J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Manage. Dec., 2015
ISSN 1119-8362
Full-text Available Online at
JJASEM
OURNAL
OF APPLIED S
CIENCE ANDand
ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT
.
Vol. 19 (4) 803
- 808
All
rights reserved
www.ajol.info
www.bioline.org.br/ja
Effect of ethanolic leave extract of phyllantus amarus on carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)
induced hepatotoxicity in albino rats
*1PETERS, DE; 1OMEODU, SI
1
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State. Nigeria.
*Corresponding author: Peters, D.E. E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT: Liver diseases associated with its function in detoxification of xenobiotics are
one of the most common causes of death. Side effects of drugs treating liver diseases have
marred their popularity. This work was therefore designed to investigate the ameliorating effect
of ethanolic leaves extract of phyllantus amarus on carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) induced
hepatotocity in albino rats. Thirty six (36) rats were divided into 9 groups (n=4rats) labeled A to
I. Group A (water control) was treated with 0.2ml of distil water, B(vehicle control) received
0.2ml of olive oil, C and D were orally treated with 150 and 300mg/kgBW ethanolic leaves
extract of P. amarus only, dissolved in olive oil for 14day respectively, 120mg/kgBW of
(CCl4) was administered to rats in groups E F,G,H and I while groups F and G , H and I orally
received 150 and 300mg/kgBW of P. amarus leaves extract dissolved in olive oil for 7 and
14days respectively. The rats were sacrificed on days 7 and 14, blood samples were collected
into heparinized sample bottles for biochemical investigation of aspartate amino transferase
(AST), alanine amino transferase (ALT), alkaline phosphate (ALP) activities, and total protein
(TP), albumin (ALB) and total bilirubin (T.BIL) levels in plasma. Qualitative phytochemical
screening of P.amarus was also carried out. Result from this work revealed significant increase
(p<0.05) in plasma activities of AST, ALT, ALP and T.Bil level while that of TP and ALB
significantly decreased (p<0.05) when group A was compared to group E. Non significant
differences (p>0.05) were observed in all the parameters when group B was compared to groups
C and D. All the parameters in a time and dose dependent manner, significantly decrease
(p<0.05) except for TP and ALB levels which increased significantly (p<0.05) for all the extract
treated groups. All the other parameters showed non significant difference (p>0.05) except for
AST and ALP activities that were significantly increased when group A was compared to I.
Result of the phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins,
cardenolides, steroids, tannins, carbohydrate and anthraquinones. Thus, ethanolic leaves extract
of phyllantus amarus ameliorated the damage induced by CCl4 on the liver. © JASEM
http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jasem.v19i4.30
Introduction
In many countries around the world plants in the
genus Phyllanthus are used in folk remedies; therefore
this genus is of great importance in traditional
medicine (Foo, 1993). The genus Phyllanthus has a
long history of use in the treatment of liver, kidney
and bladder problems, diabetes and intestinal
parasites. Some related species in this region with
medicinal significance are P. epiphyllanthus, P. niruri
P. urinaria, P. acuminatus and P. emblica (Tirimana,
1987). P. amarus, P. nururi and P. urinaria are used
in the treatment for kidney/gallstones, other kidney
related problems, appendix inflammation, and
prostate problems (Heyde, 1990).
According to Foo and Wong (1992), in a number of
countries, the aerial part of Phyllanthus amarus is
highly valued in traditional medicine for its healing
properties. This plant is traditionally used around the
world in the treatment of liver ailments and kidney
stones. The Spanish name ‘chanca piedra’ means
“stone breaker or shatter stone.” In South America,
‘chanca piedra’ has been used to eliminate gall
bladder and kidney stones, and to treat gall bladder
infections. Phyllanthus amarus has also shown to
work as an antifungal, antibacterial and antiviral agent
(Houghton et al., 1996). Foo and Wong (1992) report
that in India this plant is used in traditional medicine
to treat liver diseases, asthma and bronchial
infections. Chevallier (2000) notes that P. amarus is
also used traditionally in India to treat cardiovascular
problems. This popular medicinal herb is also a
remedy around the world for influenza, dropsy,
diabetes and jaundice (Foo, 1993). In Suriname, P.
