University of Massachusetts - Amherst
ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst
Dissertations
2-2013
Continuity in the Face of Change: Mashantucket
Pequot Plant Use From 1675-1800 A.D.
Kimberly Carol Kasper
University of Massachusetts - Amherst, [email protected]
Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarworks.umass.edu/open_access_dissertations
Part of the Anthropology Commons
Recommended Citation
Kasper, Kimberly Carol, "Continuity in the Face of Change: Mashantucket Pequot Plant Use From 1675-1800 A.D." (2013).
Dissertations. 691.
http://scholarworks.umass.edu/open_access_dissertations/691
This Open Access Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. It has been accepted for inclusion in
Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. For more information, please contact
[email protected].
CONTINUITY IN THE FACE OF CHANGE: MASHANTUCKET PEQUOT
PLANT USE FROM 1675-1800 A.D.
A Dissertation Presented
by
KIMBERLY C. KASPER
Submitted to the Graduate School of the
University of Massachusetts Amherst in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
February 2013
Anthropology
© Copyright by Kimberly C. Kasper 2013
All Rights Reserved
CONTINUITY IN THE FACE OF CHANGE: MASHANTUCKET PEQUOT
PLANT USE FROM 1675-1800 A.D.
A Dissertation Presented
by
KIMBERLY C. KASPER
Approved as to style and content by:
___________________________________________
H. Martin Wobst, Chair
___________________________________________
Elizabeth Chilton, Member
___________________________________________
David Foster, Member
___________________________________________
Kevin McBride, Member
___________________________________________
Thomas Leatherman, Department Head
Department of Anthropology
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I have gratitude to all those who were involved in the project. This dissertation is
certainly not an effort of one person. Foremost, I must thank the Mashantucket Pequot
community for funding this dissertation project via a research fellowship from 2008-2010
at the Mashantucket Pequot Museum and Research Center (MPRMRC). This research
was also funded by a Natural History Collection Research Scholarship through the
Klinger and Bemis Endowment at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst (2009 and
2007). These funds allowed me to conduct this research at the Mashantucket Pequot
Reservation and to engage in an intellectual experience both professionally and
personally. I am forever indebted to the research staff and other community members at
the MPMRC who made this project possible – Kevin McBride, Jason Mancini, Roberta
Charpentier, Kathleen Boushee, Deb Jones, Russ Handsman, Noah Feldman and Hector
Gonzalez and also my committee members, H. Martin Wobst, Kevin McBride, Elizabeth
Chilton and David Foster. I also would like to acknowledge my colleagues from Rhodes
College, Susan Kus, and Evie Perry, and students, Jonathan Redman and Katherine
Reinhart, who all have been integral in the completion of this project.
My committee members provided the right amount of inspiration and motivation
during their years of guidance and I truly appreciate all their efforts (especially during the
summer months!) to help shape this dissertation into piece of academic work that one can
be proud about. Elizabeth fostered me to explore intellectual angles that I would not have
dared to traverse previously. David provided essential feedback that made me dig deep
into understanding biological and cultural essence of the data. Kevin provided the fuel for
the fire in many different levels of the project. His patience and guidance has been
iv
unconditional and much embraced during this process. I also heartfully thank my advisor,
H. Martin Wobst, for all his efforts, kindness and guidance throughout the past few years.
I could not have done it without him and I owe him the deepest gratitude for all his
incredible mentoring and words of wisdom/reflection throughout this process.
I also need to send out a little note of appreciation to all the archaeobotanical
knowledge “keepers” who have eagerly passed down a wealth of information from
identification criteria to theoretical models. Since my graduate career started in 2011,
Ksenjia Borojevic, Glynis Jones and Lee Newsom have played an integral role in the
shaping the “botanical” soul of this project. Other archaeological mentors, such as
William Parkinson, Attila Gyucha, Michael Faught and Allan Gilbert have all helped
shaped me into the archaeologists that I am today. I am forever indebted to all of these
amazing scholars and individuals.
