THE ORIGINS OF CETACEANS It should be obvious that cetaceans-whales, porpoises, and dolphins-are
mammals. They breathe through lungs, not through gills, and give birth to live
young. Their streamlined bodies, the absence of hind legs, and the presence of
a fluke1 and blowhole2 cannot disguise their affinities with land dwelling
mammals. However, unlike the cases of sea otters and pinnipeds (seals, sea
lions, and walruses, whose limbs are functional both on land and at sea), it is
not easy to envision what the first whales looked like. Extinct but already fully
marine cetaceans are known from the fossil record. How was the gap between
a walking mammal and a swimming whale bridged? Missing until recently
were fossils clearly intermediate, or transitional, between land mammals and
cetaceans.
Very exciting discoveries have finally allowed scientists to reconstruct the
most likely origins of cetaceans. In 1979, a team looking for fossils in northern
Pakistan found what proved to be the oldest fossil whale. The fossil was
officially named Pakicetus in honor of the country where the discovery was
made. Pakicetus was found embedded in rocks formed from river deposits
that were 52 million years old. The river that formed these deposits was
actually not far from an ancient ocean known as the Tethys Sea.
The fossil consists of a complete skull of an archaeocyte, an extinct group
of ancestors of modern cetaceans. Although limited to a skull, the Pakicetus
fossil provides precious details on the origins of cetaceans. The skull is
cetacean-like but its jawbones lack the enlarged space that is filled with fat or
oil and used for receiving underwater sound in modern whales. Pakicetus
probably detected sound through the ear opening as in land mammals. The
skull also lacks a blowhole, another cetacean adaptation for diving. Other
features, however, show experts that Pakicetus is a transitional form between
a group of extinct flesh-eating mammals, the mesonychids, and cetaceans. It
has been suggested that Pakicetus fed on fish in shallow water and was not yet
adapted for life in the open ocean. It probably bred and gave birth on land.
Another major discovery was made in Egypt in 1989. Several skeletons of
another early whale, Basilosaurus, were found in sediments left by the Tethys
Sea and now exposed in the Sahara desert. This whale lived around 40 million
years ago, 12 million years after Pakicetus. Many incomplete skeletons were
found but they included, for the first time in an archaeocyte, a complete hind
leg that features a foot with three tiny toes. Such legs would have been far too
small to have supported the 50-foot-long Basilosaurus on land. Basilosaurus
was undoubtedly a fully marine whale with possibly nonfunctional, or vestigial,
hind legs.
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An even more exciting find was reported in 1994, also from Pakistan. The
now extinct whale Ambulocetus natans ("the walking whale that swam") lived
in the Tethys Sea 49 million years ago. It lived around 3 million years after
Pakicetus but 9 million before Basilosaurus. The fossil luckily includes a good
portion of the hind legs. The legs were strong and ended in long feet very
much like those of a modern pinniped. The legs were certainly functional both
on land and at sea. The whale retained a tail and lacked a fluke, the major
means of locomotion in modern cetaceans. The structure of the backbone
shows, however, that Ambulocetus swam like modern whales by moving the
rear portion of its body up and down, even though a fluke was missing. The
large hind legs were used for propulsion in water. On land, where it probably
bred and gave birth, Ambulocetus may have moved around very much like a
modern sea lion. It was undoubtedly a whale that linked life on land with life
at sea
Fluke: the two parts that constitute the large triangular tail of a whale
1. "Blowhole: a hole in the top of the head used for breathing
Paragraph 1: It should be obvious that cetaceans-whales, porpoises, and
dolphins-are mammals. They breathe through lungs, not through gills, and
give birth to live young. Their streamlined bodies, the absence of hind legs,
and the presence of a fluke3 and blowhole4 cannot disguise their affinities
with land-dwelling mammals. However, unlike the cases of sea otters and
pinnipeds (seals, sea lions, and walruses, whose limbs are functional both on
land and at sea), it is not easy to envision what the first whales looked like.
