The picturesque and the homogenisation of Empire
Author(s): Jeffrey Auerbach
Source: The British Art Journal, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Spring/Summer 2004), pp. 47-54
Published by: The British Art Journal
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41614516 .
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Volumey No.1 TheBRITISHARTJournal
The
picturesque
and
the
homogenisation
of
Empire
JeffreyAuerbach
in The
is morethana century
sinceJRSeeleyremarked
Expansionof England (1883) thatthe BritishEmpire
It developedin 'a fitofabsenceofmind'.1
The reasonsfor
and motivesunderlying
its expansion,whetherpolitical,
or religious,
are
economic,social,intellectual,
diplomatic,
well known,howevermuch theycontinueto be
fairly
In recent
debated.2
havealsobeguntoexplore
yearsscholars
theimpact
oftheempire
ontheso-called
centre,
metropolitan
and have even questionedthe very
especially
politically,3
in
boundaries
betweenmetropole
andperiphery,
particularly
the cultural
realm.4
Yetseriousand fundamental
questions
remain
abouttheplaceoftheempireintheBritish
mind.How
didBritons
conceiveofandrepresent
theirempire,
especially
the19thcentury,
theperiodofitsgreatest
during
expansion?
Howdidtheycometo regard
itas beingmoreunified
thanit
ifanything,
wasattheadministrative
level?5
What,
actually
gave
inthehalf-century
theempire
before
the
coherence,
especially
andtheelectric
Howdidtheindividual
steamship
telegraph?
- 'onecontinent,
oftheempire
a hundred
regions
peninsulas,
fivehundred
a
thousand
lakes,twothousand
promontories,
- becomepartof an imperial
tenthousandislands'6
rivers,
whole?Whatwerethevectorsof empire,and if,as many
scholarshave recentlysuggested,theyshould not be
inmetropolitan-peripheral
characterized
thenon what
terms,
basis?
TheVictorian
constructed
theBritish
imagination
Empire
a variety
ofcultural
forms.
Themostfamous
ofthese
through
weresurely
themapsoftheworldwiththeterritories
ofthe
empirecoloured pink, of which manyversionswere
as earlyas Victoria's
in 1837
coronation
published
beginning
to promoteimperial
In recentdecadesscholarshave
unity.7
- especially
theroleofliterature
fiction, 1 Tahiti
amplydocumented
Revisited
©National
cl776.
Maritime
London.
Museum,
byWilliam
Hodges,
butalsochildren's
andtravel
literature
andpolitical
speeches Ministry
ofDefence
Art
Collection
- inconstructing
an imageofthepeopleandregionsofthe
the
Road
French
from
The
Town,
from
Camp's
Bay
byGeorge
Angas,
Kaffirs
uncivilized,
irrational,
feminine,
exotic, 2 Cape
empireas backward,
(1849)
andirredeemably
'other'.8
Butmost Illustrated
decayed,
impoverished,
oftheliterary
thathasfollowed
inthewakeofSaid's
analysis
Orientalism
intosomething
thatis aesthetically
path-breaking
(1978)hasfocusedon theMiddle cultureis transformed
East and India,and to a lesserdegreeA fricaand the pleasingand morally
Othershavefocusedon
satisfying'.12
most glaringly,
the whitesettler the construction
of the (noble) savageand the mythof
Caribbean,neglecting,
whichwerecentral
ofthe19thcentury empty
lands.13
Butone limitation
thathasaffected
almostall
colonies,
components
BritishEmpire.Photography,
thosepreoccupied
withimperial
too, has receivedsome ofthesestudies,especially
forconstructing
an empirebuiltaroundracial lands(as opposedto thepeopleof theempire),has been
attention,
mountain
hierarchies,
views,and theirfocuson eithera singleartistor a singlegeographic
big-game
hunting,
pristine
efficient
but photography
Without
a comparative
therecanbe no
lens,however,
military
campaigns,
admittedly area.14
drew on earlier pictorial traditionsand imagery.9 comprehensive
ofBritish
art,andtherefore
analysis
imperial
of how thatempirewas constructed
Advertisements,
especiallythose produced under the no understanding
direction
of the state-supported
andpictorially.
Board, visually
EmpireMarketing
also playeda role,largelyby commodifying
the empire,
The argument
offered
hereis thatthe picturesque,
the
and visualaestheticwhichdevelopedduringthe
thoughnotuntilthelate19thandearly20thcenturies.10
literary
Arttoo was criticalin helpingBritish
men and women second halfof the 18th century,
helped to unite and
construct
and visualizetheirempire.11
Thiswas especially homogenize
themanyregionsoftheBritish
empire.Forthe
trueofthepicturesque
around1775,British
artists
idiom,whichhada powerful
impact better
partofa century
beginning
on almostall subsequentformsofimperial
constructedand
representation, who travelledthe empire frequently
and advertising
fromthe midthelensofthepicturesque,
19th depictedwhattheysawthrough
including
photography
onwards.
Mostoftherecentstudiesinthisareahave presenting
as
diverse
as
South
century
Africa,
India,Australia,
regions
similarways.In the
emphasizedthe 'ideologicalwork'of paintings,
through and the PacificIslandsin remarkably
which'the appropriation
of land,resources,labour,and processtheyintegrated
thefar-flung
regionsoftheempire,
47
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TheBRITISHARTJournal VolumeX No.1
a measureof coherenceand controlthatwere William
whenhe paintedTahitiRevisited
providing
Hodgesemployed
clearly
lackingon thegroundat a timewhenit couldtake (PI 1) around 1776, dividedthe landscapeinto three
from
threeto sixmonths
to travel
from
Londonto distances:
a darkened
anddetailedforeground,
a strongly
lit
anywhere
a timelagwhichdelayedthecirculation
ofnewsand and deep-tonedmiddle-ground,
and a hazybackground.