And last, I must thank my family and friends. Their support has meant the world
to me. Although I will just list his or her names each individual has played a very central
role in providing an essential personal support to see this project through. I could not
have done this work with the support of the following people, Chester J. Kasper Jr.,
Grace Kasper, Chester Jr. Kasper III, Nancy and Fred Rayman, Kathy Schermanhorn,
Sam Lovejoy, Meg Morris, Pam Lozis, Liz Sullivan, and Toni Yates. You all made it
easy for me to take the time I need to see this project through. And in the end, this project
is unequivocally dedicated to one person, my daughter, Grace Carol (a.k.a. the
Gracelberry).
Although I have thanked many, any flaws in this work are my own and I take full
responsibility.
v
ABSTRACT
CONTINUITY IN THE FACE OF CHANGE: THE MASHANTUCKET PEQUOT
ENVIRONMENTAL INTERACTIONS FROM 1675-1800 A.D.
FEBRUARY 2013
KIMBERLY C. KASPER, B.A., FORDHAM UNIVERSITY
M.SC., FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY
M.SC., UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD
Directed by H. Martin Wobst
This investigation focuses on the decision making relative to plants by Native
Americans on one of the oldest and most continuously occupied reservations in the
United States, the Mashantucket Pequot Nation. Within an agency framework, I explore
the directions in which decision making about plants were changing from 1675-1800
A.D. I evaluate plant macroremains, specifically progagules (seeds), recovered from ten
archaeological sites and the historical record from the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation,
located in southeastern Connecticut. I demonstrate how decision making about plants
related to food and medicinal practices during the Colonial Period were characterized by
heterarchical choices that allowed the Mashantucket Pequot to retain their sense of
economic and cultural autonomy from their colonizers. This type of problem-directed
agency analysis will aid in placing Indigenous individuals and communities into the
contexts of colonization as more active participants in their own past, and as long-term
stewards of the environment. More specifically, this dissertation shows that even as small
a space as the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation is a rich testimony to the 11,000-year
history, and continues to provide important information about how households and
vi
communities (re)conceptualize their socio-natural worlds under the most severe
constraints.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
!
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... iv!
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................... vi!
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. xi!
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... xii!
CHAPTER
1. INDIGENOUS PLANT USE AND AGENCY .............................................................. 1!
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1!
An Agency Approach to Archaeological Plant Analysis ................................................ 3!
Continuity and Change During Colonization ............................................................... 12!
Structure of the Thesis .................................................................................................. 15!
2. A MODEL OF PLANT USE AT THE!
MASHANTUCKET PEQUOT RESERVATION ............................................................ 20!
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 20!
Why are the Cultural Uses of Plants an Important Variable? ...................................... 21!
Heterarchy and Plant Use.............................................................................................. 23!
Frameworks of Native American Plant Use within Colonial New England ................ 25!
The Model at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation ................................................... 31!
Diet Composition ...................................................................................................... 32!
Medicinal Plants........................................................................................................ 33!
Land Use ................................................................................................................... 33!
Summary ....................................................................................................................... 35!
3. THE STUDY AREA..................................................................................................... 36!
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 36!
Native American Plant Use Prior to the Colonial Period ............................................. 38!
The Physical Landscape ............................................................................................ 38!
The Cultural Variables within the Traditional Homeland ........................................ 40!
Wild Plants and Domesticates .................................................................................. 42!
Use of Different Habitats .......................................................................................... 43!
Prior Plant Studies about the Colonial Period............................................................... 43!
The History of the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation ................................................. 44!
Disease, War and Population Loss............................................................................ 44!
Habitat , Land Loss and Settlement Patterns ............................................................ 46!
Religious Movements ............................................................................................... 48!
Emerging Market Systems ........................................................................................ 49!
Site Context................................................................................................................... 49!
viii
Chronology and Location of Sites ............................................................................ 51!
72-91 (Mohantic Fort)............................................................................................... 52!
72-164A (Homestead) ............................................................................................... 53!
72-34A (Homestead) ................................................................................................. 53!
72-58 (Homestead).................................................................................................... 54!
72-171 (Homestead).................................................................................................. 54!
72-88 (Storage Facility) ............................................................................................ 55!
72-97C (Homestead) ................................................................................................. 55!
