07
EFFECT OF TRAMPOLINE TRAINING AND TUMBLING ON THE
CARDIOVASCULAR
EFFICIENCY OF COLLEGE WOMEN
THESIS
Presented to the Graduate Council of the
North Texas State University in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
By
Judith L.
Bateman,
Denton,
May,
Texas
1972
B.S.
Bateman,
Judith L., Effect of Trampoline Training and
Tumbling on the Cardiovascular Efficiency of College Women.
Master of Science
(Physical Education),
15 tables, bibliography,
May, 1972, 110 pp.,
83 titles.
Physical fitness has become increasingly important in
today's society.
Many activities have already been proven
helpful in increasing muscle strength or cardiovascular
endurance.
The present investigation was an attempt to
include the trampoline,
equipement,
a controversial piece of gymnastic
among those activities
which facilitate
cardio-
vascular fitness.
The purpose of the study was to determine if subjects
would improve in cardiovascular efficiency following a
six-week program of trampolining and/or tumbling.
Literature
concerning cardiovascular efficiency, training, trampoline,
testing instruments, test selection and maximal oxygen
intake were thoroughly reviewed.
The
Astrand
test
of maximal
oxygen intake and the Cooper twelve-minute run test of
aerobic capacity were found to best fit
present study.
of seventeen
the needs of the
Thirty-two college women, between the ages
and twenty-five, who were participating
in
beginning tumbling classes in the Women's Physical Education
Department at North Texas State University, were divided into
three groups of experimental subjects.
Nine subjects who
were not engaged in physical activity classes were used as
a control group.
The experimental subjects were randomly
assigned to one of three treatment groups.
Two of the
treatment groups trained on the trampoline for five and ten
minutes per day three days per week in addition to their
tumbling classes for a period of six weeks.
treatment group participated
classes.
The third
only in the regular tumbling
All subjects had little or no trampoline experience
and were asked not to perform on the trampoline except during
the training periods.
Subjects were tested on the Astrand test, Cooper test,
resting heart rate,
resting blood pressure and recovery
heart rate between the hours of 7:30 and 10:30 A.M. during
the two weeks preceding and following the training period.
The training regime was designed to facilitate gradual
conditioning of the subjects to the trampoline.
Group I,
consisting of eleven subjects, progressed to ten minutes per
day while Group II,
consisting of ten subjects progressed
to five minutes per day.
The experimental design was a one-way analysis of
covariance in which the F ratio was used to determine the
significance of the variation among four treatment groups'
improvement on the cardiovascular tests.
Alpha was .05,
was used to determine the
and Tukey's studentized range test
The Pearson product moment correlation
source of variation.
coefficient was used to determine the relationship between
the Astrand and Cooper tests, and the t ratio indicated
significant differences between groups pre- and posttest
performances on the cardiovascular tests.
was found between the
No significant relationship
the t ratio indicated significant
Astrand and Cooper tests,
increases,
at the .01 level, in cardiovascular efficiency
between the pre- and posttests for the trampoline-trained
groups.
Analysis of covariance
significant differences,
at the
for the Astrand test
revealed
.05 level, between the
trampoline groups and the tumbling and control
groups.
difference was found between the trampoline groups.
of covariance for the Cooper test
No
Analysis
and other cardiovascular
measures revealed no significant results.
In conclusion,
a program of trampoline training was
found to be beneficial
ciency.
in increasing cardiovascular
effi-
Five minutes per day of trampolining was just as
beneficial
as ten minutes per day.
rates and blood pressures
Changes in resting heart
and recovery heart rates were
largely affected by the subjects'
initial
levels of fitness.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES..........................
.
.........
Page
.v
Chapter
I.
INTRODUCTION.0.0..
.......
. . . . .0. .0..
1
Introduction and Statement of the Problem
Purpose of the Study
Definition of Terms
Statement of the Hypotheses
Limitations
Summary
II.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE...............
10
Cardiovascular Efficiency and Training
Trampoline
Maximal Oxygen Intake
Testing Instruments and Test Selection
Summary
III.
PROCEDURES...............................
52
Subjects
Testing Instruments
Test Administration
Research Design
Analysis of Data
Summary
IV.
PRESENTATION OF DATA............
Findings of the Study
Discussion of the Findings
iii
.........
66
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(Continued)
Chapter
V.
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
.
.
.
Page
89
Purpose and Procedures
Results
Conclusions
Recommendations
APPENDICES .......................
BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................
.
iv
.
.
............. 93
.........
102
LIST OF TABLES
Table
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
Page
Means, Standard Deviations, and t Ratios of
Four Groups' Performance on the Astrand
Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
Results of Analysis of Covariance of the
Strand Test. . . ........
........
Means, Standard Deviations, and t Ratios
of Resting Heart Rates. . . . . . . .
.
69
.
.
70
Results of Analysis of Covariance of Resting
Heart Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
71
Means, Standard Deviations, and t Ratios of
One-Minute Recovery Heart Rates . . . . .
.
72
Results of Analysis of Covariance of OneMinute Recovery Heart Rates . . . . . .
.
72
.
Means, Standard Deviations, and t Ratios of
Four-Minute Recovery Heart Rates.. . ....
Results of Analysis of Covariance of
Four-Minute Recovery Heart Rates... . .
.73
.
74
Mean, Standard Deviations, and t Ratios of
Resting Systolic Blood Pressure Measures.
Results of Analysis of Covariance of Resting
Systolic Blood Pressure . . . . . . .
Means,
Standard Deviations,
.
74
.
75
.
76
and t Ratios of
Resting Diastolic Blood Pressure Measures
XII.
67
Results of Analysis of Covariance of Resting
Diastolic Blood Pressure. .
V
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
77
LIST OF TABLES
(Continued)
Table
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
Page
Means, Standard Deviations, and t Ratios
of Four Groups' Performance on the
. .......
Cooper Test .*.1................
78
Results of Analysis of Covariance of
Cooper Test ........................... 79
Pearson Product Moment Correlation
Coefficients for Astrand and Cooper Tests
vi
.
79
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
and Statement of the Problem
In recent years considerable controversy has occurred
over the use of trampolines
as a valuable part of the
physical education program.
Much of the controversy
concerning trampolines derived from the relative newness of
the trampoline in the gymnastic program,
instructors,
lack of skilled
and the danger inherent in trampolining.
This Is Trampolining Wettstone states,
tional literature
"the lack of instruc-
and teaching knowledge
resulted in some
early mistakes which kindled the flame of the critics
geopardized
(10, p. vii)
the existence of
In
and
something new and natural."
According to Loken,
"the cause of the entire
controversial situation seems to be one single factor-namely, newness.
Trampolining is relatively a youngster
among the older gymnastic events."
to Zimmerman
(11, p.
14)
According
(14), the fact that most injuries occur on
the trampoline in the absence of an instructor or spotters
indicates lack of supervision
trampolining.
as the greatest haxard of
In spite of the dangers associated with
1
2
trampolining, Zimmerman noted that most gymnastic instructors
are in favor of the activity.
Fenner
(6) and Holzaepfel
(7)
praise trampolining as an excellent means of physical
conditioning.
According to Koeney,
relatively inept performer
safety and comfort,
trampolining "permits even the
to execute with comparative
aerial body maneuvers previously possible
to him only in his imagination."
regards the trampoline
(9,
p. 11) Miller
as a good way for an athlete to keep
in shape while at the same time having fun.
leg strength,
balance,
benefits derived from participation
body and mind,
any physical
coordination,
are some of the
on the trampoline.
"jumping is a spontaneous
activity necessary
Development of
physical conditioning,
control of body movements, and confidence
stated by Horne,
(12)
As
and natural
for the growth and development of a young
and,
therefore,
it
plays an integral part in
education program."
Also of concern,
(8, p. 15)
is the place of the trampoline
today's fitness-conscious society.
in
Activities of various
types are needed in which people can attain desired levels
of physical fitness.
Brouha
(3)
indicated the need for some
studies to determine the best training methods for different
kinds of physical
activity,
taking into account the increase
3
in intensity and duration of the exercise.
listed by Cooper
Some activities
(4) are walking, running, cycling,
handball, squash, and basketball.
swimming,
A need still exists,
however, to investigate an activity that may be added to
those activities
which develop
aerobic fitness and at the
same time to emphasize the benefits of the trampoline.
Purpose of the Study
The purposes of the present investigation were to
determine whether or not
performance on the
(a)
Astrand
change in the subjects'
test
of predicted maximal oxygen
uptake and on Cooper's twelve-minute run test of aerobic
capacity would be greater after six weeks of training at
varied intensities on the trampoline than after six weeks
of tumbling in a regular physical
weeks of no physical activity,
education class, or six
(b) change would occur in
the subjects' resting heart rate, resting blood pressure,
and recovery heart rate after six weeks of trampoline,
tumbling, or no activity,
existed between
Astrand's
(c) a significant relationship
test of predicted oxygen uptake
and Cooper's twelve-minute run test of aerobic capacity.
4
Definition of Terms
Some of the terms used in the present investigation
were construed as follows:
(1)
Cardiovascular efficiency,
Fradd, and Savage
as stated by Brouha,
(2), is based on the efficiency
of the circulatory and respiratory systems and
muscular coordination in performing work.
(2)
Maximal oxygen uptake,
(13),
as defined by Montoye
is the maximum rate at which oxygen
is
taken into the body and used by the tissues.
(3)
Aerobic
capacity, as defined by Cooper
(5),
is the maximum amount of oxygen that can be
processed by the body during exhausting work,
while
Astrand
aerobic power,
(1)
refers to aerobic capacity,
and maximal oxygen uptake as
measures of maximum oxygen transport.
capacity,
therefore,
Aerobic
is concerned with the rate of
oxygen intake and the amount of oxygen used by
the body.
(4)
One kilopond is the
force acting on one kilogram
mass at normal gravity
(1).
5
Statement of the Hypotheses
The hypotheses were,
(1)
The subjects in the trampoline groups would show
greater improvement in aerobic capacity than the
tumbling group or the no-activity group on the
Strand
(2)
and Cooper tests after six wee
training.
The trampoline groups would improve in aerobic
capacity according to the intensity of the
trampoline training, with the ten-minute group
showing the most improvement.
(3)
Resting heart rates would be lower, heart rates
would return to normal faster, and resting blood
pressure would be slightly lower
after six weeks
of varied intensity training on the trampoline
but not after six weeks of tumbling or no
activity.
(4)
Resting heart rates, recovery heart rates, and
blood pressure would be lower in the ten-minute
trampoline training group than in the five-minute
trampoline training group.
(5)
A significant relationship would be found between
the Astrand and Cooper tests'
maximal oxygen uptake.
assessments of
6
Limitations
One of the limitations of the present study was the use
of Cooper's table for the assessment of maximal oxygen uptake
(5).
Data for Cooper's
table were based on men ranging from
seventeen to fifty-two years in age, whereas
the subjects
in the present study were women ranging from seventeen to
twenty-five years of age.
A second limitation was the factor
of motivation involved in both the Astrand and Cooper tests.
Although the
Astrand
test was not greatly affected, the
results of the Cooper test were considerably affected.
Subjects taking the Astrand test needed only the motivation
to pedal a stationary bicycle at a constant speed for a
restricted amount of time with little physical discomfort,
while subjects taking the Cooper test
were required to cover
as much distance as possible by running or walking for
twelve minutes, possibly causing psychological and physical
discomfort to affect the results of the test.
Summary
Physical fitness has become increasingly important in
today's society.
Many activities have already been proven
helpful in increasing muscle strength or cardiovascular
endurance.
The present investigation is an attempt to
7
include the trampoline among those activities which facilitate
cardiovascular fitness.
CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
Astrand, Per-Olaf.
Work Tests with the Bicycle
Ergometer. Varberg, Sweden:
Monark-Crescent
A B.
2.
Brouha, Lucien, Norman W. Fradd, and Beatrice M.
Savage.
"Studies in Physical Efficiency of College
Students."
Research Quarterly, 15:211-224, 1944.
3.
.
"Training." Science and Medicine of
Exercise -and Sports.
edited by W. R. Johnson,
New York, Harper Brothers, 1960.
4.
Cooper, Kenneth H.
Aerobics.
Bantam Books, Inc., 1968.
5.
W-4___________.
"A Means of Assessing Maximal
Oxygen Intake." Journalof American Medical
Association, 203:201-204, 1968.
6.
Fenner, Bob.
"Your Trampoline Program."
Coach,21:35, 1951.
Scholastic
7.
Holzaepfel, N. R.
"Elementary Trampoline
Athletic Journ-a,.33:2-11, 1952.
Stunts."
8.
Horne, Dennis E.
Trampolining:
A Complete Handbook.
London, England:
Faber and Faber, 1968.
9.
Koeney, Charles J.
"The Gymnastic Program's
Contribution to Pre-flight Training."
Athletic
Journal, 23:4:11.
10.
New York,
New York:
La Due, Frank and Jim Norman.
This Is Trampolining.
Cedar Rapids, Iowa:
Nissen Trampoline Company,
1954.
8
9
Loken, Newton C.
"Trampolining, Our Newest Activity."
JOHPER, 23:14, February 1952.
12.
Miller, Charles E.
"Organization for Trampolining."
Scholastic Coach, 19:57, January 1950.
13.
Montoye, Henry J. ed. An Introduction-to Measurement
In Physical Education.
Indianapolis, Indiana:
Phi Epsilon Kappa Fraternity, 4:41-79, 1970.
14.
Zimmerman, Helen.
"Accident Experience with
Trampolines." Research Quarterly, 27:452-455,
-
11.
1956.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The review of literature for the present study was
concerned with four major areas.
Cardiovascular efficiency
and training, trampoline, testing instruments
and test
selection, and maximal oxygen intake are the four topics
which will be discussed.
