This article was downloaded by: [Henry, M. C.]
On: 23 October 2010
Access details: Access Details: [subscription number 928532508]
Publisher Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 3741 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Journal of Geography
Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t770943818
Map Interpretation Instruction in Introductory Textbooks: A Preliminary
Investigation
Jamie Gillena; Liza Skryzhevskab; Mary C. Henryc; Jerry Greenc
a
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA b Department of Geography, Miami University,
Hamilton, Ohio, USA c Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA
Online publication date: 23 October 2010
To cite this Article Gillen, Jamie , Skryzhevska, Liza , Henry, Mary C. and Green, Jerry(2010) 'Map Interpretation
Instruction in Introductory Textbooks: A Preliminary Investigation', Journal of Geography, 109: 5, 181 — 189
To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/00221341.2010.501381
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2010.501381
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf
This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or
systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or
distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.
The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents
will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses
should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss,
actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly
or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
Map Interpretation Instruction in Introductory Textbooks:
A Preliminary Investigation
Jamie Gillen, Liza Skryzhevska, Mary C. Henry, and Jerry Green
Downloaded By: [Henry, M. C.] At: 02:28 23 October 2010
ABSTRACT
Maps are often understood as the primary
tool in geography; however, recent research
indicates that the number of students
taking map interpretation courses has
declined. As geography students are
expected to master the uses of maps, this
study investigates the materials available
in introductory collegiate textbooks that
promote the development of those skills.
Seventeen widely used introductory
geography texts are analyzed for the
following: the presence of text material
dedicated to map interpretation; content
related to map interpretation concepts;
and additional resources such as study
boxes designed to enhance student map
interpretation abilities. After taking
an inventory of introductory geography
textbooks, findings indicate broad inclusion
of map interpretation concepts in physical,
human, world regional, and general
geography textbooks, although physical
and general geography textbooks include
more substantive map interpretation
explanation and tools than their human
and world regional counterparts. This
study is intended to be useful for
instructors evaluating the breadth and
depth of map interpretation concepts and
tools in introductory textbooks, as well as
those looking for specific terms or exercises
to use in classroom instruction.
Key Words: map interpretation, map
interpretation pedagogy, introductory
geography textbooks
Jamie Gillen is a visiting assistant professor of
geography at Auburn University in Auburn,
Alabama, USA. He teaches courses in urban
geography, development, foreign policy, and
Southeast Asia.
Liza Skryzhevska is an assistant professor in the
Department of Geography at Miami University
in Hamilton, Ohio, USA. She teaches courses
on map interpretation, GIS, globalization, and
postsocialist development in Europe.
Mary C. Henry is an associate professor at
Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA, who
studies biogeography using GIScience. She
teaches courses in physical geography, hazards,
remote sensing, and landscape ecology.
Jerry Green is associate professor and teaches
map interpretation, air photo interpretation, and
soils geography at Miami University, Oxford,
Ohio, USA.
INTRODUCTION
Maps are conventionally thought of as the tool for use by geographers. In
his contribution to “Maps in Modern Geography,” Phillip Muehrcke (1981) cites
comments made by three eminent geographers— Carl Sauer, Richard Hartshorne,
and E. L. Ullman—about the importance of maps to the discipline. Specifically,
Muehrcke cites Ullman’s comments in capturing the essence of maps in geography, “Geographic thought is inevitably linked to maps . . . if you cannot map a
thought you do not have a geographic thought” (1981, 1). In the Western world and
beyond, Ullman’s point served as the conceptual standard by which geography
was understood, analyzed, and taught for most of the twentieth century.
In recent decades maps have taken on many new dimensions yet they remain a
pillar of the discipline. Indeed, maps continue to be used and interpreted in new
and innovative ways by geographers. To cite a few examples, maps have come
under intense scrutiny by geographers and other scholars of many different stripes
(Winichakul 1994) for the partial and power-laden truths they convey (Harley
1989; Wood 1992; Monmonier 1996), a point magnified because maps are packaged
in a shell of scientific objectivity. Moreover, maps have become transformed by
software applications, and GIS (geographical information systems) is increasingly
becoming the discipline’s most powerful tool for integrating geographical data
across disciplines. The importance of the deconstruction of the map and GIS
applications has, in these authors’ opinions, furthered the discipline’s already
close association with maps, map-making, and map interpretation. Lastly, and
closer to undergraduate pedagogical grounds, maps account for hundreds of
pages in introductory geography texts and they serve to depict the spatial nature
of the material under study.