72-161 (Homestead).................................................................................................. 55!
72-70B (Homestead) ................................................................................................. 56!
72-66 (Homestead).................................................................................................... 56!
Summary ....................................................................................................................... 56!
4. METHODS OF ANALYSIS ........................................................................................ 63!
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 63!
The Formation of the Archaeobotanical Record ........................................................... 63!
Cultural Processes ..................................................................................................... 64!
Environmental Processes .......................................................................................... 67!
Sampling Strategy and Processing ................................................................................ 69!
Lab Analysis ................................................................................................................. 69!
Identification Criteria ................................................................................................ 71!
Ecological and Cultural Categorization of the Archaeobotanical Plants ...................... 73!
Food Categorization .................................................................................................. 73!
Medicinal Categorization .......................................................................................... 76!
Habitat Categorization .............................................................................................. 76!
Other Historical Data .................................................................................................... 78!
Data Manipulation and Interpretation ........................................................................... 80!
Summary ....................................................................................................................... 81!
5. RESULTS OF DIET COMPOSITION......................................................................... 84!
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 84!
Archaeological and Ethnographic Data Associated with Food-Related Activities ...... 87!
Wild Plant Use .............................................................................................................. 89!
Tropical Cultigens......................................................................................................... 97!
Euro-American Cultigens ............................................................................................. 99!
Other Historical Data .................................................................................................. 100!
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 103!
6. RESULTS OF MEDICINAL PLANTS ..................................................................... 132!
Introduction ................................................................................................................. 132!
Archaeological and Ethnographic Data Associated with Medicinal Use ................... 132!
Medicinal Continuity .................................................................................................. 134!
Medicinal Visibility .................................................................................................... 136!
Other Historical Data .................................................................................................. 139!
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 140!
ix
7. RESULTS OF MASHANTUCKET LAND USE ...................................................... 148!
Introduction ................................................................................................................. 148!
Archaeological and Ecological Data Associated with Land Use................................ 149!
Habitat Use.................................................................................................................. 150!
Seasonal Plant Use and Storage .................................................................................. 154!
Traditional Agricultural Systems and Home Gardens ................................................ 155!
Duration of Occupation............................................................................................... 157!
Euro-American Land Use ........................................................................................... 159!
Other Historical Data .................................................................................................. 160!
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 163!
8. THE FACES OF CONTINUITY AND CHANGE AT THE MASHANTUCKET
PEQUOT RESERVATION ............................................................................................ 182!
Introduction ................................................................................................................. 182!
Living with the Land: Agency and the Complexity of Environmental Strategies...... 185!
Further Research ......................................................................................................... 191!
Wood Analysis ........................................................................................................ 191!
Animal Resources ................................................................................................... 192!
Site Analysis ........................................................................................................... 192!
Final Remarks ............................................................................................................. 193!
APPENDICES
A: SEED CRITERIA USED FOR IDENTIFICATION ................................................. 194
B: ETHNOGRAPHIC FOOD CATEGORIZATION OF PLANT TYPES ................... 204
C: ETHNOGRAPHIC MEDICINAL CATEGORIZATION OF PLANT TYPES ........ 239
D: HABITAT CATEGORIZATION OF PLANT TYPES............................................. 309
E: SITE INVENTORIES OF THE BOTANICAL IDENTIFICATIONS ...................... 370
REFERENCES CITED................................................................................................... 465!
x
LIST OF TABLES
1. Dates of Occupations, Cultural Contexts and Archaeobotanical Remains Recovered at
the Ten Mashantucket Pequot Archaeological Sites ................................................. 59!
2. Archaeobotanical Investigators For Each Site. ............................................................. 82!
3. Habitat Categorizations of Identified Archaeobotanical Types .................................... 83!
4. Presence of All Identified Plant Types Across the Ten Sites. .................................... 104!
5. Presence of Food Types Identified Across the Ten Sites. .......................................... 105!
6. Presence of Medicinal Plants. ..................................................................................... 142!
7. Percentages of Medicinal Plants at 72-91, 72-58, 72-171, 72-161 and 72-66. ........... 143!
8. Habitat Presence.......................................................................................................... 164!