Calcutta,
made virtually
suchas treesandruinsweretobe positioned
so as
impossiblethe executionof government Features
thatprovideda senseof
policy.15
Althoughthere was, withinthe picturesque to createa balancedcomposition
some freedomto captureand conveylocal bothharmony
and variety,
and to pushtheviewer'seyeto
framework,
itwasdeployeditservedto conceal themiddledistance,
as ina stageset.Ina typical
differences,
everywhere
picturesque
the hardshipsand beautifythe frequently
twocoulisses
river;
, orside
unpleasant scenetherewouldbe a winding
thatcharacterized
lifein the imperialzone, screens,
whicharetheoppositebanksoftheriver
andwhich,
surroundings
local people and conditionsthrougha single, inconjunction
withsomehills,marktheperspective;
a front
refracting
screenwhichpointsoutthewinding
formulaic
lens.16
oftheriver;
anda hazy,
in so faras thepicturesque
had initially
been rugged,mountainousbackground.There was also an
Moreover,
used to represent
theEnglishlandscape,
tint,the softgoldenlightof the
depicting
imperial identifiable
picturesque
artists RomanCampagna,which,as a numberof scholarshave
landscapesin thesesame termsmeantthatBritish
overseasendedup portraying
so-calledperipheral suggested,artiststransposedfirstonto the English
travelling
than
so-called landscape,and thencarriedto thefurthest
territories
as similar
rather
different
reachesof the
to,
from,
In short,thepicturesque
territories.
wasabout British
metropolitan
Empire.22
thecreation
ofsamenessrather
thandifference,
But while scholarsof the picturesquehave generally
thoughthis
is a pointthatrequiressome clarification
as 'sameness' focusedon itsEnglish
in thewritings
ofKnight
and
origins,
In
carriesa numberof different
the
late
18th
it
is
to
note
that
of
Price,
meanings.
important
many its foremost
Richard
andUvedalePrice,twoofthe practitioners
drewtheirinspiration
as muchfrom
theempire
PayneKnight
century,
theoreticians
of the picturesque,
as fromtheEnglish
LakeDistrict.
founding
challengedthe itself
Hodges,forexample,
fashionable
ofRichard
theWelshlandscapepainter
Wilson,
styleoflandscapegardening
bythe wasa student
exemplified
workofCapability
Brown.Theyaccusedhimofcreating
who
was
influenced
only
strongly
by Claude and one of the
'eternalsmoothness
and sameness'in place ofwhichthey foundersof the Englishlandscapeschool,but insteadof
suchas moss- completing
hisarteducation
witha GrandTourtoItalyas his
wantedto see 'roughness',
meaningfeatures
detailsto break up
teacherhad done,he insteadbecamethedraughtsman
for
grownterracesand otherintricate
otherwise
smoothvistas.17
Cookon hissecondvoyagetothePacific,
andcarried
toIndia
thatfollows,
The analysis
uses samenessas an tropicalideasoflightandvegetation,
inaddition
toEnglish
however,
notofroughness
butofstrangeness
anddifference, ideasaboutpicturesque
antonym
composition.23
in orderto takeintoaccounta certaintensionbetweenthe
Thisexplains,
inpartat least,a number
ofthetensions
in
24
in
and
the
exotic.
The
artist's
to
Tahiti
Revisited.
The
illustrates
the
picturesque
purpose travelling
paintingcertainly
India or the South Seas was oftento reporton their essentialelementsof the picturesque,
but it also reveals
hasputitinhis Hodges' struggleto combineclassicalidealism,scientific
ordifference,
butas GilesTillotson
strangeness
of an English accuracy,
book on WilliamHodges,'the application
and Bougainvillian
exoticism.He has replaced
aesthetic
to Indianscenesservedratherto restrain
thanto conventional
classicalmotives- olivetrees,cypresses,
and
- withbreadfruits,
revealtheirexoticnature'.18
The imagesdiscussedherewill Arcadian
coconutpalms,
shepherdesses
thatsamenesscanbe usedto describethe andTahitian
alsodemonstrate
In theinterest
nearthewater.25
of
girlsbathing
and empirical
substantive
and stylistic
similarities
betweenpaintings
he has paintedthe girlsnot as ideal
recording,
executedacrossthe manyregionsof the British beauties,butwithcharacteristic
tattoomarkings.26
And,the
aquatints
inthelinguistic
orthe cloudsaroundthe mountaintops
Tobe sure,difference
reflect
not an idealized
Empire.
(whether
butaretheoutcomeofHodgestrying
to
postcolonial
sense) and sameness(meaningidentification,Italiancountryside,
arecomplementary
the atmosphere
of the tropics.Hodges'
mimicry,
mimesis)
oppositesandcannot renderfaithfully
be divided.19
Buttheanalysis
thatfollows
isanattempt
to opennessto new environments
and cultures,
his (modest
truly
movethediscussion
ofsameness
anddifference
from
itsfocus and occasional)questioning
of the supremacy
of classical
onlanguage
andpeople,whichisnowwell-trodden
to prototypes,
and his concernforscientific
truth- itselfof
terrain,
because the course a problematic
and culture-bound
thatof place.20This is especiallyimportant
notion- were
in
was
not
carried
from
but
conflict
with
the
overseas,
Claudean,
simply
England
always
picturesque
picturesque
principles
rather
as muchoverseas
as inBritain,
andtherefore demandedofthelandscapeartists
ofhisday.Butbecausehe
developed
fromtheimperial
centreto the had in effect
movednotunidirectionally
educationin theSouth
completedhisartistic
butfrequently
aroundtheperiphery.
Thisin turn Seas, he had some freedom
fromcontemporary
academic
periphery,
the
of
the
British
not
and
was
able
to
for
the
first
timethe
suggests importanceenvisioning
Empire
practices,
capture
centreandperiphery brilliant
so muchas a 'spokedwheel'- imperial
Whatthispainting
reveals- and
lightofthetropics.
