
Nielsen (2006) makes the following suggestions:
Make it easier to contribute. For example, clicking on a star or numbered rating
is much easier than writing, and might help ease lurkers into proper posting.
Make participation a side effect. For example, Amazon's ‘people who bought this
book, bought these other books’ recommendations are a side effect of people
buying books. Book preferences are automatically reflected.
Edit, don't create. Let users build their contributions by modifying existing
templates rather than creating complete entities from scratch. Editing a template
has a gentler learning curve than facing the horror of a blank page.
Reward — but don't over-reward — participants. Rewarding may help motivate
lurkers to become contributors, and may broaden participant base. Give contributors preferential treatment (such as discounts or advance notice of new stuff), or
even just put gold stars on profiles. But don't give too much to the most active
participants, or you'll simply encourage them to dominate the system.
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
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SHIRIN WUN
Promote quality contributors. If you display all contributions equally, then people
who post only when they have something important to say will be drowned out by
the torrent of material from the hyperactive 1%. Instead, give extra prominence to
good contributions and to contributions from people who've proven their value, as
indicated by a reputation ranking.
In addition to their survey, Preece, Nonnecke, & Andrews (2004) have some
suggestions:
Invitation to post. Stated clearly and prominently — for example, ‘We welcome your
participation. Our community exists because members contribute ideas, comments
and questions, so please join in the discussion’.
Moderator involvement. Can raise issues when discussion levels are low, track nonactive participants and send encouraging private messages, make new members feel
welcome
Rewards. Both quality and quantity — for example, CNN’s discussion community
lists contributors with the most number of messages, provides participants with a
table showing the number of replies to each post, and invites participants to rate the
value of the posts.
Implications of Lurking
Lurking may seem to be harmless as it is passive. However, discussion boards, by
nature, require active participation. A discussion board where there are no
conversations will die.
In online learning, students are asked to interact outside the classroom
through an educational tool such as Blackboard. Similar to the situation inside
the classroom, there may be a number of active participants, a number who
contribute moderately, and some who contribute little. Lurking may be seen as
counter-productive in e-learning, even if lurkers may want to, but somehow do
not (for a variety of reasons, as stated earlier). Rivers (2007) states that ’[e]ffective learning communities share resources, knowledge and experience’. Too much
lurking and too little posting would seem to negate the effectiveness of elearning.
Another aspect to lurking is the ethical issues that are raised in, for example,
research. People who post regularly on a particular board may accept a lurker who
is new and trying to get to know the group with the intention of possibly joining
in. These same people may not be so lenient to a researcher who is monitoring
all their words and their habits, to be copied and used elsewhere. People who
belong to a group have built a degree of trust and predictability among themselves. Researchers may be seen as ‘intruders’ (Eysenbach & Till, 2001). This
carries more significance in sensitive areas such as health issues.
Journalists may also lurk in order to gain acceptability, and eventually reveal
themselves. In one such case, a journalist who was researching a story that
explored sexual identity in teens also exposed dangers that exist on the Internet,
particularly for vulnerable individuals (Berkman & Shumway, 2003; Egan, 2001).
Should consent be sought ahead of time? This would be ethical, but it might
also reduce the effectiveness of the research. It would not be unlikely that
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different patterns of behaviour would be recorded when subjects know they are
being watched.
The degree of negativity towards lurking depends on who is lurking, for what
purpose, and the beliefs of the person who is making the judgment.
Nature of the Internet
Posting, or other Internet activity such as blogging, allows a creation of a persona
different from one’s own. People can, and do, lie over the Internet, as they do in faceto-face communication. Lurkers, in their passiveness, can be seen as comparatively
harmless, if they take no steps to abuse the information they are exposed to.
The Internet is a public space. Web sites that require online membership may
seem to provide an extra layer of privacy, but this is not the equivalent of a locked
steel door. In a sense, anything on the Internet is open to lurking, so any posting
should be done with the knowledge that it can be seen and might be used by almost
anyone with Internet access.
The speed of growth of the Internet is another important factor. There is much
more information to absorb, and it is coming quickly. More web sites also promote
greater interactivity, compared to static ones more commonly found previously. With
so many options to evaluate, lurking may be on the increase.