9. Percentages of Habitat Categories. ............................................................................. 165!
10. Environmental Variables at Each Site: Soil, Bedrock, Surface, Elevation and
Water ....................................................................................................................... 166!
11. Mean Distance to Water: Random Point versus Archaeological Sites ..................... 167!
12. Total Seasonality of Plant Types from All Ten Mashantucket Sites 16751800 A.D. ................................................................................................................ 168!
13. Seasonality of Plant Types at 72-91.......................................................................... 169!
14. Seasonality of Plant Types at 72-58.......................................................................... 170!
15. Seasonality of Plant Types at 72-171........................................................................ 171!
16. Seasonality of Plant Types at 72-161........................................................................ 172!
17. Seasonality of Plant Types at 72-66.......................................................................... 173!
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
1. Location of the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation ..................................................... 19!
2. Location of the Mashantucket Pequot Traditional Homeland, Reservation and
Appropriated Mashantucket Lands in Southeastern New England. ......................... 60!
3. Location of Ten Mashantucket Pequot Archaeological Sites 1675-1800 A.D. ............ 61!
4. Ranges of Occupation for the Surveyed Historic Period Sites from 1670-1820 A.D. at
the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation. ..................................................................... 62!
5. Number of Plant Types Per Site.................................................................................. 106!
6. Percentages of Plant Types at 72-91 ........................................................................... 107!
7. Percentages of Plant Types at 72-164A ..................................................................... 108!
8. Percentages of Plant Types at 72-34. ......................................................................... 109!
9. Percentages of Plant Types at 72-58. ......................................................................... 110!
10. Percentages of Plant Types at 72-171 ....................................................................... 111!
11. Percentages of Plant Types at 72-88 ......................................................................... 112!
12. Percentages of Plant Types at 72-97C. ..................................................................... 113!
13. Percentages of Plant Types at 72-161 ....................................................................... 114!
14. Percentages of Plant Types at 72-70B ...................................................................... 115!
15. Percentages of Plant Types at 72-66. ........................................................................ 116!
16. Density Food Types Per Volume (L) of Soil Floated. ............................................. 117!
17. Percentages of Food Categories Across Ten Sites. ................................................... 118!
18. Mast Products Per Volume (L) of Soil Floated. ....................................................... 119!
19. Percentages of Mast Products. .................................................................................. 120!
20. Percentages of Plant Types Recovered from Stratified Pits at 71-91 ....................... 121!
!
21. Percentages of Plant Types Recovered from Stratified Pits at 71-58. ...................... 122!
xii
22. Percentages of Plant Types Recovered from Stratified Pits at 72-171 ..................... 123!
23. Percentages of Plant Types Recovered from Stratified Pits at 72-161. .................... 124!
24. Percentages of Plant Types Recovered from Shallow Pits at 72-91 ......................... 125!
25. Percentages of Plant Types Recovered from Shallow Pits at 72-58 ......................... 126!
26. Percentages of Plant Types Recovered from Shallow Pits at 72-171 ....................... 127!
27. Percentages of Plant Types Recovered from Shallow Pits at 72-161 ...................... 128!
28. Percentages of Plant Types Recovered from Hearths at 72-91................................. 129!
29. Percentages of Plant Types Recovered from Hearths at 72-58................................. 130!
30. Percentages of Plant Types Recovered from Hearths at 72-66................................. 131!
31. Counts of Medicinal Plants at 72-91, 72-58, 72-171, 72-161 and 72-66.................. 144!
32. Stratified Pit Medicinal Density at 72-91, 72-58, 72-171 and 72-171...................... 145!
33. Hearth Medicinal Density at 72-91, 72-58, 72-171, 72-161, 72-66. ....................... 146!
34. Shallow Pit Medicinal Density at 72-91, 72-58, 72-171 and 72-161. ...................... 147!
35. Percentages of Habitats Represented Within the Archaeobotanical Record. ........... 174!
36. Elevation (ft) at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation. ........................................... 175!
37. Surface at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation. .................................................... 176!