Cardiovascular Efficiency and Training
According to Sharkey and Dayries
(53), training is a
systematic and progressive alteration in the physiological
systems that leads to an increase in performance
bilities.
capa-
Other definitions of training include those of
Durvin, Brockway,
and Witcher
(19), who refer to training as
the frequent occurrence of periods of hard exercise, Astrand
(2), who defines training as an increase in the organism's
possibilities for performing a special task, and Karvonen
(34), who maintains that the aim of training is to better
adapt the organism to exercise.
investigators
Most of the preceding
seem to agree that training does involve
repeated exercise which elicits progressive change
10
in the
11
performance of an organism.
Morehouse and Miller
(46), as
well as Brouha (9), summarized the physiological effects of
training,which include
(a) greater mechanical efficiency
in terms of oxygen consumption for a given amount of work,
(b) greater maximum oxygen consumption,
(c)
quicker return
of pulse rate and blood pressure to normal following
submaximal exercise,
(d) capacity to perform more work
aerobically and anaerobically,
(e) improvement in
neuromuscular coordination,
(f)
given amount of work, and (g)
better pulmonary ventilation
during work.
lower blood lactate for a
Training has proven itself most beneficial
to the well-being of the human body in work,
even in rest
sports and
(34; 11).
Two questions that arise when planning a training
program are the degree of intensity
training to be administered.
and duration of the
Several
to this question have been offered.
different
Astrand
(2)
answers
indicated
that since the organs of the body individually adapt as
the whole body adapts to the stress of exercise, the rate
of work is most
important in training,
and work loads
should be gradually increased to allow for body adaptation.
In a study by Sharkey and Holleman
of the Astrand
(52 ),involving the use
and Rybming step test
and the Balke treadmill
12
test, sixteen college-aged males were randomly assigned to
either a control group or one of three training groups who
exercised
for six weeks at heart rates of 120, 150 and 180
beats per minute,
respectively.
After six weeks of training
on a treadmill for ten minutes per day, three days a week,
significant improvement was found in both tests at the
level
(F = 6.79, F = 8.41, respectively).
.01
The 180 heart
rate group was found to be significantly better on both
tests than all other groups, and the 150 heart rate group
was significantly better on both tests
rate group or the control group.
than the 120 heart
Results indicated that
intensity of the training program was related to improvement
and that training should include intense activity as opposed
to light or moderate activity.
The authors suggested a
training rate of at least 150 beats per minute and suggested
that results may have differed with men of a different age
and activity level.
of cardiovascular
In an extensive review of the problems
training,
Karvonen
also determined that
training at high pulse rate levels was necessary to obtain
any of the major effects of training such as
lowering of
the exercise pulse rate and increasing performance capability
during hard exercise.
Shephard and Walters
short,intensive activity periods
(66) agreed that
induce training and improve
13
physical efficiency.
Shephard's investigation of thirty-
nine inactive subjects, who trained
for five,
ten, or
twenty minutes; one, three, or five times per week, determined
that short, intensive activity periods would improve physical
efficiencydepending on the subjects'
fitness.
initial levels of
The twenty minutes per day, five days per week
period improved cardiovascular efficiency best, but the
shorter training periods also significantly
efficiency in sedentary subjects.
(.05)
increased
Shephard, however, used
only one or two subjects per training program,.which may
have reduced the practical
the study.
women,
Walters's
significance of the results of
study involved twenty-three college
aged eighteen to twenty-four,
who engaged
in a ten-
minute strenuous exercise program for eleven days in addition
to four hours of physical
education classes per week.
Subjects were given pretests
and posttests on grip strength,
maximal oxygen intake, recovery heart rate, resting heart
rateand work capacity on a bicycle ergometer.
Walters's study showed a significant
all physiological measures,but
measures following training.
of the performance
(.05)
Results of
improvement on
not on the performance
Subjects
indicated a dislike
(ergometer and grip strength) tests, and
Walters suggested possible psychological
effects on the
14
test results.
test,
the
Taylor,
Significant improvement on the Balke treadmill
Astrand-Ryhming
test
of physical fitness, and the
Buskirk, and Henschel test
was found by Jackson,
of maximal oxygen intake
Sharkey, and Johnson
(33)
after
subjects
trained for two, three, and five days at increased work loads
and speeds on the treadmill.
Results of the study of twenty
males, seventeen to twenty-three years of age,indicated that
all
groups significantly
Balke test
(F = 3.14)
(F = 7.27),
improved at the .05 level on the
and the
Astrand-Ryhming
test
but the two or three days per week groups were
better than the five days per week group.
Results of the
Taylor, Buskirk, and Henschel test revealed no significant
differences in any of the groups.
that the initial
considered,
The authors concluded
level of fitness of the subjects must be
and the five-day program was probably too
strenuous for the fitness level of the subjects
investigated.
Possibly, the small number of subjects per group
(four)
the various levels of initial
of the investigation.
reported
that
fitness influenced
Pollock,
frequency, as well
the results
Cureton, and Greninger
as intensity,
and
(48)
of training
was
proportional to changes in endurance
and efficiency.
of nineteen male volunteersrandomly
assigned to one of two
groups, training thirty minutestwo days per week or
A study
four
15
days per week for twenty weeks, resulted
in a 17 per cent
increase in maximal oxygen uptake for the two-day group and
a 35 per cent increase for the four-day group.
significantly
Both groups
(.05) improved on resting, recovery, and
exercise heart rates, but only the four-day group significantly
(.05)
improved in body composition.
group of nonactive subjects deteriorated
A control
in body composition
and did not improve on endurance or cardiovascular
tests.
The authors noted that the group training the most
frequently illicited
the greatest
improvement.
Cureton, and Greninger were supported by Sloan's
Pollock,
(68) study
in which subjects training the most often improved more on
physical fitness tests.
Sixty-one female students aged
seventeen to twentywere tested on the modified Harvard
step test
year.
at the beginning, middle,
One group was physical
very active program,
active program,
activity at all.
which began with
and end of the school
education majors engaged in a
two groups were nonmajors in a less
and the fourth group had no regular physical
The physical
a higher
to show significant
fitness
education majors'
level,
group,
was the only group
(.05) improvement on the fitness test.
The less active groups'
scores did not improve significantly,
but did not depreciate as did those of the control group.
16
The two less active groups had only forty minutes per week
of gymnastics, which probably was the reason for no significant improvement.
Duration of the exercise has been found to be of some
importance in training.
the
"total
Sharkey
work done in training"
(51) defined duration as
and determined that an
increase in intensity is directly related to an increase
in duration.
In Sharkey's investigation, thirty-six college
males were randomly assigned to groups training at heart
rates of 130, 150, and 170 beats per minute and at levels of
duration, of 7,500 or 15,000 kilopond meters total
work.
The training program consisted of riding a bicycle ergometer
three days per week for six weeks.
No significant intensity,
duration or interaction effects were found between the pre
and post measures of three cardiovascular tests
Ryhming step test,
(Astrand-
Balke treadmill test, and Sjostrand
physical work capacity test)
.
Sharkey concluded that
neither training intensity nor duration of training
significantly
held constant.
influenced training changes when either was
Lack of
a control group,
different initial
levels of fitness of the subjects, and the fact that the
cardiovascular tests seemed to measure different
of
fitness,may have influenced the results of the
aspects
17
investigation.
In a study by Durnin, Brockway, and Witcher
(19), the subjects walked 10,
20,or 30 kilometers daily at
a heart rate of about 120 to 130 beats per minute.
The
authors concluded that since the heart rates were moderate
and changes
in cardiovascular
efficiency did occur,
duration of the work must have been a factor.
study by Yeager and Brynteson
the
In a similar
(74), eighteen freshmen women
exercised for ten, twenty, and thirty
minutes
at a heart rate
of 144 beats per minute for three days a week on the
bicycle ergometer.
Results of the pre and post Astrand
predicted maximal oxygen uptake test
capacity test
revealed
significant
and the PWC-170 work
(.05)
efficiency improvements in all groups.
cardiovascular
Since the heart
rates again were moderate and the thirty-minute
group
increased more consistently in cardiovascular efficiency,
duration of work seemed important.
The small number of
subjects per group and the lack of a control group probably
biased the results of the study.
that,
Cooper
(13) has suggested
based on his and other laboratory investigations
subjects of
all ages and
activity levels,
of
if the exercise
is strenuous enough and long enough, a training effect will
occur.
Holmes
and Brynteson
(28), Sharkey and Holleman
(73)
(52),
and Yeager
suggested a six-week training period
18
was sufficient for measuring increases in cardiovascular
Holmes used a six-week training period for
efficiency.
boys aged six to fifteen.
Divided into four groups,
the
boys practiced muscular endurance training, steeplechase
training, circuit training,and interval training thirty
minutes per day, four days per week.
significantly on cardiovascular
six weeks.
tests
All groups improved
at the end of the
Sharkey and Holleman's program of treadmill
training for college men and Yeager and Brynteson's bicycle
ergometer training program for college women both showed
significant
improvement
(.01
and .05
level,
respectively)
on cardiovascular tests following six-weeks training periods.
Following a six-week training period, Applegate and Stull
(1) discovered that rest periods of two,
four or six weeks
did not cause a loss in cardiovascular endurance.
Forty-
seven college women,aged eighteen to thirty, tested and
trained for six weeks on a bicycle ergometer, were randomly
assigned to one of three rest periods
or six weeks)
(two weeks, four weeks
before being retested for retention of
cardiovascular endurance.
F ratios of 58.94,
28.54, and
23.91 indicated a significant difference at the .01
level
existed between the pre-, middle-, and posttests, and an F
ratio of 0.29 indicated no significant loss of endurance
19
following any of the rest periods.
Again, initial level of
fitness possibly influenced the amount of endurance gained
and subsequently retained.
Williams and Edwards
(69) also
found that following a month of detraining, cardiorespiratory
college-aged males on the Cooper aerobics
scores for thirty
test and the Ohio State University step test were signif(.01) reduced but remained significantly
icantly
higher than scores on the pretraining test.
(.05)
Brouha
(9)
has maintained that after a steady level of training has
been reached,
an increase in the duration of daily training
will not bring about improvement,
but an increase in work
rate at progressive levels will bring improvement up to a
maximum state of training.
According to Karvonen
system
(34), the cardiovascular
should be regarded as trained when a large cardiac output
and a high maximum oxygen uptake have beEn
(44) noted that cardiac output is important in
Mitchell
determining maximum oxygen uptake.
system is
causes
developed.
it
trained,
to
circulate
As the cardiovascular
the efficiency of the heart
increases, which
more blood without beating
as often.
The increase in efficiency can be recognized in several
different ways.
Resting pulse rate may be reduced between
the beginning and end of a training period.
Cooper
20
suggested that conditioning of the heart will cause it
to
pump blood and oxygen to the body at much lower rates.
Fletcher
(22) reported reductions in resting pulse rates
of twelve men, aged twenty to forty-six years, after bench
stepping thirty
times per minute until exhaustion.
small number of subjects, however,
The
in addition to the wide
range in ages,may have increased the possibility of spurious
results.
Resting heart rates of thirty-three physically
active subjects were found to be much lower than those of
seventeen less active subjects in a study by Henderson,
Haggard,and Dolley (25).
The authors reported a difference
in resting heart rate range of forty-eight to seventy-eight
in the athletic group, as opposed to seventy-four
eight in the non-athletic group.
to eighty-
Henry (26) studied resting
heart rates of eighteen college athletes,participating in
various programs, and concluded that resting heart rate was
Resting
a valuable measure of cardiovascular condition.
heart rates decreased after training in all subjects, with a
correlation of 0.76 between the pre and post training resting
heart
rates.
Knehr, Dilland
Neufield
(35)
tested fourteen male college students on
pre-
and post-
a treadmill during
a six-month middle distance training program.
Results
included a slight decrease in weight, a decline in the
21
respiratory rate, and a decrease in resting heart rate of
five beats per minute.
The authors again suggested the
initial level of fitness may have influenced the results.
Based on a review of several studies, Montoye
(45) con-
cluded that although resting heart rate usually decreased
with training,
and performance
low correlations between
resting heart rate
indicated the resting heart rate was.of little
value when predicting a subject's cardiovascular fitness.
Michael and Gallon
(43) found that resting pulse rates
decreased significantly
in three to six weeks during
basketball training season.
a
In a study with oarsmen,
players, and nontrained subjects, Sloan and Keen
rugby
(59) found
significant decreases at the .05 level in resting pulse
rates
in the athletic groups after two to four months
training.
The large number of subjects
(100)
tested,
in
addition to repeated observations of the resting heart
rates,
increased the possibility of reliable results.
Sharkey and Holleman
(52),
however,
found that changes in
resting pulse rate were not consistent.
In the previously
mentioned
resting
study by Sharkey and Holleman,
heart
rates were measured several times before, during, and after
the six-week training period.
period, the investigators
At the end of the training
could find no distinguishable
22
differences in the groups' resting heart rates.
In most of
the studies which found a decrease in resting heart rates,
the decrease was found after training in conditioned
athletes,but not in nontrained subjects.
Another way that efficiency of the heart may be
recognized is by the decrease in pulse rate during exercise.
Based on extensive reviews of cardiovascular research,
Strand
(2) maintained that the pulse rate decrease is
dependent on an increased stroke volume,
and Karvonen
(34)
stated that a decrease in pulse rate during work will only
occur if
the work is at high pulse rate levels.
In any
case, heart rate during exercise is considered a more
precise measure of cardiovascular
pre or post exercise heart rates
efficiency than either
(19).
Recovery heart rate is another indicator of cardiac
efficiency.
Berryman
(10)
In observations by Cogswell, Henderson
and
post exercise heart rates showed a decrease
with submaximal exercise training,but not with maximal
exercise training.
