GENERAL ASSEMBLY: WHITE
PLENARY SESSION
DESCRIPTION OF THE COMMITTEE
The General Assembly (GA) is the main decision-making body of the United Nations. It includes
all 192 member states; each member state has one vote. It is empowered through Article 11 of
the UN Charter to “consider the general principles of cooperation in the maintenance of
international peace and security.”1 The GA addresses issues involving all aspects of the UN’s
work, including humanitarian, peace and security, and human rights matters. It refers threats to
peace to the Security Council for discussion. Resolutions, or peaceful decisions, produced by the
GA are not binding—the GA cannot force countries to take action on any issue—but because
they are supported by a majority of countries in the world, they are important international
documents.
GA is divided into six committees, with each committee responsible for certain issues. It also
meets as a whole. The sessions in which all members of the UN meet are called Plenary sessions.
TOPIC: MULTINATIONAL TERRORIST GROUPS
INTRODUCTION
On September 11, 2001, terrorists attacked the World Trade Center in the United States. After
that event, UN member states focused on ending terrorism worldwide. In early October 2001,
more UN members met to address the problem of terrorism than for any other item on the
organization’s agenda ever.2
But countries still argue over what groups or individuals should be labeled “terrorists.” In many
parts of the world, groups wage war with their countries, either to separate from the government
or to overthrow it entirely. Sometimes these people are treated unfairly by their government, and
their struggles are justified. Other times, these groups use violence against both military and
civilian targets, terrorizing innocent bystanders to get what they want—these groups are
terrorists. Often, though, it is difficult to tell the difference.
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Today, several major countries—notably the United States and United Kingdom—are involved
in the “war on terrorism,” a campaign to end global terrorist organizations. Other countries,
such as Indonesia, Russia and the Philippines, are struggling to put down terrorist groups within
their borders. Terrorism is increasingly an international problem: large terrorist groups can stage
attacks in several countries, or several groups can serve act as allies in a world-wide terrorist
network. To fight global terrorism, the international community must address many complicated
problems, such as state-sponsored terrorism and cooperation between states.
Today, the UN is working to stop terrorism, and to ensure that member states act fairly when
doing so. But many counties are afraid that these efforts will pose problems for national
sovereignty—the right of a nation to control what happens within its borders. Also, the UN must
find out how it can get more money for the war on terrorism and encourage countries to share
their information on terrorists worldwide.
CRITICAL THINKING
When is it justifiable for a country to violate another country’s sovereignty?
BACKGROUND
Throughout history, governments have opposed groups that commit violence in support of
extreme ideas. Sometimes these ideas are political and other times they are religious. Today,
terrorist groups can attack targets around the world, or support one another in underground
networks that span the globe. Every country in the world risks being affected by terrorism—even
global terrorism—in one way or another.
Terrorist organizations take advantage of developmental problems. In places where people suffer
from the effects of poverty, these groups attract followers by promising education, employment
and the opportunity to serve a powerful political or religious cause. Essentially, these
organizations claim to offer people a better life.
People remain members of terrorist groups due to indoctrination—the persuasive teaching of
extreme beliefs and ideologies. These teachings are so powerful that followers believe
committing violence against innocent people is, under certain circumstances, morally acceptable.
These teachings even persuade followers to risk their lives for the group’s cause.
The tactics used by terrorist groups are often very simple. Unlike modern war, which is
conducted with expensive equipment, armies and high-tech weapons, terrorism relies on very
few resources. Terrorists are known to produce homemade bombs, steal guns and even perform
“suicide missions”—setting off explosions to kill themselves and the people around them.
Terrorist acts are not only difficult to prevent, but also very difficult to predict.
Some terrorist groups have even tried to acquire weapons of mass destruction (WMD) such as
biological, chemical and nuclear devices. Biological weapons include diseases, which can be
grown in makeshift laboratories and then released to infect civilians. Other weapons, such as
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nuclear warheads, cannot easily be produced, but may be stolen from governments around the
world.
CRITICAL THINKING
How might economic development and improvement of living conditions help to fight
terrorism?