38. Bedrock at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation.................................................... 177!
39. Soils at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation. ........................................................ 178!
40. Hydrography at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation. ........................................... 179!
41. Distance to Water. ..................................................................................................... 180!
42. Proximity of Mashantucket Post-Contact Sites to Water Resources. ....................... 181!
xiii
CHAPTER 1
INDIGENOUS PLANT USE AND AGENCY
Introduction
“All humans groups consciously change their environments to some extent
– one might even argue that this, in combination with language, is the
crucial trait distinguishing people from other animals – and the best
measure of a culture’s ecological stability may well be how successfully
its environmental changes maintain its ability to reproduce itself. But if we
avoid assumptions about environmental equilibrium, the instability of
human relations with the environment can be used to explain both cultural
and ecological transformations. An ecological history begins by assuming
a dynamic and changing relationship between environment and culture,
one as apt to produce contradictions as continuities. Moreover, it assumes
that the interactions of the two are dialectical. Environment may initially
shape the range of choices available to a people at a given moment, but
then culture reshapes environment in responding to those choices. The
reshaped environment presents a new set of possibilities for cultural
reproductions, thus setting up a new cycle of mutual determination.
Changes in the way people create and re-create their livelihood must be
analyzed in terms of changes not only in their social relations but in their
ecological ones as well” (Cronon 1983:13).
This dissertation is focused on Native American decision making related to plants,
specifically the charred progagules (seeds), recovered from archaeological sites at the
Mashantucket Pequot Reservation, located in southeastern Connecticut (Figure 1). I
examine how several households within the Mashantucket Pequot community maintained
their traditional plant strategies in regards to their land use, diet and medicinal practices
from 1675-1800 A.D. My approach is explicitly anchored in agency theory to investigate
the dialectical nature of plant use, as highlighted by Cronon (1983), that is observable
within the archaeological and historical record. I assess whether the decision making
processes of the Mashantucket Pequot related to their plant use support the interpretations
of “continuity and change” scenarios that have been dominant in interpreting Native
1
American material culture during the Colonial Period, from flint to metal pottery (Cobb
2003), from pottery to glass beads (Loren 2008; Silliman 2009), and from settlement
patterns to home construction (Jordan 2010; Lightfoot 1995; Scarry 2010). A decisionoriented analysis of plant use at the household and community scale allows me to hone
in, more explicitly than most continuity and change approaches, and evaluate Native
Americans and the choices they had, and the choices they made and how they changed
(or did not change) in regard to their environmental interactions.
During the Colonial Period in New England, plant use by Native Americans is not
yet well understood. In this region, few studies have attempted to analyze environmental
interactions of Native Americans or the colonists (Bennett 1955; Cronon 1983; Fischer,
et al. 1997; McBride 2007; Trigg and Bowes 2007). What is understood is that the period
was one of massive cultural dislocation and environmental disruption for Native
Americans when populations were uprooted and placed on reservations and the land use
strategies of the colonists transform the New England ecosystems (Den Ouden 2005;
Donahue 2004; O’Brien 1997). Different political and economic systems were imposed
on Native communities, especially when missionaries and Christianity took root and
Native American ideologies were placed under the most serious assault (Bragdon 1996a,
2009; Den Ouden 2005; Mandell 2010; O’Brien 1997; Shoemaker 2004). This goal of the
dissertation is to shed light on how plants and decisions about plants continued to
contribute to Native American persistence under these most severe assaults on their
culture and lifeways and survival.
The dissertation presents a rich corpus of archaeological plant macroremains for
the New England region, where such records are scarce regardless of the time period
2
(Chilton 1999; George 1997) particularly one in which Native Americans are thought to
have “disappeared” from the landscape (Bruchac 2005). The plant data presented have
been recovered in the course of a multi-year interdisciplinary and regional research
project that involves many people (both Indigenous and non-Indigenous) who have
collaborated in order to examine the archaeological record of the Mashantucket Pequot
Reservation (Hauptman and Wherry 1990; Jones 1998, 2002; McBride 2007; Mancini
2009; Vasta 2007). Many of the components of the archaeological and
paleoenvironmental data, but not the macrobotanical remains recovered, have already
been broadly interpreted and applied to regional syntheses (Holmes 2007; Mancini 2009;
McBride 2007; McWeeney 1994, 1998; Starna 1990; Thorson 1993; Vasta 2007).