In geography such usefulness presumes that the beginning geography student
has ready access to some rudimentary training in map interpretation. However, a
recent article by Green, Burns, and Green (2008) presented evidence that student
enrollment in U.S. map interpretation courses has been declining since 1985
and that map interpretation course offerings nationally have followed a parallel
trajectory.
This set of conditions raises a question as to where and how students are
introduced to the principles and concepts of map interpretation in the absence
of courses specifically aimed at promoting such skills. This article considers
one possible arena for such training: introductory classes in physical, human,
world regional, and general geography. Specifically, we ask if the texts for such
courses contain an introductory map interpretation component and, if so, what
is the nature of the materials provided. Thus, our two-pronged primary research
question is: How and to what extent are undergraduate students in introductory
geography courses introduced to map interpretation skills? Corresponding
questions include: What are the parameters of map interpretation in introductory
texts today? What terminology is used to teach map interpretation? How do
the subdisciplines differ in their approaches to teaching map interpretation? An
exploratory question, addressed in the conclusion, may be drawn from these: Are
these components adequate to instruct students on map interpretation?
We begin by first outlining our procedure for analyzing textbooks. This
procedure focuses on content analyses of recently published or recently updated
texts. Then we narrow our analysis to the total pages devoted to map
interpretation in each book along with an examination of the breadth of textbook
student exercises in map interpretation. In our conclusion we review the data
Journal of Geography 109: 181–189
C 2010 National Council for Geographic Education
181
Downloaded By: [Henry, M. C.] At: 02:28 23 October 2010
Gillen et al.
and answer the question: How integral is map interpretation to the foundation and flow of introductory textbooks
in each category? We end by calling for future research
on individual course materials to investigate the extent to
which map interpretation is incorporated into lectures and
labs.
We offer a few disclaimers to conclude this introduction.
First, we recognize that each of these map interpretation
terms and exercises has a set of authors, and that these
authors make value-laden judgments about which map
interpretation terms to include and which to exclude. We
have chosen not to include interviews with the textbook
authors because we are interested in investigating the
breadth and scope of map interpretation terms in each book,
and therefore the study is focused on resources available to
instructors rather than on the authorial decisions regarding
their inclusion or omission. However, the second primary
goal of the study is to evaluate map interpretation terms
in the introductory geography textbook canon with respect
to the differences between the subdisciplines of physical,
human, and general geography. We believe that this aspect
of the study suggests some distinctions by subdiscipline in
the decision making of the authors.
Additionally, our study does not investigate the extent to
which students may misunderstand the terms introduced
to them in the texts, nor do we note how well or poorly
the authors treat the terms. Although this is not part of our
research design, these questions can provide a platform
for interesting future studies related to student perception
of map interpretation terms and how geographers define
and illustrate map interpretation terms. Our study is
interested in launching a “first cut” study concerning map
interpretation terms in introductory textbooks through the
discovery of their rates of inclusion among subdisciplines,
their frequency of usage, and their application in exercises.
PROCEDURE
In this article we adopt Monmonier’s definition of map
reading for our definition of map interpretation: “the
. . . cognitive . . . process of decoding cartographic symbols
and making sense of features and relationships portrayed
on a map” (2002, 475). The two main elements of map
interpretation include a shared understanding between
author and reader of how a map represents Earth or a part
of Earth and a shared understanding of how information
should be communicated for efficient comprehension. The
former element is critical for issues of precision with regard
to map scale and map projection while the latter relates
more to issues of clarity and replicability in the color-coding
and use of symbols in maps. The definition assumes that
students and instructors share a general vocabulary and
presumed set of codes related to map comprehension prior
to introductory course instruction.