- butas a 'web'builtaround'multiple
centres'
or 'bundlesof itneedsto be underscored
herethatthisis obviously
nota
not leastof whichwerehorizontal
and that
sketch,but a finishedoil painting,
linkages preliminary
relationships',
betweencolonialsites,regions,experiences,
and cultural Hodgeswaspaid£350peryearbytheadmiralty
to produce
ofhisjourneys
thatwouldpromote
commerce
and
products.21
paintings
thelightandfeel
empire- is Hodgesatoncebothcapturing
tookas itsstarting
andintroducing
anelement
ofexoticism,
picturesque
pointthe idea that oftheSouthPacific
Thenaturewasimperfect
andneededto be organized
when transforming
Tahitiintoa sensualandevensexualparadise,
itwaspainted.
and
Artists,
usinga Claudeglass,a small but at the same time subsumingthat difference
frequently
convexmirror
thatbrought
thecompass exoticism
beneaththefamiliar
structure
ofthepicturesque.
everyscenewithin
ofa picture,
methodofcomposition A remarkably
similarpicturesque
framecan be seen in
employeda formulaic
thatwasbaseduponcertain
rulesofclassical
and
the
Road
proportion,
Cape Town,
from Camp'sBay
(PI 2), by.George
whichproducedimageswithan identifiable
and explorerwho later
picturesque FrenchAngas,an artist,
geologist,
and tint.The picturesque,
which becamedirector
oftheGovernment
MuseuminSydney,
and
structure,
composition,
48
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Volumey No.1 TheBRITISHARTJournal
whopublished
a bookcalledTheKaffirs
in 1849
Illustrated
from
whichthisplateis taken.AsAngashimself
wrote,'Cape
Town... is mostpicturesquely
situated
on theshoresofTable
couldexceedthebeautyof
Bay',andhe claimedthatnothing
thescene,with'bold,abrupt,
thefertile
ruggedmountains,
plainsand gardens,and thedeep blue watersof theBay'.
Thisimageillustrates
thepicturesque
use oftheforeground,
withthestepsandstonebuilding
andminuscule
inthe
figure
left-corner
an
of
the
creating impression grandiosity; slopes
ofthehillson eitherside thatserveas framing
devicesand
channeltheviewer'seyetowards
themiddle-ground,
which
is Cape Town;therichbluecolourofthewater,
contrasting
withthegreensand brownsof thelandscape;and,in the
thefadedgreymountains
andthepalebluesky.
The
distance,
sceneis inperfect
intermsofperspective,
colour,
harmony,
and relationship
betweenthehumanworldand thenatural
world.Angashasalsopointedly
intheforeground,
included,
taken
the
I lived
Garden
where
3Hobart
Dixson
Town,
1832.
Glover,
from
byJohn
a numberofkniphofia,
morecommonly
knownas redhot Galleries,
State
ofNew
South
Wales
Library
whichhavestriking
red flowers
in the
pokers,perennials
1811.
©National
Maritime
Bowen,
Westall,
ofPort
Queensland
winterand are nativeto SouthAfrica,
byWilliam
althoughtheyhave 4 View
London.
ofDefence
Art
Collection
Museum,
Ministry
sincebecameidentified
withEnglishcottagegardensand
have also been widelyimportedto Australiaand New
Zealand.Theyprovidejust a touchof local colourand underlying
wastopresent
oftheempire
Angas'work,
regions
forpotential
Inshort,
flavour,but without ever threateningthe formal as safeandfamiliar
settlers.29
European
ofthepicturesque.
withinthe picturesque
aestheticthe artof empireserved
requirements
used similar important
andchanging
Hodgesand Angasin thesetwo paintings
strategic
purposes.
into the
techniquesto turnthe distantand unfamiliar
knowable
and thefamiliar,
to makewhatwas a foreign
and
almostidentical
versionofAngas'
yetoddlymirrored
'different'
isHobartTown
fundamentally
, takenfromthegardenwhereI
landscape,withunusualfloraand An painting
'similar'
to thoselandscapeswith lived(PI3), byJohnGlover,
whoarrived
inTasmania
in 1831
fauna,appearremarkably
whichtheyand theiraudienceswouldhavebeen familiar. and executedthisworka yearlater.The painting
wasmade
Thereare, however,
differences
betweenthese in frontof Glover'sresidence,StanwellHall,a two-story
important
two paintings.
stonestructure
thathadbeenbuiltin 1828in theGeorgian
Hodges has presentedTahitiansocietyas
and untouchedby Europeans;nowhereis there style,featuring
the plainand symmetrical
facadefoundin
pristine
evidenceofCook'svisit.27
inEnglandat thetime.Thehouse
Angashas donetheopposite:his manydomestic
dwellings
ofCapeTownandtheextent and gardenoverlookthe town,a thriving
settlement
of
painting
mapsthelinearstreets
of Europeansettlement.
with
Angas'paintingalso lacks the 10,000thatwas thesecondlargestin size inAustralia,
elementsof the sublime,whichare presentin Hodges' theDerwentRiver,
namedafteritsDerbyshire
counterpart,
mountains.
Yetboththeseimagesreflect
certainimperial beyond,dottedwithsailingvessels.Alsovisibleis a white
interests
thatwerepervasive
atthetimetheywereproduced. church,withGovernment
House just to its leftand the
In the late 18thcenturythe idea was to findpreviously Barracks
to itsright,
thatbeyondtheboundaries
suggesting
Edeniclandsthatwouldstimulate
in of personalproperty
interest
undiscovered,
the
impliedbythepainting's
subtitlç,
and exploitation.28
as
theexecutive,
andthemilitary
remain
thedominant
exploration
church,
By the mid-19thcentury,
and settlement
became paramount,
the idea, featuresof the colonial scene. Despite the obvious
emigration
49
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TheBRITISHARTJournal VolumeX No.l
beautifulcountrynor curiosityfromtheirsingularity'.
picturesquestructureand elements,its needs to be
thatthepainting
is something
ofan anomaly Westall's
areespecially
becausetheyare
acknowledged
paintings
important
within
Glover's
Australian
oeuvre, arguably
of the
beingconcerned so clearlyat odds withhis writtendescriptions
morewithinformational
thanwithpicturesque landscape.In his 1811ViewofPortBowen,Queensland(PI
topography
- flora,
viewmaking.30
AsJohnMcPheehaspointedout,behindthe 4), he depictsthetriumvirate
ofAustralian
novelty
screenoftheartist's
houseandgarden,
thepicture
marks
the fauna,
andAboriginal
conflicts
people- butthejunglesetting
'with withhisdescription
achievements
andexpansion
ofthecolonialsettlement
ofthecoastas 'barren',
anditis alsonot
severalview-points
so thatthewholeofthe inkeeping
withhisdescription
ofthegeneralappearance
of
incorporated...
so
townmaybe shown,and thelandscaperatherflattened
Australiaas 'differing
littlefromthe northernpartsof
andbuildings
couldbe included'.31
thatallstreets
Andso hereis anartist
whoinitially
wasunableto
England'.38
in Australia,
HobartTownalsoillustrates
whatAlfred
hastermed findthe picturesque
Crosby
yetended up depicting
the processby whichEuropean Australia
as a landverydifferent
from
hisnativeEngland,
but
'ecologicalimperialism',
carriedflora,fauna,and disease around the globe.32 doingso through
familiar
devices.
picturesque
Regardless,
in 1809fora seriesofoil
Geraniumsand roses, paintedin meticulousdetailand whenhe accepteda commission
inGlover'sinscription,
mentioned
dominate
theforeground. paintings
ofAustralian
viewsandexhibited
themin
landscape
in hisdepictions
Geraniums
wereespecially
interest
of
popularinthenewcolonybecause London,therewasconsiderable
on
could
thrive
little
water.