amarus is always sold as fresh and dry plant material
in the herb markets. Heyde (1990), Sedoc (1992) and
Nanden (1998) note that in traditional medicine an
herbal decoction is taken to treat bladder and kidney
disorders, cramps and uterus complaints (with other
*Corresponding author:. E-mail: [email protected]
Effect of ethanolic leave extract of phyllantus amarus
804
herbs). This plant decoction works also as an
appetizer. P. amarus is a restoration herb and can be
used as a tonic. In Suriname decoctions are used in
herbal baths and after labor (May, 1982; Titjari, 1985;
Sedoc, 1992). It is also used for colic (Wessels Boer,
1976; Heyde, 1990). According to Heyde (1990) plant
extracts of P. amarus can be used as blood purifiers,
for light malaria fevers and anaemia. P. amarus helps
to release phlegm (Heyde, 1990), and is used to
combat fever, flu (Nanden, 1998) and asthma, in
combination with other herbs (Titjari, 1985). The
plant, when boiled with the leaves, is considered to be
a diuretic and can be used in treating diabetes,
dysentery, hepatitis, menstrual disorders, and skin
disorders (Heyde, 1968; Tirimana, 1987; Heyde,
1990). Sedoc (1992) notes, that in Suriname a
decoction of P. amarus is taken along with other
herbs to treat stomachache. This herb can also be used
for constipation (Tjong Ayoung, 1989). Extracts from
the roots can be used for jaundice. Three roots are
boiled in ½ liter water and two cups are drunk daily.
Decoctions for the other described ailments can be
prepared by extracting two fresh plants or five dried
plants in ¾ liter water drinking one cup of tea, four
times per day (Heyde, 1990).
The secondary metabolites present in Phyllanthus
amarus are alkaloids, flavanoids, hydrolysable
tannins, major lignans and polyphenols. Bratati and
Datta (1990) report in an evaluation study of
Phyllanthus amarus that plant extracts have shown in
vivo antifungal, anticancer, antispasmodic and
hypoglycaemic activity. According to Thyagarajan
(1988) plant extracts from this species have beneficial
effects on liver functions. Mehratra et al. (1991), and
Unander and Blumberg (1991) showed, using in vitro
studies, that the Phyllanthus amarus extracts (polar
fractions) also have antiviral activity and are a
potential remedy for hepatitis B viral infection. Since
the extracts of Phyllanthus amarus have a long
history of use in tropical countries in indigenous
medicine for the treatment of liver ailments, the effect
of ethanolic extract of Phyllanthus amarus on CCl4
induced liver damage was examined during this
research.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experimental Animals: Thirty six (36) albino wistar
rats of both sexes weighing 175-200g were purchased
from the Animal House of Department of
Biochemistry, University of Port Harcourt, Choba
Park and feed with growers feed and water ad libitum
Collection and Identification of Plant: Phyllantus
amarus was harvested at Choba Park, University of
Port Harcourt and identified by Dr. Edwin Nwosu of
Plant Science and Biotechnology Department,
University of Port Harcourt with herbarium no 0609.
Phytochemical Screening: Qualitative determination
of the secondary metabolites was done using standard
procedure as described by Sofoware (1993).
Preparation of Plant Extract: The leaves of the plant
were thoroughly washed and air dried for one week
and shredded for blending in a warring blender to a
fine powder. The powder was mixed in 95% ethanol
in 1:10 ratio and allowed to stand for
48hours.Thereafter, the suspension was filtered using
a Whatman no 1 filter paper and the filtrate was
evaporated to remove ethanol in a water bath at 45 oC
to obtain an oily gel like extract which was weighed
and stored in a refrigerator.
Determination of LD50Two doses of 150 and
300mg/kgBW of p. amarus extracts were the choice
in this work in reference to LD50 determination of
phyllantus amarus reported by Rajesh and Ramteej
(2009).
Experimental Design: Thirty six (36) albino rats
weighing 175-200g of both sexes were divided into 8
groups (n=4rats) and kept in plastic cages. The groups
were labeled A to I. Group A (water control) received
0.2ml of distil water only administered orally through
an orogastric tube for 14 day. Group B (oil control)
was treated with 0.2ml of olive oil orally once daily.
Groups C and D (positive control) were administered
orally with 150 and 300mg/kgBW oily gel of p.
amarus extract dissolved in 0.2ml olive oil
respectively using orogastric tube daily for 14 days,
groups E,F,G,H and I received 120mg/kgBW of
carbon tetrachloride administered intraperetoneally
while groups F and G, H and I were treated orally
with 150 and 300mg/kgBW of ethanolic leave p.
amarus extracts dissolved in 0.2ml olive oil for 7 and
14days respectively to all the rats in these groups.