Conclusion
Lurking, despite being a term of shadowy origin, can serve a useful purpose on the
Internet. However, there are implications that are not yet fully addressed at the
moment. The practice of lurking is an issue that deserves more attention, but due to
its nature, this will not be an easy task.
References
Berkman, R. I., & Shumway, C. A. (2003). Digital dilemmas: Ethical issues for online media
professionals. Ames, IA: Iowa State Press.
British Broadcasting Corporation. (n.d.). BBC Webwise. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/
webwise/askbruce/articles/boards/whatsayonboards_1.shtml
Crystal, D. (2004). A glossary of netspeak and textspeak. Edinburgh, United Kingdom: Edinburgh
University Press.
Egan, J. (2001, December 10). Lonely gay teen seeking same. The New York Times Magazine.
Eysenbach, G., & Till, J. E. (2001). Ethical issues in qualitative research on Internet communities.
British Medical Journal , 323, 1103-1105.
Grohol, J. M. (1997). Anonymity online: Mental Health Net's policies. In P. Wallace, The
psychology of the Internet (p. 239). Cambridge University Press.
Joinson, A. N. (2003). Understanding the psychology of Internet behaviour. Hampshire, United
Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan.
Kidsdomain. (n.d.). A parent’s guide to etiquette on the net. Retrieved from http://www.kidsdomain.
com/brain/computer/surfing/netiquette_parents.html
Microsoft Office Online (2004, June). Office community courtesy chat. Retrieved from
http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/help/HA011304451033.aspx
Nielsen, J. (2006, October). Participation inequality: Encouraging more users to contribute. Retrieved
from http://www.useit.com/alertbox/participation_inequality.html
Preece, J., Nonnecke, B., & Andrews, D. (2004). The top 5 reasons for lurking: Improving
community experiences for everyone. Computers in Human Behaviour.
New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
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Rivers, S. (2007, September). Online silence: a space for learning or antisocial? Paper presented at ALTC 2007, the 14th International Conference of the Association for Learning Technology (ALT)
Retrieved from http://www.alt.ac.uk/altc2007/timetable/abstract.php?abstract_id=1169
Shumar, W., & Renninger, K. A. (2002). Introduction: On conceptualizing community. In W.
Shumar, & K. A. Renninger (Eds.), Building virtual communities: Learning and change in
cyberspace (pp. 1–17). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
SmartComputing. (2001, May). The wild, wild Usenet. Retrieved from http://www.smartcomputing.
com/editorial/article.asp?article=articles/archive/r0502/17r02/17r02.asp&guid=
Sveningsson, M. (2004). Ethics in Internet ethnography. In E. A. Buchanan, Readings in virtual
research ethics: Issues and controversies (pp. 45–61). Hershey, PA: Information Science
Publishing.
The University of Queensland. (n.d.). IT Answers at AskIT. Retrieved from http://askit.uq.edu.au/
itanswers/quikit/2_2_discussion.html
White, D. (2007, June). Results and analysis of the Web 2.0 services survey undertaken by the JISCfunded SPIRE project. (Technology-Assisted Lifelong Learning Unit, Department of Continuing
Education, University of Oxford), Secure Personal Institutional and Inter-Institutional
Repository Environment (SPIRE). Retrieved from http://spire.conted.ox.ac.uk/trac_
images/spire/SPIRESurvey.pdf
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New Media, WRIT7025, Semester 2, 2007
New Medium, New Writing?
Beth Zeme
Writing, Editing, and Publishing student, The University of Queensland, Australia
A
casual attitude to e-mail in the workplace can harm the individual and the
organisational credibility. E-mail reflects expertise and professionalism to
the same extent as other forms of business writing. Business writing principles
that have existed for almost 400 years hold innate credibility. Therefore, the
principles of plain, concise language, audience-based writing, avoidance of
verbosity, archaisms, and jargon, as well as correct spelling should all be a part of
business e-mail. As e-mail is a new medium with new features and problems,
additional principles and conventions are being established, which should be
followed also. By combining both old and new writing principles, and editing to
ensure their application, an e-mail can achieve credibility.
Writing well achieves credibility for the individual and the organisation. As e-mail
is a large component of business writing, should not e-mails be written with the same
precision and attention to detail as is applied to letters? If so, what writing principles
can be taken from traditional letter-writing to gain credibility? And what new principles need to be added for this new medium?