Regional Terrorism
In the past, terrorist groups have mainly been focused in specific regions. In the United
Kingdom, the Irish Republican Army (IRA) carried out bombings and attacks throughout the
second half of the 20th century. This violence was meant to help Northern Ireland gain
independence from Britain. It was also because of a religious conflict between Protestants and
Catholics in the region. Similarly, an extremist group from the Russian region of Chechnya has
pursued independence from Russia by committing violent acts against civilians. In 2004, this
group took over a thousand students and teachers hostage, resulting in over two hundred deaths.3
In Latin America, groups such as the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) commit
kidnappings and murder to draw attention to their radical ideas.4 And the Aum Shinrikyo, or
“Supreme Truth,” once recognized as an official religious group by the Japanese government,
began to carry out violent attacks on civilians. On March 20, 1995, the group released a deadly
gas into the subways of Japan, killing 12 people and injuring thousands.5
Terrorism affects all regions and nations. The US National Counterterrorism Center recognizes
over 30 major terrorist groups throughout the world, and smaller terrorist organizations continue
to appear.6
Al Qaeda and Global Terrorism
Probably the most well-known terrorist group today is Al Qaeda. Al Qaeda was formed to fight
Soviet troops occupying Afghanistan in the 1980s. During the Gulf War, under the leadership of
Osama bin Laden, the group began to protest the presence of US troops in the Middle East.
In 1998, Osama bin Laden issued a formal declaration instructing all Muslims to begin killing
Americans.7 Even though these efforts contradict the peaceful teachings of Islam, the group
claims it fights for all Muslims in the region.
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The reach of multinational terrorist groups is very large. Al Qaeda was once believed to run
active “cells,” or small groups, in over 60 countries (the current number is unknown).
In several regions, members in “sleeper cells” wait quietly, living normal lives for years at a
time before they receive a call from the organization to commit a terrorist act.
Source: Kevin Whitelaw and Mark Mazzetti, “One Year After 9/11 – A Nation Changed,” US
News and World Report, November 11, 2002,
www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/021111/archive_022282.htm
Today, travel and communication have become much easier, which helps terrorist groups work
internationally. In areas such as Eastern Europe, countries often do not have enough resources to
maintain strict border controls. As a result, extremists and criminals can move between nations
easily without being detected by governments.
Terrorists can inflict vast damage with few resources by using cheap technology and simple
tactics. On September 11, 2001, the United States suffered losses of between $100 billion and
$300 billion. However, the total cost of the attack to Al Qaeda appears to have been somewhere
around $500,000—a mere two to five percent of the financial damage to the US.8
The Self-Defense Argument
Terrorist attacks injure and kill many people—for example, well over two thousand people died
as a result of the September 11 attacks. It is a government’s responsibility to protect its citizens;
if a government believes that a terrorist group threatens its people, it may take police or military
action to stop the terrorists from acting. Some believe that this force should only be used within a
nation’s own borders.
CRITICAL THINKING
How might military action help to stop terrorism? How might it actually aid
terrorists in some cases?
Others now look to root out terrorist organizations in foreign countries as well, arguing that
terrorists must be stopped regardless of their location. But it can become difficult to distinguish
between battling terrorists and battling the nations that terrorists seek refuge in. In these cases,
nations that harbor terrorists may have a secret alliance with the terrorist group, or they may not
know how to locate and arrest terrorist within their borders. The right of one country to use
military force against terrorists in another country continues to be a controversial issue.
Complications in the War on Terror
Critics argue that some governments use the war on terror as an excuse to suppress political
opposition. For example, people who are being oppressed by their country might begin to battle
the government for increased rights or independence. Without a conventional army or a lot of
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money, these groups would be forced to use cheap technology and simple tactics. These groups
would be called “freedom fighters” by their supporters, but “terrorists” by the government.
Human rights organizations warn that countries such as Russia, Uzbekistan and Egypt have been
labeling opponents as “terrorists” or “terrorist supporters” in order to discredit them. The
accusation of terrorism can even be used to attack or imprison people unfairly. Using the war on
terrorism as an excuse to persecute innocent people may even make real terrorist groups more
appealing to people victimized by their government.9
Other critics disagree with the concept of a “war on terrorism” as a whole. Terrorism arises in
states that are underdeveloped and politically unstable, where people are vulnerable to extreme
ideas. But because extreme ideas emerge all over the world, and because they are unique to every
situation, there is no way to properly eradicate—or to totally get rid of—them.
In order to effectively combat terrorism, experts say, governments must be fair and cautious in
their counter-terrorism efforts. Member states must look carefully at accusations of “terrorism,”
and must address the violent acts in a just and reasonable way.