Collection Of Blood And Preparation of Serum: The
rats were withdrawn from the cages in each of the
group on days 7 and 14 and placed in a desiccator
containing cotton wool soaked in chloroform to
partially anaesthetize the rats. The blood samples
were obtained by cutting the jugular vein of the rat on
the neck by means of surgical blade and put in
anticoagulant sample bottle smeared with lithiumheparin . The blood samples were spun at 5000rpm
using MSE centrifuge to obtain plasma.
Chemicals and Reagents: All chemicals and reagents
used were of analytical grade.
*1PETERS, DE; 1OMEODU, SI
Effect of ethanolic leave extract of phyllantus amarus
805
Biochemical
Investigation:
Plasma
alanine
aminotransferase
(ALT)
and
aspartate
aminotransferase (AST) activities were determined by
the method of Reitman and Frankel (1957), plasma
alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity by the method of
Rec (1972), Plasma total protein and albumin were
assayed by Biuret and BCG methods respectively.
Determination of Bilirubin was by Jendrassik and
Crod method.
Statistical Analysis: Results were analyzed using
(SPSS) version 15. Values are expressed in
Means±Standard Deviation (M±SD).The data were
expressed using descriptive statistics and Analysis Of
Variance (ANOVA). Multiple comparisons for the
groups were done using Post Hoc Turkey (HSD) to
test for the level of significance between means. A
p˂0.05 was considered to be statistically significant.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table1.Effect of ethanolic leave extract of phylLantus amarus on some biochemical parameters in albino rats
Experimental groups
__________________________________________________________(M±SEM)_________________________________________________
Water
Control
Group A
0.2ml
GROUP B
(0.2ml)
82.25±2.53bc
136.25±3.28a
Parameter
s
AST
Vehicle
control
P amarus control
for 14 days
GROUP C
(150mg/kg)
GROUP D
(300mg/kg)
130.75±1.89ac
129.75±2.0
2ac
31.00±1.35c
248.00±1.8
3ac
61.50±1.55
35.25±1.03c
9.00±0.41c
c
ALT
ALP
TP
ALB
T.BIL
29.00±0.58c
151.25±3.90
35.75±1.38c
218.75±4.27a
c
c
63.50±0.65c
33.50±1.04c
10.00±0.41c
62.25±1.03c
34.50±1.26c
8.25±0.48c
31.25±1.11c
246.25±4.39ac
66.50±2.75c
37.50±1.85c
9.50±0.65c
Negative
control
(CCl4)
GROUP E
CCl4only
(CCl4+ P amarus
Extract
Treated for 7days
GROUP F
(150mg/kg)
GROUP G
(300mg/kg)
280.00±7.35ab
192.50±3.23abc
170.25±4.66a
(CCl4+ P amarus
Extract Treated for
14days
GROUP H
(150mg/
kg)
167.66±1.03abc
bc
44.67±2.49ab
309.00±14.91ab
45.50±1.94ab
287.25±15.53ab
55.67±1.03ab
27.33±1.25ab
13.67±0.85ab
58.50±1.19
29.00±0.71b
13.00±1.30b
32.00±2.20c
239.00±18.7
3ac
61.50±0.65
30.75±0.48
12.25±0.63b
GROUP I
(300mg/kg)
155.50±3.86ab
c
40.00±0.82a
259.33±3.68ac
34.00±1.35c
243.00±2.86ac
60.34±0.62
29.34±0.24
10.00±0.41c
60.50±0.65
33.25±1.11c
9.00±0.41c
All data are represented in Mean±Standard Error of Mean (M±SEM)
Superscript a represents significant difference(p<0.05) when compared to water control
Superscript b represents significant difference(p<0.05) when compared to vehicle control
Superscript c represents significant difference(p<0.05) when compared to negative control
Table 2. Result of the phytochemical screening of ethanolic leave extract of phyllantus amarus
Secondary Plant Metabolites
Alkaloids
Flavoniods
Tannis
Anthraquinone
Triterprenoids/steroids
Carbohydrate
Cardenolide
Sapinins
Test
Drangedorfs
Mayers
Hagers
Shinodas
Lead acetate
Alluminium chloride
Alkaline
Iron (iii) Chloride
Free Anthraquinone
Combined Anthraquinone
Lman-buchner
Salvoski
Molsch
Kedde
Keller kilani
Kedde
Fronthing
Haemolysis
Emulsion
Result
+ve
+ve
+ve
ND
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
ND
+ve
ND
+ve
+ve=present
-ve=absent
ND= Not Detected
Conclusion: Result from Table 1.0 indicated
significant elevation (p>0.05) of plasma activities of
ALT, AST, ALP, T.Bil and significant reduction
(p>0.05) in TP and ALB levels when group A was
compared to group E suggesting damage induced on
the hepatocytes of liver tissues by CCl4 treatment.