Extinct but, already fully marine cetaceans are known from the fossil record.
How was the gap between a walking mammal and a swimming whale bridged?
Missing until recently were fossils clearly intermediate, or transitional,
between land mammals and cetaceans.
Directions: Mark your answer by filling in the oval next to your choice.
1. In paragraph 1, what does the author say about the presence of a
blowhole in cetaceans?
○It clearly indicates that cetaceans are mammals.
○It cannot conceal the fact that cetaceans are mammals.
○It is the main difference between cetaceans and land-dwelling
mammals.
○It cannot yield clues about the origins of cetaceans.
2. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about early
sea otters?
○It is not difficult to imagine what they looked like
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○There were great numbers of them.
○They lived in the sea only.
○They did not leave many fossil remains.
Paragraph 3: The fossil consists of a complete skull of an archaeocyte, an
extinct group of ancestors of modern cetaceans. Although limited to a skull,
the Pakicetus fossil provides precious details on the origins of cetaceans. The
skull is cetacean-like but its jawbones lack the enlarged space that is filled
with fat or oil and used for receiving underwater sound in modern whales.
Pakicetus probably detected sound through the ear opening as in land
mammals. The skull also lacks a blowhole, another cetacean adaptation for
diving. Other features, however, show experts that Pakicetus is a transitional
form between a group of extinct flesh-eating mammals, the mesonychids, and
cetaceans. It has been suggested that Pakicetus fed on fish in shallow water
and was not yet adapted for life in the open ocean. It probably bred and gave
birth on land.
3. The word precious in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Exact
○Scarce
○Valuable
○Initial
4. Pakicetus and modern cetaceans have similar
○Hearing structures
○Adaptations for diving
○Skull shapes
○Breeding locations
5. The word it in the passage refers to
○Pakicetus
○Fish
○Life
○ocean
Paragraph 4: Another major discovery was made in Egypt in 1989.
Several skeletons of another early whale, Basilosaurus, were found in
sediments left by the Tethys Sea and now exposed in the Sahara desert. This
whale lived around 40 million years ago, 12 million years after Pakicetus.
Many incomplete skeletons were found but they included, for the first time in
an archaeocyte, a complete hind leg that features a foot with three tiny toes.
Such legs would have been far too small to have supported the 50-foot-long
Basilosaurus on land. Basilosaurus was undoubtedly a fully marine whale
with possibly nonfunctional, or vestigial, hind legs.
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6. The word exposed in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Explained
○Visible
○Identified
○Located
7. The hind leg of Basilosaurus was a significant find because it showed
that Basilosaurus
○Lived later than Ambulocetus natans
○Lived at the same time as Pakicetus
○Was able to swim well
○Could not have walked on land
8. It can be inferred that Basilosaurus bred and gave birth in which of the
following locations
○On land
○Both on land and at sea
○In shallow water
○In a marine environment
Paragraph 5: An even more exciting find was reported in 1994, also from
Pakistan. The now extinct whale Ambulocetus natans ("the walking whale that
swam") lived in the Tethys Sea 49 million years ago. It lived around 3 million
years after Pakicetus but 9 million before Basilosaurus. The
fossil luckily includes a good portion of the hind legs. The legs were strong and
ended in long feet very much like those of a modern pinniped. The legs were
certainly functional both on land and at sea. The whale retained a tail and
lacked a fluke, the major means of locomotion in modern cetaceans. The
structure of the backbone shows, however, that Ambulocetus swam like
modern whales by moving the rear portion of its body up and down, even
though a fluke was missing. The large hind legs were used for propulsion in
water. On land, where it probably bred and gave birth, Ambulocetus may have
moved around very much like a modern sea lion. It was undoubtedly a whale
that linked life on land with life at sea
9. Why does the author use the word luckily in mentioning that the
Ambulocetus natans fossil included hind legs?
○Fossil legs of early whales are a rare find.