Seven male subjects, aged twenty-three
to twenty-eight, were tested
on the Harvard step test,
work, and tests
and trained
for twelve weeks
which was considered submaximal
on the bicycle ergometer and the treadmill,
which were considered maximal work.
Post exercise heart
23
rates, recorded one, two,
and three minutes following
exercise, revealed significant decreases at the .01 level
The small number of subjects,
following the submaximal test.
however,
probably affected the results of the investigation.
Even though general
agreement exists that a quick return of
post exercise heart rate to normal is an indication of
fitness,
serious doubts exist about
the usefulness of post
exercise heart rates as estimators of heart rate during
exercise.
list
Morehouse
and Miller
(46)
and Shephard
(54)
a prompt recovery of the heart to the pre exercise
level as a sign of physical fitness.
(20), however,
Elbel and Holmer
found a very low correlation
(r = 0.16)
between
pre exercise, heart rate and recovery heart rates in an
investigation of forty-five male college students who
performed a step-up exercise for two minutes at a cadence
steps per minute.
of thirty-six
Shephard
(56) has implied
that about 64 per cent of recovery pulse rate variations
are
due to exercise pulse rate variations, with the remaining
36 per cent influenced by such factors as heat load, pooling
of blood,
and oxygen debt.
McArdle, Swiren, and Magel
in a study of ten male subjects,
aged twenty,
(41),
and involving
validity of post exercise heart rates as indicators of
exercise heart
rates,
discovered
that
the error
in estimating
24
exercise heart rates from the readings taken during the ten
seconds immediately following strenuous exercise was an
average of 2.7 per cent.
The error increased to 7.6 per cent
when exercise heart rate was approximately
minute.
140 beats per
When time was allowed for locating the pulse and
counting, the error increased 5.7 per cent and 13.5 per cent,
respectively.
The investigators allowed four seconds for
finding the pulse and determined recovery heart rate at
intervals of 4-9, 4-14,
0-10,
and 4-15 seconds as well as 0-5,
0-15, and 0-30 seconds.
Estimation error and the
extraneous factors affecting post exercise heart rate could
seriously limit its usefulness in indicating exercise heart
rates.
A third way that increased efficiency of the heart may
be recognized is by a change in blood pressure after
training.
Some studies have resulted in a significant
decrease in systolic and diastolic blood pressure with
training.
Cogswell, Henderson, and Berryman
(10), in a
previously mentioned study of seven male volunteers,
indicated
a significant
decrease in resting
and systolic blood pressure
at the
diastolic
.01 level following a
twelve-week training program of moderate exercise.
and Gallons
(42)
determined that a change
in blood
Michael
25
pressure would occur over a period of trainingbut would do
so much slower than a change in pulse rate.
Seventeen male
varsity basketball players were studied over a period of
sixteen weeks.
Significant
(.05 level) pulse rate changes
were noted in six weeks,while significant
(.05
level)
changes in blood pressure were not noted until after sixteen
weeks.
Brouha
(9) observed that cardiovascular
processes improve with training,
recovery
and heart rate and blood
pressure return to the pre-exercise level sooner in the
better trained individual.
Some factors that may effect heart rate and blood
pressure have been noted in reviews of cardiovascular
research by Larson
(36) and Montoye
by Suggs and Splinter
(8) ,
Investigations
(60), who studied nineteen college
men trained on a bicycle ergometer,
Smith, and Stopps
(45).
and by Brouha, Maxfield,
who studied five men and one woman
trained on a bicycle ergometer under different environmental
conditions, have also brought to light factors which effect
heart rate and blood pressure.
climate,
altitude,
respiration,
Exercise, age,
air and water movement,
metabolic activity,
sex, season,
loss of sleep,
changes in body posture,
digestion, disease, alcohol, and emotions are some of the
factors
that
may influence
cardiovascular
measures.
26
To summarize the preceding investigations, training has
been shown as a favorable method of increasing cardiovascular
efficiency.
Intensity and duration of the training program
are two questions that have been frequently investigated.
Most studies such as those of Sharkey and Holleman
Shephard and Walters
(52) and
(66) favored the longer more intense
training periods as the ones which elicited the most
improvement;
however,
Sharkey, and Johnson
studies such as that of Jackson,
(33) favor the shorter duration periods
because the longer periods may be too strenuous.
Sharkey
(51) determined that neither duration nor intensity influenced
cardiovascular efficiency if either of the two were held
constant.
The question of initial level of fitness presented
by Shephard and Walters
(66) has proven to be very important.
Intensity and duration of the training program must be
according to the subject's initial level of fitness to avoid
being too strenuous.
The training program, therefore, must
be of sufficient duration and intensity to illicit a training
effect with regard to age,
fitness
activity, and initial
level of
of the subjects.
Resting heart rate was listed as a measure of cardiac
efficiency by several authors
(22; 25; 26;
35;
43).
Heart
rate during exercise was considered a more precise measure,
27
however
(19).
cardiovascular
gators
Recovery heart rates as indicators of
efficiency were supported by some investi-
(10; 46; 54),but not by others
(20; 56;
41).
Resting
blood pressure was supported as an indicator of cardiovascular
efficiency
(10), but the lowering of resting blood
pressure has been shown to require longer periods of training
(42).
Most of the studies of cardiovascular efficiency and
training investigated have employed the use of small numbers
of subjects divided into several training groups.
Also, the
initial level of fitness for subjects within a study has
varied considerably.
These two factors may have influenced
the results of the studies reviewed.
Trampoline
Most of the literature concerning trampolining deals
with the teaching of trampoline skills
and the benefits of
the trampoline as previously stated in the introduction;
however,
several unpublished documents have been reviewed
concerning trampoline training.
by Bell
(7) and Wright
In two similar studies
(71), twelve boys, aged five to
eleven, participated one day a week for eight months in a
trampoline and tumbling program.
No statistically
28
significant change
Van Anne
(64)
in cardiovascular
fitness was found.
pre- and posttested balance,
ankle extensor
strength,
ankle flexibility,
and physical efficiency of sixty-
eight college women who participated in various service classes
including badminton, trampoline, body mechanics,
and tumbling.
Subjects' time on the trampoline was not controlled,
but
each subject spent a total of fifteen to forty-one minutes
on the trampoline over a six-week period.
Results of the
study indicated that neither the total amount of exercise
time,
nor the amount of variation in exercise time between
the experimental
groups, was large enough or discriminating
enough to describe adequately the effects on physical
capacities.
No significant gains in physical capacities
were recorded.
Magnusson
(37), using the time element as a controlling
factor with each subject spending
minutes on the trampoline,
a total
of twenty-nine
found a significant
increase at
the .05 level in ankle extensor strength and cardiovascular
endurance.
at the
.05
Fritz
level
(23)
also found significant
improvement
in balance and circulorespiratory
efficiency after a trampoline training program.
College-
aged males were tested on balance, speed, strength of lower
leg flexion,
explosive power,
agility and coordination,
29
resting pulse rate,
and recovery pulse rates, before and after
training, on a standardized treadmill run.
Holzaepfel
(29)
has stated that prolonged periods on the trampoline have
tremendous effects on physical conditioning.
In a recent
book Horne stated,
The trampoline offers the opportunity to develop
all-around skill and co-ordination by subjecting
its
pupils to a wide range of combination and
repetitive movement situations besides developing
the cardio-respiratory systems in a most enjoyable
manner (30, p. 17).
Based on the review of the literature,
trampolining on cardiovascular
questionable.
Wright
the effects of
efficiency still
According to Van Anne
remains
(64), Bell
(7)
and
(71), Horne may not be justified in claiming that
trampolining develops cardiovascular efficiency.
and Magnusson
Fritz
(23)
(37), however, seemed to agree with Horne.
Since time spent on the trampoline was short in the studies
by Bell
(7)
and Wright
(71), and subjects' time on the
trampoline was not controlled in Van Anne's
results could have been epurious.
(64) study,
Magnusson's subjects'
(37)
time on the trampoline, however, was controlled, and Fritz
(23) had a specific training program, which may have been
the reasons for significant results in the investigations.
Perhaps control of time and a specific program
are necessary
30
for increasing cardiovascular efficiency through trampoline
training.
Maximal Oxygen Intake
Cooper
(11) has suggested that oxygen consumption is the
key to endurance training.
The general agreement has been
that maximal oxygen consumption
cardiovascular
efficiency,
Glassford, Baycroft,
(V02 ) is the best measure of
as was stated in a study by
Sedgwick, and Macnab
(24).
Twenty-four
male subjects, seventeen to twenty-three years of age, were
given three direct tests
of maximal oxygen uptake
Sproula and Chapman--Treadmill,
treadmill,
test
and
Astrand--bicycle
Taylor,
four test
intake,
results
Buskirk and Henschel--
ergometer)
(Astrand-Ryhming nomogram-bicycle
methods.
and one indirect
ergometer).
indicated improvement
All
in maximal oxygen
and intercorrelation between tests
predicted test
(Mitchell,
showed the
method to be as accurate as the direct test
Wilmore
(70)
and Montoye
(45) have reported the
usefulness of maximum oxygen consumption as a measure of
cardiovascular
efficiency.
In a study by Wilmore
thirty male college students were investigated
relationship between maximal oxygen intake
capacity.
(70),
for a
and endurance
Maximal oxygen intake was directly measured
31
during two bicycle ergometer work capacity tests,
indicated a correlation of .78
when measured
per kilogram per minute and .64
body weight must be taken
Montoye
in milliliters
when measured
per lean body weight per minute.
and results
in milliliters
The author cautioned that
into account
in the comparisons.
(45) noted,in an overview of circulatory-respiratory
fitness, that maximal oxygen uptake
related,
and heart rate are closely
and maximal oxygen uptake is, therefore,
method of assessing cardiorespiratory fitness.
has stated that maximal oxygen consumption
measure of work capacity,
particularly
De Vries was supported by Cooper's
an accepted
De Vries
(15)
is the best single
in aerobic work.
(12) observation that
maximal oxygen consumption determined
in the laboratory is
the best indicator of cardiovascular fitness.
The preceding
fact was noted by Cooper during his investigation of 115 male
Air Force officers in which he correlated twelve-minute field
test
performances with laboratory determinations of maximal
oxygen intake (;
= 0.897).
the twelve-minute
cardiovascular
test
fitness,
Cooper assumed, therefore, that
was an accurate predictor of
but
age range of
the subjects
and
the fact that they were all Air Force officers may have
caused
spurious
results.
32
Although laboratory determination
intake has been
of maximum oxygen
established as the best method, time,
expense, and excessive physical demands on the subject
contribute to the difficulty of using this method with
large groups
(12; 14; 24).
For this reason many studies
have been undertaken to determine indirect methods of
known indirect method is that of
Astrand
Probably the most well
Astrand
(2) observed that respiration
and Ryhming
(5)
and circulation
.
measuring maximal oxygen intake.
in
aerobic exercise would play a major role in maximal oxygen
uptake tests,
especially in the engagement of large muscle
groups; therefore,
a test procedure utilizing aerobic
exercise was required.
With the concept of aerobic exercise
in mind, Astrand and Ryhming
(5) constructed a nomogram for
determining maximal oxygen intake
(aerobic power)
heart rates during submaximal work.
from
By determining that
50 per cent of the maximum would be reached in about five
to six minutes, a nomogram was constructed by
Astrand
and
Ryhming on the basis of a maximum heart rate of 170 beats
per minute
in 112 well-trained
men and women subjects.
usefulness and validity of the
Astrand-Ryhming
be discussed later in the test
selection section.
The
nomogram will
33
Maritz, Morrison,
Peter,
Strydon, and Wyndham
(40),
developed an indirect method of determining maximum oxygen
intake by relating rate of work
(stepping)
to oxygen
intake.
Four different rates of work were used as opposed to the
one rate used by Astrand and Ryhming.
Margaria, Aghema, and Rovelli
In a similar study
(39) developed a nomogram for
determining maximal oxygen intake after a bench-step test.
Another investigation by Issekutz,
Birkhead and Rodahl
proposed the use of respiratory quotients
assessing maximal oxygen consumption.
(32)
as a method of
The prediction was
not affected by age and sex but was technically more
complicated and required a work load high enough for the
respiratory quotient to reach 1.0.
The validity of the
preceding indirect methods has been investigated in several
studies.
Rowell, Taylor, and Wang
(49), in a study of
thirty-four male college studentsaged eighteen to twentyfour, concluded that the
Astrand-Ryhming
nomogram under-
estimated actual maximal oxygen intake by 27 + 7 per cent
and 14 + 7 per cent in a nonathletic
training,
group.
respectively, and by
The investigators
group before and after
5.6 + 4 per cent
also concluded that respiratory
quotient had not provided a reliable basis
of maximal oxygen intake.
in an athletic
for prediction
De Vries and Klafs
(16), during
34
an investigation of sixteen male physical education majors
ranging in age from twenty to twenty-six years,
different
tests
compared six
as predictors of maximal oxygen intake,
including the tests of Sjostrand and Wahlund, the Harvard
Step test, the Progressive Pulse Ratio test, the Delta R.Q.
test, and the Astrand-Ryhming nomogram.
Astrand-Ryhming
Results showed the
nomogram and Sjostrand' s tests as the best
predictors of maximal oxygen intake when compared with
actual measurements
Astrand-Ryhming
(r = .74 and
.88,
nomogram provided the lowest
of predictionwhich was .359 liters
9.4 per cent when predicting
The
standard error
of oxygen per minute or
from heart rate measures
workload of under 900 kpm/minute.
tests
respectively).
at a
Conclusions were that
which use heart rate during work as a predictor
are
slightly more accurate than those using recovery heart
rates,
as in the Harvard Step test.
prediction measures was by Davies
of predicted
Another study of
(14),
in which the use
maximal oxygen intake as a measure of cardiac
efficiency, in a study of eighty male subjects ranging in
age from twenty to fifty
predicted methods of
yearswas
investigated.