PAST INTERNATIONAL ACTION
There are a number of international declarations that focus on terrorism. In 1963, the Convention
on Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft addressed possible terrorist
acts onboard airplanes.10 In 1979, the International Convention against the Taking of Hostages
was written in New York, at a time when almost 70 Americans were being held hostage at the
US Embassy in Iran.11
The 1980s saw documents on even more airline precautions, protection for ships at sea and, for
the first time, the protection of nuclear materials against terrorists. However, none of these
measures dealt with specific multinational terrorist groups and how to stop them.
UN Action before September 11, 2001
In 1994, countries created the Declaration of Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism.
First, the document encouraged countries to share information about global terrorist groups,
giving every nation an opportunity to defend itself and to take action against terrorists within its
borders. Second, it condemned countries that support terrorists. Finally, it established a basic
definition of terrorism by outlawing “criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of
terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes.”12
Resolution 1373
In late September 2001, the Security Council created a more specific response to multinational
terrorism in the form of Resolution 1373.
First, Resolution 1373 called upon member states to stop funding terrorist organizations. It also
called for the monitoring of bank accounts to determine which accounts were held by terrorist
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groups. Those accounts were to be “frozen” so that terrorists would not have access to their
funds.13
All over the world, terrorist groups acquire money through criminal businesses (such as the sale
of drugs or weapons) and donations from supporters. By freezing their funds, nations will limit
the ability of multinational terrorist groups to act. However, many developing nations do not
have the capacity to monitor all of their banks. Similarly, in many countries, it is illegal to
interfere with bank accounts.
Resolution 1373 also established guidelines for dealing with the threat of terrorism. These
required countries to stop supporting terrorist groups and encouraged them to strengthen laws
regarding terrorism. The resolution also pushed member states make sure terrorists do not enter
their borders.14
These goals, however, are difficult to achieve. Many countries already have problems associated
with loosely controlled borders. Many nations also have little experience with creating laws that
deal with the terrorist threat. And countries are often reluctant to share information, even
information about dangerous multinational terrorist groups. Sharing knowledge of this kind
might reveal secrets about national security or information-gathering practices.
Finally, Resolution 1373 called for the establishment of the Counter-Terrorism Committee,
which would focus on issues that affect the growth of terrorist groups.15 Specifically, the
committee helps governments find terrorists, improve border control and share information.16
Currently, the member states are negotiating a 14th international treaty, which would complement
the existing framework of anti-terrorism instruments, and also build on the main principles
present in recent anti-terrorism conventions. On September 8, 2006, the General Assembly
adopted the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, which stressed the importance of
the existing international counter-terrorism instruments. Member states pledged to consider
becoming parties to them and implementing their provisions16.
The four major aspects of UN Security Council Resolution 1373 are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Preventing terrorist groups from getting money;
Helping countries stop terrorism within their borders;
Promoting the exchange of information about terrorist groups worldwide; and
Establishing the Counter-Terrorism Committee.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FORMULATING A RESOLUTION
Delegates should address the following when creating draft resolutions:
• Recommending ways that countries can fight terrorism within their borders;
• Suggesting ways for countries to work together to make laws and ensure that terrorist do
not cross borders;
• Setting up a secure and private system so that countries can share important information
about terrorists; and
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•
Ensuring that countries do not use the “war on terrorism” as an excuse to stifle
opposition.
QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
6. Has your country ever been attacked by terrorists?
7. Has your country been accused of supporting terrorism? If so, what measures has
your government taken in response?
8. What anti-terror conventions and treaties has your country signed and ratified?
9. How does your country answer the self-defense argument? Should nations be
allowed to act on their own to eliminate terrorist groups? Should nations be allowed
to attack terrorist groups in other countries? What should the UN’s role be?
10. What could the UN do to help individual nations, particularly developing nations,
write laws and create programs to combat terrorism within their borders?
SOURCES FOR RESEARCH
Terrorism Research Center www.terrorism.com
International Policy Group for Counter-Terrorism www.ict.org.il
UN Action Against Terrorism www.un.org/terrorism
Counter-Terrorism Committee www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/1373
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TERMS AND CONCEPTS
Terrorism: Terrorism can be described as the use of violence against regular people to cause fear, in
order to achieve a political or religious goal. However, there is not yet a definition of terrorism that all
UN member states agree upon. The definition of terrorism is controversial because an act considered
by one country to be terrorism might be seen by another country as a fight for freedom. Some member
states believe that countries can also commit terrorism, while others believe that only non-state actors
can commit terrorism.
