National Movement in Making
THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870s-1947
The Emergence of Nationalism
Within about a hundred years, the British took control of almost every aspect of life in
India. Many Indians began to feel that the British control had to end to make India the
country for Indians.
Early Political Associations: After 1850, many political associations were formed. Most
of them were formed in the 1870s and 1880s. Most of these associations were led by
English-educated professionals. Some of the important ones were; the Poona
Sarvajanik Sabha, the Indian Association, the Madras Mahajan Sabha, the Bombay
Presidency Association. The Indian National Congress was also formed during this
period. The naming conventions of these political associations suggest that they wanted
to take issues which affected all the people of India; although many of these
associations functioned in specific parts of the country.
Some of the reasons for dissatisfaction with British rule in the 1870s and 1880s are as
follows:
The Arms Act was passed in 1878. This Act disallowed Indians from possessing
arms.
The Vernacular Press Act was passed in 1878. This Act empowered the
government to confiscate the assets of newspapers including their printing
presses, if the newspaper published anything “objectionable”.
The government tried to introduce the Ilbert Bill in 1883. The bill made provisions
for trial of British or European persons by Indians. Thus, the Ilbert Bill sought
equality between British and Indian judges in the country. But the whites opposed
the Bill and forced the government to withdraw it.
The Indian National Congress
The Indian National Congress was established in 1885 at Bombay. In its first meeting at
Bombay, 72 delegates from all over the country were present. The early leadership was
mainly composed of people from Bombay and Calcutta. Dadabhai Naoroji,
Pherozeshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, W. C. Bonneryji, Surendranath Banerji, Romesh
Chandra Dutt, S. Subramania Iyer, etc. were part of the early leadership of Congress.
A nation in the making
In its first twenty years, the Congress was “moderate” in its objectives and methods.
During this period, the main demand of Congress was about getting a greater voice for
Indians in the government and administration. Some of the demands made by the
Congress during this period are as follows:
The Congress wanted better representation of Indians in the Legislative
Councils. It also wanted
introduction of the Legislative Council in those provinces where none existed.
The Congress made a demand for civil service examinations to be held in India
also.
The Congress also demanded a separation of judiciary and executive, the repeal
of Arms Act and freedom of speech and expression.
Economic demands which were during the early years of the Congress are as follows:
Reduction in revenue, cut in military expenditure and more funds for irrigation.
The Congress also passed various resolutions on the salt tax, treatment of Indian
labourers abroad and the suffering of forest dwellers.
These demands show that in spite of being a body of the educated elite, the Congress
also talked about the common people.
The Moderate leaders wanted to create public awareness about the unjust nature of
British rule. In order to do so, they published newspapers, wrote articles and tried to
show the bad effects of the British rule.
Freedom is our birthright
By the 1890s, many Indians began to question the style of the Congress. New leaders
emerged who began to explore more radical objectives and methods. Bepin Chandra
Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai were among the radical leaders. They
criticized the Moderates for their “policy of prayers”. They argued that people should not
believe on the so called good intentions of the government and must fight for swaraj.
Tilak raised the famous slogan, “Freedom is my birthright and I shall have it”.
Partition of Bengal
Bengal was partitioned in 1905 by Viceroy Curzon. At that time, Bengal was the largest
province of British India. It included Bihar and parts of Orissa. Administrative
convenience was cited as the reason for the partition of Bengal. Most of the analysts
believe that the partition was done to reduce the influence of Bengali politician and to
split the Bengali people.
Effects of Partition of Bengal: People all over India were angry with the partition of
Bengal. All sections of the Congress opposed it. Large public meetings and
demonstrations were held to protest the decision. The struggle against the partition of
Bengal came to be known as the Swadeshi Movement. It was strongest in Bengal but
was felt in other parts of the country as well. It was known as the Vandemataram
Movement in Andhra.
Main aims of Swadeshi Movement:
Oppose the British rule.
Encourage the ideas of self-help, swadeshi enterprise.
Encourage national education and use of Indian languages.
The radicals advocated mass mobilization and boycott of British institutions and goods.