Astrand-Ryhming,
Margaria,
The
and Maritz-
Wyndham were used to compare predicted and actual methods
of obtaining maximal oxygen intake.
Results indicated the
35
difference between predicted and direct measurements of
maximum oxygen intake for the three nomograms were
-624
836 milliliters, -529
-430
708 milliliters,
776 milliliters,
respectively.
and
Davies determined
that direct measurement of maximal oxygen consumption was
the only alternative method if an accuracy of more than 15
per cent is required.
Most of the studies were based on the
premise that the increase in heart rate and oxygen consumption
was somewhat linear.
A study by Wyndham
and Ward
(72), which
used four trained men at various levels of work, demonstrated
clearly that heart rate was truly a linear function of
oxygen consumption.
Oxygen consumption
rate up to maximal oxygen intake,
increased with heart
and from this point an
increase in work did not increase oxygen consumption,
although heart rate slightly increased.
The use of only
four subjects, however, may be questioned in determining the
validity of the results.
The results of Wyndham
and Ward
were further substantiated in investigations by Taylor,
Buskirk, and Henschel
and Wyndham
Supta,
(40),
and Rai
demonstrated
(62), Maritz, Morrison, Peter, Strydom,
Astrand
(38).
and Saltin
Taylor,
(4), and Malhorta,
Buskirk,
and Henschel
(62)
the linearity of oxygen intake and heart rate
in a study of twelve male subjects,
aged eighteen to thirty-five
36
years.
Subjects were given repeated treadmill tests, which
consisted of walking and running on the treadmill at
specified grades, ten minutes to one hour per day.
ability of the method was
.95.
Reli-
The authors suggested the
muscle mass employed in maximal oxygen uptake tests
was an
important factor in the determination of maximal oxygen
uptake.
This fact
kind of testing
could be important when deciding what
instrument should be used.
Maritz,
Morrison, Peter, Strydom, and Wyndham also found a linear
relationship between heart rate and maximal oxygen uptake
in a study of four African mine workers who were tested on
the Astrand bicycle ergometer test.
studied, however,
The four subjects
were only representative of small
(62-1/4
inches to 64-1/4 inches in height and between 127 and 144
pounds in weight) ,
African mine workers.
Astrand and Saltin
(4) determined that a linear relationship existed between
heart rate and maximal oxygen uptake in various activities
such as leg work,
and arm work.
arm and leg work, running skiing,
The study, however,
swimming,
involved the use of
only seven subjects, which may have influenced results.
Malhorta, Supta,
and Rai
(38) studied seven male subjects,
aged twenty-eight to thirty-four, during performances at
different
intensities on the bicycle ergometer
and
37
concluded that a linear relationship existed between heart
rate and oxygen consumption in all subjects.
Shephard
(55)
stated that the subject's initial level of fitness is
important in the prediction of maximum oxygen uptake.
recent investigation of thirty-nine sedentary males,
In a
in
which subjects were assigned to various intensities and
durations of walking and running on a treadmill, Shephard
discovered the change in "cardio-respiratory
status" to be
the greatest cause of variance in the prediction of aerobic
capacity.
In summary, maximal oxygen consumption has been shown
to be a useful predictor of cardiorespiratory fitness
24; 45;
70).
(14;
Although direct determination of maximal
oxygen uptake is considered best
(12; 15), indirect methods
have been employed because of convenience
(12; 14; 24).
Many techniques of indirect measurement have been proposed
(3; 16; 32; 39; 40), but the
maximal oxygen uptake
used.
(3)
Astrand
test of predicted
has probably been the most widely
The fact that indirect methods of measuring maximal
oxygen uptake
assume
a linear
relationship
has been frequently investigated
with heart
(4; 38; 40;
62; 72).
rate
Many
of the investigations of maximal oxygen uptake,
however,
such as that of Shephard
(55), have either used small
38
numbers of subjects or placed only a very few subjects in
various groups.
Results of the studies, therefore, may
be questionable when applied to larger groups.
Testing Instruments and Test Selection
According to Wells, Balke, and Fossan
(68), submaximal
work is that work which is performed at an average heart
rate of less than 180 beats per minute.
Montoye
(45)
proposed that to effectively test aerobic work capacity,
the test must be long enough to minimize the contribution
of anaerobic work
submaximal tests
(oxygen debt).
motivation
Also, with the use of
is minimized and subjects may
be tested without severe health risks
(16).
Several
submaximal tests have been reviewed including those of
Skubic
(19),
(57), Fallas,
Astrand
(6), and Cooper
the Astrand test
extensively.
Ismail,
and MacLeaod
(13).
and Cooper's test
Hyde
(21), Margaria
Of the preceding tests,
have been investigated
(31), in a study of the
Astrand
test of
predicted maximal oxygen uptake with twenty-nine male and
twenty-seven female secondary school students, concluded that
predicted values
of aerobic
actual measurements
capacity were equivalent
to
for females but underestimated males.
The results also differentiated between individuals who
39
were in widely different
states of training, but not between
those in approximately the same state of training.
Hyde
determined that the nomogram should be adjusted for high
heart rates at low work levels.
accordingly by
Astrand
(3).
The nomogram was adjusted
Tests on female subjects with
heart rates of 135 beats per minute and 160 beats per minute,
revealed no significant difference between maximum oxygen
uptake values predicted from the nomogram at the two
different heart rate levels.
MacLeaod
Teraslinna,
Ismail,
and
(63), in a study of thirty-one sedentary males aged
twenty-three to forty-nine,
satisfactory predictor
found the
Astrand
test to be a
(r = .69) of maximal oxygen intake
as did Glassford, Baycroft,
Rowell, Taylor, and Wang
Sedgwick, and Macnab
(49), found the
Astrand
(24).
test to be
satisfactory with a group of ten endurance athletes, while
Hettinger, Birkheard, Horvath, Issekutz, and Rodahl
claimed that the correlation between the
Astrand
and direct measurement was significant at the
(27),
test
.01 level.
Ninety-six men, between the ages of twenty-three and
sixty-two, were investigated on different tests of physical
work capacity.
Twenty-eight of the subjects, aged twenty
to thirty years, were used to compare the Astrand test
and actual oxygen consumption measures.
In another
40
study of thirty to forty year-old-men by Oja, Partanen,
Teraslinna
(47),
Astrand's
maximal oxygen uptake
coefficient of
.542
Michael and Horvath
test
and
was correlated with actual
scores, which resulted
in a validity
and a standard error of 5.6 ml/kg/min.
(42), in a study of thirty
female
subjects aged seventeen to twenty-two, concluded that the
most limiting factor in the Astrand test
seemed to be the
use of only one submaximal measurement.
Submaximal heart
rates could only be used to predict maximal oxygen consumption
when related to the group maximal loads attained.
Individual
measurements could not be used to predict maximal oxygen
uptake.
Astrand's test
nevertheless,
of predicted maximal oxygen intake,
is one of the most widely used tests.
of the bicycle ergometer
in
Astrand's
the treadmill or bench-stepping,
Strand
and Saltin
(4).
test,
The use
as opposed to
has been supported by
Scott and Wilson
(50)
also deter-
mined, in a study of forty-five college females during
efficiency testing, that the bicycle ergometer is desirable
because it is reliable, work can be directly translated to
kilogram-meters,
subject motivation is high,
action is similar to walking or running.
and the muscle
Von Dobelin
(65)
supported Scott and Wilson by stating that the bicycle
ergometer is advantageous because physiological measurements,
41
such as heart rate and respiratory rate, are easy to perform,
and mechanical work can be measured accurately.
The second test selected for the present investigation
was Cooper's twelve-minute run test.
Cooper's test of
aerobic capacity consists of running, walking, or a combination of running and walking for twelve minutes, the object
being to cover as much distance as possible.
to Cooper
(12), the test
capacity.
Doolittle and Bigbee
of
According
is an effective measure of aerobic
(18)
found a correlation
.90 between the Cooper test and a direct measure of
maximal oxygen intake in a study with 153 ninth grade male
subjects.
Although motivation has been questioned as a factor
in the validity of the Cooper test
(67),
a test-retest
of
the twelve-minute run yielded a correlation
coefficient
.94, which indicated a very reliable test.
In a correlation
of the twelve-minute run test
data with the laboratory
determination of maximum oxygen uptake,
Cooper found the
relationship between the two measures to be .897.
Since
Cooper's subjects were 115 Air Force men, seventeen
two years of
of
to fifty-
age, the validity of the Cooper test was
questioned in a study of college aged males by Disch
Cooper's subjects were a rather heterogeneous
according to Disch
(17).
group, which
(17) increased the r due to body weight and
42
In Disch's study, a more homogeneous group
variability.
was used, and the validity coefficient was found to be low.
Disch offered
as an explanation for the difference between
the two studies, the diverging variabilities
populations
(17).
The Cooper test
of the two
has been found to have
the advantage of economy in administration when compared with
other indirect measurements.
In a study of ninety-six male
college students aged eighteen to twenty-three years, Wanamaker
(68) found Cooper's test to be very appealing because it cost
little and could be easily administered;
however, because of
low validity coefficients, in volunteer as well as selected
subjects
(r = .32,
.30
and
.51,
.47,
respectively),
the
twelve-minute run test was not supported as a good predictor
of maximal oxygen intake.
the test
Although not considered valid,
was found to be very reliable
(r =.82, .88 and
.94,
.91, respectively).
Summary
In summarizing the literature,
the Cooper
and
Astrand
tests seemed to best fit the needs of the present
investi-
gation.
found on
Although contrasting opinions have been
both tests, neither has been correlated with the other.
Strand
test
represents the older more established test,
The
43
while Cooper's test represents a new, scarcely reviewed test
of maximal oxygen uptake.
The succeeding -chapter reveals data analysis,
of the study, and a discussion of the findings.
findings
CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Cogswell, Robert C., Charles R. Henderson, and George H.
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Cooper, Kenneth H.
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de Vries, Herbert A.
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"The Twelve Minute
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Research Quarterly 39:491-495,
1968.
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17.
46
19.
Durnin, J. V. G. A., J. M. Brockway, and H. W. Whitcher.
"Effects of a Short Period of Training of Varying
Severity on Some Measurements of Physical Fitness."
Journal of Aplied Physiology 15:1:161-165, 1960.
20.
Elbel, Edwin R. and Robert M. Holmes.
"The Relationship Between Pre-Exercise Pulse Rate and Recovery
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1949.
21.
Falls, Harold B., A. H. Ismail, and D. F. MacLeaod.
"Estimation of Maximal Oxygen Uptake in Adults from
AAHPER Youth Fitness Test Items."
Research Quarterly
37:192-201, 1966.
22.
Fletcher, J. G.
"Maximal Work Production in Man."
Journal of Applied Physiology 15:5:764-767, 1960.
23.
Fritz, William Eugene.
"Effects of a Trampoline
Training Program on Selected Items of Motor Fitness."
unpublished master's thesis, South Dakota State
University, Brookings, South Dakota, 1965.
24.
Glassford, R. G., G. H. Y. Baycroft, A. W. Sedgwick,
and R. B. J. Macnab.
"Comparison of Maximal Oxygen
Uptake Values Determined by Predicted and Actual
Methods."
Journal of Applied Physiology 20:3:509-513,
1965.
25.
Henderson, Yondell, H. W. Haggard, and F. S. Dolley.
"The Efficiency of the Heart and the Significance
of Rapid and Slow Pulse Rates."
American Journal
of Physiology 82:512-524, 1927.
26.
Henry, Franklin.
"Influence of Athletic Training on
the Resting Cardiovascular System."
Research
Quarterly 25:28, 1954.
27.
Hettinger, Theodore, Newton C.
Birkhead, Steven Howath,
Bela Issekutz, and Kaare Rodahl.
"Assessment of
Physical Work Capacity."
Journal of Applied
Physiology 16:153, 1961.
47
28.
Holmes, Richard A.
"The Effects of Various Methods of
Training on Endurance and Cardiovascular Tests."
unpublished master's thesis, University of Illinois,
Urbana, Illinois, 1958.
29.
Holzaepfel, N. R.
"Elementary Trampoline Stunts."
Athletic Journal 33:2-11, October 1952.
30.
Horne, Dennis E.
Trampolining:
A Complete Handbook.
London:
Faber and Faber, 1968.
31.
Hyde, Rodney C.
"The Astrand-Ryhming Nomogram as a
Predictor of Aerobic Capacity for Secondary School
Students."
unpublished master's thesis, University
of Alberta, Edmunton, Alberta, 1965.
32.
Issekutz, iBela Jr., N. C. Birkhead, and Kaare Rodahl.
"Use of Respiratory Quotients in Assessment of
Aerobic Work Capacity."
Journal of Applied
Physiology 17:47, 1962.
33.
Jackson, Jay H., Brian J. Sharkey, and L. Pat Johnston.
"Cardiorespiratory Adaptations to Training at
Specified Frequencies."
Research Quarterly 39:295-
300, 1968.
34.
Karvonen, M. J.
"Problems of Training of the Cardiovascular System."
Ergonomics 2:207-215,
1959.
35.
Knehr, C. A., D. B. Dill, and William Neufield.
"Training and Its Effect on Man at Rest and at Work."
American Journal of Physiology 136:1:148-156, 1942.
36.
Larson, Leonard A.
"Cardiovascular-Respiratory
Function in Relation-to Physical Fitness."
Research
Quarterly 12:456-468, 1942.
37.
Magnusson, Lucille I.
"The Effect of Trampoline
Exercises on Endurance and Ankle Strength." unpublished
master's
thesis,
Iowa, 1951.
State University of
Iowa,
Iowa City,
48
38.
Malhotra, M. S., J. Len Supta, and R. M. Rai.
"Pulse
Count as a Measure of Energy Expenditure."
Journal
of Applied Physiology 18:5:994-996, 1963.
39.