Within this rich cultural context of archaeological and paleoenvironmental data,
my analysis is focused on plant macro-remains recovered from ten Mashantucket Pequot
habitation sites within a relatively narrow temporal window. I consider households as the
‘medium’ for structuring domestic activities inside and outside the physical and
ideological parameters of a dwelling (Allison 1999). They are the primary stage for plantrelated activities and major buildings blocks to interpret plant decision making at the
household and community level (Dennell 1972, 1974, 1976; Hubbard 1976; Mrozowski
et al. 2008; Van deer Veen 1992). I demonstrate that plants, and particularly propagules
(seeds) recovered from a subset of Mashantucket Pequot households, are a particularly
promising dimension when one wants to analyze Native American decision making.
An Agency Approach to Archaeological Plant Analysis
This dissertation utilizes an agency approach. Specifically, it applies the paradigm
of Bourdieu (1990) and Giddens (1990) as it has developed over the last three decades.
3
According to Giddens (1984), to understand why people acted the way they did, one
needs to understand the interplay of “agency” and “structure.” In this investigation, the
environment and the decisions related to plants are the major focus to understanding that
“structure.” People act in the way they do, informed by their knowledge of the
“structure” in which they are embedded, similar to the way in which Bourdieu defines
“habitus” (1984; 1990). This “structure” consists of their experience(s), their life history
of observations, their conscious and subconscious knowledge of the world around them,
and their memory of their previous actions in the contexts they experienced in the past
(Bender 2002). Within their experience or knowledge of structure, they have a sense of
how they and others have acted under similar circumstances, and how well that worked
or did not work in the past. On the basis of that memory, knowledge and experience, they
choose how to act in any (new) situation in ways that makes sense to them and that
promises to return to them what they expect to happen, given their knowledge,
experience and memory (Silliman 2009). Each new decision (or action) itself modifies
the structure, whether they acted the same as or different from before, since it modifies
everybody’s experience. In that way, society is seen to be in a continuous process of
“enculturation” (that is, becoming). Thus, structure is never static (Bourdieu 1990;
Foucault 1978; Giddens 1984).
Of course, agency within human plant use has always been a part of archaeology,
but often in ways that actually deflected from the Native American agents (individuals
and communities). For example, at one extreme end, there are the simple evolutionary
cultural categorizations of agents into bands, tribes, chiefdoms and states (Fried 1967;
Service 1962; Service and Sahlins 1960). These evolutionary stages have dominated
4
archaeology well into the seventies of the last century. With reference to Native
Americans, particularly the band and tribal stages had constructed agents that were
completely boxed in by environmental constraints. There was little choice left to them by
the archaeological model builders – the environmental constraints were seen as so severe
that only a very narrow range of human behavior was seen as possible for the individual
or the community. In other words, human decision-making was pre-empted by
environmental pressures and/or observable environmental variables. Any person, faced
with similar constraints, would have to behave in the observed way. Therefore, to write
about the humans behind the decision-making, in their cultural experience, memory, and
history would have been superfluous, because the environment had forced that decision
so exhaustively.
In the second half of the twentieth century, with the introduction of a more
explicitly scientific archaeology, the pre-existing environmental forcing for Native
American decision-making was put onto a new theoretical and methodological basis
(Binford 1962, 1965; Clarke 1968; Lee and Devore 1968, particularly). This novel
approach, which borrowed many of its tenets from other disciplines, such as biology
(general systems theory) and focused on deductive reasoning, is usually defined as the socalled “New Archaeology” or “processual” archaeology (Binford and Binford 1968,
Renfrew 1973). More problem-directed and rigorous scientific techniques were applied,
so that one explicitly and narrowly characterized the environmental constraints at work
on Native Americans to the point where only a very limited set of choices were left open.