Several
varieties
are
that
had
never
before
been
seen
they
very
places
byEuropeans.39
toAustralia,
butothers
onboardoneofthe
NorwasWestall
arrived
theonlyearlyartist
whosharedtheview
indigenous
firstshipsfromEnglandin 1788,and additional
Thomas
varieties, that the Australian
landscapelacked beauty.40
a youngpainter
nativeto southernAfrica,
were unwittingly
carriedinto Watling,
from
Dumfries
whowastransported
inseedform
Australia
on thecoatsofanimals
takenon board to Australia
forforging
Bank of Scotlandguineanotes,
in famouslydecried his inabilityto find or mould the
arrived
BythetimeGlover
shipsthatcalledatCapeTown.33
whatwasthencalledVanDieman'sLand,settlers
hadalready picturesque
fromthelandscapeofthepenalcolonyWatling
all Europeanvegetables,
and had been trainedin the picturesque
to cultivate
mode of landscape
attempted
virtually
theGloversin factbrought
withthema rangeof northern painting,
and it was the absenceof typically
picturesque
- old and gnarledtrees,winding
notallsurvived
thejourney features
mountain
hemispheric
seedlings,
although
paths,
- thatdepressed
andjaggedandrocky
cliffs
Glover'sson recordedthattheirtangerine
saplingsdieden
peasantcottages,
route
thattheLandBoard, him.'The landscapepainter',
he wroteto hisaunt,'mayin
, butenoughoftheplantssurvived
in endorsing
fora landgrant,
recorded vainseekherethatkindofbeautywhicharisesfromhappyGlover'sapplication
that'he has imported
Boldrising
orazuredistances
would
hills,
Englishsongbirdsand opposedoff-scapes.
approvingly
In thispainting,
shrubs'.34
the flowers
createan
be a kindofphenomena.
Theprincipal
traits
ofthecountry
therefore,
of homeliness,
and connectedness areextensive
But
woods,spreadovera littlevariedplain'.41
impression
familiarity,
betweenthe regionsof the British
Not
did
knew
well
that
were
Watling
Empire.
only
enough
picturesque
paintings
inorderto acclimatize not simplytranscripts
of naturebut arrangements
of it,
English
immigrants
import
vegetation
- both incorporating
motifs
culledfrom
a number
ofsketches.
Ashe
theirenvironment;
thatenvironment
theyrefashioned
- in orderto resemble
and representationally
the putit,'I confessthatwereI to selectandcombine,
I might
physically
avoid
that
and
find
which
sameness,
English
typically
picturesque
landscape.35
engaging
employment,'
Elsewherein thispainting,
whathe did withworkssuchas A directNorth
however,Gloverhas made is exactly
He has toned general view of SydneyCove, whichBernardSmithhas
concessions
to a vastly
different
environment.
interms
andhasshown discussed
ofitsapplication
ofGilpin's
theories
about
downtherichgreens
oftheEnglish
countryside,
the
somewhat
and
of
the
also
a
the treesas distinct
Lake
but
which
bears
entities,
District,
drawings
befitting
sparse
that strikingresemblanceto Wilson'sRomefrom the Villa
Australian
rather
thanas partofthedensefoliage
forests,
forests.
executed
fortheEarlof
characterized
And,thelargeareasofgreenery Madama (1753).42Wilson's
European
painting,
in
Hobart
Town
constitute
a marked
from
the Dartmouth,
one of themostfamousprospects
of
departure
portrays
present
and
towns
of
rural
the
from
which
had
Rome,
England.36
Ultimately
closely
packedvillages
point
pilgrims traditionally
caught
andthuswasanappropriate
model
is similar
to Angas'Cape Townin termsof the theirfirst
thispainting
sightofthecity,
whohad to do littlemorethansubstitute
overall
structure
ofthework;thewaysinwhichit forWatling,
some
picturesque
familiar
suchas theGeorgian newly-built
reproduces
Englishelements,
cottagesfor the famousloggiaof the Villa
Stanwell
andtheriver
Derwent; Madama,designedby RaphaelforPope ClementVII,that
Hall,therosesandgeraniums,
Australian appearsinthelower-right
itsincorporation
ofindigenous
cornerofWilson's
work.43
and,simultaneously,
butsubsumed
within
thepicturesque.
to look more like
characteristics,
Perhapsno artistpaintedAustralia
who arrivedin NewSouth
Atleastin theearlyyearsof the 19thcentury,
however, EnglandthanConradMartens,
the Australian
sailedon theBeaglewithCharles
translating
landscapeinto the picturesque Walesin 1835afterhaving
as itoccasionally
didforGlover.37 Darwin.His ViewfromRoseBank (PI 5), paintedforthe
provedquitechallenging,
William
who accompanied
themapmaker
Matthew commodities
merchant
RobertCampbell,showsa garden
Westall,
Flinders
on hiscircumnavigation
ofthecontinent
ofAustralia piazzalookingoverthenewlyestablished
villassurrounding
wasdisappointed
his
search
for
from
Woolloomooloo
Martens
has
from1801-3,
renderedthe
scenery
Bay.
skilfully
by
in Londonafter housesofthewealthy
colonists
as thoughtheywereItalian
whichto makeoil paintings
to be displayed
the fashionof his colleagueWilliamDanieli,who had villas (which is how they were often describedin
shownhisviewsofIndiaat theRoyalAcademy. contemporary
but he givesno hintthatthese
literature),
successfully
in fact,none of the housesthat
ForWestallthe coastlinedid not yieldthe exoticsubject houseslackedantiquity;
andhe considered
Australia
to couldbe seen fromtheterraceat RoseBankin 1840when
matter
he hadhopedto find,
afterleavingAustralian Martensproducedthisworkwas morethana decadeold.
be pictorially
Shortly
unpromising.