Credibility Through E-mail
Business writers often take a casual attitude towards e-mail. Consequently, e-mail is
considered a factor in the decline in writing quality and skills (Hendren, 2001,
February 4; White Goode, 2007). The ambiguous character of e-mail leads to
confusion over the correct attitude to e-mail and the correct style to use in it. A
study of workplace e-mail in Wellington in 2001 found that 63% of the participants regarded e-mail as closer to speech than writing (Waldvogel, 2002). Crystal
(2001) notes that because e-mail is easily sent and appears easily deleted, it ‘feels
temporary’ (p. 127).
Writers need to be aware, though, that this new language medium and the style
employed within it, like the letter and the report, have the power to enhance or
destroy credibility for the individual and the organisation. Careless writing will
undermine reputation (Peers). Hale and Scanlon (write that punctuation and
spelling are not important because, ‘No-one reads email with red pen in hand’
(quoted in Crystal 2001, p. 128). But David Crystal (2001), an authority on
Internet language, refutes with the warning, ‘The evidence is growing that an awful
lot of people actually do keep such a pen in mind …’ (p. 128). Trudy Bourgeois,
founder and president of Workforce Excellence, states that ‘E-mail is an important
tool that can shape your professional image’ (White Goode, 2007). ‘Information is
the critical currency of the contemporary workplace, and those who know how to
exchange it effectively are often those who thrive…’ writes Marie C. Paretti (2006,
Address for correspondence: Beth Zeme.
New Media, WRIT7025
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BETH ZEME
p. 189). Writing credible e-mail is an essential skill in the contemporary work
place.
So how do you achieve credibility in business e-mails? In one early guide to email, The Elements of E-mail Style, Angell and Heslop (1994) discourage following
‘the traditional approach of paper-based communication’. They state that this
would ‘dilute the power of the e-mail medium’ (p. 3). But Baron (2002), more
recently, sensibly recommends using formal style, considering that e-mail is potentially public and has a ‘durable nature’ (p. 7). Jeacle and Brown (2006), lecturers
in the Management School at the University of Edinburgh, assert that use of an
appropriate format is important to credibility because it demonstrates expertise and
authority (p. 39–40). Paul Anderson states that if writers do not use established
formats, they ‘may appear to readers to be generally unqualified’ (Petelin &
Durham, 2003, p. 60). The same is true of writing rules. Following institutionalised
business writing rules ensures that writing is credible. Where established format
and rules fail to meet the specific needs of the new medium, e-mail, applying new
rules is necessary.
Established Writing Principles
Using business writing principles that have been established for almost 400 years will
produce credibility in business e-mails. A theoretical basis for business writing in
Europe dates to the 4th century BCE in Athens when Aristotle advocated direct and
concise language (Petelin & Durham, 2003, p. 103). Subsequent writing styles in
Europe did not follow his advice.1 It was not until the late 17th century that the core
values of simple and practical writing in business writing were instituted. Major political and economic shifts triggered the development. The aristocratic regimes were
ending and democracy was growing (Lund, 1998, p. 505), which meant all class groups
were free to pursue their own capital interests. In Britain, expansion made the commercial revolution possible, and cottage industry declined with the rise of industrialism.
The new class of business people and trades people needed to write business letters
(Jeacle & Brown, 2006, p. 33–34). The growth of London and its postal service, and
increased literacy also led to increased letter writing (Lund, 1998, p. 503). The emergence of rational thought in science contributed to the evolution of plain language
business writing as well (Jeacle & Brown, 2006, p. 33). The perceptions and needs of
society had changed, leading to a new direct approach, which has continued until
today.
The exact point in history that holds the roots of modern business writing is
debated. Jeacle and Brown (2006) view John Hill’s letter-writing manual, The Young
Secretary’s Guide, written in 1687, as the origin (p. 34). Roger D. Lund (1998) argues
convincingly for Daniel Defoe’s The Complete English Tradesmen, written in 1727–1728.
He asserts that Defoe was the first to fuse rhetoric with the practical aspects in business
writing to specifically meet the needs of business (p. 507), and the first to link writing
style with business success (p. 517). Either way, both writers aimed at teaching the
public writing skills that previously were required only by professionals, and both affirm
similar principles.