Ceasefire: an agreement between groups in conflict to stop the violence.
Eradicate: to get rid of or destroy completely.
Sovereignty: the right of a country to govern itself and its territory without external control or
interference from other countries.
Ideology: a set of ideas or beliefs.
Indoctrination: teaching someone to accept extreme ideologies without questioning them.
“War on terrorism”: the name for the controversial campaign led by the United States and the
United Kingdom in response to September 11, 2001.
Resolution 1373: the UN Security Council resolution passed in response to the events of September
11, 2001.
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TOPIC: ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
Development is the process of expanding human potential. It involves alleviating poverty and
preventable disease as well as providing educational and economic opportunities. Sustainable
development means meeting people’s current needs without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.17 In other words, sustainable development requires people
to protect the environment so that development can continue in the future.
Energy is vital to achieving sustainable development. People need energy to satisfy their basic
needs for clean water, food, sanitation and housing. But two billion people have no access to
energy services, such as electricity in their homes.18 The challenge is to find a way to provide
energy for these people, as well as for businesses, without depleting too many natural resources
or adversely affecting the environment.
BACKGROUND
Energy production, distribution and consumption all have negative effects on environment. Some
effects are felt locally, while others affect the whole region, or even the global environment.
During energy production, fuels like coal are often burned to produce electricity. This process
creates air pollution, which is damaging to people’s heath and the environment.
Coal and other fuels must be mined, or extracted from the ground. These extractive industries,
such as oil and coal mining, can be very damaging to the environment. 19 There is a limited
supply of coal and oil on earth, so this fuel cannot be renewed after it is used. In addition,
pollution caused by energy production and consumption can reduce soil quality and cause acid
build-up in the water supply.20
The burning of fossil fuels, such as oil and coal, also causes a phenomenon called global
warming, or global climate change. When fossil fuels are burned, they release chemicals called
greenhouse gases. These chemicals, including carbon dioxide, hold heat inside the earth’s
atmosphere. Scientists believe that the greenhouse effect will cause the Earth’s temperature to
rise significantly. They believe an increase in the amount of greenhouse gases will destabilize
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weather patterns on Earth. Recently scientists have been pointing out warning signs that suggest
such a trend is already occurring.
Access to Energy
Even though producing and consuming energy has serious environmental costs, it is vital to
sustainable development. Energy, in the form of electricity, is used for lighting, refrigeration,
machines, manufacturing and telecommunications. But there are still many regions on earth
without adequate access to electricity. In the last 25 years, more than one billion people gained
access to electricity. However, another 1.6 billion people around the world still lack access to
electricity.21
Statistics on Electricity Access
•
•
•
•
Four out of five people who lack access to electricity live in rural areas of the
developing world, mainly in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa.
In Sub-Saharan Africa, only eight percent of the rural population has access to
electricity, compared with 51 percent of the urban population.
In South Asia, only 30 percent of the rural population has access to electricity,
whereas 68 percent of the urban population has access.
If nothing is done to address this problem, it is estimated that 1.5 billion people will
still lack access to electricity in 2030.
Source: The Energy Challenge for Achieving the Millennium Development Goals, UN Energy
http://esa.un.org/un-energy/pdf/UN-ENRG%20paper.pdf
Electricity is needed in order to encourage investment and economic growth, which are
important components of development. Economic growth can help provide higher wages and
new employment opportunities, which can help to alleviate poverty. But companies and
individuals need energy in order to produce goods and services. Imagine trying to run a factory
in a location where electricity was unavailable or unreliable. Most companies probably would
not build a factory in such a location. Consequently, there may be too few job opportunities for
the people who live there.
When people do not have access to energy in the form of electricity, they must use traditional
alternatives like fuelwood or charcoal. These forms of energy are harmful to people and to the
environment. People must cut down trees in order to gather fuelwood, which can cause erosion.
In addition, the burning of fuelwood creates indoor air pollution that can be very harmful to the
health of the inhabitants.22
The use of fuelwood also has far-reaching social effects. Because people must spend many hours
out of each day colleting fuelwood, they are not able to use that time to work or go to school.