This was often accomplished with mathematical and quantitative models, for example by
means of computer simulation (Thomas 1971, Wobst 1974), game theory (Bird and
5
O’Connell 2006; Smith and Winterhalder 1992), or optimum diet methods (Kelley 1995;
Winterhalder 1986, 1994). Native American culture, history, experience, memory,
knowledge, and decision making could virtually be treated as a black box: given the
severity of the environmental inputs, no matter what kind of head was exposed to it – it
would have to come to the same decision.
As an example from the dimension of plant use, the “principle of least effort”
focuses on the physical landscape as the key factor in shaping the use of plants by
individuals and communities (Asouti and Austin 2005; Shackleton and Prins 1992;
Tusenius 1986). According to this approach, the gathering of firewood and other plant
related products (which include mast and other seed plants) occurs in direct and inverse
relationship to expenditure of energy (i.e. exploiting plants closest to the site). Similarly,
site catchment analysis, as it was practiced in the sixties and seventies, interpreted what
people should have been doing, if they were forced to map closely onto the plant or
animal resources dominant within a given site catchment (the resources surrounding a site
and the ability for humans to exploit said resources) (Flannery 1994; Jarmon et al. 1972).
The principle of least effort and catchment analysis did not leave much room for cultural
variables such as the traditional methods of exploiting a given environment, the ways in
which plants were used given the cultural context at that particular historical point, and
how plants may gain in relative importance because of how closely they might be linked
to ritual, myth, or enculturation.
In a similar direction, stereotypes such as the “noble savage” or “ecological
Indian” have permeated intellectual thinking. The “ecological” categorization of Native
Americans has emerged as early as the 18th century when Rousseau coined the term
6
“natural man” to describe Indigenous people and their use of natural resources, especially
plants, throughout the world) (Ellingson 2001; Krech 1999).1 That cultural categorization
of Native Americans has also deflected from the contexts of decision-making and often
presents Native Americans as being in sympathy with all earth’s creatures and initiatives
to conserve resources so that all is in harmony and in balance. While each cultural
categorizations encourage the cultural modeling of resource use, they still tend to
downplay history and context, and thus understandings that are sensitive to the historical
contexts of Native American decision making. Delcourt and Delcourt (2004), Ellingson
(2001), Harking and Lewis (2007), and Krech (1999) in critiquing such categorical
oversimplifications, champion Native Americans as having been more active participants
in their history, and for having had a broader set of choices, informed by their historical
contexts, in additional to their biological landscapes. Many recent scholars and
investigations, such as within the approach of Human Behavioral Ecology (HBE) and
evolutionary development biology (evo-devo) recognize the complex, intertwined and
indivisible relationship that exists between humans and their environments (Bird and
O’Connell 2006; Kennett and Winterhalder 2006; Gremillion and Piperno 2009; Smith
2007). Still archaeologists need to be cautious, as advocated by Judkins, Smith and Keys
(2008:17), about repeating past theoretical mistakes “by accepting simplistic, causal
explanations based largely on deterministic conception of nature” and making invisible
the agency of individuals and communities.
In a different direction within the range of anthropological approaches,
particularly relevant to the Colonial Period, Native American decision-making was often
1
Note as advocated by Smith and Wobst (2005) the term Indigenous will be capitalized
throughout this dissertation.
7
presented as if it were completely pre-empted by the domination of the colonialists over
Native American politics, economy, location and spatial behavior, and ideology and
culture (e.g. Mitchell and Scheiber 2010). In the 1930’s and 1940’s, this approach, known
as acculturation, emphasized the spread of cultural practices from the dominant “donor”
(colonists) cultures to the passive “recipient” cultures (Native Americans) (Kroeber 1948;
Redfield, Linton and Herskovits 1936). In that extreme, the colonialist is constructed as
so lop-sidedly superior, that the Native American decision-making is constrained to a
place where only very few choices look feasible. Native Americans are presented as
being completely forced by colonial constraints, so that ANY person would have to come
to the same identical decision, independent of their ethnicity, history, context, life
experience, or knowledge. This deprives Native Americans of their humanity.