○The legs provided important information about the evolution of
cetaceans.
○The discovery allowed scientists to reconstruct a complete skeleton of
the whale.
○Until that time, only the front legs of early whales had been discovered.
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10. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information
in the highlighted sentence in the passage?
Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out
essential information.
○Even though Ambulocetus swam by moving its body up and down, it did
not have a backbone.
○The backbone of Ambulocetus, which allowed it to swim, provides
evidence of its missing fluke.
○Although Ambulocetus had no fluke, its backbone structure shows that
it swam like modern whales.
○By moving the rear parts of their bodies up and down, modern whales
swim in a different way from the way Ambulocetus swam.
11. The word propulsion in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Staying afloat
○Changing direction
○Decreasing weight
○Moving forward
Paragraph 1: Extinct but already fully marine cetaceans are known from
the fossil record. ■How was the gap between a walking mammal and a
swimming whale bridged? ■Missing until recently were fossils clearly
intermediate, or transitional, between land mammals and cetaceans.■Very
exciting discoveries have finally allowed scientists to reconstruct the most
likely origins of cetaceans. ■In 1979, a team looking for fossils in northern
Pakistan found what proved to be the oldest fossil whale.
12. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following
sentence can be added to the passage.
This is a question that has puzzled scientists for ages.
Where would the sentence best fit?
13-14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the
passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE
answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some
answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that
are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This
question is worth 2 points.
This passage discusses fossils that help to explain the likely origins of
cetaceans-whales, porpoises, and dolphins.
●
●
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●
Answer Choices
1. Recent discoveries of fossils have helped to show the link between land
mammals and cetaceans.
2. The discovery of Ambulocetus natans provided evidence for a whale
that lived both on land and at sea.
3. The skeleton of Basilosaurus was found in what had been the Tethys
Sea, an area rich in fossil evidence.
4. Pakicetus is the oldest fossil whale yet to be found.
5. Fossils thought to be transitional forms between walking mammals and
swimming whales were found.
6. Ambulocetus' hind legs were used for propulsion in the water.
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参考答案
1. ○2
2. ○1
3. ○3
4. ○3
5. ○1
6. ○2
7.
○4
8. ○4
9. ○2
10. ○3
11. ○4
12. ○2
13-14. ○1 2 5
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DESERT FORMATION The deserts, which already occupy approximately a fourth of the Earth's
land surface, have in recent decades been increasing at an alarming pace. The
expansion of desertlike conditions into areas where they did not previously
exist is called desertification. It has been estimated that an additional
one-fourth of the Earth's land surface is threatened by this process.
Desertification is accomplished primarily through the loss of stabilizing
natural vegetation and the subsequent accelerated erosion of the soil by wind
and water. In some cases the loose soil is blown completely away, leaving a
stony surface. In other cases, the finer particles may be removed, while the
sand-sized particles are accumulated to form mobile hills or ridges of sand.
Even in the areas that retain a soil cover, the reduction of vegetation
typically results in the loss of the soil's ability to absorb substantial quantities
of water. The impact of raindrops on the loose soil tends to transfer fine clay
particles into the tiniest soil spaces, sealing them and producing a surface that
allows very little water penetration. Water absorption is greatly reduced;
consequently runoff is increased, resulting in accelerated erosion rates. The
gradual drying of the soil caused by its diminished ability to absorb water
results in the further loss of vegetation, so that a cycle of progressive surface
deterioration is established.
In some regions, the increase in desert areas is occurring largely as the
result of a trend toward drier climatic conditions. Continued gradual global
warming has produced an increase in aridity for some areas over the past few
thousand years. The process may be accelerated in subsequent decades if
global warming resulting from air pollution seriously increases.
There is little doubt, however, that desertification in most areas results
primarily from human activities rather than natural processes. The semiarid
lands bordering the deserts exist in a delicate ecological balance and are
limited in their potential to adjust to increased environmental pressures.