*1PETERS, DE; 1OMEODU, SI
Effect of ethanolic leave extract of phyllantus amarus
806
Marked elevation of aminotransferases in the
appropriate clinical context indicates acute cell
necrosis caused by the following: viral infection,
drugs, toxins, alcohol, or ischemia (Burke,1975;
Kamath,1996; Johnston, 1999; Dufour et al.,2000b).
Lesser degrees of acute cell necrosis may exhibit
aminotransferase values in ranges more typical of
most cases of chronic cell necrosis (eg, less than
seven times reference limits) (Dufour et al.,2000b).
This variety of cell injury is the result of impaired bile
flow and may be either intrahepatic or extrahepatic. In
the case of extrahepatic cholestasis, both serum
bilirubin and ALP are increased; the former because
of a failure to excrete bilirubin, and the latter because
of increased hepatic synthesis of ALP (Burke ,1975;
Kamath,1996). When cholestasis is the result of focal
intrahepatic disease, ALP is increased because of a
cholestatic-induced increased synthesis, but bilirubin
remains within normal limits. Although albumin is
synthesized solely in the liver, decreased serum
concentrations reflect not only liver disease but also
protein loss (nephrosis, enteropathy, and burns);
catabolic states; and malnutrition (Dufour et
al.,2000a). Because of its long half-life (21 days),
decreased serum albumin usually indicates chronic
rather than acute disease.
(Rajeshkumar and Kuttan,2000) isolated from this
plant were reported to possess antioxidative
properties. The overall recovery process and
stabilization of the disease status by P. amarus extract
might be due to its antioxidative property (Harish and
Shivanandappa, 2006). P. amarus extract also has
good antioxidant properties which help in removal of
free redicals from the human body (Mhaskar et al.,
2000; Raphael and Kuttan, 2003; Londhe et al., 2009;
Harikumar et al., 2009; Rai et al., 2007). Phyllanthus
amarus can detoxify the free radicals and has an
antioxidant activity (Tagrajan et al.,1990). It has been
shown to increase protein biosynthesis Tagrajan et
al.,1998) and increase the rate of regen-eration of
necrosed cells(Oudhia and Tripthi,2002. Extract of P.
amarus exhibited protective action against carbon
tetrachloride
(CCl4)
induced
mitochondrial
dysfunction.(Padma and Setty,1999). Methanolic
extract of the leaf of Phyllanthus amarus showed
hepato protection against ethanol induced oxidative
stress, (Toyin et al., 2008) alloxan (Raphael et
al.,2002) and cyclophosphamide-induced oxidative
stress in rats( Kumar and Kuttan ,2005). In
conclusion, P. amarus demonstrated ameliorating
potential of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) induced
damage to hepatocyte tissues.
Carbon tetrachloride induced liver damage has been
lengthily used as an experimental model. CCl4 is used
as model drug for the study of hepatotoxicity in acute
and chronic liver failure. CCl4 is metabolized by
CYP2E1, CYP2B and possibly CYP3A, to form
trichloromethyl radical, CCl3. This CCl3 radical can
bind to cellular molecules damaging crucial cellular
progression. The radical can also react with oxygen to
form trichloromethyperoxy radical CCl 3OO, a highly
reactive species. The metabolites of CCl4 cause the
hepatic injury in CCl4 liver injury model (Singh et al.,
2012). Alhassan et al., (2009)) concluded that high
doses of the CCl4 (90 – 120 mg/Kg) can induce
massive liver damage and may persist for longer
period compared to lower dosage, hence giving rise to
an ideal hepatotoxicity rats model. Significants
reduction(P<0.05)
and
non
significant
increases(P>0.05) were observed in ALT, AST, ALP,
activities, T.Bil level and TP and ALB levels
respectively when extract treated groups of F,G,H,and
I were compared with E suggesting recovery of
hepatocyte function. Table 2.0 revealed the presence
of alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, cardenolides,
steroids, tannins, carbohydrate and anthraquinones.