Many girls in particular are not able to go to school because they are traditionally responsible for
collecting fuelwood.
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Access to energy is a problem that affects primarily the poor, usually in developing regions. But
environmental damage also tends to disproportionately affect the poor in society. In
industrialized urban areas, the poor tend to live closest to pollution-producing factories and
highways. In rural areas, the poor are most likely to be exposed to indoor air pollution from
traditional fuels such as fuelwood. They are also more vulnerable to soil and water pollution
because they often depend on agriculture.
WORLDWIDE ACCESS TO ELECTRICITY
Source: The Energy Challenge for Achieving the Millennium Development Goals, UN Energy
http://esa.un.org/un-energy/pdf/UN-ENRG%20paper.pdf
Fuels for Household Use
Traditional Fuels
fuelwood
charcoal
coal
kerosene
crop residues
dung
Modern Fuels
natural gas
liquefied petroleum gas
ethanol
biomass (such as biodiesel)
methanol
Source: The Energy Challenge for Achieving the Millennium Development Goals, UN Energy
http://esa.un.org/un-energy/pdf/UN-ENRG%20paper.pdf
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Alternative Sources of Energy
Some of the most commonly used fuels today are fossil fuels—oil, coal and natural gas. Fossil
fuels are popular because they are relatively inexpensive and the technology needed to use them
is widely available. Most automobiles run on gasoline, which is made from oil, and fossil fuels
are often burned to produce electricity. But these fuels pollute the air and water, contribute to
global warming, and they are non-renewable.
In contrast, renewable resources are those that do not deplete, or run out, such as sunlight, wind
and water. The committee may wish to consider the benefits and drawbacks of a variety of
renewable energy resources, including solar power, hydropower, tidal power, wind power and
biomass.
Depleteable Energy Resources
coal
natural gas
petroleum fuels
geothermal energy
nuclear energy
Renewable Energy Resources
solar
hydropower
tidal power
wind
biomass (such as biodiesel)
Source: The Energy Challenge for Achieving the Millennium Development Goals, UN Energy
http://esa.un.org/un-energy/pdf/UN-ENRG%20paper.pdf
Tidal power is a way of generating electricity that uses the power of tides—the cycle of rising and falling
water levels caused by the gravitational pull of the sun and the moon. The energy of these water flows can
be captured by building a dam, usually near where a river and the ocean meet. The flowing water goes
through a turbine—a spinning machine that consists of a wheel with blades. The water passing through
the turbine turns the blades, which powers a generator that creates electricity.
Benefits of tidal power
• After the dam is built, the power
supplied is relatively inexpensive;
• No greenhouse gases or waste are
emitted;
• No fuel is needed;
• Tides are predictable, so tidal power
is reliable;
• Renewable source of energy.
Drawbacks of tidal power
• Only provides power for 10 hours
per day, based on the tidal flows;
• Can disrupt wildlife and change the
environment in coastal areas;
• The rotating blades of water
turbines can disrupt a river’s
ecosystem.
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Wind Power has been used as a source of energy for over 4,000 years. Today, wind towers collect energy
to be used in homes and businesses. A wind tower is made up of a long pole with a propeller at the top.
The propeller is blown by the wind, which then starts a generator that collects the energy. Usually the
wind towers are built very closely together creating what is known as a “wind farm.” Wind farms are
usually built in areas that have very strong and heavy winds. Wind generators can also be found on boats
– they help to regenerate the boat’s batteries.
Benefits of wind power
• Wind is free and wind farms need no
fuel;
• Wind towers produce no greenhouse
gases or waste;
• The land beneath the towers is
available to be used for farming;
• Wind farms can be a tourist
attraction;
• Wind is a good source of energy for
remote areas;
• Wind is a renewable resource.
Drawbacks of wind power
• Wind is not very predictable;
• Areas where wind can be used as a
power sources are often located
near the coast where the property
cost is very high;
• Wind towers can be considered an
eyesore;
• Wind towers sometimes kill birds;
• Wind towers have an effect on
television reception;
• Wind towers are noisy;
Solar Energy makes use of the sun’s radiation. Solar cells, also called photovoltaic and photoelectric
cells, are one way harness the power of the sun. Solar cells convert sunlight directly into energy by
trapping the light in solar panels. This form of energy is used to power everything from satellites to
pocket calculators. Some people use solar panels on the roofs of their homes or businesses to supply their
electricity. There are also power stations that have been built to convert solar energy to usable electricity.