Expanding populations are subjecting the land to increasing pressures to
provide them with food and fuel. In wet periods, the land may be able to
respond to these stresses. During the dry periods that are common
phenomena along the desert margins, though, the pressure on the land is
often far in excess of its diminished capacity, and desertification results.
Four specific activities have been identified as major contributors to the
desertification processes: overcultivation, overgrazing, firewood gathering,
and overirrigation. The cultivation of crops has expanded into progressively
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drier regions as population densities have grown. These regions are especially
likely to have periods of severe dryness, so that crop failures are common.
Since the raising of most crops necessitates the prior removal of the natural
vegetation, crop failures leave extensive tracts of land devoid of a plant cover
and susceptible to wind and water erosion.
The raising of livestock is a major economic activity in semiarid lands,
where grasses are generally the dominant type of natural vegetation. The
consequences of an excessive number of livestock grazing in an area are the
reduction of the vegetation cover and the trampling and pulverization of the
soil. This is usually followed by the drying of the soil and accelerated erosion.
Firewood is the chief fuel used for cooking and heating in many countries.
The increased pressures of expanding populations have led to the removal of
woody plants so that many cities and towns are surrounded by large areas
completely lacking in trees and shrubs. The increasing use of dried animal
waste as a substitute fuel has also hurt the soil because this valuable soil
conditioner and source of plant nutrients is no longer being returned to the
land.
The final major human cause of desertification is soil salinization
resulting from overirrigation. Excess water from irrigation sinks down into the
water table. If no drainage system exists, the water table rises, bringing
dissolved salts to the surface. The water evaporates and the salts are left
behind, creating a white crustal layer that prevents air and water from
reaching the underlying soil.
The extreme seriousness of desertification results from the vast areas of
land and the tremendous numbers of people affected, as well as from the great
difficulty of reversing or even slowing the process. Once the soil has been
removed by erosion, only the passage of centuries or millennia will enable new
soil to form. In areas where considerable soil still remains, though, a
rigorously enforced program of land protection and cover-crop planting may
make it possible to reverse the present deterioration of the surface.
Paragraph 1: The deserts, which already occupy approximately a fourth of
the Earth's land surface, have in recent decades been increasing at an
alarming pace. The expansion of desertlike conditions into areas where they
did not previously exist is called desertification. It has been estimated that an
additional one-fourth of the Earth's land surface is threatened by this process.
1. The word threatened in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Restricted
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○Endangered
○Prevented
○Rejected
Paragraph 3: Even in the areas that retain a soil cover, the reduction of
vegetation typically results in the loss of the soil's ability to absorb substantial
quantities of water. The impact of raindrops on the loose soil tends to transfer
fine clay particles into the tiniest soil spaces, sealing them and producing a
surface that allows very little water penetration. Water absorption is greatly
reduced; consequently runoff is increased, resulting in accelerated erosion
rates. The gradual drying of the soil caused by its diminished ability to absorb
water results in the further loss of vegetation, so that a cycle of progressive
surface deterioration is established.
2. According to paragraph 3, the loss of natural vegetation has which of
the following consequences for soil?
○Increased stony content
○Reduced water absorption
○Increased numbers of spaces in the soil
○Reduced water runoff
Paragraph 5: There is little doubt, however, that desertification in most
areas results primarily from human activities rather than natural processes.
The semiarid lands bordering the deserts exist in a delicate ecological balance
and are limited in their potential to adjust to increased environmental
pressures. Expanding populations are subjecting the land to increasing
pressures to provide them with food and fuel. In wet periods, the land may be
able to respond to these stresses. During the dry periods that are common
phenomena along the desert margins, though, the pressure on the land is
often far in excess of its diminished capacity, and desertification results.