As an organizing concept and skill development arena
map interpretation is important in geography. In an earlier
study of introductory core concepts in human geography,
Bacon reviewed human geography texts to determine a
182
set of core concepts and found that “map” constituted
one of those core values, that is, part of the “content
foundation” for introductory human geography (1979, 154).
In a similar fashion, Bacon and Green reviewed fourteen
texts in physical geography and concluded that some map
elements (mainly those having to do with projections) were
part of the core concepts as they were “. . . those that appear
with the greatest consistency from text to text” (1981, 106).
Recent innovations in geographic technology have not
diminished the importance of maps in learning. Gerber’s
work calls for geography teachers to “capitalize on technological developments in cartography and geography”
(1992, cited in Pederson, Farrell, and McPhee 2005, 196) in
order to extend student exposure to maps and introduce
varied map skills. Cunningham argues that “geography
curricula often spend considerable effort teaching students
to read maps” (2005, 119), and therefore it should be
important to complement GIS mapping, which has become
the preferred means to create maps for students and
professors alike, with a “back-to-basics” approach to pen
and ink mapping instruction. Following Meyer et al. (1999),
she feels that this may be the case because “time learning
maps is hijacked” by the concurrent need to study the
computer software, data, toolbars, and menus that support
GIS (Cunningham 2005, 119).
We began our systematic review of introductory texts to
determine the nature and extent of available map interpretation materials. A total of seventeen texts were reviewed
(Table 1). Here an important provision must be offered: we
make no claims on this study being comprehensive but we
provide a strong sample of the textbooks used in introductory geography classes in the United States today. The
book samples used in this study have been borne out of the
teaching interests of the four authors, who currently teach
or have taught world regional geography, introduction to
geography, introduction to human geography, introduction
to physical geography, natural hazards, GIS, and map
interpretation courses. We have questioned our colleagues
from a variety of departments nationally in order to receive
feedback regarding their preferred texts for introductory
courses; each has cited one of the books we have assessed.
In all cases we have attempted to retrieve the most recent
edition for each of these texts.Included in this study are
six physical geography texts, four human geography texts,
five world regional geography texts, and two general
geography books. We have chosen to categorize these books
under these headings by following the authors’ intended
audiences, which are spelled out in the preface of each book.
We performed three types of content analysis. First, each
text was reviewed to determine if it contained an identified
section(s) related to map interpretation concepts. Figure 1
indicates the number of pages of map interpretation content
for each text reviewed; this includes any appendix sections
where map interpretation instruction was covered. Second,
each text was reviewed to identify the map interpretive
elements in order to build a pool of elements against which
each text could be evaluated for map interpretive content.
Map Interpretation Instruction in Introductory Textbooks: A Preliminary Investigation
Table 1. List of introductory undergraduate geography textbooks.
Downloaded By: [Henry, M. C.] At: 02:28 23 October 2010
Author
Book Title
Physical Geography
Arbogast, A.
2007. Discovering Physical Geography. New York: Wiley.
Christopherson, R.
2009. Ecosystems, An Introduction to Physical Geography. 7th ed.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
deBlij, H.J., P. Muller and R. Williams
2003. Physical Geography: The Global Environment. 3rd ed. New
York: Oxford University Press.
Gabler, R., J. Petersen, L. Trapasso and D. Sack
2009. Physical Geography. 9th ed. Belmont, California:
Brooks/Cole.
McKnight, T. and D. Hess
2005. Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation. 8th ed.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Strahler, A. and A. Strahler
2003. Introducing Physical Geography. 3rd ed. New York: John
Wiley and Sons.
Human Geography
deBlij, H.J. and A. Murphy
2003. Human Geography: Culture, Society and Space. 7th ed. New
York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Fellman, J., A. Getis and J. Getis
2007. Human Geography: Landscapes of Human Activities. 9th ed.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Knox, P. and S. Marston
2004. Human Geography: Places and Regions in Global Context.
3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Rubenstein, J.
2008. An Introduction to Human Geography. 9th ed. Upper Saddle
River, New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
World Regional Geography
deBlij, H.J. and P. Muller
2004. Geography: Realms, Regions and Concepts.11th ed. New
York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Hobbs, J.