Thispainting
illustrates
theprocessnotso muchofcreating
shores,he summedup hisyearson theFlinders
voyageas a
and
he
was
about
the
'New
Worlds
from
as an exhibition
of 19ih-century
barren
Old',
pessimistic
drawings
experience,
and Americanlandscapepaintings
he hadmade,aboutwhichhe wrote:'Whenexecuted[they] Australian
put it, but
the faceof a
rather
ofcreating
oldworldsfromnew.44
can neitherafford
pleasurefromexhibiting
50
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Volumey No.1 TheBRITISHARTJournal
ofAustralia,
1840.
National
Rose
Bank
5 View
Martens,
Gallery
byConrad
from
Canberra
ofTheBritish
181
1.ByPermission
6Aview
byWilliam
Hodges,
ofBenaras
F94
Library,
of
Private
Collection.
inGaur
7 View
cl791.
Danieli,
Courtesy
byThomas
Charles
Greig,
Esq
carriedmanyofthesesamepicturesque
principles
Artists
with them to India, where, as elsewhere,they
representedthe landscape as harmonious,with great
detailed foregrounds,
emphasis placed on intricately
to man's
and some reference
hillsand buildings,
irregular
that
was
in
with
a
ruin
the
landscape,along
presence
as well as a reminderof man's
irregular
picturesquely
ofIndia
Artists
whomadepicturesque
transience.
paintings
whatmanyEuropeans
or at leastsoftened,
also removed,
would have regarded as its exotic features.Indian
showninconventionally
waseither
forinstance,
architecture,
lack
orhadits(toEuropeaneyes)startling
ruins,
picturesque
forms.The first
reduced to symmetrical
of symmetry
Britishlandscapepainterto visitIndia was
professional
William
Hodges,in 1780,and hisViewofpartofthecityof
Benaras(sic) (PI6) datedthefollowing
yearshowsa number
inthevariedandirregular
outline
oftheseelements,
notably
in
further
enlivened
tufted
the
formed
trees;
by
by buildings,
details
createdbysmall,scattered
thesenseof movement,
and boats;and in thebrokendabs of
suchas thefigures
thisone is also rife
Butas withhisTahitipainting,
colour.45
In hisSelectViewsin India (London,
withcontradictions.
was to
responsibility
1775-8),Hodgeswrotethattheartist's
and keep the imagination
eschew'fanciful
representation'
'underthe strictguidanceof cool judgment',
yethis own
thisveryaim,composedas they
contradict
Indianpaintings
that
to Europeannotionsof thepicturesque
are according
ofmonuments
theloftiness
thoughtheuse of
emphasized
foreshortened
perspectiveand exaggeratedproportions.
oils
in theSouthPacific,
his
time
Hodges'finished
Despite
and remaintrue
within
thepicturesque
arefirmly
tradition,
of his teacherRichardWilson,
to the Claudeanprinciples
whoseworkhe so oftenimitated.46
the mostfamousBritish
Although
Hodgeswas thefirst,
tovisitIndiawereThomasDanieliandhis
landscapepainters
who,aftersevenyearsof travels,
brought
nephewWilliam,
whichthey
some1,400drawings,
backwiththemtoEngland
used to producesix sumptuousvolumesof aquatints.
Although the Daniells repeatedlydisparaged their
- andsharethesame
inanimaginary
all sortsof inaccuracies, byanartist
workforcontaining
arrangement
predecessor's
structure
and
features:
ruins
on
the
undermined
the
basic
was continually
theirgoal of fidelity
left,treeson the
by
centre
towards
a distant
for
a
river
the
aesthetic.
constraints
ofthepicturesque
winding
through
Searching
always
right,
and
thatis roundedrather
thansteepandcraggy,
the Sublimeand the Beautiful,the Daniells generally mountain
in theforeground,
framed
withpalmand severalfigures
thoughthereis a greater
grandioseviewscarefully
portrayed
whereasin Claude'sthe
banyantrees,and,on at leastone occasion,enhancedthe senseofstasisin Daniell'spainting,
of
the
are
and
thoseworksa greater
addition
of
a
Part
of
a
scene
with
the
turning
gesturing,
giving
temple.47
figures
beauty
A muchmoreimmediate
with senseofmovement.
andinfacta fascination
lureofIndiawasitsstrangeness,
link,however,
as Daniell's
andyet as in thecase withHodges,wasRichard
theexoticwas a partofthepicturesque
Wilson,
repertoire,
manner paintingboth recallsand develops fromsuch Wilson
of Indiansubjectsin a picturesque
the treatment
ofClaudeasKewGardens,
theRuinedArch(1762),
theirexoticism,by imitations
tempered,ratherthan exaggerated,
whichfora longtimewasthought
toshowanactual
to a set of supposedlyuniversally a picture
makingthemconform
inItaly.49
Romanruinsomewhere
valuesderivedfromEuropeanart.
applicable
AtthehandsofThomasDanieli,forexample,theMuslim
intoa Gothicfollyin an
tombat Gaurwas transformed
picturesquenot onlytendedto homogenizethe
all sortsof
Arcadian
Empire;italso blurred
park.Viewin Gaur (PI 7) is in facta strikingly TheregionsoftheBritish
master's boundaries
betweenBritain
and itsempire,betweenhome
toseveral
ofthe17th-century
Claudeanwork,
similar
andperiphery,
evenselfandother.50
paintingsincludingPastoral caprice withthe Arch of andabroad,metropole
between
the
There
for
some
similarities
Constantine
and
with
are,
example,
important
(1651)
Landscape
fatherofPsyche
ofTheFallsofPoppanassum
at theTemple
ofApollo(1662).48Allofthesemake ThomasDaniell'swatercolour
sacrificing
use ofarchitectural
JacobMore'sThe
landscapepainter
capricci- actualbuildings
puttogether (1804)and theScottish
51
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
TheBRITISHARTJournal VolumeY No.1
andlossof
addition
oftheIndiansubcontinent
Falls of Clyde(Cora Linn) (1771), both in theirformal simultaneous
- thelushness
inwhich the thirteenAmericancolonies,became increasingly
a
ofvegetation,
thedirection
elements
notjustsymbolized
butmadepossible
over tourist's
andtheangleofthetreeshanging
thewateris flowing,
bythe
empire,
some
ofthepicturesque.