3. The word delicate in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Fragile
○Predictable
○Complex
○Valuable
4. According to paragraph 5, in dry periods, border areas have difficulty
○Adjusting to stresses created by settlement
○Retaining their fertility after desertification
○Providing water for irrigating crops
○Attracting populations in search of food and fuel
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Paragraph 6: Four specific activities have been identified as major
contributors to the desertification processes: overcultivation, overgrazing,
firewood gathering, and overirrigation. The cultivation of crops has expanded
into progressively drier regions as population densities have grown. These
regions are especially likely to have periods of severe dryness, so that crop
failures are common. Since the raising of most crops necessitates the prior
removal of the natural vegetation, crop failures leave extensive tracts of
land devoid of a plant cover and susceptible to wind and water erosion.
5. The word progressively in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Openly
○Impressively
○Objectively
○Increasingly
6. According to paragraph 6, which of the following is often associated
with raising crops?
○Lack of proper irrigation techniques
○Failure to plant crops suited to the particular area
○Removal of the original vegetation
○Excessive use of dried animal waste
7. The phrase devoid of in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Consisting of
○Hidden by
○Except for
○Lacking in
Paragraph 9: The final major human cause of desertification is soil
salinization resulting from over irrigation. Excess water from irrigation sinks
down into the water table. If no drainage system exists, the water table rises,
bringing dissolved salts to the surface. The water evaporates and the salts are
left behind, creating a white crustal layer that prevents air and water from
reaching the underlying soil.
8. According to paragraph 9, the ground’s absorption of excess water is a
factor in desertification because it can
○Interfere with the irrigation of land
○Limit the evaporation of water
○Require more absorption of air by the soil
○Bring salts to the surface
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9. All of the following are mentioned in the passage as contributing to
desertification EXCEPT
○Soil erosion
○Global warming
○Insufficient irrigation
○The raising of livestock
Paragraph 10: The extreme seriousness of desertification results from the
vast areas of land and the tremendous numbers of people affected, as well as
from the great difficulty of reversing or even slowing the process. Once the soil
has been removed by erosion, only the passage of centuries or millennia will
enable new soil to form. In areas where considerable soil still remains, though,
a rigorously enforced program of land protection and cover-crop planting may
make it possible to reverse the present deterioration of the surface.
10. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information
in the highlighted sentence in the passage?
Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out
essential information.
○Desertification is a significant problem because it is so hard to reverse
and affects large areas of land and great numbers of people.
○Slowing down the process of desertification is difficult because of
population growth that has spread over large areas of land.
○The spread of deserts is considered a very serious problem that can be
solved only if large numbers of people in various countries are involved in the
effort.
○Desertification is extremely hard to reverse unless the population is
reduced in the vast areas affected.
11. It can be inferred from the passage that the author most likely believes
which of the following about the future of desertification?
○Governments will act quickly to control further desertification.
○The factors influencing desertification occur in cycles and will change in
the future.
○Desertification will continue to increase.
○Desertification will soon occur in all areas of the world.
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Paragraph 7:■ The raising of livestock is a major economic activity in
semiarid lands, where grasses are generally the dominant type of natural
vegetation. ■The consequences of an excessive number of livestock grazing in
an area are the reduction of the vegetation cover and the trampling and
pulverization of the soil. ■This is usually followed by the drying of the soil
and accelerated erosion.■
12. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following
sentence can be added to the passage.
This economic reliance on livestock in certain regions makes
large tracts of land susceptible to overgrazing.
Where would the sentence best fit?
13-14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the
passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE
answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some
answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that
are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This
question is worth 2 points.
Many factors have contributed to the great increase in desertification in
recent decades.
●
●
●
Answer Choices
1. Growing human populations and the agricultural demands that come
with such growth have upset the ecological balance in some areas and led to
the spread of deserts.
2. As periods of severe dryness have become more common, failures of a
number of different crops have increased.
3. Excessive numbers of cattle and the need for firewood for fuel have
reduced grasses and trees, leaving the land unprotected and vulnerable.
4. Extensive irrigation with poor drainage brings salt to the surface of the
soil, a process that reduces water and air absorption.