Some leaders also suggested the use of revolutionary violence to overthrow British rule.
Muslim League: The All India Muslim League was formed at Dacca in 1906; by a group
of Muslim landlords and nawabs. The League supported the partition of Bengal. Some
seats in the council were reserved for the Muslims. The League wanted the
representatives for those seats to be elected by Muslim voters. This demand was
willingly conceded by the government in 1909.
Split in Congress: There was a split in the Congress in 1907. The Moderates were
opposed to the use of any kind of violence. After the split, the Congress came to be
dominated by the Moderates. However, the two groups reunited in December 1915. In
1916, the Congress and the Muslim League signed the historic Lucknow Pact. They
decided to work together for representative government in the country.
The Growth of Mass Nationalism
The First World War changed the economic and political situation in India. There
was a sharp price rise which increased the problems of the common people.
The business groups reaped huge profits because the war increased the demand
for all kinds of goods. Reduced imports meant that the new demand was being
met by the Indian business houses. The business groups now began to demand
more opportunities for development.
Many people from the villages were forced to serve in the British army during the
war. Exposure to the alien lands helped them in understanding the exploitation
being done by the colonial powers in other parts of the world.
The Russian Revolution took place in 197. News about peasants’ and workers’
struggle and ideas of socialism also reached to the nationalists in India.
The advent of Mahatma Gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi returned from South Africa in 1915. Because of his movements
against racial restrictions in South Africa, he had already become a respected leader.
Mahatma Gandhi first wanted to understand the people, their needs and overall situation
in India. Hence, he spent his first year in India in travelling throughout the country.
His earliest participation in local movements was in Champaran, Kheda and
Ahmadabad.
The Rowlatt Satyagraha
The Rowlatt Act was passed in 1919. The Act curbed the freedom of expression and
strengthened police powers. Gandhiji gave a call for a satyagraha against the Rowlatt
Act. He asked the people to observe 6 April 1919 as the day of non-violent opposition to
this Act. Satyagraha Sabhas were set up to launch the movement.
The Rowlatt Satyagraha became the first all-India struggle against the British
government. However, it was mainly restricted to the cities. Many demonstrations and
hartals took place in the country. The government used brutal measures to suppress the
revolt. The Jalianwala Bagh massacre was one example of such brutal measures.
Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest of Jalianwala Bagh incident.
Khilafat agitation and the Non-Cooperation Movement
After the First World War, a harsh treaty was imposed on the Turkish Khalifa. The
leaders of the Khilafat Agitation; Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali wanted to associate
with the Non-Cooperation Movement. The Muslims wanted the Khalifa to retain control
over Muslim sacred places in the erstwhile Ottoman Empire. Gandhiji supported the
Khilafat Movement.
The Non-Cooperation Movement gained momentum through 1921-22. Thousands of
students left schools and colleges to join the movement. Many eminent professionals
gave up their profession to join the movement. Bonfires of foreign cloths were burnt.
The boycott of foreign cloths resulted in imports falling drastically between 1920 and
1922.
People’s initiatives
The Non-Cooperation Movement remained non-violent at most of the places. But some
people interpreted the message of Mahatma Gandhi in their own ways; mostly to suit
their local grievances.
The Patidar peasants of Kheda (Gujarat) organized non-violent campaigns against the
high land revenue demand.
Liquor shops were picketed in coastal Andhra and interior Tamil Nadu.
The tribals and poor peasants in Guntur district (Andhra Pradesh) staged a number of
forest satyagrahas; to protest against the new forest laws.
The Khilafat-Non-Cooperation Movement gave enormous support in Sind and Bengal.
In Punjab, the Akali agitation of the Sikhs demanded to remove the corrupt mahants
from gurdwaras.
In Assam, the tea garden labourers demanded a big hike in their wages. They shouted
the slogan, “Gandhi Maharaj ki jai”. In many folk songs of Assam; Gandhiji was referred
to as “Gandhi Raja”.
The happenings of 1922-1929
Chauri Chaura: In February 1922, a police station in Chauri Chaura was set on fire by a
crowd. The peasants were retaliating against police firing on peaceful demonstration.