concomitant
theriver- and in theirapproachto composition
Although
development
(Pis8, 9).
was
scholars
have
that
the
the
of
the
scenes
Bothpaintings
English
picturesque mainly
argued
by
emphasize grandeur
fellout of
18thcentury
aestheticwhichsupposedly
in theforeground,
tourists
who a lateplacingseveralsmallfigures
itshouldbe
thefirst
halfofthe19thcentury,
fallsabovethem. fashion
areineachcasedwarfed
during
bythethundering
theaesthetic
to suchconclusions,
tolocate mentioned
ButonehastolookverycloselyatDaniell'spainting
that,contrary
mode
continued
toprevail
so thatthepicturesque
thatthesefallsare framework
twoslenderpalmtrees,theonlyindication
in late-19thand even 20th-century
not locatedin Europe,and even the two figuresare of is easilyrecognizable
andadvertisements.56
and thusiftheyareIndian,theyhave photography
indeterminate
origin,
oftheir'otherness'.
beenstripped
The paintings
are, of course,numerousotheraspectsof the
by Danieliand More also share certain
withWilson'sLydford
fundamental
similarities
picturesquein the colonialcontextthatneed to be
Waterfall There
itsrelationship
to labour,an issuethat
Tavistock(c1771-2),and all threeprobablydrewon the explored,
including
textseven as it was
writingsof AlexanderCozens, who made extensive was oftendiscussedin picturesque
inpicturesque
Therearealso
disavowed
thelinkbetween frequently
observations
of naturein orderto clarify
images.57
andapproachoffered
to theanalysis
andto identify somelimitations
andaesthetic
here,
feeling,
landscapephenomena
rubric
beneaththebroaderpicturesque
whatit was about naturaleventsthatstimulated
specific whichhassubsumed
the
betweenthe topographical,
In TheVariousSpecies the subtle differences
emotional
responsesin theviewer.51
Ann
has
what
and
the
or
sixteen
Cozens
identified
beautiful,
natural,
Bermingham
(1759),
ofLandscapeComposition
and sensation.58
or basic landscapethemes,the eighthof called landscapesof sense, sensibility,
'compositions'
thereare topographical
elementsin theworkof
DaniellsandMore,likeWilsonbefore Although
whichwas'a waterfall'.
ThomasCole afterthem,tookwild, Angasand Glover,and althoughthe Daniellswerehighly
themandtheAmerican
artists,landscapeengravings
seeminglyinhospitablescenes and made them less accomplishedtopographical
thenaturaland thesublimemoving such as theirswerenot intendedto function
simplyas a
rendering
frightening,
record.As notedearlier,the use of formal
While topographical
withescape alwaysassured.52
ratherthanterrifying,
a real
andatmospheric
effects
transformed
thanthepicturesque structure,
figures,
perhapsowingmoreto theromantic
and
visitable
site
into
a
two
is
too
between
the
the
tradition
elevating
picturesque
representation,
(though relationship
to discusshere),thepaintings
byDanieliand it to the statusof a visualsouvenir.And,therewas a
complicated
elementin British
and continental
More illustrate
picturesque
yet again the extentto whichlate-18th- naturalistic
ofimperial
centuryaestheticshomogenizedthe empire and de- viewsthatis,forthemostpart,notcharacteristic
rationale
for
art.59
and
the
familiar.
from
the
British
its
difference
Nevertheless,
adopting
Bermingham's
emphasized
to 'shift
thefocusfromstyleto
intermsofelements
andapproach thesenewterms,
Giventheirsimilarities
however,
andsocialvalueseachtypeoflandscape
thesetwo themoral,political,
to composition
(if not in actualcomposition),
to
can
was
intended
of
how
colonial
sites
the
raise
awaken',as wellas to providea framework
question
images
important
do notfit
worksthattraditionally
thatcouldaccommodate
Thispointtakeson
fromthenon-colonial.
be differentiated
form
additional
becausethepicturesque
represented into the traditionalcategories, including amateur
urgency
is exactly
theargument
sitesbothinsideandoutsideofBritain production,
a widerangeoftourist
beingmadehere.
above- and
offered
thattheexamples
Itishoped,however,
andtheGermanRhine.
anditsempire,
including
Spain,Italy,
wouldfitas well- are
workofDavidRoberts
It hardlyneeds to be pointedout, however,the above theEgyptian
wasa
that there were representative
waterfallexample notwithstanding,
enoughto suggestthatthepicturesque
One of
oftheBritish
forcein thecreation
viewsof dynamic
so-called
differences
between
substantial
Empire.
picturesque
- 'a
Said'sworkisthatOrientalism
ofEdward
on the theimplications
andon theEuropeancontinent
tourist
sitesinBritain
and
for
other.53
Western
on
the
one hand,and thoseof theBritish
restructuring,
having
style
dominating,
Empire
- madecolonialism
overtheOrient'60
Britain
thepicturesque
Whereasinlatepossible.But
implied authority
18th-century
limitations
of
the
Orientalist
the avoidance of anythingprecise or tame, instead one of the
approachis thatit
on theMiddle
andwild,unkempt focuseslargely,
thoughno longerexclusively,
novelty,
ruggedness,
variety,
emphasizing,
to
buthavenot
have
Said's
thesis
East.