5. Animal dung enriches the soil by providing nutrients for plant growth.
6. Grasses are generally the dominant type of natural vegetation in
semiarid lands.
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参考答案：
1. ○2
2. ○2
3. ○1
4. ○1
5. ○4
6. ○3
7. ○4
8. ○4
9. ○3
10. ○1
11. ○3
12. ○2
13-14.○1 3 4
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EARLY CINEM The cinema did not emerge as a form of mass consumption until its
technology evolved from the initial "peepshow" format to the point where
images were projected on a screen in a darkened theater. In the peepshow
format, a film was viewed through a small opening in a machine that was
created for that purpose. Thomas Edison's peepshow device, the Kinetoscope,
was introduced to the public in 1894. It was designed for use in Kinetoscope
parlors, or arcades, which contained only a few individual machines and
permitted only one customer to view a short, 50-foot film at any one time. The
first Kinetoscope parlors contained five machines. For the price of 25 cents (or
5 cents per machine), customers moved from machine to machine to watch
five different films (or, in the case of famous prizefights, successive rounds of
a single fight).
These Kinetoscope arcades were modeled on phonograph parlors, which
had proven successful for Edison several years earlier. In the phonograph
parlors, customers listened to recordings through individual ear tubes, moving
from one machine to the next to hear different recorded speeches or pieces of
music. The Kinetoscope parlors functioned in a similar way. Edison was more
interested in the sale of Kinetoscopes (for roughly $1,000 apiece) to these
parlors than in the films that would be run in them (which cost approximately
$10 to $15 each). He refused to develop projection technology, reasoning that
if he made and sold projectors, then exhibitors would purchase only one
machine-a projector-from him instead of several.
Exhibitors, however, wanted to maximize their profits, which they could
do more readily by projecting a handful of films to hundreds of customers at a
time (rather than one at a time) and by charging 25 to 50 cents admission.
About a year after the opening of the first Kinetoscope parlor in 1894,
showmen such as Louis and Auguste Lumiere, Thomas Armat and Charles
Francis Jenkins, and Orville and Woodville Latham (with the assistance of
Edison's former assistant, William Dickson) perfected projection devices.
These early projection devices were used in vaudeville theaters, legitimate
theaters, local town halls, makeshift storefront theaters, fairgrounds, and
amusement parks to show films to a mass audience.
With the advent of projection in 1895-1896, motion pictures became the
ultimate form of mass consumption. Previously, large audiences had viewed
spectacles at the theater, where vaudeville, popular dramas, musical and
minstrel shows, classical plays, lectures, and slide-and-lantern shows had
been presented to several hundred spectators at a time. But the movies
differed significantly from these other forms of entertainment, which
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depended on either live performance or (in the case of the slide-and-lantern
shows) the active involvement of a master of ceremonies who assembled the
final program.
Although early exhibitors regularly accompanied movies with live acts,
the substance of the movies themselves is mass-produced, prerecorded
material that can easily be reproduced by theaters with little or no active
participation by the exhibitor. Even though early exhibitors shaped their film
programs by mixing films and other entertainments together in whichever
way they thought would be most attractive to audiences or by accompanying
them with lectures, their creative control remained limited. What audiences
came to see was the technological marvel of the movies; the lifelike
reproduction of the commonplace motion of trains, of waves striking the shore,
and of people walking in the street; and the magic made possible by trick
photography and the manipulation of the camera.
With the advent of projection, the viewer's relationship with the image
was no longer private, as it had been with earlier peepshow devices such as the
Kinetoscope and the Mutoscope, which was a similar machine that
reproduced motion by means of successive images on individual photographic
cards instead of on strips of celluloid. It suddenly became public-an
experience that the viewer shared with dozens, scores, and even hundreds of
others. At the same time, the image that the spectator looked at expanded
from the minuscule peepshow dimensions of 1 or 2 inches (in height) to the
life-size proportions of 6 or 9 feet.