Twenty two policemen were killed in the Chauri Chaura incident. Saddened by this
incident, Mahatma Gandhi called off the Non-Cooperation Movement.
After that, Gandhiji’s followers wanted to take on constructive work in the rural areas to
increase the base for the Congress. On the other hand, some leaders wanted to fight
elections to the councils. They wanted to enter the government so that they could
influence certain policies. The Gandhians worked in villages during the mid-1920s and
could be able to extend their support base. This proved very useful during the Civil
Disobedience movement.
The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and the Communist Party of India were
formed during the mid-1920s. The revolutionary leader Bahgat Singh was also active in
this period.
Simon Commission: The British government decided to send a commission in 1927 to
decide on India’s political future. This was headed by Lord Simon but it had no Indian
representative. Absence of an Indian in the Commission infuriated the political groups in
India.
The March to Dandi
The salt law gave a monopoly right to the state on the manufacture and sale of salt.
Mahatma Gandhi and other nationalist leaders argued that salt was an essential item of
our food and hence it was wrong to impose a tax on salt. Moreover, the issue of salt
affected all; the rich and poor; alike. Gandhiji declared that he would lead a march to
break the salt law. Gandhiji and his followers marched from Sabarmati to Dandi to break
the salt law. Gandhiji picked up a handful of salt to symbolically protest the salt tax.
The salt movement attracted supporters from all walks of life; including the peasants,
tribals and women. The government tried to crush the movement by taking brutal
actions. Thousands were sent to jail. Most of the eminent leaders were arrested.
The Government of India Act of 1935 prescribed provincial autonomy. Elections to
provincial legislatures were held in 1937. The Congress formed governments in 7 out of
11 provinces.
The Second World War broke out in 1939. The Congress leaders were critical of Hitler
and hence they decided to support the British in the war. But they wanted independence
of India after the war; in return of this gesture. However, the British did not agree with
this demand. The Congress ministries resigned in protest.
Quit India and Later
Mahatma Gandhi decided to begin a new phase of movement against the British; while
the Second World War was going on. Gandhiji urged the people to “DO OR DIE”.
Gandhiji and several other leaders were arrested. Nevertheless, the movement spread.
Peasants and youths participated in the movement in large numbers. Symbols of state
authority were attacked all over the country. Telephone lines were cut off. People set up
their own governments in many areas.
The British responded with severe repression. By the end of 1943, over 90,000 people
were arrested and around 1,000 were killed in police firing. But the Raj had to finally
concede the ground.
Towards Independence and Partition
Demand for Separate Nation: In the 1940, the Muslim League moved a resolution to
demand “Independent States” for the Muslims in the north-western and eastern areas of
the country. From the late 1930s, the League began to visualize the Muslims as a
separate nation from the Hindus. This notion escalated the tension between some
Hindu and Muslim groups in the 1920s and 1930s. Furthermore, the results of the
provincial elections of 1937 apparently convinced the League that Muslims were a
minority. The League feared the Muslims would have play second fiddle in any
democratic structure in the future. The Congress’ rejection to form a joint CongressLeague government in the United Provinces in 1937 further annoyed the League.
The Congress somehow failed in mobilizing the Muslims in the 1930s. This allowed the
League to widen its support base. At the end of the war in 1945, the British facilitated
negotiations between the Congress, the League and themselves for the independence
of India. The League persisted with its demand for Pakistan.
Cabinet Mission: In March 1946, a three-member Cabinet Mission was sent to Delhi to
suggest suitable framework for independent India. The Mission suggested a loose
confederation; with some autonomy for Muslim-majority areas. But the Congress and
the Muslim League could not agree to specific details of the proposal.
After the failure of the Cabinet Mission, the Muslim League decided on mass agitation
for winning its Pakistan demand. It announced 16 August 1946 as “Direct Action Day”.
Riots broke out in Calcutta on this day. The riot lasted for several days in which
thousands of people were killed. The violence spread to different parts of north India; by
March 1947.
Finally, partition turned into a reality and two new nations; India and Pakistan were born.