Benefits of solar power
• The sun’s energy is free;
• Solar power creates no greenhouse
gas admissions
• In very sunlit regions, solar power can
be used to provide electricity to
remote locations;
• Solar power is very useful for low
energy uses like battery chargers;
Drawbacks of solar power
• Solar power does not work at night;
• Solar panels are expensive, so they
may not be cost effective;
• Solar power is only reliable in a
sunny environment
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Hydropower, like tidal power, uses the flow of water to create energy. To create hydroelectricity, a dam
is built in a lake or large river, with tunnels running through the dam. There are turbines inside of each
tunnel. As the water travels through the tunnel, the water forces the blades of the turbine to spin which
starts the generator inside of the turbine. The generator collects the energy from the movement of water
within the tunnel.
Benefits of hydropower
• Electricity is produced constantly
• After the dam is built, it does not cost
much to operate it;
• Hydropower does not produce any
waste or pollution;
• Hydropower is very reliable;
• Hydropower is renewable;
• Tunnels in the dam can be blocked to
store water for later use when demand
for electricity is higher;
Drawbacks of hydropower
• Dams are very expensive to build
and not many areas are suitable for
dams
• Dams can cause problems for
wildlife and ecosystems;
• The quality of life for residents who
live near the dam can be seriously
undermined.
Biomass refers to plants and biodegradable wastes that can be burned for fuel. Plants like
switchgrass, corn and sugarcane can all be used for fuel. Although current use of biomass is
limited, interest in this form of energy is growing as countries look for renewable sources of
energy.
Benefits of biomass
• Use of biomass for energy results is
much lower carbon emissions;
• Biodiesel and ethanol are fuels
created from biomass that can be used
in automobiles instead of fossil fuels;
• Biomass is renewable;
• Biomass is widely available.
Drawbacks of biomass
• Burning of biomass still creates
some carbon emissions.
• Biomass is not yet widely used.
Nuclear energy is a controversial form of energy generation that uses radioactive uranium as
fuel. The uranium is broken down in a process called fission that releases huge amounts of
energy in the form of heat. This heat is used to produce steam, which used to power a turbine,
creating electricity. Nuclear energy is not a renewable source of energy, but it does have the
benefit of not causing carbon emissions. The radioactive material that is used to create the
chemical reaction that produces nuclear power can be extremely dangerous. Although nuclear
power plants insist that nuclear power is safe if properly monitored, there have been accidents
that result in a release of radiation, such as in Chernobyl, Russia and Three Mile Island in
Pennsylvania. In addition, the waste created by nuclear power remains radioactive and must be
securely contained.
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Benefits nuclear power
• Nuclear power does not produce
carbon emissions or air pollution, just
steam;
• Nuclear power is relatively costeffective;
Drawbacks of nuclear power
• There is a finite amount of uranium
available on earth;
• The used up uranium remains
radioactive for thousands of years
and must be safely stored;
• Deadly accidents can result if the
nuclear reaction gets out of control;
• Providing nuclear technology to
some countries might result in
nuclear proliferation—more
countries possessing nuclear
weapons.
INTERNATIONAL ACTION
There have been several attempts in the past two decades to prevent further damage to the
environment caused by energy production and consumption. Most efforts focus on reducing
dependence on fossi fuels and increasing the use of alternative sources of energy, particularly
those that are renewable.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) recognizes that
the climate system is a shared resource among all nations. It was introduced in 1992 and entered
into force on March 21, 1994. It was ratified by nearly all of the member states. It stated that
governments should gather and share information on global warming and strategies for
minimizing its harmful impacts. It also pressured developed nations to reduce their emissions,
since they emit the largest percentage of greenhouse gases.23
Several years later, as the evidence supporting global warming continued to grow, many nations
realized that countries’ commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions needed to be
strengthened. On December 11, 1997 the international community produced the Kyoto Protocol,
an amendment to UNFCCC, which introduced legally binding targets for countries to meet
during the commitment period 2008-2012. By then, the reductions made by individual countries
will add up to a 5 percent cut in greenhouse gas emissions from the 1990 levels.24
The Kyoto Protocol also introduced emissions trading, which allows countries that exceed their
emission quotas to purchase emission credit from countries that are able to stay below their
limits. This provides developed countries, which emit large quantities of greenhouse gases, with
greater flexibility and gives developing countries an economic incentive to reduce emissions.