Paragraph 1: The cinema did not emerge as a form of mass consumption
until its technology evolved from the initial "peepshow" format to the point
where images were projected on a screen in a darkened theater. In the
peepshow format, a film was viewed through a small opening in a machine
that was created for that purpose. Thomas Edison's peepshow device, the
Kinetoscope, was introduced to the public in 1894. It was designed for use in
Kinetoscope parlors, or arcades, which contained only a few individual
machines and permitted only one customer to view a short, 50-foot film at any
one time. The first Kinetoscope parlors contained five machines. For the price
of 25 cents (or 5 cents per machine), customers moved from machine to
machine to watch five different films (or, in the case of famous prizefights,
successive rounds of a single fight).
1. According to paragraph 1, all of the following were true of viewing films
in Kinetoscope parlors EXCEPT:
○One individual at a time viewed a film.
○Customers could view one film after another.
○Prizefights were the most popular subjects for films.
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○Each film was short.
Paragraph 2: These Kinetoscope arcades were modeled on phonograph
parlors, which had proven successful for Edison several years earlier. In the
phonograph parlors, customers listened to recordings through individual ear
tubes, moving from one machine to the next to hear different recorded
speeches or pieces of music. The Kinetoscope parlors functioned in a similar
way. Edison was more interested in the sale of Kinetoscopes (for roughly
$1,000 apiece) to these parlors than in the films that would be run in them
(which cost approximately $10 to $15 each). He refused to develop projection
technology, reasoning that if he made and sold projectors, then exhibitors
would purchase only one machine-a projector-from him instead of several.
2. The author discusses phonograph parlors in paragraph 2 in order to
○Explain Edison's financial success
○Describe the model used to design Kinetoscope parlors
○Contrast their popularity to that of Kinetoscope parlors
○Illustrate how much more technologically advanced Kinetoscope parlors
were
3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information
in the highlighted sentence from the passage?
Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave
out essential information.
○Edison was more interested in developing a variety of machines than in
developing a technology based on only one.
○Edison refused to work on projection technology because he did not
think exhibitors would replace their projectors with newer machines.
○Edison did not want to develop projection technology because it limited
the number of machines he could sell.
○Edison would not develop projection technology unless exhibitors
agreed to purchase more than one projector from him.
Paragraph 3: Exhibitors, however, wanted to maximize their profits,
which they could do more readily by projecting a handful of films to hundreds
of customers at a time (rather than one at a time) and by charging 25 to 50
cents admission. About a year after the opening of the first Kinetoscope parlor
in 1894, showmen such as Louis and Auguste Lumiere, Thomas Armat and
Charles Francis Jenkins, and Orville and Woodville Latham (with
the assistance of Edison's former assistant, William Dickson) perfected
projection devices. These early projection devices were used in vaudeville
theaters, legitimate theaters, local town halls, makeshift storefront theaters,
fairgrounds, and amusement parks to show films to a mass audience.
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4. The word readily in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Frequently
○Easily
○Intelligently
○Obviously
5. The word assistance in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Criticism
○Leadership
○Help
○Approval
Paragraph 4: With the advent of projection in 1895-1 896, motion
pictures became the ultimate form of mass consumption. Previously, large
audiences had viewed spectacles at the theater, where vaudeville, popular
dramas, musical and minstrel shows, classical plays, lectures, and
slide-and-lantern shows had been presented to several hundred spectators at
a time. But the movies differed significantly from these other forms of
entertainment, which depended on either live performance or (in the case of
the slide-and-lantern shows) the active involvement of a master of ceremonies
who assembled the final program.
6. According to paragraph 4, how did the early movies differ from
previous spectacles that were presented to large audiences?
○They were a more expensive form of entertainment.
○They were viewed by larger audiences.
○They were more educational.
○They did not require live entertainers.
Paragraph 5: Although early exhibitors regularly accompanied movies
with live acts, the substance of the movies themselves is mass-produced,
prerecorded material that can easily be reproduced by theaters with little or
no active participation by the exhibitor. Even though early exhibitors shaped
their film programs by mixing films and other entertainments together in
whichever way they thought would be most attractive to audiences or by
accompanying them with lectures* their creative control remained limited.