Margaria, R., P. Aghema, and E. Rovelli.
"Indirect
Determination of Oxygen Consumption in Man."
Journal of Aplied Physiology 20:1070-1073, 1965.
40.
Maritz, J. S., J. F. Morrison, J. Peter, N. B. Strydom,
and C. H. Wyndham.
"A Practical Method of Estimating
an Individual's Maximal Oxygen Intake."
Ergonomics
4:97-122, 1961.
41.
McArdle, William D., Linda Zwiren, and John R. Magel.
"Validity of the Postexercise Heart Rate as a Means
of Estimating Heart Rate During Work of Varying
Intensities."
Research Quarterly 40:523-528, 1969.
42.
Michael, Ernest D., Jr., and Steven M. Horvath.
"Physical Work Capacity of College Women." Journal
of Applied Physiology 20:2:263-266, 1965.
43.
and Arthur
J.
Gallon.
"Pulse
Wave and Blood Pressure Changes Occurring During a
Physical Training Program." Research Quarterly 31:
43, 1960.
44.
Mitchell, Jere H., Brian J. Sproule, and Carleton B.
Chapman.
"The Physiological Meaning of the Maximal
Oxygen Intake Test."
Journal of Clinical Investigation
37:538-547, 1958.
45.
Montoye, Henry J. ed.
An Introduction to Measurement in
Physical Education.
Indianapolis, Indiana:
Phi
Epsilon Kappa Fraternity,
1970.
46.
Morehouse, Laurence E., and Augustus T. Miller., Jr.
Physiology of Exercise.
5th ed. St. Louis:
C. V.
Mosby Company, 1967.
47.
Oja,)Pekka, Timo Partanen, and Pentti Teraslinna.
"The Validity of Three Indirect Methods of Measuring
Oxygen Uptake and Physical Fitness."
Journal-of
Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 10:67-71, 1970.
49
48.
Pollock, Michael L., Thomas K. Cureton, and Leonard
Greninger.
"Effects of Frequency of Training on
Working Capacity, Cardiovascular Function, and Body
Composition of Adult Men." Medicine and Science in
Sports 1:70-74, 1969.
49.
Rowell, Loring B., Henry L. Taylor, and Yang Wang.
"Limitations to Prediction of Maximal Oxygen Intake."
Journal off Apjlied Physiology 19:5:919-927, 1964.
50.
Scott, M. Gladys, and Marjorie Wilson.
Efficiency Tests for College Women."
Quarterly 19:62-69, 1948.
51.
Sharkey, Brian J.
"Intensity and Duration of Training
and the Development of Cardiorespiratory -Endurance."
Medicine and Science in Sports 2:197-202, 1970.
52.
and John P.
"Physical
Research
Holleman.
"Cardiorespir-
atory Adaptations to Training at Specified Intensities."
Research Quarterly 38:698-703,, 1967.
53.
and John L.
Training, and Performance."
122-124, 1970.
54.
Dayries.
Shephard, Roy J.
Endurance Fitness.
University of Toronto Press, 1969.
.
55.
"Learning,
Research Quarterly 41:
Toronto:
"Intensity, Duration, and Frequency
of Exercise as Determinants of the Response to a
Training Regime."
Internationale Zeitschrift Fur
Angewandte Physiologie Einschliesslich Arbeitsphysiologie 26:272-278, 1968.
56.
.
"On the
Timing of
Post-Exercise
Pulse Readings."
Journal of Sports Medicine
Physical Fitness 6:23-27, 1966.
57.
Skubic, Vera,
and Jean Hodgkins.
Efficiency Test
for Girls
Quarterly 34:191-198,
58.
and
"Cardiovascular
and Women."
Research
1963.
Sloan, A. W.
"Effect of Training on Physical Fitness
of Women Students."
Journal of Applied Physiology
16:1:167-169, 1961.
50
59.
and E.
N. Keen.
"Physical Fitness of
Oarsmen and Rugby Players Before and After Training."
Journal of Applied Physiology 14:635-636, 1959.
60.
Suggs, C. W., and W. E. Splinter.
"Some Physiological
Responses of Man to Workload and Environment."
Journal of Aplied Physiology 16:3:413-420, 1961.
61.
Taylor, Henry Longstreet, and Elsworth Buskirk.
"Maximal Oxygen Intake and Its
Relation to Body
Composition with Special Reference to Chronic
Physical Activity and Obesity."
Journal of Applied
Physiology 11:72-78, 1957.
62.
,
Elsworth Buskirk,
and Austin
Henchel.
"Maximal Oxygen Intake as an Objective
Measure of Cardiorespiratory Performance."
Journal
of Applied Physiology 8:73-80, 1955.
63.
Teraslinna, Pentti, A. H. Ismail, and D. F. MacLeod.
"Nomogram by Astrand and Ryhming as a Predictor of
Maximum Oxygen Uptake."- Journal of Applied
Physiology 21:2:513-515, 1966.
64.
Van Anne, Angela Nancy.
"The Effects of Trampoline
Exercise on Selected Physical Capacities." unpublished
master's thesis, State University of Iowa, Iowa City,
Iowa, 1953.
65.
von Dobelin, Wilhelm.
"A Simple Bicycle Ergometer."
Journal of_ Aplied Physiology 7:222, 1954.
66.
Walters, C. Etta.
"A Study of the Effects of Prescribed
Strenous Exercises on the Physical Efficiency of
College Women." Research Quarterly 24:102, 1953.
67.
Wanamaker, George S.
"A Study of the Validity and
Reliability of the 12-Minute Run Under Selected
Motivational Conditions.!"
Therapy Journal 24:69-72,
68.
American Corrective
1970.
Wells, J. G., B. Balke, and D. D. Van Fossan.
"Lactic
Acid Accumulation During Work.
A Suggested Standardization of Work Classification."
Journal of Applied
Physiology 10:51-55, 1957.
51
69.
Williams, Melvin H., and Ron L. Edwards.
"Effect of
Varient Training Regiments Upon Submaximal and
Maximal Cardiovascular Performance."
American
Corrective Therapy Journal 25:11-15, 1971.
70.
Wilmore, Jack H.
"Maximal Oxygen Intake and Its
Relationship to Endurance Capacity on a Bicycle
Ergometer."
Research
quarterly 40:203, 1969.
71.
Wright, James Nelson.
"The Effects of Gymnastic
Training on the Heartograms-of Young Boys."
unpublished master's thesis, University of Illinois,
Urbana, Illinois, 1954.
72.
Wyndham, C. H., and J. S. Ward.
"An Assessment of the
Exercise Capacity of Cardiac Patients."
Circulation
16:384, 1957.
73.
Yeager, Susan A., and Paul Brynteson.
"Effects of
Varying Training Periods on the Development of
Cardiovascular Efficiency of College Women."
Research Quarterly 41:589-592, 1970.
CHAPTER III
PROCEDURES
Subjects
The experimental subjects were college women who
participated in three tumbling classes in the Women's
Physical Education Department
at North Texas State University.
From the students enrolled in the tumbling
classes,
thirty-
nine subjects available for testing between the hours of 7:30
and 10:30 A.M. were found to be homogenous with respect to
age, height, weight,
experience.
trampoline experience,
and tumbling
The thirty-nine subjects were then randomly
assigned to one of three treatment groups.
Ten subjects
from the general student population, who were not currently
engaged in physical activity courses, were selected
of availability to be tested)
(because
for the control group.
The
forty-nine subjects ranged in age from seventeen to twentyfive years, with an average height of 64.20 inches
average weight of 120.80 pounds.
beginning tumblers with little
Experimental
and an
subjects were
or no trampoline experience,
and none had been on a trampoline within a year.
The
control group and the tumbling group were not allowed to
52
53
perform on the trampoline during the training period, and the
two trampoline groups were asked to perform on the trampoline
only during the training sessions.
not participating
treatment
The control group was
in physical education classes during the
period.
Testing Instruments
Several tests of aerobic fitness were reviewed for use
in the present
study.
The
Astrand
test
for predicting
maximal oxygen uptake and the Cooper twelve-minute run test
of aerobic capacity were selected.
widely used in cardiovascular
Astrand's test
has been
research, while Cooper's test
is fairly new in the cardiovascular field.
Both tests are
acceptable indirect methods of measuring maximum oxygen
intake and served as criterion measures of cardiovascular
respiratory fitness
(1; 4).
The Astrand Test for Predicting Maximal Oxygen Uptake
(2)
The Monark bicycle ergometer was the instrument used
for the Astrand test.
six meters.
One complete pedal turn moved the wheel
An electric metronome was set on 100 beats per
minute so that 50 pedal turns would equal 300 meters per
minute if the metronome timing were followed.
The inves-
tigator determined that 20 kilometers on the bicycle's
54
speedometer were equal to the 50 pedal turns per minute.
belt running around the rim of
a braking device.
revolving drum.
A
the bicycle wheel acted as
The belt was attached
at both ends to a
A pendulum was fixed to the drum thus
forming a measuring device for the difference
the two belt ends.
in force at
As the belt was stretched by a handwheel,
the deflection of the pendulum was read from a scale
graduated in kiloponds.
Work on the bicycle was started
with the belt in a slack position,and work load was adjusted
while the subject was pedaling.
test
manual,
According to the Astrand
the rate of work in kilopond meters per minute
(kpm) is obtained by first multiplying the distance pedaled
(m) by the braking power
in kilopond meters.
per minute.
(kp), which yields the amount of work
The latter is then expressed as distance
Each subject was asked to perform on the
bicycle ergometer at a speed of 50 revolutions per minute
a workload of 1 kilopond (kp) or 300 kilopond meters per
minute (kpm/min.) for a period of six minutes.
of the six minutes,
if
the subject's heart rate had not
reached 130 beats per minute, the workload was
one-half kilopond
At the end
increased
(450 kpm/min.), and the subject continued
to work until a steady state was reached at 130 beats per
minute or
above.
and
55
A Narco 4-channel, desk model physiograph manufactured
by Narco Bio-Systems,
Inc. of Houston, Texas was used to
record heart rate during the last fifteen seconds of every
minute.
Narco rectilinear paper,
5 millimeters by 5 millimeters,
set at
was used with paper
.25 centimeters per second.
millivolt per centimeter,
with squares measuring
speed
Pen deflection was one
and,at paper speed of
.25
centi-
meters per second, 40 millimeters of paper were equal to
fifteen seconds on the clock.
During the test,an ink pen
marking was made at the beginning
seconds.
and end of fifteen
The subject was attached to the physiograph by
three surface electrodes.
The ground electrode was
attached to the skin over the sternum,while
a positive
electrode was placed on the right sixth rib and a negative
electrode on the left sixth rib.
The electrodes were then
attached to the physiograph channel amplifier by an input
extension cable,
and heart rates were monitored continuously
during exercise.
A fan was placed in front of the subjects,
and the metronome was placed within hearing range.
investigator used an Apollo stopwatch
of a second)
Strand
by
Strand
(accurate to tenths
to count fifteen-second intervals.
test manual
The
The
(2) table,developed from the nomogram
and Rhyming
(1)
and expressed in milliliters per
56
kilogram per minute, was used by the investigator
means of predicting scores.
Davies
(5)
determined
as the
that
direct measurement of maximal oxygen uptake was necessary
if accuracy of more than 15 per cent is required,
error was tolerated in the present experiment.
and this
The following
instructions were given to all subjects preceding each
Astrand test:
1.
Keep the pedal speed on 50 rpm by listening
to the metronome and keeping the speedometer
on 20 kilometers.
2.
Keep both hands on the handlebars and focus
eyes on the speedometer.
3.
Do not start or stop pedaling until told to
do so.
4.
Remain seated on the bicycle after you cease
pedaling until you are told the test has been
completed.
Cooper's Twelve-Minute Run Test of Aerobic Capacity
(3)
The subjects were asked to cover as much distance as
possible in twelve minutes by either running, walking,
combination of both.
or a
The distance covered was measured
miles to the nearest one-tenth of a mile and was used to
in
57
assess maximal oxygen uptake by Cooper's
(4) scale
in
milliliters per kilograms per minute, according to the
number of completed laps.
Since scores on the Cooper test
are affected by subject motivation
(10), the use of
standardized instructions for all subjects was employed to
eliminate extra motivation by the investigator.
The
following instructions were used:
1.
On the signal "Go" begin walking or running
around the track.
2.
You may walk,
run, or jog but do not stop moving
for twelve minutes and try to cover as much
distance as possible.
3.
Your score will be the number of laps and tenths
of laps that you cover in twelve minutes.
4.
When you hear a whistle,
stop, and notice the
place on the track where you stopped.
Report
the place where you stopped and the number of
completed
laps to the investigator.
(The
investigator also kept a count of the number
of laps run.)
In addition to the above tests,
rate,
recovery heart
by assessment
rates,
changes
in resting heart
and blood pressure were measured
of the parameters
before
and after
the
58
treatment period.
minute
Recovery heart rates were recorded one
and four minutes following the Astrand test.
The
one-minute recovery heart rate was recorded on the physiograph in the same manner as the heart rates were monitored
for the Astrand test.,
The four-minute recovery heart rate
was counted by the tester.
The tester counted the beats for
fifteen seconds and multiplied the number of beats by four
to determine the beats per minute.
Resting heart rate was
taken in the same manner as the four-minute recovery heart
rates after five minutes rest but before beginning the
Strand
test.
Before the
Astrand test, blood pressure was
taken with a sphygmomanometer and stethescope while the
subject was in a supine position.
Heart rates were measured
in beats per minute and blood pressure in millimeters of
mercury.
Test Administration
The
Astrand
investigator
and Cooper tests
and an assistant.
were administered by the
The
and heart rate and blood pressure
the research
laboratory
Astrand
test
was given,
assessments were taken, in
at the women's
gymnasium
during the
two weeks prior to and following the training period.