Scholars
and
smooth...
that
'ideas
of
neat
India,
applied
beauty Gilpinspecified
- imperialart, applieditstenetsto SouthAfrica
and Australia,
and would
beauty'54
stripthe objec... of picturesque
in doingso. The picturesque,
on theother
and havedifficulty
softened,
regularized,
especiallyin India,consistently
a potentially hand, was a much more comprehensivetrope than
thenatural
beautified
Consequently,
landscape.55
local
and unifiedthe empireby refracting
and
about
colonial
Orientalism,
places,one
people
dangerouscuriosity
in this
a singlelens.Anditis revealing,
has differences
and oppression,
thatmightinvolveviolence,conflict,
through
becamepopularat thevery
thatthe picturesque
It is
been divertedinto the quest foraestheticnovelty.
context,
itsmost
British
the
moment
when
the
of
the
to
therefore, particularity
empirewas undergoing
important recognize,
lost
its
and
that
the
massive
it
and
the
in
environment
the
colonial
vogueexpansion,
picturesque
pleasures
picturesque
between andvalue as theempirebecamemorephysically
evenwhilenotingthegeneralsimilarities
integrated
offered,
whentheelectric
thesecondhalfofthe19thcentury,
andtheimperial
thedomestic
during
picturesque.
and the steamship
allowedforgreaterlevelsof
Whatthendoes itmeanwhencolonialsitesaresubjected telegraph
andcontrol.61
so closelyassociatedwith communication
to a formofvisualrepresentation
inthe
discussedhere also makethe pointthat
The paintings
function
ofthepicturesque
Giventheprimary
tourism?
concerned
were not exclusively
itwould imperialrepresentations
andforeign
ofbothdomestic
establishment
tourism,
on
the
thatthe
creation
of
with
the
have
seemthatthecolonialandthetouristic
'otherness',
presumption
collapsed
gaze
from
If
was
different
the
theimperial
intoeach other,normalizing
imperial
imperial
periphery
experience.
thes
and trading metropolis.62
British
so-calledfirst
Rather,artistswere also engagedin what
empirewas a commercial
withthenear- culturalanthropologist
thesecondBritish
James Boon has called 'the
empire,
beginning
empire,
52
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Volumey No.1 TheBRITISHARTJournal
construction of affinities'.63Indeed, picturesque
were in large part about what David
representations
Cannadine
hasidentified
as 'thedomestication
oftheexotic':
andreordering
theforeign
to lookverymuchlike
regarding
itself.64
Andthispointneedstobe underscored:
the
England
exoticis stillverymuchpresentin the picturesque,
but
ofitsdifficult
theviewer
otherness,
largely
stripped
allowing
to remainin hisor hervisualcomfort
zone,securein the
thattheGangeslookedbasically
liketheWye.Not
knowledge
in
were
British
artists
South
andAustralia
India,
Africa,
only
neververyinfluenced
artistic
their
traditions;
byindigenous
in
affected
stylewas onlyminimally
bythelandscapeitself,
in theso-called
to thatofEuropeanartists
contrast
working
In fact,thereis considerable
Oriental
world.65
evidenceto
suggestthatpainters
soughtoutlandscapesthatlooked- or
couldbe madeto look- likeEnglanditself.
itshouldbe clearthatthevectors
ofimperialism
did
Finally,
not worksolely(or perhapseven largely)in a binary,
fashion.
Asnotedearlier,
home-abroad,
metropole-periphery,
8 The
Falls
1804.
TheBritish
Danieli,
Museum,
ofPoppanassum
byThomas
ofPrints
andDrawings
Department
Falls
of
1771.
TheNational
9 The
(Cora
More,
Linn)
ofClyde
byJacob
Gallery
Scotland
theSouthPacific
beforehe ever
Hodgestravelled
through
went to India,and numerousscholarshave noted that
the Daniellswere in SouthAfrica
beforetheir
influence;
to
and
moved
several
times
between
India;
journey
Angas
Inshort,
SouthAfrica,
andAustralia.
thepicturesque
England,
wasnotsimply
an aesthetic
thatwascarried
from
theEnglish
LakeDistrict
toTableBayandtheGangesRiver,
butdeveloped
throughcontactwith non-English
regions,and moved
theBritish
attimes,
even
without,
throughout
Empire
England
as a reference
point.Andinthiswayitdiditsparttointegrate
the British
the
boundaries,
empire,by blurring
tempering
a measureof familiarity
forwould-be
exotic,providing
andmostofall,homogenizing
differences.
travellers,
' "Bringing
1JR
The
The
Victorian
Frame
the
Both
Elizabeth
etal.,
1995.
,
Constantine,
Seeley,
Expansion
Houghton's
Johns
ofEngland
of
New
Alive":
TheEmpire
New
Worlds
Old:
19th
London,
1883,
Mind,
1830-1870,
Haven,
1957, Empire
p8.
from
Century
2Theliterature
inchapters
onthis
is
on'anti- Marketing
Board
andImperial
Australian
&American
point
except
briefly
Landscapes,
voluminous.
Themost
'the
of
in
andTim
intellectualism',
1916-23',
Canberra,
1998,
worship
Propaganda,
Barringer,
summation
be force',
and'patriotism'.
M
and 'Imperial
Visions:
to
MacKenzie,
John
comprehensive
may
opcit,
ppl92-231,
Responses
inWilliam
found
and
&Build.
The
inVictorian
andAfrica
Art
Louis,
ed,
ed,Imperialism
MacKenzie,
idem,
Roger
Buy
AdvertisingIndia
The
British
inMacKenzie,
Culture,
Manchester,
1986, Posters
ed,The
Oxford
History
Popular
ofthe
ofthe
Empire
Marketing andDesign',
For focuses
ontheageofhigh
Anne
Victorian
1998-9.
focus
on
,5vols,
Oxford,
Board,
London,
1986;
Empire
Vision,
15-33,
pp3
a brief
thevarious imperialism,
after
asdoes
Leather:
1880,
McClintock,
Race, two
survey
outlining
Imperial
regions.
is
PaxBritannica.
The
Gender
andSexuality
inthe
Colonial15Onthedifficulties
ofadministering
Morris,
James
methodological
approaches
Andrew
Climax
New
New
from
seeDM
Porter,
York,
1968, Contest,
York,
1995,
pp207-31. theempire
London,
European
ofEmpire,
who
writes
oftheDiamond
overviewYoung,
The
Colonial
inthe
1860-1914,
London,
Jubilee11Themost
Imperialism,
comprehensive
Office
Onpre-modern
thenew
ofthefield
ofimperial
artisJeffreyEarly
1994.
Nineteenth
conceptionshaving
'crystallized
London,
Century,
oftheBritish
seeDavid
ofEmpire',
'Art
andEmpire',
WCell,
British
Colonial
Auerbach,
Empire,
conception
p37.