What audiences came to see was the technological marvel of the movies; the
lifelike reproduction of the commonplace motion of trains, of waves striking
the shore, and of people walking in the street; and the magic made possible by
trick photography and the manipulation of the camera.
7. According to paragraph 5, what role did early exhibitors play in the
presentation of movies in theaters?
○They decided how to combine various components of the film program.
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○They advised film-makers on appropriate movie content.
○They often took part in the live-action performances.
○They produced and prerecorded the material that was shown in the
theaters.
Paragraph 6: With the advent of projection, the viewer's relationship with
the image was no longer private, as it had been with earlier peepshow devices
such as the Kinetoscope and the Mutoscope, which was a similar machine that
reproduced motion by means of successive images on individual photographic
cards instead of on strips of celluloid. It suddenly became public-an
experience that the viewer shared with dozens, scores, and even hundreds of
others. At the same time, the image that the spectator looked at expanded
from the minuscule peepshow dimensions of 1 or 2 inches (in height) to the
life-size proportions of 6 or 9 feet.
8. Which of the following is mentioned in paragraph 6 as one of the ways
the Mutoscope differed from the Kinetoscope?
○Sound and motion were simultaneously produced in the Mutoscope.
○More than one person could view the images at the same time with the
Mutoscope.
○The Mutoscope was a less sophisticated earlier prototype of the
Kinetoscope.
○A different type of material was used to produce the images used in the
Mutocope.
9. The word it in the passage refers to
○The advent of projection
○The viewer's relationship with the image
○A similar machine
○Celluloid
10. According to paragraph 6, the images seen by viewers in the earlier
peepshows, compared to the images projected on the screen, were relatively
○Small in size
○Inexpensive to create
○Unfocused
○Limited in subject matter
11. The word expanded in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Was enlarged
○Was improved
○Was varied
○Was rejected
Paragraph 3: ■Exhibitors, however, wanted to maximize their profits,
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which they could do more readily by projecting a handful of films to hundreds
of customers at a time (rather than one at a time) and by charging 25 to 50
cents admission. ■About a year after the opening of the first Kinetoscope
parlor in 1894, showmen such as Louis and Auguste Lumiere, Thomas Armat
and Charles Francis Jenkins, and Orville and Woodville Latham (with the
assistance of Edison's former assistant, William Dickson) perfected projection
devices. ■These early projection devices were used in vaudeville theaters,
legitimate theaters, local town halls, makeshift storefront theaters,
fairgrounds, and amusement parks to show films to a mass audience.■
12. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following
sentence can be added to the passage.
When this widespread use of projection technology began to
hurt his Kinetoscope business, Edison acquired a projector
developed by Armat and introduced it as “Edison’s latest marvel,
the Vitascope."
Where would the sentence best fit?
13. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the
passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE
answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some
answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that
are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This
question is worth 2 points.
The technology for modern cinema evolved at the end of the nineteenth
century.
●
●
●
Answer Choices
1. Kinetoscope parlors for viewing films were modeled on phonograph
parlors.
2. Thomas Edison's design of the Kinetoscope inspired the development
of large screen projection.
3. Early cinema allowed individuals to use special machines to view films
privately.
4. Slide-and-lantern shows had been presented to audiences of hundreds
of spectators.
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5. The development of projection technology made it possible to project
images on a large screen.
6. Once film images could be projected, the cinema became form of mass
consumption.
参考答案：
1. ○3
2. ○2
3. ○3
4. ○2
5. ○3
6. ○4
7. ○1
8. ○4
9. ○2
10. ○1
11. ○1
12. ○4
13.○3 5 6
详细解析请见 心语新托福TPO真题阅读专版 http://bbs.xiaoma.com/forum‐169‐1.html 小
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