The agreement entered into force on February 16, 2005 after being ratified by 163 countries.25
CRITICAL THINKING
The United States and Australia are two of the largest produces of greenhouse gases., yet
neither country has ratified the Kyoto Protocol. What effect to you think this has on the
agreement? Why do you think they have not ratified the treaty?
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Kyoto Protocol Participation
Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Kyoto_Protocol_participation_map_2005.png
Action by the United Nations
The 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development, also called Earth Summit 2002 or
Rio+10, was held in Johannesburg, South Africa. The first earth summit had been held ten years
earlier in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. At Rio+10, representatives from UN bodies, countries and
nongovernmental organizations discussed a wide variety of environmental and sustainable
development issues. The Johannesburg Declaration was the main international agreement to
come out of the Summit. This declaration asked for the creation of a UN body devoted to
sustainable energy.26
As a result of the Johannesburg Declaration, the UN-Energy is the principal agency of the UN
that focuses on energy-related issues. It was created after the WSSD to help encourage
collaboration between UN agencies and other institutions working in the field of sustainable
energy. UN-Energy helps to coordinate and support the efforts of a number of other UN agencies
such as UNDP, UNESCO, and the IAEA in improving the access to energy services and in
creating renewable energy programs in countries around the world.
The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) sees energy as an important aspect of
sustainable development and the battle against poverty. Also, the UNDP believes that improving
the availability and quality of energy around the world is a crucial first step toward achieving the
Millennium Development Goals. The UNDP does not only help countries by giving money to
energy installation projects, it also works to change government policy to favor renewable
energy methods and to develop community services that have the knowledge and resources to
help poor people gain access to energy.27
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RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FORMULATING A RESOLUTION
The committee may wish to discuss the following in formulating a resolution:
• The negative effects associated with traditional energy production and consumption;
• The ways in which energy is a requirement for sustainable development;
• How to improve access to energy in developing regions;
• How to decrease energy usage through conservation;
• The pros and cons of various forms of renewable energy production; and
• How these technologies can help encourage sustainable development.
QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
1. Is your country a developed or developing country?
2. What percentage of your country’s population lacks access to electricity?
3. What different types of energy does your country use, and in what amounts?
4. Does your country have initaitves for increasing the use of rewnewable energy?
What percentage of your country’s energy comes from these sources?
5. Did your country ratify the Kyoto Protocol?
6. Is your country an exporter of fossil fuels or any other energy source? Does your
country import these products?
SOURCES FOR RESEARCH
General: UN-Energy http://esa.un.org/un-energy
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) www.undp.org
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) www.unep.org
Middle East: Leading energy companies partner with Abu Dhabi in renewable energy park
By Linda Sukhtian:
http://planetsave.com/ps_mambo/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=7056&Itemid=70
Asia: Paying for Pollution through Energy Hunger
By Keith Bradshear, NY Times: Jan. 9, 2007
2007http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/09/business/worldbusiness/09village.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1
Americas: Brazil’s Sugar Crop Fuels Nation’s Cars By Guto Harri, BBC News: February 15, 2006
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4715332.stm
Local Company Helps Power Mexican Homes By Laura Brown, The Union: December18,2006
http://www.theunion.com/article/20061218/NEWS/112180137/-1/rss02
Europe: EU touts nuclear, renewable energy By Aude Lagorce, MarketWatch: January 10, 2007
http://www.marketwatch.com/news/story/story.aspx?guid=%7B50DEDD35%2D7728%2D4E2E%2D805
2%2D3F0C1C91F7EF%7D&dist=rss
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TERMS AND CONCEPTS
sustainable development: development that meets people’s current needs without preventing future
generations from meeting their needs as well
extractive industries: industries that require mining, or the taking of minerals or fuels from the earth
fossil fuels: fuels that are created over millions of years from the carbon contained in once-living
plants and animals
global warming: an increase in the Earth’s temperature due to an enhanced greenhouse effect where
human activities in industrialized societies have added to nature’s emissions of greenhouse gases.
greenhouse gases: gases such as carbon dioxide and methane that cause the Earth’s atmosphere to
hold in heat
fuelwood: wood that is burned for use as an energy source, usually for cooking or heating
renewable: something that can be replaced by new supply or new growth
deplete: to use up the supply of something
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): a convention that
recognized the climate system as a shared resource among nations. It affirmed the importance of an
international cooperative effort in cutting greenhouse gas emissions, but placed a larger responsibility
on developed nations who are the largest emitters. It was ratified by 189 countries and went into effect
on March 21, 1994.