Cooper test
was assessed
at the university
track during
The
the
59
same periods.
Both the Cooper and Astrand tests were
administered between the hours of 7:30 and 10:30 A.M.
Research Design
Trampoline subjects were enrolled in one of three
tumbling classes.
All three classes were on a Monday,
Wednesday, and Friday schedule.
One class met from 10:00
to 11:00 A.M, the second from 11:00 A.M. to 12:00 P.M., and
the third from 1:00 to 2:00 P.M.
Within each class,
subjects
were randomly assigned to one of two trampoline groups or
to the tumbling group.
training program.
Three trampolines were used in the
The tension of the springs varied on
the three trampolines, which required the subjects to work
harder on the weaker springs to achieve height in bouncing.
To control for the difference
in trampolines,
the subjects
were randomly assigned to the three trampolines
training session.
at each
The groups differed in time spent on the
trampoline each day for three days a week, during a period
of six weeks.
different
The training regime allowed for training at
intensities to determine the time interval which
would produce the greatest change in cardiovascular
efficiency.
The training regime also facilitated gradual
conditioning of the subjects to the use of the trampoline,
as well as maximum use of the trampolines during the training
60
period.
Both groups spent two and one-half minutes on the
trampoline per day for the first week.
The second week, both
groups progressed to five minutes per day.
The third week,
at five
Group I, consisting of eleven subjects, remained
minutes while Group II, consisting of ten subjects,
progressed to seven and one-half minutes.
The fourth week,
Group I remained at five minutes and Group II progressed to
ten minutes.
Each group remained
the completion of the study.
at the latter
time until
The subject's training
consisted of straight bouncing for thirty-second periods
which was alternated with seat drops, knee drops,
front
drops, back drops, or swivel hips for thirty-second periods,
as designated each day by the investigator.
At times during
the training, the subjects were given a choice of stunts
instead of the straight bounce to alleviate boredom and
extra strain on the legs caused by the straight bounce.
The subjects were asked to bounce continuously,
number of bounces executed was not fixed.
and the
A complete
description of the trampoline stunts and routines used were
be found on page 93 of the Appendix.
Pulse rates
were
recorded within ten seconds following each training session
to determine which subjects reached the heart rate of 150
beats per minute required for a training effect to occur
(6).
61
The training regime was based on previous research by Durnin,
et al.
(5), and Karvonen
(6).
Durnin and associates stated
that duration of exercise as well as heart rate has an
effect on training
(5).
Karvonen maintained that heart
rate during exercise will not decrease if training does not
take place at a heart rate of at least 150 beats per minute.
Exercise endurance, however, will improve, resting heart
rate will be slower, and recovery heart rate will be more
rapid with training at lower heart rates.
The tumbling group,
administered the
Astrand
as the trampoline groups.
consisting of eleven subjects, was
and Cooper tests at the same time
Tumbling for the six-week period
included stunts such as the cartwheel, tip-up, double walk,
and wheelbarrow
in addition to rolling stunts such as
forward and backward rolls,
Eskimo roll.
forward dive roll,
log roll,and
Balance stunts such as the hand stand, head-
stand, chest stand, thigh mount, and angel balance were also
used.
The tumbling group received no trampoline instruction
or practice during the training period.
A detailed
description of tumbling stunts may be found on page 95
of the Appendix.
The control group, consisting of nine subjects,
not participate in physical education
activities
did
during
62
the training period.
During the investigation, eight subjects
(two ten-minute subjects, three five-minute subjects, two
trampoline subjects,
and one control subject)
were dropped
because of illness or absence.
Analysis of Data
The experimental design was a one-way analysis of
covariance in which the F ratio was used to determine the
significance of the variation among four treatment groups'
improvement on the cardiovascular tests.
The analysis of
covariance is based on the following assumptions which were
appropriate for this investigation
1.
(9):
The test is most appropriate for intact groups
(groups that are not equated experimentally)
where
experimental control is not possible and statistical allowances must be made
(8).
Experimental
subjects in the present study were from regular
tumbling classes and were not equated experimentally.
2.
Analysis of covariance usually involves a
pretest
and a posttest,
and
used as the covariate (9).
the pretest
The
score is
pretest scores
63
for the
Astrand,
Cooper, and heart rate and blood
pressure measures were used as covariates.
3.
The analysis of covariance assumes random
assignment of subjects to treatment groups.
Experimental subjects were randomly assigned
to treatment groups.
The procedure for the analysis of covariance includes
obtaining the sums of squares between groups, within groups,
and for the total sample, along with each sum's degrees of
freedom.
Adjusted sums of squares, mean squares, and
degrees of freedom are obtained for the dependent or
posttest variable
(8).
The F ratio
is then calculated
and
compared with tabled values of F for the appropriate degrees
of freedom and the desired level of significance.
If the
calculated F ratio is larger than the tabled F, the null
hypothesis is rejected.
smaller
If the calculated
F ratio is
than the tabled F, the null hypothesis is retained.
In the present study, Alpha was
.05,and
Tukey's studentized
range table was used to determine the source of variation.
The Pearson product moment correlation coefficient was used
to determine
Cooper tests.
the
relationship between the
Astrand
The t ratio was used to determine if
icant differences existed between pre- and posttest
and
signif-
64
performances.
Data were analyzed by the IBM 360 Computer
at the North Texas State University Computer Center.
Summary
This chapter has included
a description of the subjects
tested, the training program used, instructions
administration
statistical
for
of the cardiovascular tests, and the
analysis of test
results.
chapter, results of the cardiovascular
program are presented
and discussed.
In the following
tests
and training
CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
Strand,
Per-Olaf and Bengt Saltin.
"Maximal Oxygen
Uptake and Heart Rate in Various Types of Muscular
Activity."
Journal of Applied Physiology 16:6:977-981,
1961.
2.
3.
Work Tests withtheBicycle
Varberg,, Sweden: Monark-Crescent A B.
.
Ergometer.
Cooper, Kenneth H.
Aerobics.
Bantam Books, Inc., 1968.
4.
0.
"A Means
New York, New York:
of Assessing Maximal
Oxygen Intake." Journal of American Medical
Association 203:201-204, 1968.
5.
Davies, C. T. M.
"Limitations to the Prediction of
Maximum Oxygen Intake from Cardiac Frequency
Measurements."
Journal of Applied Physiology
24:5:700-706, 1968.
6.
Durnin, J. V. G. A., M. J. Brockway, and H. W. Whitcher.
"Effects of a Short Period of Training of Varying
Severity on Some Measurements of Physical Fitness."
Journal of Applied Physiology 15:1:161-165, 1960.
7.
Karvonen, M. J.
Cardiovascular
1959.
8.
McNemar, Quinn. Psychological Statistics.
4th ed.,
New York:
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1969.
9.
Roscoe, John T.
-
"Problems of Training of the
System."
Ergonomics 2:207-215,
Fundamental Research Statistics for
the Behavioral Sciences.
Rinehart and Winston,
10.
New York,, New York:
Inc.,
1969.
Wanamaker., George S.
"Study of the Validity and
Reliability of the 12-minute Run Under Selected
Motivational Conditions."- American Corrective
Therapy Journal, 24:69-72, 1970.
65
Holt
CHAPTER IV
PRESENTATION
OF DATA
Findings of the Study
Data secured for the present investigation included
pre- and posttest scores for the
Astrand
test of predicted
maximal oxygen uptake, the Cooper twelve-minute run test
of aerobic capacity, resting heart rates, one-minute and
four-minute recovery heart rates, and resting blood
pressure.
Tables for height and weight, recorded for all
forty-one subjects,
and pulse rates within ten seconds after
exercise, recorded for the trampoline groups, may be found
on page 98 of the Appendix.
The average height of the
subjects was 64.20 inches, and the average weightwas 120.80
pounds.
Pulse rates within ten seconds following exercise
averaged 172.62 beats per minute for the ten-minute
group
and 169.73 beats per minute for the five-minute group, which
indicated
that
subjects maintained the 150 beats per
minute necessary for a training effect to occur
(7).
were analyzed by the analysis of covariance method,
Data
and the
Pearson product moment correlation method was used to
determine
the relationship
between
66
the Astrand
and Cooper
67
tests.
The t
ratio for related samples was used to determine
significant improvement of the four groups' performances on
the pre and post Astrand and Cooper tests, resting heart rate,
recovery heart rate, and resting blood pressure measures.
Table I includes means,
standard deviations,
and t
ratios for the four groups pre- and posttest performances,
on the Astrand maximal oxygen uptake test.
Group I
The groups were
(10-minute trampoline group, N = 11) ,
Group II
(5-minute trampoline group, N = 10), Group III
group, N -
11),
and Group IV (control group,
(tumbling
N -
9).
TABLE I
MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS AND t RATIOS OF FOUR GROUPS'
PERFORMANCE ON THE ASTRAND TEST (ml/kg/min.)
Pretest
M
SD
Group
I(10-min.)
(N=ll)
Posttest
M
SD
Mean
Diff.
t
Ratio
34.36
6.84
41.72
5.68
7.36
3.90*
33.60
6.56
45.60
6.86
12.00
8.44*
III(Tumb.)
(N=ll)
34.18
6.35
36.45
7.30
2.27
1.94
IV(Cont.)
(N=9)
38.66
6.04
39.00
8.17
0.34
0.35
II(5-min.)
(N=10)
*p <
.01.
68
Performance scores increased between the pre- and
posttests in all groups, but the greatest increase was in
the five-minute groups' performancefollowed by that of
the ten-minute group.
The trampoline groups significantly increased in
cardiovascular efficiency between the pre and post Astrand
tests.
No significant
difference was found between the
tumbling or the control groups' performances on the pre
and post
Astrand
tests.
Table II contains the results of the analysis of
covariance as applied to the
scores as the covariates.
Astrand
testusing the pretest
Adjusted means and comparisons
among the means using Tukey's studentized range test are
also listed.
The F ratio of 8.39 was found to be significant beyond
the .05 level.
Tukey's ratio of 3.81, was needed for the
group comparisons to be statistically
.05 level
(7).
significant
at the
A significant difference was found between
both of the trampoline groups' and the control groups'
performances on the
Astrand
test.
A significant difference
was also found between the five-minute trampoline
and the tumbling groups' performance on the
No significant
difference,
however,
group
Astrand
test.
existed between the
69
ten-minute and five-minute trampoline groups'
performances,
between the ten-minute group and the tumbling groups'
performances
groups'
or between the tumbling group and the control
performances on the
Astrand
test.
TABLE II
RESULTS OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE
ASTRAND TEST (ml/kg/min.)
Source
SS
Between
444.44
df
MS
F
3 148.14 8.39
Adjusted
Means
Comparison Among
Means Using
Tukey's Test
I 33.60
II 30.08
Within
635.46 36
17.65
III 37.17
IV 39.84
Total
OF THE
1079.90 39
I-I
2.56
I-III 2.60
I-IV
4.54*
II-III 5.16*
II-IV
III-IV
7.10*
1.94
F.05, 3/36df = 2.87.
*p
<
.05.
Resting heart rates were recorded by the investigator
five minutes preceding the Astrand pretest and posttest.
Table III
are found the means,
In
standard deviations, and t
ratios of the resting heart rates on the pre-
and posttests.
70
TABLE III
MEANS., STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND t RATIOS OF
RESTING HEART RATES (beats per minute)
Pret st
M
SD
Group
I(10-min.)
(N=11)
Posttest
M
SD
Group
Diff.
t
Ratio
90.72
13.06
84.00
9.46
6.72
93.60
10.70
75.40
12.50
18.20
3.71*
III(Tumb.)
(N=l1)
92.72
16.86
82.36
13.52
10.36
1.94
IV(Cont.)
(N=9)
86.00
10.68
82.66
9.80
3.34
1.66
_
_
II(5-min.)
(N=10)
6-
-
_
_
_
_
-__A_
_
_
1.64
_
.01.
*p
<
All
of the resting heart rates decreased
from pre- to
posttests, but the only significant decrease was shown
Group II,
_
the five-minute trampoline group.
in
Table IV
contains the results of the analysis of the resting heart
rates by the covariance method.
No significant difference existed between any of the
groups on the pretest and posttest differences in resting
heart rate scores.
71
TABLE IV
RESULTS OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF RESTING
HEART RATES (beats per minute)
Source
SS
Between
df
527.78
3
MS
F
175.92
1.10
Adjusted
Means
I 89.62
II 95.86
Within
5739.91
36
159.44
III 92.26
IV 85.41
Total
6267.70
39
F-.05,3/36df = 2.87.
In Table V the means,
standard deviations, and t
of the one-minute recovery heart rates
pre and post
Astrand
ratios
are shown for the
tests.
The analysis revealed no significant changes in the
one-minute recovery heart rates of any of the four groups
between the pre and post
covariance
Astrand
tests.
An analysis of
for the one-minute recovery heart rates is
shown in Table VI.
Analysis of covariance verified that no significant
difference existed between any of the four groups'
minute recovery heart rates following the
Astrand
onetests.
72
TABLE V
MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND t RAT IOS OF ONE-MINUTE
RECOVERY HEART RATES (beats per minute)
Pretest
M
SD
Group
I(10-min.)
(N=11)
Posttest
M
SD
Group
Diff.
t
Ratio
116.00
16.02
113.45
11.35
2.55
0.58
107.40
16.65
112.40
9.70
-5.00
0.84
III(Tumb.)
(N=11)
119.27
18.72
107.27
13.95
12.00
1.90
IV(Cont.)
110.22
10.22
102.66
13.71
7.56
1.55
II(5-min.)
(N=10)
TABLE VI
RESULTS OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF ONE-MINUTE
RECOVERY HEART RATES (beats per minute)
Source
SS
Between
977.12
df
3
MS
F
325,70
1.33
Adjusted
Means
I 114.60
II 106.34
Within
8810.96
36
244,74
III 119.89
IV 112.35
Total
9788.08
39
'.05, 3/36df = 2.87.