John
Oxford 1961;
The
Under
SixReigns,
British
voly
Administration
inthe
Mid-Nineteenth
Armitage,
Ideological
Origins
of 6GPGooch,
History
ofthe
Empire,
the
British
2000. London,
WWinks,
edRobin
New
Onthe
1970.
,Cambridge,
1958,
Oxford,
1999, Century,
Haven,
Empire
pl23.
SThompson,
MMacKenzie,
andthe PP571-83.
ofrunning
theempire
3Andrew
Imperial 7John
'Empire
challenges
Britain:
The
inBritish
inThe
Politics Global
Victorian 12Seeespecially
Beth
Fowkes
theperiphery,
seeWilliam
Gaze',
Tobin, from
Empire
c.1880-1932,
Vision:
New
Power:
Colonial Denison,
Varieties
2000;
Britain,
Edinburgh,
Inventing
Picturing
Imperial
ofVice-Regal
Life,
Antoinette
and
inEighteenth
British 2vols,
ed,Politics
Burton,
London,
2001,
London,
1870;
pp241-2.
James
Subjects
Century
PopeinVictorian
New 8Here
tootheliterature
borders
on
Verandah:
Some
Britain,
Durham,
NC,1999,
Empire
Painting,
p2;
Hennessy,
Episodes
theunmanageable,
butinthewake Pratapaditya
PalandVidya
Crown
Colonies.
York,
2001;
Schneer,
Jonathan
1867-1889,
Dehijia, inthe
London
WeImperial
ofEdward
Said's
New From
Merchants
1900:
toEmperors:
British New
1964.
Orientalism,
York,
New
a selection
ofrecent Artists
andIndia,
1999.
effects
ofthe
Haven,
York,
1978,
1757-1930,
Ithaca, 16Onthesanitizing
Metropolis,
4Antoinette
Atthe
Heart
would
have
toinclude
Sara
16.Themost
influential picturesque
inBritish
India
and
Burton,
1986,
ofthe works
Indians
andthe
Colonial
The
Rhetoric
this
seeSuleri
andNochlin.
Suleri,
India, work
Empire:
ofEnglish
taking
approach,
though elsewhere,
inLate-Victorian
Encounter
Deirdre
Rule notfocused
ontheBritish
AnEssay
onthe
Britain, Chicago,
1992;
David,
Price,
Empire,17Uvedale
Michael
The Britannia:
and
isLinda
'TheImaginary Picturesque,
1998;
Fisher,
Women,
Nochlin,
Berkeley,
London,
Empire,
1794,
20;
pp9,
Travels
Travel
Art
inAmerica,
71(1983), Richard
The
Mahomet,
Ithaca,
Orient',
ofDean
Berkeley, Victorian
Writing,
Payne
Knight,
WSaid,
Edward
and
Culture
Home
and
ADidactic
Poem
inThree
1997;
1995;
Grewal,
Inderpal
ppll8-31ff.
Landscape:
New
Ann Harem.
and 13Bernard
Vision
York,
1993;
Nation,
31.
Gender,
Smith,
Books,
London,
1794,
Imperialism,
Empire,
European
pp23,
Laura
Stoler
andFrederick
Cultures
South
2ndedn,
New 18Tillotson,
Durham,
NC, andthe
Cooper, the
ofTravel,
Pacific,
p55.
'Between
andColony: 1996;
LPaxton,
1985.
19Jacques
Haven,
Metropole
Derrida,
Nancy
Writing
OfGrammatology,
a Research
the
Carruthers
and
trans.
Brunswick,
NJ, 14Forexample,
Rethinking
Agenda', under
Jane
Raj,New
Gayatri
Chakravorty
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Life
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ina Bourgeois
edFrederick Louise
TYavel Thomas
ofidentity
andalterity,
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Imperial
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andAnn
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Writing
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The
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Landscapes
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9James
Encounters
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Picturing
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Transposed: Photography
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The
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British
noattempt
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impact
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Empire,
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10Thomas
The
isMichael
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asa web
culture,
Aldershot,
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Jacobs, 21Theideaoftheempire
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theempire
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Tony
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E
almost
nowhere
Orientalism
andRace.
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Stephen Exploration
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TheBRITISHARTJournal VolumeY No.l
from 'much
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56Jeffrey
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andBenjamin
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M
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39;DouglasHaynes,
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42Watling,
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See
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1788-1960,
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John
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Civilising
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Landscape
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English
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22Malcolm
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India:
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Jagmohan
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India:
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Smyth:
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New
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Land
Settlement
thepicturesque
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Claude
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p 48HDiane
Early
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inorder
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offeeling
1994.
London,
early
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Landscape,
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have
been
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ofEnglish
Eighteenth
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the
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1925.
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British
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Politics Papers
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ed,The
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Hobart,
1878, Landscape
Oxford,
1994, Society
posed
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Painting,
ofTasmania,
Picturesque,
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subcontinent
Richardson
Glover
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IanMichasiw, p64.
178;Kim
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p64;Constable,
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62David
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Mitchell
38
Lepore,
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of King
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Representations,
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23Tillotson,
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24Itshould
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The
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Revisited
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51
35
Earth,
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andIndoTavistock
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fall
orperfectly
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Culture,
2000,
pp69,
Lydford
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exclusively
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Welsh
Waterfall
tradition.
thepicturesque
1990.
36Johns,
Cain,
Allure,
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pl22.
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52Rosenthal,
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Historical
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inthedistance.
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hills
human
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99:3(1994),
Landscape
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origins
2002.
other
intheabsence
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Princeton,
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pp746-66.
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26Harriet
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New
inEighteenth-Century
andisloosely
based
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Haven,
York,
1984,
15;John
Century,
Nationality
Itis
Edward
Daniel
The
Oriental
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andIsaac(1655-60).
British
oftheSouth
Clarke,
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1997;
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alsoworth
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onBritish
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1500Asia,
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Glover,
son,
John
Europe,
Essays
thecoast
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edJohn
1810-23.
1988,
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1920,
Oxford, characterized
1700-1850,
Barrell,
Cambridge,
pl35.
inCPBarbier,
settled
as 54Quoted
William
Launceston
where
1992,
they
ppl01-34.
54
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