Question – 1 - Why were people dissatisfied with British rule in the 1870s and 1880s?
Answer: Some of the reasons for dissatisfaction with British rule in the 1870s and 1880s
are as follows:
The Arms Act was passed in 1878. This Act disallowed Indians from possessing
arms.
The Vernacular Press Act was passed in 1878. This Act empowered the
government to confiscate the assets of newspapers including their printing
presses, if the newspaper published anything “objectionable”.
The government tried to introduce the Ilbert Bill in 1883. The bill made provisions
for trial of British or European persons by Indians. Thus, the Ilbert Bill sought
equality between British and Indian judges in the country. But the whites opposed
the Bill and forced the government to withdraw it.
Question – 2 - Who did the Indian National Congress wish to speak for?
Answer: In spite of being a body of the educated elite, the Congress also talked about
the common people.
Question – 3 - What economic impact did the First World War have on India?
Answer: The First World War changed the economic and political situation in India.
There was a sharp price rise which increased the problems of the common people.
The business groups reaped huge profits because the war increased the demand for all
kinds of goods. Reduced imports meant that the new demand was being met by the
Indian business houses. The business groups now began to demand more
opportunities for development.
Question – 4 - What did the Muslim League resolution of 1940 ask for?
Answer: In the 1940, the Muslim League moved a resolution to demand “Independent
States” for the Muslims in the north-western and eastern areas of the country.
Question – 5 - Who were the Moderates? How did they propose to struggle against
British rule?
Answer: In its first twenty years, the Congress was “moderate” in its objectives and
methods. The Congress leaders of this period were called the Moderates. During this
period, the main demand of Congress was about getting a greater voice for Indians in
the government and administration.
Question – 6 - How was the politics of the Radicals within the Congress different from
that of the Moderates?
Answer: They criticized the Moderates for their “policy of prayers”. They argued that
people should not believe on the so called good intentions of the government and must
fight for swaraj. They wanted to explore radical methods to ensure freedom.
Question – 7 - Discuss the various forms that the Non-Cooperation Movement took in
different parts of India. How did the people understand Gandhiji?
Answer: The Non-Cooperation Movement remained non-violent at most of the places.
But some people interpreted the message of Mahatma Gandhi in their own ways;
mostly to suit their local grievances.
The Patidar peasants of Kheda (Gujarat) organized non-violent campaigns
against the high land revenue demand.
Liquor shops were picketed in coastal Andhra and interior Tamil Nadu.
The tribals and poor peasants in Guntur district (Andhra Pradesh) staged a
number of forest satyagrahas; to protest against the new forest laws.
The Khilafat-Non-Cooperation Movement gave enormous support in Sind and
Bengal.
In Punjab, the Akali agitation of the Sikhs demanded to remove the corrupt
mahants from gurdwaras.
In Assam, the tea garden labourers demanded a big hike in their wages. They
shouted the slogan, “Gandhi Maharaj ki jai”. In many folk songs of Assam;
Gandhiji was referred to as “Gandhi Raja”.
Question – 8 - Why did Gandhiji choose to break the salt law?
Answer: Mahatma Gandhi and other nationalist leaders argued that salt was an
essential item of our food and hence it was wrong to impose a tax on salt. Moreover, the
issue of salt affected all; the rich and poor; alike. Hence, Gandhiji choose to break the
salt law.
Question – 9 - Discuss those developments of the 1937-47 period that led to the
creation of Pakistan.
Answer: After the 1937 provincial elections, Congress refused to form a coalition
government with the League in United Provinces. This irked the League leaders. The
Muslim League passed a resolution in 1940 to demand independent states for the
Muslims in the north-west and eastern India. The Cabinet Mission came to Delhi in
1946. Its aim was suggesting some framework for the independent nation. It suggested
loose confederation and some degree of autonomy for the Muslim-majority areas. But
negotiations between the Congress and the League failed. After that, Muslim League
persisted with its demand for Pakistan. Large scale violence occurred throughout the
northern part of the peninsula. The country was finally partitioned in August 1947.