73
Table VII contains the means,
standard deviations, and
t ratios of the four--minute recovery heart rates for the pre
and post
Astrand
tests.
TABLE VII
MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND t RATIOS OF FOUR-MINUTE
RECOVERY HEART RATES (beats per minute)
Group
M
I(10-min.)
(N=ll)
SD
M
SD
t
Ratio
Group
Diff.
94.72
11.94
91.45
8.86
3.27
0.66
93.10
14.56
94.40
12.39
-1.30
0.23
III(Tumb.)
(N=ll)
101.09
12.82
91.27
11.28
9.82
3.26*
IV(Cont.)
(N=9)
92.22
8.62
89.33
13.00
2.89
0.64
II(5-min.)
(N=10)
*p <
.01.
The tumbling group showed the only significant decrease
in the four-minute recovery heart rates between the pre and
post
Astrand
tests.
An analysis of covariance of the four-
minute recovery heart rates is
shown in Table VIII.
No significant difference was found between
any of the
groups'
four-minute recovery heart rates following the
Strand
tests.
Table
IX contains means,
standard
deviations,
74
TABLE VIII
RESULTS OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE FOR FOUR-MINUTE
RECOVERY HEART RATES
Source
SS
Between
519.98
Within
5313.70
(beats per minute)
Adjusted
Means
df
MS
F
3
173.32
1.17
36
147.60
I
94.77
II
92.46
III 101.18
IV
Total
5833.68
F.
05
92.76
39
, 3/36df = 2.87.
TABLE IX
MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND t RATIOS OF RESTING
SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE MEASURES (mm of Hg)
Group
I(10-min.)
(N=11)
Pretest
M
SD
Posttest
M
SD
Group
Diff.
t
Ratio
116.90
12.52
115.50
12.20
1.40
0.12
111.18
9.46
111.09
10.16
0.09
0.40
III(Tumb.)
(N=11)
114.36
10.76
109.82
7.41
4.54
1.12
IV(Cont.)
(N=9)
116.33
5.72
115.44
3.40
0.89
0.38
II(5-min.)
(N=10)
75
and t
ratios of the pre-
and posttest resting systolic blood
pressure measurements.
Resting
systolic blood pressure measures decreased
slightly in all groups except the control group.
ences, however,
were not statistically
have happened by chance.
The differ-
significant
and could
Table X contains the analysis of
covariance of the resting systolic blood pressure measures.
TABLE X
RESULTS OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF RESTING
SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE (mm of Hg)
Source
Between
SS
df
102.54
3
MS
34.18
F
0.40
Adjusted
Means
I 115.63
II 111.96
Within
3073.60
36
85.38
III 115.74
IV 115.09
Total
3176.15
L.05,
39
3/36df = 2.87.
An F ratio of 0.40 verified no significant difference
between any of the groups' resting systolic blood pressure
measures during the pre and post
Astrand
tests.
In Table
76
XI may be found the means,
standard deviations,
and t
ratios
for the resting diastolic blood pressure measures.
TABLE XI
MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND t RATIOS OF RESTING
DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE MEASURES (mm of Hg)
M
SD
M
SD
Group
Diff.
t
Rat io
68.18
9.00
70.09
7.36
-1.91
1.12
66.10
5.04
66.20
6.56
-0.10
0.80
III(Tumb.)
(N=ll)
65.09
5.39
67.27
4.76
-2.18
1.83
IV(Cont.)
(N=9)
69.44
4.18
69.11
5.40
0.33
0.18
Group
I(10-min.)
(N=ll)
II(5-min.)
(N=10)
No significant difference was found in any of the
groups' resting diastolic blood pressure measures between
the pre and post
Astrand
tests.
of the analysis of covariance
Table XII contains results
of the resting diastolic
blood pressure measures.
Again,
the analysis verified
that
no
statistically
significant difference was found between the groups' resting
diastolic blood pressure measures during the pre and post
77
Strand tests.
The F ratio for the resting diastolic blood
pressure measures was 0.66.
TABLE XII
RESULTS OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE RESTING OF
DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE (mm of Hg)
Source
Between
SS
50.80
-
df
3
F
MS
16.93
Adjusted
Means
0.66
I 66.96
II 67.34
Within
913.70
36
25.38
III 65.66
IV 68.84
Total
964.50
39
-. 05, 3/36df = 2.87.
Table XIII contains the means,
standard deviations,
and
t ratios of the four groups' pre- and posttest performances
on the Cooper test of aerobic capacity,
milliliters
as expressed in
per kilogram of body weight per minute.
The ten-minute trampoline group
showed significant
improvement in performance between the pre and post Cooper
tests.
No significant difference was found between
the pre
and post performances of any of the other three groups.
78
TABLE XIII
MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND t RATIOS OF FOUR GROUPS'
PERFORMANCE ON THE COOPER TEST (ml/kg/min.)
M
SD
M
SD
Mean
Diff.
t
Ratio
26.98
3.52
29.84
2.64
2.85
2.46*
29.20
3.62
30.96
5.43
1.76
1.54
III(Tumb.)
(N=ll)
28.49
3.41
28.25
3.76
IV(Cont.)
(N=9)
28.68
3.14
28.93
2.98
Group
I(10-min.)
(N=ll)
II(5-min.)
(N=l0)
*p
<
0.25
0.34
0.38
.05.
Results of the analysis of covariance
test,
0.24
adjusted means,and comparisons
Tukey's test
of. the Cooper
among means using
are shown in Table XIV.
Analysis of covariance revealed no significant
difference between any of the four groups' performances
on the Cooper test.
The Pearson product moment method of correlation was
used to determine the relationship between
Cooper tests.
the Astrand and
Table XV contains the correlation coefficients
79
TABLE XIV
RESULTS OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF THE
COOPER TEST (m/kg/mm.)
Ad ju st ed
Source
SS
Between
df
MS
3
12.83
38.49
F
Means
1.84
I 26.78
II 28.34
Within
250.12
36
6.94
III 29.21
IV 29.01
Total
288.61
F.05,
39
3/36df = 2.87.
TABLE XV
PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT CORRELATION COEFF IC IENTS
FOR STRAND AND COOPER TESTS
Test
M
SD
Strand
Pretest
35.07
6.52
Posttest
40.66
7.56
Cooper
Pretest
28.30
3.42
(ml/kg/min.)
Correlation Coefficients
Astrand Astrand
Cooper
Cooper
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
.60*
.28
.06
.16
.18
Strand
.62*
Cooper
29.48
II
*p <
--
.01.
3.84
-
-
-
J
-
1-1
1
-
Posttest
80
between the two maximal oxygen uptake tests
milliliters
measured in
per kilogram of body weight per minute.
No statistically
two tests was found.
Strand
significant relationship between the
An r of .28 was found between the
and Cooper pretests and an r of
posttests.
.18
between the
Correlations of .60 and .62 were found between
the pre and post Astrand tests and the pre and post Cooper
tests,
respectively.
Results of the present investigation revealed a statis-
tically significant
increase in cardiovascular efficiency,
as estimated by the
Astrand
and Cooper tests,
in the
trampoline groups subjects following a six-week training
program.
The ten-minute group improved significantly
between pre- and posttests on both measures while the
five-minute group improved significantly only on the
Astrand test.
Analysis of covariance revealed that subjects'
scores on the Astrand posttest for the five-minute group
were significantly better than subjects'
tumbling and control
groups.
group on the Astrand posttest
scores in the
Scores for the ten-minute
were
significantly
than the scores of the control group.
On the
better
Astrand
test, no significant differences were found between the
81
ten-minute
and five-minute trampoline groups'
performances
or between the ten-minute group and the tumbling
groups'
performances.
No significant differences were found between any of
the groups on the Cooper test when measured in milliliters
per kilogram per minute.
A significant
increase
in cardio-
vascular efficiency of the ten-minute group was noted,
however, between pre and post Cooper tests.
Analysis of resting heart rates, one-minute
and four-
minute recovery heart rates, and resting blood pressure
revealed no significant differences between any of the
groups in any of the measures.
Significant differences
were notes, however, between the pre and post resting heart
rates of the five-minute trampoline
group and the four-
minute recovery heart rates of the tumbling group.
Discussion of the Findings
In the present investigation, two groups of subjects
trained on the trampoline for periods of ten minutes and
five minutes,
of the
Astrand
three times per week for six weeks.
test
Results
showed no significant difference
between the five-minute
group and the ten-minute group, but
did show a significant difference between the five-minute
group and the tumbling group.
An explanation offered by
82
de Vries
(4) was the concept of interval training.
De Vries
noted that workloads of short duration in which most of
the work was done aerobically
and heart rates were not
high, yielded greater training effects than workloads of
longer duration.
In the latter
case, heart rates were high,
and a large portion of the work was achieved anaerobically.
In the present study, therefore, the five-minute group
probably performed most of the work aerobically, while the
ten-minute group had to rely on anaerobic sources for a
larger portion of the work.
The tumbling group,
likewise,
performed most of the exercise anaerobically, probably
indicating why no significant difference existed between
the tumbling group and ten-minute trampoline group.
A recent study by Sharkey
(12) supported the fact that
no statistically significant difference was found between
the two trampoline groups.
In Sharkey's study,
in which
two levels of duration and three levels of intensity were
used, no significant differences were found between intensity
or duration, and no significant interactions were noted.
Also,
in the present investigation,
trained for six weeks,
even though both groups
Group II trained
for five minutes for
five of the six weeks, while Group I trained for ten minutes
only three of the six weeks.
Perhaps if the ten-minute
83
group had trained for ten minutes as long as the fiveminute group trained for five minutes,
they would have
adapted more aerobically to the work and would have shown
greater improvement.
In the present study, the results of the Cooper test
of
aerobic capacity showed no significant difference between
any of the groups' development of cardiovascular efficiency.
The ten-minute trampoline
group did, however,
improve
significantly in cardiovascular efficiency between the pre
and post Cooper tests.
The fact that the five-minute
trampoline group did not improve significantly on the
Cooper test,but showed the greatest improvement on the
Strand
test, may be because of the possible development of
greater leg strength in the ten-minute group.
Fenner
(5)
and Loken
According to
(8), trampolining increases muscular
strength and coordination.
Magnusson
(9) supported Fenner
and Loken by finding significant increases in ankle strength
and endurance
following
a trampoline training program.
In
the present investigationthe ten-minute group did spend a
much longer period on the trampoline, possibly developing
greater leg strength.
by Disch
The Cooper test has been indicated
(4) as a measure of the ability to run distances,
thereby offering a possible explanation of the ten-minute
84
group's better performance on the Cooper test.
Disch is supported by de Vries
increases
(3)
who maintained that
in strength are related to increases
in speed.
No significant relationships were found between the
groups' performances on the Astrand and Cooper tests.
Possibly the
Astrand
test is more a measure of maximal
oxygen uptake, under the conditions of the present study,
than is the Cooper test.
Disch
(4)
noted that
by Cooper a heterogeneous population was used.
in a study
Subjects
were men ranging in age from seventeen to fifty-two and
ranging in weight from 114 to 270 pounds.
that the high r
(.897)
Disch suggested
between the twelve-minute run test
and actual maximal oxygen uptake measures reported by
Cooper was increased due to the body weight and age
variability.
Disch also suggested that if
run with a more homogeneous group,
the test
were
as was the case in the
present study, the validity of the test as a maximal oxygen
consumption measure would be reduced.
of a more homogeneous group
Disch's own study
(college men)
showed the
Cooper test to be a better measure of ability to run
distances.
In a study in which college-age
three)
(eighteen to twenty-
males were used to investigate motivational conditions
85
related to the Cooper test,
Wanamaker
(12)
also found the
twelve-minute run to be a better test of physical fitness,
rather than maximal oxygen uptake.
Results, which were
similar to those presented by Disch
(4), indicated that a
more homogeneous group yields a much lower validity coefficient than that of the original
study
(2).
Wanamaker did not
find much difference in volunteer or selected subjects'
performances on the twelve-minute run, but noted that even
though validity was slightly higher for the selected group,
error estimates were also much larger.
that different motivational
validity of the Cooper test.
Wanamaker concluded
conditions may affect the
The motivational conditions
of the present study, therefore, were probably not strong
enough to warrant changes in the results of the twelveminute test.
Perhaps the trampoline
groups showed a
slight increase in distance run on the posttest because of
strengthening of the leg muscles due to exercising on the
trampoline.
The resting heart rates were lowered after trampoline
training only in the five-minute trampoline group.
pulse rates were lowered only in the tumbling group.
possible explanation was offered by Karvonen
(6)
Recovery
A
who
indicated that resting pulse rates and recovery pulse rates
86
are likely to be related to cardiovascular training, but
different results of training are measured than those
determined by the rise in pulse rate from a resting
to working
state.
De Vries
(3)
maintained that heart rates
affected by work done during the aerobic state.
are more
Since the
five-minute group probably trained more aerobically
than
the ten-minute group, the heart rates of the five-minute
subjects were affected more by training than
those of the
ten-minute group.
Perhaps the tumbling groups'
recovery
heart rates were lowered significantly because
the initial
four-minute recovery heart rates were higher
in the tumbling
group than in any other group.
have been
(11).
Initial levels of fitness
shown to affect responses to cardiovascular
tests
Resting blood pressure was not affected
by the
training program probably because the subjects'
pressures were lower than normal,
120/80,
blood
114/67 as compared with
before the training program began.
De Vries
(3)
implied that a training regime may not effect
normal or
below normal blood pressures.
A summary of the present
investigation,
conclusions,
and suggestions for further study are presented
in Chapter
V.
CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
Brouha, Lucien.
"Training." Science and Medicine of
Exercise and Sports. - edited by W. R. Johnson, New
York, Harper Brothers, 1960.