2006. World Regional Geography. 6th ed. Belmont, California:
Brooks/Cole.
Marston, S., P. Knox and D. Liverman
2008. World Regions in a Global Context: Peoples, Places, and
Environments. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Pulsipher, L., A. Pulsipher and C. Goodwin
2008. World Regional Geography: Global Patterns, Local Lives. 4th
ed. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.
Rowntree, L., M. Lewis, M. Price, and W. Wyckoff 2006. Diversity and Globalization: World Regions, Environment,
Development. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
Pearson/Prentice Hall.
General Geography
Bergman, E. and W. Renwick
2008. Introduction to Geography: People , Places and Environment.
4th ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Getis, A., J. Getis, and J. Fellmann
2009. Introduction to Geography. 12th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Table 2 shows the occurrence of selected map interpretation
elements within each text. The categorization system (for
example, P1, H1, WR1, GG1) refers to the books introduced
in Table 1. The terms in Table 2 have been compiled based
on their interpretive nature; that is, they are explicitly
used by the authors to serve students in furthering their
understanding and interpretation of maps. We have included forty-six key terms under five categories: coordinate
systems, topographic maps, map projections, symbology,
and types of maps.1 This list was based on categories
developed by Green, Burns, and Green (2008) and spanned
the period of 1918–2005. Table 3 shows the percentage of all
seventeen textbooks that refer to the map interpretation
concepts. This figure is worthwhile because it creates a
hierarchy of the importance of terms across the texts and
subdisciplines.2 Table 4 shows the variety of map exercises
Code
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
H1
H2
H3
H4
WR1
WR2
WR3
WR4
WR5
GG1
GG2
available to assist students in their efforts to understand
maps. Understanding concepts, definitions, terms, and
examples are all important components to attaining map
interpretation skills, but exercises test knowledge and often
enhance student comprehension and performance.
RESULTS
Overview
It is clear from our analysis that the majority of the
texts have a dedicated section devoted to map interpretation. Only Rowntree et al. (2006) do not include map
interpretation discussion or instruction in their textbook.
Thus, a substantial percentage of the authors find map
interpretation important to any introduction to geography.
Moreover, the sixteen books use the opening chapter
183
Gillen et al.
Table 2. Map interpretation topics/concepts in reviewed textbooks.
Downloaded By: [Henry, M. C.] At: 02:28 23 October 2010
Subject
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 H1 H2 H3 H4 WR1 WR2 WR3 WR4 WR5 GG1 GG2
Coordinate Systems
Latitude
Longitude
Equator
Prime Meridian
Topographic Maps
Isoline
Contour
Scale
Representative Fraction
Ratio
Graphic (Scale Bar)
Verbal
Map Projections
Cylindrical
Conic
Planar (Azimuthal)
Conformal
Equal Area
Equidistant
Compromise
Mercator Projection
Robinson Projection
Peters Projection
Dymaxion Projection
Symbology
Dot Maps
Flow Maps
Point/Line/Area
Types of Maps
General Reference
Thematic Maps
Choropleth Maps
Isorithmic Maps
Graduated Symbol
Cartogram
Map Layout
Map Legend
Mental Maps
GIS
Discrete/Continuous
GPS
Remote Sensing
Critiques of GIS
or chapters to establish map interpretation, and many
also include a separate appendix that is used to further
discuss map interpretation. The predominant kind of map
discussed in these appendices is the standard United States
Geological Survey (USGS) 1:24,000 topographic maps, such
as in Christopherson’s (2009) first appendix.
What is interesting about the inclusion of the topographic
map in appendices is that they are not representative of the
maps used for illustration in the body of the text itself.
184
Authors often use a variety of political or physical maps
to illustrate social and physical phenomenon. While all
of the texts include an extraordinary amount of data and
specificity in their maps,3 they do not include some of the
features of the topographic map; for example, if elevation
is included in a map in one of the texts, it does not include
cultural features such as churches, homes, parks, etc. This
is likely due to the authors’ interest in creating maps that
convey very specific phenomenon to illustrate a point made
Downloaded By: [Henry, M. C.] At: 02:28 23 October 2010
Map Interpretation Instruction in Introductory Textbooks: A Preliminary Investigation
Figure 1. Number of pages and topics devoted to map
interpretation topics and concepts.
in the text. Additionally, USGS maps are explained in many
appendices of these books because they are free of copyright
protection and thus can be easily incorporated. Lastly, it is
likely that the authors of these texts present USGS maps as
a general learning device or pedagogical reference for how
to read all maps regardless of their subject matter.