Kyoto Protocol: a treaty strengthening the objectives of the UNFCCC. It sets specific targets and
deadlines for cutting greenhouse gas emissions and nations are legally bound to their commitments.
The goal is for a reduction of at least 5 percent in emissions in the commitment period 2008-2012
from 1990 levels of greenhouse gases.
Emissions trading: a principle or component of the Kyoto Protocol whereby countries can trade
emission credits. In other words a market is opened up for countries to buy or sell quotas of
greenhouse gas emissions. This allows some countries to emit more greenhouse gases than what is
stated in the agreement, while encouraging other countries with economic gains to further reduce
emissions.
Emissions credit: an allowed quantity of greenhouse gas emissions. Countries receive an allotment of
emissions credits. Those that they do not use, countries can sell.
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REFERENCES
1
United Nations Department of Public Information, Basic Facts About the United Nations, (New York, NY:
UNDPI, 1998) 68.
2
“General Assembly wraps up unprecedented five-day debate on terrorism,” October 5, 2001, United Nations News.
3
“Report: More than 200 dead after troops storm school,” CNN,
www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/europe/09/03/russia.school
4
“Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC),” Patterns of Global Terrorism, 2000. United States
Department of State, April 2001, http://library.nps.navy.mil/home/tgp/farc.htm.
5
Patterns of Global Terrorism, 2001.
6
National Counterterrorism Center, MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Base, http://tkb.org
7
Kevin Whitelaw and Mark Mazzetti, “One Year After 9/11 – A Nation Changed,” US News and World Report,
November 11, 2002, www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/021111/archive_022282.htm
8
Fareed Zakaria, “What's Next?” Newsweek, December 31, 2001: pg. 91
9
“War on terror cloaks rights abuses,” BBC news, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/1766038.stm
10
Joshua Black and Martin Skladany, Combating Terrorism: Does the UN Matter… And How?, ed. Jeffrey
Laurenti, (United Nations Association of the United States of America, 2002) 9,
www.unodc.org/unodc/en/terrorism_convention_aircraft.html
11
“International Convention against the Taking of Hostages”
www.unodc.org/unodc/en/terrorism_convention_hostages.html
12
A/Res/49/60 Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, UN General Assembly, December 9, 1994,
www.un.org/documents/ga/res/49/a49r060.htm
13
S/RES/1373 (2001), www.unodc.org/pdf/crime/terrorism/res_1373_english.pdf
14
S/RES/1373 (2001).
15
“Press Briefing by Chairman of the Counter-Terrorism Committee,” United Nations, October 19, 2001,
www.un.org/News/briefings/docs/2001/Greenstockbrf.doc.htm.
16
“How Does the CTC Work with States?” Counter-Terrorism Committee, www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/1373
16
“UN Action To Counter Terrorism.” http://www.un.org/terrorism/instruments.html
17
UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Division for Sustainable Development, www.un.org/esa/sustdev
18
UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Division for Sustainable Development, Energy for Sustainable
Development, www.un.org/esa/sustdev/sdissues/energy/enr.htm
19
Extractive Industries FAQ, World Bank,
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTSITETOOLS/0,,contentMDK:20205732~menuPK:435437~p
agePK:98400~piPK:98424~theSitePK:95474,00.html
20
The Energy Challenge for Achieving the Millennium Development Goals, UN Energy
http://esa.un.org/un-energy/pdf/UN-ENRG%20paper.pdf
21
The Energy Challenge for Achieving the Millennium Development Goals, UN Energy
http://esa.un.org/un-energy/pdf/UN-ENRG%20paper.pdf
22
UN/DESA Activities Supporting Access to Energy Services, http://esa.un.org/unenergy/mapping/DESA%5B1%5D.Acc.htm.
23
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate http://unfccc.int/2860.php
24
“The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,” United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change, http://unfccc.int/essential_background/convention/items/2627.php.
25
“Global Climate Change,” United Nations, www.un.org/News/facts/climate.htm.
26
Earth Summit 2002, http://www.earthsummit2002.org/
27
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), www.undp.org
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