Both writers emphasised plain writing. John Hill wrote, ‘these kinds of letters want
little flourish or preamble to set them off; for the matter contained therein ought to be
no more than the plain sence of the fact…’ (Jeacle & Brown, 2006, p. 34). Defoe wrote
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NEW MEDIUM, NEW WRITING?
that the writing of ‘a Tradesman’ should be ‘plain, concise and to the purpose’(Lund,
1998, p. 511). He also noted, ‘…the Tradesman need not be offended at my
condemning him as it were to a plain and homely stile; easy, plain, and familiar
language is…the excellency of all writing…’(Lund , 1998, p. 513). The language of
Hill and Defoe may not seem plain today, but is when compared to contemporary
writing. Following the long-standing rule of plain language in business writing will help
achieve credibility in e-mail. Jeacle and Brown (2006) state that ‘notions of credibility
and integrity have become bound up with plain speaking’ (p. 40). Plain language is
even more important in e-mail, which should attempt to take as little time from a busy
reader as possible, and, above all, should be functional.
Writing with the audience in mind and providing complete information are also
long-standing principles in business writing. Ancient Greek and Roman letter writers
aimed to write for the audience (Hagge cited in Lund, 1998, p. 501), as did Hill and
Defoe. Defoe believed a writer ‘should suit his language to his auditory’ (Lund, 1998,
p. 515). This is still relevant, though many writers do not include the reader in their
writing, according to writing researchers Flower, Hayes and Swarts (Petelin & Durham,
2003, p. 61). To avoid confusion or misunderstanding, business writing requires thorough explanations, due to the lack of non-verbal cues. Defoe acknowledged this principle in his guide, writing, ‘…they [letters] must be full and sufficient to express what
he means, so as not to be doubtful, much less unintelligible’ (Lund, 1998, p. 511). Emails ‘tend to be more minimalist’, even than letters (Waldvogel, 2002, p.15). The
Wellington study found that the main function of nearly half the e-mails sent was to
inform (Waldvogel, 2002, p. 42). Explanation is therefore imperative in the new
medium. The principles of audience-based writing and comprehensive content are still
important to e-mail.
Certain types of language should be avoided in business writing, including e-mail.
Hill advised avoiding verbosity: ‘avoid affectation in words, or extravagancy in rhetorical expressions, which sometimes being duly weigh’d, prove either nonsense in themselves, or incoherent with the rest of your epistle’ (Jeacle & Brown, 2006, p. 35). In
addition, Defoe added archaisms (‘no quaint expressions, no book-phrases…’) (Lund,
1998, p. 511), vogue words (‘modish’ words), and foreign expressions (‘exotic sayings,
dark and ambiguous speakings, affected words’; Lund, 1998, p. 515). Defoe also
condemned jargon, writing that ‘it would be as ridiculous for a Tradesman to write a
letter fill’d with the peculiarities of this or that particular trade, which trade he knows
the person he writes to is ignorant of…’. He defends these principles on the grounds
that ‘it shews a kind of ostentation, and a triumph over the ignorance of the person
they are written to, unless…you add an explanation of the terms’ (Lund, 1998, p. 516).
Baron (2002) states that spelling was considered important in England by the end of
the 18th century, and a reflection of the writer’s credibility (p. 6). Angell and Heslop
(1994) state the need for correct spelling in e-mail because ‘The time saved not
checking your spelling is multiplied by the time that it takes for a reader to decipher
the misspelled words’ (p. 83). Of course, other writing principles such as following
grammar and punctuation rules, using positive words and active verbs, and avoiding
cliché have also developed. Audience-based writing, thorough explanations, avoidance of verbosity, archaisms, vogue words and foreign expressions, and correct spelling
have stood for so long in business society that their perceived credibility makes them
indispensable to writing in the e-mail medium.
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BETH ZEME
New Writing Principles for E-mail
E-mail, though, as a new medium, raises new problems and questions that old writing
principles cannot solve or answer. In addition to the long-standing business writing
principles, e-mail requires new guidelines, specific to the medium. Standard rules are
not yet concrete, and, as with other documents, each company has its own rules.
Without a style sheet, employees must learn company rules through observance and
trial (Petelin, 2002). However, the following is a collection of guidelines from
various sources that will aid writing in the e-mail medium.