Pages Dedicated to Map Interpretation Concepts
The seventeen geography textbooks under scrutiny are
all hefty; none are shorter than five hundred pages and
many are seven hundred pages or more. The length of these
textbooks indicates some measure of breadth and variety
in the geographic concepts they tackle. Indeed, as Figure 1
Table 3. Percentage of textbooks that refer to map interpretation
topics and concepts.
Topic/Concept
Latitude
Longitude
Prime Meridian
Scale
Mercator Projection
Cartography
Equator
Robinson Projection
Representative Fraction
Topographic Maps
Isoline
Contour
Graphic (Scale Bar)
Coordinate Systems
%
94.1
94.1
94.1
94.1
88.2
70.5
70.5
70.5
64.7
58.8
58.8
52.9
47.0
35.3
Topic/Concept
Thematic Maps
Mapping History
Choropleth Maps
Isorithmic Maps
Graduated Symbol
Ratio
Peters Projection
Dot Maps
Point/Line/Area
Dymaxion Projection
General Reference
Symbology
Flow Maps
Types of Maps
%
35.2
29.4
29.4
29.4
29.4
23.5
23.5
23.5
23.5
17.6
17.6
11.7
11.7
5.8
shows, over one-fourth of the textbooks dedicate twentyplus pages to map interpretation. Specifically, physical geography and general geography texts contain a majority of
the key map interpretation terms illustrated in Tables 2 and
3, and dedicate many more pages to map interpretation than
their world regional and human geography counterparts.
Indeed, in the world regional and human geography texts
the material provided is minimal. Such is particularly the
case with the world regional texts. None of these books
have more than ten pages devoted to map interpretation,
preferring instead to introduce the important function of
maps in the opening chapter of the text and then abandoning further conceptual discussion in favor of using maps
to show examples of social and physical phenomenon.
Human geography books each allocate around twenty
pages of their text to map interpretation, and the general
geography books both dedicate a significant amount of their
texts to map interpretation.
Concepts and Topics Addressed in Text
Analyzing the forty-six key terms included in this study,
we found that the majority of the texts devote significant
attention to map interpretation concepts. We did not
attempt to distinguish “the most important” and “the
least important” categories and terms assuming instead
that they are all equally important. However, our findings demonstrate a clear continuum between frequently
mentioned terms and less mentioned terms (Table 3). The
most frequently used terms—present in 80–95 percent of the
texts—are latitude, longitude, prime meridian, scale, map
projections, and Mercator projection. The least frequently
used terms are types of maps (as a category), flow maps,
dot maps, general reference maps, mental maps, symbology
185
Gillen et al.
Table 4. Textbooks containing map interpretation exercises.
Downloaded By: [Henry, M. C.] At: 02:28 23 October 2010
Subject
Topographic Maps
Weather Maps
Volcanic Landforms
Karst Landforms
Fluvial Landforms
Desert Basin Landforms
Eolian Landforms
Alpine Glaciation
Continental Glaciation
Active Margin Coastline
Passive Margin Coastline
Convert DMS
Temperature Maps
Local Physical Geography
Plate Tectonics
Local Topography
Landslide Hazards
Fluvial Patterns
Solar Energy Maps
Ocean Salinity
Mental/Perceptual Maps
Map Comparison
Toxic Site Map
City Sizes Map
Housing Map
Landforms
Retail/Transportation
Industrial Location
World Cities
Immigration/Urban
HIV/AIDS
Food Relief
Political Boundaries
Population/Coastal
Soil Erosion
Climate/Population
Soil Survey
Distance Between Seismic Features
Remote Sensing
Precipitation Map
Diffusion
P1
(as a category), Peters and Dymaxion projections, and
ratio (as a method of scale representation). Although
the map projections category is found to be “popular”
(mentioned in 88% of the texts), there are topics within
this category that are mentioned less often. These are,
for instance, cylindrical projections (mentioned in 76% of
textbooks), conic projections (58%), and planar projections
(64%). Apparently, the majority of the authors consider map
projection to be an important concept in forming students’
understanding of basic geographic phenomena, however,
not all of them go into the details of projection types and
classes.