Several active compounds have been identified in P.
amarus extract. Lignins like phyllanthin and
hypophyllanthin, flavonoids like quercetin and
astragalin, ellagitannins like amarinic acid and
hydrolyzable
tannins
like
phyllanthisiin D
REFERENCES
Alhassan, A. J., Sule, M .S., Aliyu, S. A. & Aliyu, M.
D. (2009). Ideal Hepatotoxicity rats’ models
using varying concentrations of carbon
tetrachloride (CCl4). Bayero Journal of Pure and
Applied Sciences, 2(2): 185 – 187
Burke, M.D. (1975).
Pathol.,6:273–86.
Liver
function.
Hum.
Chevallier, A. (2000). Encyclopedia of Herbal
Medicine: Natural Health. Dorling Kindersley
Book. USA. Second edition, 336 p.
aDufour, D.R., Lott, J.A., Nolte, F.S. et al.
(2000).Diagnosis and monitoring of hepatic
injury. I. Performance characteristics of
laboratory tests. Clin. Chem. 46:2027–49.
bDufour, D.R., Lott. J.A., Nolte, F.S., et al.
(2000).Diagnosis and monitoring of hepatic
injury. II. Recommendations for use of laboratory
tests in screening, diagnosis, and monitoring.
Clin. Chem. 46:2050–68.
Foo, L.Y. (1993). Amarulone, a novel cyclic
hydrolysable tannin from Phyllanthus amarus.
Natural Product Letters, 3: 45-52.
*1PETERS, DE; 1OMEODU, SI
Effect of ethanolic leave extract of phyllantus amarus
807
Foo, L.Y. and Wong, H. (1992). Phyllanthusiin D, an
unusual hydrolysable tannin from Phyllanthus
amarus. Phytochemistry, 31(2): 711-713.
Harish R., & Shivanandappa, T.(2006). Food Chem.,
95, 180.
Nanden-Amattaram, T. (1998). Medicinale Planten:
tips en simpele recepten voor een goede
gezondheid. “Medicinal plants and simple recipes
for a good health.” Paramaribo-Suriname. 18 p.
Harikumar, K.B., Kuttan, G. & Kuttan, R. (2009).
Inhibition of viral carcinogenesis by Phyllanthus
amarus. Integrative Cancer Therapies, 8(3):25460.
Oudhia, P. & Tripthi, R.S.(2002). Prospects of
cultivation of medical plants in Chhattisgarh
India. Recent progress in medical plants vol. 5
crop improvement production technology, trade
and commerce. Sci. Thch. Pub. USA. pp 211236.
Heyde, H. (1990). Medicijn planten in Suriname.
(Den dresi wiwiri foe Sranan). “Medicinal Plants
in
Suriname.”
Uitg.
Stichting
Gezondheidsplanten
Informaite
(SGI)
Paramaribo. 157 p.
Padma, P., & Setty, O.H. (1999).Protective effect of
Phyllanthus against CCL4-induced mitochondrial
dysfunction. Life Sci. 64:2411–7.
Houghton, P.J., Woldemariam, T.Z., O’Shea, S. and
Thyagarajan, S.P. (1996). Two securinega-type
alkaloids
from
Phyllanthus
amarus.
Phytochemistry, 43: 715-717.
Rai, V., Khatoon, S., Rawat, A.K.S. & Mehrotra, S.
(2007). Disruption of elements uptake due to
excess chromium in indian medicinal plants.
Biological Trace Element Research, 120: 127132.
Johnston, D.E.( 1999). Special considerations in
interpreting liver function tests. Am. Fam.
Physician 59:2223–30.
Kumar, K.B. & Kuttan, R.(2005). Chemoprotective
activity of an extract of Phyllanthus amarus
against cyclophosphamide induced toxicity in
mice. Phytomed.,12:494–500. [PubMed]
Kamath, P.S.(1996). Clinical approach to the patient
with abnormal liver test results. Mayo Clin. Proc.
71:1089–95.
Londhe, J.S., Devasagayam, T.P.A., Foo, L.Y. &
Ghaskadbi,
S.S.
(2009).
Radioprotective
Properties of Polyphenols from Phyllanthus
amarus Linn. Journal of radiation research, 50:
303-309.
May, A.I. (1982). Surinaams Kruidenboek. Sranan
Oso Dresi. “Surinamese book of Herbs.”
Uitgeverij Vaco, Paramaribo-Suriname. 80 p.