Before writing, consider if the e-mail is even necessary, advise Petelin and
Durham (2003, p. 209). Beware of the instantaneous and spontaneous nature of email (Angell & Heslop, 1994, p. 4). Consider, also, if e-mail is the right medium
choice. Another medium may be better for complicated or controversial content
(Angell & Heslop, 1994, p. 13). If the e-mail is necessary and contains appropriate
material, who needs to read it? Copying unnecessary recipients will only waste space
in their inbox and frustrate them. Separating the subject matter into two different emails to two different groups may be appropriate and clearer (Petelin, 2003,
‘Handout: E-mails’). Over half the e-mails in the Wellington study had only one
function (p. 45). Selecting recipients prior to writing allows the writer to cater to the
readers’ requirements (Munter, Rogers, & Rymer, 2003, p. 30). Only necessary emails with necessary content should be sent.
Making information quickly and easily accessible is a necessity in fast-paced business today. The inverted pyramid format (in which the main points are followed by
lesser points) is advantageous in e-mail, ensuring that the most important information is read first (Angell & Heslop, 1994, p. 22). Placing key points within the first
screen is preferable (Munter et al., 2003, p. 31). Bullet points, numbered points, and
headings may ease skimming and quick comprehension (Munter et al., 2003, p. 32).
Retaining enough white space also aids reading (Hale & Scanlon cited in Crystal,
2001, p. 128). Clear subject lines make retrieving information simple and continuing
with the same subject line keeps a thread together (especially with a filter; Crystal,
2001, p. 98). Using abbreviations and contractions does not necessarily make reading
faster. Their use in e-mail is disputed, though Angell and Heslop (1994) find them
acceptable (p. 56, pp. 92–93). Perhaps Defoe may still be relevant, who judges
‘abridgements of words, or words cut off’ as ‘foolish and improper in Business’ (Lund,
1998, p. 515). Otherwise, consider the reader and the context. Accessibility is crucial
in e-mail but credibility should be maintained simultaneously.
Polite conventions have developed in e-mail, and should be adhered to. Twothirds of participants in the Wellington study (Waldvogel, 2002) stated a greeting
should be included to provide a personal touch (p. 46). A closing element is also
polite, and marks the end of the e-mail with no further need to scroll down (Crystal,
2001, p. 105). In many foreign cultures, a greeting is particularly important. Cultural
awareness is advisable when writing international e-mails. It is polite to ask permission before forwarding or posting someone else’s message (Angell & Heslop, 1994, p.
10). If portions of the original message are relevant, they can be copied into the new
message, called ‘framing’, to remind the reader of past communication (Munter et al.,
2003, p. 37). To do so, a right-pointing angle bracket (>) is commonly used (Crystal,
2001, p. 119). Most people expect a prompt reply to their e-mail (one to two days
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NEW MEDIUM, NEW WRITING?
according to the Wellington study (Waldvogel, 2002, p. 51). Flaunting polite
conventions in e-mail may affect credibility.
The conventions of e-mail are not firmly established and there will certainly be
changes in the future. Thus, writers of business e-mails need to be aware of developments and remain adaptable, while remembering the basic business writing principles. Always edit an e-mail before sending it to ensure that all principles and
conventions have been followed. Writers of business e-mails should remember that
in every e-mail is a message about their credibility.
Conclusion
As work place writing consists greatly of e-mail writing, much of an individual and
an organisation’s credibility lies within this writing. Constructing e-mails carefully is
therefore important for all professionals. Following business-writing principles that
were firmly established from the late seventeenth century will provide documents
with innate credibility. Plain, concise writing is the most important of these principles. Among others are audience-based writing, thorough writing, language that is
not verbose, archaic, or specialised, and correct spelling. Writing principles devised
for letters and other paper-based communication in a different era can only aid email writing to a certain extent, however. E-mail needs new rules, which must also
be followed to achieve credibility. Resist writing spontaneous, unnecessary e-mails,
make e-mails easy to read and access, and follow polite conventions that have developed. Editing business e-mails before sending them ensures that all the principles of
credible e-mail writing have been followed.
Endnote
1 During the Renaissance, the strict forms of the ars dictaminis, part of the university curriculum, prevailed until mid-16th century. It was based on classical
rhetoric, not practical business needs (Lund, 1998). The flowery, verbose style of
the French court followed (also adopted in Britain), continuing until the late
17th century, the era of Hill.
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