186
P2
P3
P4
H1
H3
WR4
WR5
GG1
In another instance, just six percent of texts refer to
the types of maps in general, although some of them
present material on general reference maps (17.6% of the
texts), thematic maps (35.2%), choropleth maps (29.4%),
isorithmic maps (29.4%), and graduated symbol maps
(29.4%). A variety of other types of maps, like soil maps
and transportation maps, are generally not covered in
any of the textbooks. These omissions could be due to
the relative ubiquity of regional, political, and population
maps used in human geography textbooks to illustrate the
narrative. The term “cartography” is used in 70.5 percent
of the texts, which is a somewhat low occurrence for
Map Interpretation Instruction in Introductory Textbooks: A Preliminary Investigation
Downloaded By: [Henry, M. C.] At: 02:28 23 October 2010
geography textbooks. A surprising discovery was the fact
that the history of maps and mapmaking was mentioned
in just 29.4 percent of the texts. However, those that refer
to this fascinating subject do a good job explaining this
material.
Finally, remote sensing, GIS, and GPS (global positioning system) terms are referred to quite frequently.
On one hand, the preponderance of these terms demonstrates an increasing role of technology in geographic
research; on the other hand, it bears questions about the
sufficiency of map interpretation material presented in
geography textbooks that makes students feel comfortable learning and interpreting maps produced in a GIS
environment.
Map Exercises
Finally, we discuss the inclusion of map interpretation
exercises in the various textbooks. Specifically, we highlight
the exercises at the end of chapters, which are designed
to enhance student knowledge through critical thinking
of map interpretation terms. Additionally, some of the
textbooks have exercises embedded within the chapters,
and we highlight these as well. Table 4 required some
subjectivity in terms of categorizing the types of exercises
contained in each book. We tended to err on the side
of specificity (e.g., listing exercises for fluvial landforms
versus landforms versus local fluvial landforms). However,
this reflects the fact that there is no consistency among texts
(even in the same discipline) in terms of whether there are
exercises included, how complex they are, whether they
focus on interpreting maps within the book or using the
Internet to locate maps for the students’ local area, and if the
exercises are intended for student self-study or submission
for grading. Despite these issues, Table 4 does give an
indication of which texts make wide use of exercises, which
books include a handful, and which use none.
The use of student map exercises is quite variable
among the books that we surveyed. Of all the books we
examined, eight contained one or more student exercises
with the total number per book ranging from one to twelve.
Among physical geography texts, four of the six books
included at least a few exercises, with two books containing
several. Two of the four human geography books included
exercises, while only one of the world regional texts
included just one exercise. One of the general geography
texts included four exercises, while the other included
none. This suggests that there is a greater emphasis on
student map exercises in the physical geography texts, as
they tend to contain a greater number of exercises and a
greater proportion of those books contain student exercises
at all. Since many physical geography courses are taught
with labs, the courses often have a greater hands-on focus
than human and world regional courses. The exercises may
have been intended to supplement a lab component of a
course or to act as a “mini-lab” for courses that are taught
as lecture only.
CONCLUSIONS
In our final analysis it appears that sixteen of the
seventeen introductory texts over the last six years have
provided information regarding map interpretation. If one
considers contemporary terms such as GIS, GPS, and
remote sensing, then Rowntree et al.’s book can also be
included. We have found a relatively low rate (∼45%) of
usage of the forty-six map interpretation terms identified
throughout the books,. Given the broad nature of these
introductory texts, it is unsurprising that the percentage
falls below 50 percent. These books are intended to be used
in survey courses and while every book is long the authors
can invest a limited amount of space to map interpretation.