Mehrotra, R., Rawat, S., Kulshreshtha, D.K., Goyal,
P., Patnaik, G.K. and Dhawan, B.N. (1991). In
vitro effect of Phyllanthus amarus on hypatitis-B
virus. Indian Journal of Medical Research A, 93:
71-73.
Mhaskar, K.S., Blatter, E. & Caius, J.F. (2000).
Kirtikar and Basu’s Illustrated Indian Medicinal
Plants, vol. 9. Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi,
India, p.3074.
Rajeshkumar, N.V. & Kuttan,
Ethnopharmacol., 73, 215.
R.(2000).
J.
Raphael, K.R. & Kuttan, R. (2003). Inhibition of
experimental gastric lesion and inflammation by
Phyllanthus amarus extract. Journal of
Ethnopharmacology, 87: 193–197.
Raphael, K.R., Sabu, M.C.& Kuttan, R.( 2002).
Hypoglycemic effect of methanol extract of
Phyllanthus amarus Schum and Thonn on alloxan
induced diabetes mellitus in rats and its relation
with antioxidant potential. Indian J. Exp. Biol.
40:905–9.
Rec, G.S.C.C. (1972). Colorimetric method for serum
Alkaline Phosphatase Determination. J. Clin.
Biochem. 10(2): 182.
Reitman, S. & Frankel, S. (1957). A colorimetric
method for the determination of serum Glutamic
Oxaloacetate and Glutamic Pyruvic transaminase.
Amer.J.Clin.Path. 28:56.
Sedoc,
N.
(1992).
Afro
Surinaamse
natuurgeneeswijzen. Bevattende meer dan
tweehonderd meest gebruikelijke geneeskrachtige
kruiden. “African – Surinamese natural cures.
Containing more than two hundred most useful
healing / curative herbs.” 224 p
Singh, R., Kumar, S., Rana, A. C. & Sharma, N.
(2012).Different models of hepatotoxicity and
*1PETERS, DE; 1OMEODU, SI
Effect of ethanolic leave extract of phyllantus amarus
808
related liver diseases. A review. International
Research Journal Of Pharmacy,3(7):86-95
Tagrajan, S.P., Jayaram, S.,
(1990).Phyllanthus amarus
Lancet 336: 949-950.
Villicammai, T.
and hepatitis-B.
Tagrajan, S.P., Subramanian, S. &
Thirunalasunder.(1998). Effect of phyllanthus
amarus on chronic carrier of hepatitis B-virus.
Lancet 2 (8614) : 764-766.
Thyagarajan, S.P., Subramanian, S., Thirunalasundari,
T., Venkateswaran, P.S. and Blumberg, B.S.
(1988). Effect of Phyllanthus amarus on chronic
carriers of hepatitis-B virus. The Lancet II, 764766.
Tirimana, A.S.L. (1987). Medicinal plants of
Suriname.
Uses
and
Chemical
Constituents.Chemical Laboratory, Ministry of
Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Fisheries.
Suriname 92 p.
Titjari, (1985). Famiri-encyclopedia Foe da Natoera
Dresi-Fasi.
Gezinskruidenboek
van
de
Natuurgeneeswijzen. Natuurgeneeswijzen uit het
zonnige Suriname. “Family herb book of natural
cures. Natural cures of sunny Suriname.”
Amsterdam. 419 p.
Tjong AYoung, G., (1989). Het gebruik van
medicinale
planten
door
de
Javaanse
bevolkingsgroep in Suriname. “ The use of
medicinal plants by the Javanese Community in
Suriname.” Instituut voor de Opleiding van
Leraren. Paramaribo. 196 p.
Toyin, Y.F., Stephen, M., Michael, A.F. & Udoka,
E.O.( 2008). Hepatoprotective potential of
Phyllanthus amarus against ethanol-induced
oxidative stress in rats. Food Chem. Toxicol,.
46:2658–64.
Unander, D.W. and Blumberg, B.S. (1991). In vitro
activity of Phyllanthus (Euphorbiaceae) species
against the DNA polymerase of hepatitis viruses:
Effect of growing environment and inter- and
intra-specific differences. Economy Botany 45:
225-242.
Wessels Boer, J.G., Hekking, W.H.A. and Schulz, J.P.
(1976). Fa joe kan tak’mi no moi. Inleiding in de
flora en vegetatie van Suriname; Deel I en II.
“Why do say that I am not beautiful. Introduction
to the flora and vegetation of Suriname; Part I
and II.” Natuurgids serie B No. 4 Stinasu. Para
maribo.
*1PETERS, DE; 1OMEODU, SI