2.
Cooper, Kenneth H.
"A Means of Assessing Maximal
Oxygen Intake." Journal of American Medical
Association 203:201-204, 1968.
3.
de Vries, Herbert A.
Physiology of Exercise for
Physical Education.
Dubuque, Iowa: William C.
Brown Company, 1966.
4.
Disch, James G.
"A Factor Analytic Study of Runs
Involving Speed and Endurance." Paper presented
at the Southern District Convention of AAHPER,
Oklahoma City, 1971.
5.
Fenner, Bob. "Your Trampoline Program."
Coach 21:35, 1951.
6.
Karvonen, M. J.
"Problems of Training the Cardiovascular System."
Ergonomics 2:207-215, 1959.
7.
Kirk, Roger.
Experimental Designs Procedures for the
Behavioral Sciences.
Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.,
Belmont, California, 1968.
8.
Loken, Newton C.
"Trampolining, Our Newest Activity."
JOHPER 23:14, 1952.
9.
Magnusson, Lucille I.
"The Effect of Trampoline
Exercises on Endurance and Ankle Strength."
unpublished master's thesis, State University of
Iowa,
10.
Iowa City,
Iowa,
Scholastic
1951.
Montoye, Henry J. ed.
An Introduction-to Measurement
in Physical Education.
Indianapolis, Indiana:
Phi Epsilon Kappa Fraternity, 1970.
87
88
11.
Sharkey, Brian Jr.
"Intensity and Duration of Training
and the Development of Cardiorespiratory Endurance."
Medicine and Science in Sports 2:4:197-202, 1970.
12.
Wanamaker, George S.
"Study of the Validity and
Reliability of the 12-Minute Run Under Selected
Motivational Condit ions." - American Corrective
Therapy Journal
24:69-72, 1970.
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Purpose and Procedures
The purpose of the present investigation was to
determine if changes in cardiovascular efficiency would
occur following a six-week training program.
Subjects were forty-one college women,between the
ages of seventeen and twenty-five, thirty-two of whom were
participating in a regular tumbling class in the Women's
Physical Education Department
University.
Nine subjects,
at North Texas State
acting
as a control group,
were not currently engaged in physical
thirty-two
experimental
activity courses.
The
subjects were randomly assigned to
one of the three treatment groups.
Groups I and II followed
two trampoline programs of different intensities as part of
their tumbling classes for six weeks, while Group III
followed the regular class tumbling program.
The cardio-
vascular measures administered to all of the subjects before
and following the six-week training program were the Astrand
test of predicted maximal oxygen uptake,
minute run test of aerobic capacity,
89
the Cooper twelve-
resting heart rates,
90
recovery heart rates, and resting blood pressures.
analysis
The
of covariance was used to determine significant
differences between
groups'
vascular posttests.
The t
measures to determine
performances
on the cardio-
ratio was computed
if significant
for all
differences
between pre- and posttest performances.
existed
The Pearson
product moment correlation coefficient was used to determine
the relationship between the
Astrand
and Cooper tests.
Alpha was .05.
Results
The following are the results of the present
investigation:
1.
The subjects in the combination trampoline-tumbling
groups showed greater
improvement
in aerobic capacity than
the tumbling group or the no-activity group on the Astrand
and Cooper tests
2.
after six weeks of training.
Improvement
in aerobic capacity of the trampoline
groups was not due to differences in the intensities of
their training.
3.
rates,
Changes
in resting heart rates,
recovery heart
and resting blood pressures did not occur due to
six weeks of varied intensity training on the trampoline,
nor to six
weeks of tumbling
or no
activity.
91
4.
Changes
in resting heart rates of the five-minute
group and recovery
heart rates of the tumbling
occur between pre and post
5.
Astrand
group did
tests.
Resting heart rates, recovery heart rates, and blood
pressures were not lower in the ten-minute trampoline
training group than in the five-minute trampoline training
group.
6.
A significant relationship was not found between
the Astrand
and Cooper tests
of maximal oxygen uptake.
Conclusions
Concerning the effects of a six-week program of
trampoline training, the following conclusions would seem
warranted:
1.
A program of a combination of trampoline
and
tumbling for three days per week over a six-week period
would be beneficial in increasing cardiovascular efficiency
of college women.
2.
Five minutes per day of trampolining is just as
beneficial
as ten minutes per day when attempting to
increase cardiovascular efficiency.
3.
Changes
in resting heart rates,
recovery heart
rates, and resting blood pressures are largely affected
by
subjects'
initial levels of fitness.
92
4.
The Astrand test
of maximal oxygen uptake
and the
Cooper test of aerobic capacity are not related as assessments of maximal oxygen uptake.
Recommend at ions
The following recommendations
1.
are offered:
Because subjects in the present study were novices
on the trampoline,
the gradual increase in intensity of
exercise was employed.
To actually find the difference
between training for five or ten minutes per day, perhaps
subjects experienced in trampolining, but having the same
initial levels of fitness, should be used.
The subjects
could then begin the training program at the five- or tenminute training level.
2.
Different age groups might be used as subjects to
determine the effects of trampoline training and age upon
cardiovascular
3.
efficiency.
Direct measurements of oxygen uptake, substituted
for the predicted measures in the present study, might be
used to obtain more precise results.
4.
A physical fitness test administered before the
investigation might be of value in determining the subjects'
initial
levels of fitness.
APPENDIX A
The following trampoline program was used in the
present investigation:
First
Group I-(2-1/2 min.)
Week
Seat drop
Straight bounce
Knee drop
Straight bounce
Choice of above
30
30
30
30
30
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
Group II-Same as Group I
(2-1/2 min.)
Second Week
Group I-(5 min.)
Seat drop
Straight bounce
Knee drop
Straight bounce
Front drop
Straight bounce
Combination seat and knee drop
Straight bounce
Choice of above
Straight bounce
Group II-(5 min.)
Same as Group I
93
94
Third Week
Group I-(7-1/2 min.)
Seat and knee drop
Straight bounce
Seat, knee, and front drop
Straight bounce
Seat drop
Straight bounce
Back drop
Straight bounce
Choice of above
Knee, 1/2 turn, seat drop
Straight bounce
Seat, knee, and front drop
Straight bounce
Choice of above
Straight bounce
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
Group II-(5 min.)
Seat and knee drop
Straight bounce
Seat, knee, and front drop
Straight bounce
Seat drop
Straight bounce
Back drop
Straight bounce
Knee, 1/2 turn, seat drop
Choice of above
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs
secs.
secs.
secs.
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
Fourth Week
Group I--
Choice of stunts
(10 min.)
Knee, 1/2 turn, seat drop
Choice of stunts
Seat, 1/2 turn, seat drop
Choice of stunts
Back drop
Choice of stunts
Seat-knee-f ront-knee-seat
Choice of stunts
Swivel or seat-to-seat
secs.
secs
secs.
95
Choice of stunts
Pike-seat drop
Choice of stunts
Back drop
Choice of stunts
Knee, 1/2 turn, seat drop
Choice of stunts
Seat-to-seat drop
Choice of stunts
Swivel or choice
Group II--
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
Choice of either the first
of the ten-minute program.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
secs.
or second half
Fifth and Sixth Week
Groups I and II repeated the program of the fourth week.
The following tumbling program was followed by both
the trampoline-trained
subjects and the tumbling
subjects
during the present study,:
September 27
Angel to forward roll
Headstand
Indian leg wrestle
Dip
Jump and slap heels
Kip
October 1
Frog hop
Leap frog to forward roll
Frog dance
Wheelbarrow
Free sequence work
Horizontal stand
Forward roll, 1/2 turn,
back roll
September 29
Cartwheel
Handstand
Horizontal stand
Sequence work
Eskimo roll
Single thigh balance
Back roll to straddle
October 4
Dip
Jump and slap heels
Kip
Cartwheel
Handstand
Back roll
to straddle
Eskimo roll
Single thigh mount
96
October 6
Sequence work
Partner knee-shoulder
Partner chest stand
Pyramid, group work
October 8
Complete pyramid work
Partner chest stand
Partner knee-shoulder
Back roll
to straddle
Frog hop
Leap frog to forward roll
Wheelbarrow
Horizontal Stand
Cartwheel
October 11
Kip
Dip
Jump and slap heels
Review for skills
test
Sequence work
October 15
Skills test
and practice
October 20
Sequence work
October 13
Skills test
and practice
October 18
test
Complete skills
Introduce stunts practiced on
October 8 if not completed
Sequence work
October 22
Kip
Jump and slap heels
Horizontal stands
Cartwheel
Partner chest stand
Partner pull-over
Forearm headstand
Seated mount, thigh mount
97
October 25
Wheelbarrow
Walrus walk
Fish flop
Forward roll
to headstand
Triple base cheststand
October 29
Triple base angel
Headstand from prone
Angel to headstand
Back bend
Sequence work
Log roll
Human rocker
Triple Eskimo roll
November 3
Stand on partner's hips
Triangle
Wand pull-up
Dives
Sequence
Table
October 27
Triple base angel
Headstand from prone
Angel to headstand
Back bend
Hand tug of war
Handstand to back angel
November 1
Crab walk
Sitting balance
Headstand to swan
Pyramid work
Handstand on thighs
Stand on partner's knee
November 5
Stand on partner's hips
Review Eskimo roll
Triple Eskimo roll
Churn the butter
Archway
Slap hands
Handstand over back
Shoulder stand on bare feet
APPENDIX B
AGES, HEIGHTS, AND WEIGHTS OF FORTY-ONE SUBJECTS
Subjects
Number
Height
(Inches)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
64
63
67
70
62
64
62
61
66.5
66
67
111
120
143
131
125
108
105
169
152
134.5
122
19
19
19
18
20
20
18
21
20
17
19
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
64
61.5
61
61
64
64.5
62
62.5
65
67
103
104
106
102.5
110
105
92
129
122
129.5
19
18
18
18
20
18
18
19
20
19
Weight
(Pounds)
Age
Group I (10-min.)
Cook
Hoeffler
Wahle
Smith
Ramirez
Camp
Batdorf
Cosper
Dunn
Fishkind
Brady
Group II
(5-min.)
Coffey
Davis, J.
Laird
Scott
Ulrichson
O'Neal
Sampler
Funderburk
Donohoo
Westcott
98
99
Subjects
Number
Height
((Inches)
Weight
(Pounds)
Age
Group III (tumb.)
Featheringham
Abrahamson
Clarke
Davis, K.
Cash
Harvey
Galbraith
Grotheus
Abston
Hoffman
Hanley
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
61.5
61.25
60.25
62
62.75
64
65.75
62
64
64
66
120
104
91.75
105
135
107.5
130
118
118
120.5
130
17
19
19
17
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
65.5
64
64.5
70
67.25
66
65
64.5
66
109
124.5
120.5
132.5
144
156
132
119
130
20
24
23
22
21
21
23
21
25
Group IV (cont.)
Whittenburg
Agee
Payne
Riding
Thetford
Friedel
Schmidt
Guyer
Hibbard
100
HEART RATES TEN SECONDS FOLLOWING EXERCISE
FOR THE TRAMPOLINE SUBJECTS
Subjects
Group I (10-min.)
Cook
Hoeffler
Wahle
Smith
Ramirez
Camp
Batdorf
Cosper
Dunn
Fishkind
Brady
Group II
First
M
Week
W
F
160/156/156
Second Week
M
W
F
184/160/160
188/176/--160/160/162
180/188/180
164/144/172
140/172/172
156/182/168
168/172/164
161/176/172
188/156/184
192/208/188
216/176/176
18 8/,.ia '*/18 0
184/168/180
188/184/184
172/172/168
144/156/---
164/180/160
,144/176/172
192/180/176
144/12 0/132
--- /160/152
172/156/162
188/168/160
136/184/160
156/188/180
188/180/180
172/180/152
180/184/160
172/164/164
16 0/160/168
161/160/152
Third Week
M
W
F
160/172/160
184/180/180
172/172/160
196/196/188
176/180/172
--- /180/196
160/188/184
176/180/180
176/176/180
176/---/172
--- /168/196
(5-min.)
Coffey
Davis
Laird
Scott
Ulrichson
O'Neal
Sampler
Funderburk
Donohoo
Westcott
172/176/160
168/176/168
184/---/184
160/136/168
165/168/180
172/---/172
192/164/160
192/180/160
180/180/180
168/168/148
188/168/--168/164/160
184/184/184
--- /---/168
164/176/164
184/196/188
168/---/176
188/180/168
188/172/172
101
Subj ect s
Group I-(10-min.)
Cook
Hoeffler
Wahle
Smith
Ramirez
Camp
Batdorf
Cosper
Dunn
Fishkind
Brady
Fourth Week
M
W
F
Fifth Week
M
W
F
Sixth Week
M
W
F
172/164/168
168/160/184
180/160/176
176/172/184
176/156/172
168/176/168
180/176/184
176/172/172
172/144/160
172/176/164
164/164/172
168/168/172
192/184/168
168/172/168
---/176/172
176/168/---176/176/180
162/152/156
152/---/168
188/188/200
168/164/172
--- /---/164
164/160/164
168/176/188
168/168/164
176/172/--172/---/--176/---/176
158/160/160
180/156/--188/176/184
176/170/156
156/164/160
168/---/164
160/164/160
192/192/176
156/---/168
172/172/176
188/192/184
172/172/168
164/172/172
184/180/180
164/160/168
136/168/160
GroupII-(-min.)
Coffey
Davis
Laird
Scott
Ulrichson
O'Neal
Sampler
Funderburk
Donohoo
Westcott
168/168/--168/172/172
]L72/162/184
168/---/172
IL72/---/176
JL88/184/188
168/156/172
--- /160/172
176/184/184
140/160/160
180/168/176
156/160/160
172/172/180
184/176/196
168/180/160
160/160/164
180/180/184
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