That said, the physical geography and general geography
textbooks contribute a greater number of pages to map interpretation than the human and world regional geography
textbooks do. Likewise, physical and general geography
books offer more terms and more internal exercises for
students to study (and instructors to use). It is debatable
whether upper-division physical geography classes use
maps to a greater degree than their human or world
regional geography counterparts. However, it is clear that
introductory physical geography and general geography
textbooks better equip students for further training in map
interpretation.
In general, the authors of the physical geography and
general geography texts include more map interpretation
terms and exercises throughout their books. Most of the
chapters use map interpretation terms and definitions, and
map exercises build on the assortment of terms introduced
throughout the texts. It is clear that for these authors map
interpretation is more foundational to student understandings of physical and general geography than human and
world regional geography textbook authors. In human and
world regional geography texts, map concepts and their
instrumentality are commonly presented in the first or
second chapter of the book. Subsequently, maps themselves
remain without much reference to map interpretation
skills introduced earlier. Thus, while maps are considered
“geographers’ most important tools” (Pulsipher, Pulsipher,
and Goodwin 2008, 4), they do not generate much activity
beyond pages one through thirty.
This study is primarily intended to be useful to instructors who are considering teaching with textbooks that
include a strong map interpretation component in them.
However, this study is also beneficial to instructors as
they make adoption decisions based on the types of map
interpretation terms and exercises available in introductory
textbooks. It is clear from this study that there is no
shortage of textbooks available to instructors throughout
the subdisciplines and one of this study’s other features
is taking a broad inventory of the books being used in
introductory geography courses today.
As suggested by map interpretation’s placement in the
beginning of most of the textbooks in question, it is
evident that the authors consider map interpretation to
187
Downloaded By: [Henry, M. C.] At: 02:28 23 October 2010
Gillen et al.
be a pivotal component to enhancing geographic literacy.
Contemporary map interpretation tools such as GIS, GPS,
and remote sensing have expanded geographic awareness
among undergraduate students, and textbook authors have
(mostly) responded by positioning these terms and their
application at the forefront of map interpretation pedagogy. Maps remain critical to contemporary news outlets
today, which suggests that students arrive in introductory
geography classes with some cognition of their value in
understanding global patterns and themes. We therefore
make the provisional suggestion that textbook authors
design or use maps from alternative sources and feature
them more explicitly in supporting materials like textbook
Web sites and DVD-ROMs. They could be updated more
regularly and without the effort involved in designing
a new edition. Featuring dynamic maps in supporting
materials allows students to better understand how map
interpretation skills attained in the classroom can be used
in their everyday encounters with maps outside of the
classroom.
Of course, our findings cannot shed light on the extent to
which instructors use map interpretation materials in their
classes. A future possibility for research in this area involves
compiling syllabi and course materials from instructors
who use these books in their courses to evaluate map
interpretation pedagogy in the classroom, in labs, in assignments, and on exams. Is map interpretation a lost art in
introductory geography courses? Do teachers presume that
students have a strong, average, or elementary awareness
of maps and map interpretation before they begin their
courses? To what extent do instructors utilize contemporary
concepts such as GIS and GPS to train their students to
understand the significance of maps in their daily lives?
These questions are pertinent for the viability of map
interpretation in future introductory geography classes.
As we have said previously, this study makes it clear
that a faculty member concerned with introducing map
interpretation into his/her class has several texts from
which to choose. What is less clear is the extent to which
such material can be included into what is most likely an
already crowded syllabus.
NOTES
1. The five categories are also key terms, given their use
as orientation terms in these textbooks.
2. While forty-six terms have been included in this
study, others were not used. For example, terms such
as Greenwich Mean Time, International Date Line,
and Coordinated Universal Time are not included
because they can be used to interpret time as easily
as they can be used to interpret maps. Similarly, in
order to understand terms like Tropics of Capricorn
and Cancer, the Prime Meridian, and the equator,
students must first have a grasp of longitude and
latitude (which are included). Remote sensing, GIS,
and GPS are included in this study, reflecting the
188
interest both students and faculty have in these tools
and their usage.
3. In the case of human and world regional geography
textbooks, most of the maps in the text are adapted
from other sources.
REFERENCES
Arbogast, A. 2007. Discovering Physical Geography. New
York: Wiley.
Bacon, R. 1979. Building a curriculum in introductory
human geography through core concepts. Journal of
Geography 78 (4): 152–156.
Bacon, R., and J. Green. 1981. Core concepts in introductory
physical geography. Journal of Geography 80 (3): 104–108.
Bergman, E., and W. Renwick. 2008. Introduction to Geography: People, Places and Environment. Upper Saddle River,
New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Christopherson, R. 2009. Geosystems: An Introduction to
Physical Geography, 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Cunningham, M. 2005. Why geography still needs pen
and ink cartography. Journal of Geography 104 (3): 119–
126.
de Blij, H. J., and P. Muller. 2004. Geography: Realms, Regions
and Concepts, 11th ed. New York: Wiley.
de Blij, H. J., P. Muller, and R. Williams. 2003. Physical
Geography: The Global Environment, 3rd ed. New York:
Oxford University Press.
de Blij, H. J., and A. Murphy. 2003. Human Geography: Culture, Society and Space, 7th ed. New York:
Wiley.
Fellman, J., A. Getis, and J. Getis. 2007. Human Geography:
Landscapes of Human Activities, 9th ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Gabler, R., J. Petersen, L. M. Trapasso, and D. Sack.
2009. Physical Geography, 9th ed. Belmont, California:
Brooks/Cole.
Gerber, R. 1992. Is mapping in schools reflecting development in cartography and geographical information?
In Geography and Education, ed. M. Naish and D.
Biddle, pp. 194–211. London: University of London
Press.
Getis, A., J. Getis, and J. Fellmann. 2009. Introduction to
Geography, 12th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Green, J., D. Burns, and T. Green. 2008. The enigma
of changing enrollments in U.S. map interpretation
courses. Cartographica 43 (3): 221–226.
Map Interpretation Instruction in Introductory Textbooks: A Preliminary Investigation
Harley, J. B. 1989. Deconstructing the map. Cartographica 26
(2): 1–20.
Muehrcke, P. 1981. Maps in geography. Cartographica 18 (2):
1–41.
Hobbs, J. 2006. World Regional Geography, 6th ed. Belmont,
California: Brooks/Cole.
Pederson, P., P. Farrell, and E. McPhee. 2005. Paper
versus pixel: Effectiveness of paper versus electronic
maps to teach map reading skills in an introductory
geography course. Journal of Geography 104 (5): 195–
202.
Knox, P., and S. Marston. 2004. Human Geography: Places and
Regions in Global Context, 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River,
New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Marston, S., P. Knox, and D. Liverman. 2008. World Regions
in a Global Context: Peoples, Places, and Environments, 3rd
ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice
Hall.
McKnight, T., and D. Hess. 2005. Physical Geography: A
Landscape Appreciation, 8th ed. Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall
Downloaded By: [Henry, M. C.] At: 02:28 23 October 2010
Meyer, J. W., J. Butterick, M. Olkin, and G. Zack. 1999. GIS
in the K–12 curriculum: A cautionary note. Professional
Geographer 51 (4): 571–578.
Monmonier, M. 1996. How to Lie With Maps, 2nd ed. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
———. 2002. Map-Reading. In The Dictionary of Human
Geography, ed. R. Johnston, D. Gregory, G. Pratt, and
M. Watts, p. 475. London: Blackwell.
Pulsipher, L., A. Pulsipher, and C. Goodwin. 2008. World
Regional Geography: Global Patterns, Local Lives, 4th ed.
New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.
Rowntree, L., M. Lewis, M. Price, and W. Wyckoff. 2006.
Diversity and Globalization: World Regions, Environment,
Development, 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Rubenstein, J. 2008. An Introduction to Human Geography, 9th
ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice
Hall.
Strahler, A., and A. Strahler. 2003. Introducing Physical
Geography, 3rd ed. New York: Wiley.
Winichakul, T. 1994. Siam Mapped. Honolulu: University of
Hawai’i Press.
Wood, D. 1992. The Power of Maps. New York: Guilford Press.
189