As the acculturation approach was pushed to the periphery during the emergence
of the “New Archaeology”, the locus of cultural change was now placed outside
“society” into the environment as communities were viewed as being subject to universal
processes of nature and society (as discussed above) (Mitchell and Scheiber 2010).
However, the acculturation approach continues to influence the ways in which we
conceptualize and interpret Native American interactions with their colonial neighbors
(McNiven and Russell 2005; Trigger 1980). Mitchell and Scheiber (2010:7) note that
even with the emergence of the postmodern paradigm in anthropology during the 1980’s,
many “new” conceptual frameworks continue to separate the colonized from the
colonizer while reifying and essentializing the static notion of traditional culture and
perpetuating colonists categories.
8
In the last three decades, two subfields have evolved out of the processual and
post-processual paradigm: 1) feminist archaeology (e.g.Classen and Joyce 1997; Gero
and Conkey 1991; Gilchrist 1999; Nelson 2007; Sorensen 2000; Wright 1996) and 2)
Indigenous archaeology (e.g Atalay 2006, 2012; Bruchac et al. 2010; Nicolas 2010;
Smith and Wobst 2005; Watkins 2000, 2005). Both perspectives have contributed
signficantly to undestanding power and identity and can provide additional theoretical
scaffolding to understand Indigenous choices in the past. When employed together, these
two approaches are useful to understand how Indigenous communities were able to
grapple with the challenges of colonization. As highlighted by Dobres (1999; 2000), it is
necessary to concentrate on studying the range of variability within the archaeological
record at both the micro and macro level. Within this “way of seeing”, archaeologists can
analyze:
“the dialectic of agency, gender, and technology that is set in motion
during the everyday reproduction of social collectivities. This focus on the
seamless web of agency, gender and technology is allowing more nuanced
understandings of the processual dynamics of macroscale culture change
showing yet again that agency and gender are far more than issues of
personhood” (Dobres 1999:24).
Indigenous archaeology, which is a recent paradigamtic construction within the
discpline, also allows archaeologists to explore another “way of seeing.” At a
fundamental level, Indigenous archaeology has allowed archaeologists also to involve
communities and individuals at all levels of the project and components from excavation
to interpretations of material culture (Atalay 2006; Silliman 2008). Within its practice,
9
scholars have attempted to move beyond the colonial lens of past archaeological
interpretations. Both indigenous and non-indigenous scholars have created a counter
discourse to the Western and colonists’ knowledge and practices and have brought forth
indigenous worldviews, traditional knowledges and lifeways (Layton 1989; Nicholas
1997; Swidler, Dongoske, Anyon and Downer 1997; Watkins 2000). Commonly,
Indigenous arcaheologists claim that they practice and interpret the material record “with,
for, and by” Indigenous people” (Nicholas 1997; Watkins 2000). Within the
implementation of this type of practical approach, archaeologists have attempted to
remedy and repair colonialistic behaviors that overshadowed the creation and
development of previous Native American histories (Bruchac 2006). Such an approach is
particularly useful for this investigation that explores Native American plant use during
colonization.
More recent agency approaches, such as outlined by Doran (2002), Dobres
(2000), and Wobst (2000), have also opened new doors to investigate material culture,
especially (and sometimes inadvertently) within archaeological investigations that are
conducted with and for Indigenous communities. An agency approach acknowledges that,
when people are exposed to new situations in their biological or cultural environments,
what they were accustomed to do before, and what they know about the world around
them will be important parts of their decision-making. Their actual cultural trajectory
under such stressors as environmental change or colonialist inroads can be understood
only in reference to what they were accustomed to do and accustomed to consider of
significance before. All humans have choices and Garman (2005) articulates this in his
analysis of the gruesome Rhode Island State Penitentiary in the 19th century. He (2005)
10
makes clear that even individuals who are sentenced to life in prison have choices; if one
wants to understand their decisions actually taken, one needs to present them in their
context, history, experiences, and knowledge.
It is at the intersection of feminist and Indigenous archaeology with a focus on
agency theory that one may be able to transcend cultural categorizations and stereotypes
and remove colonial biases from plant use to construct alternative histories of Indiengous
environmental interactions. Conkey (2005:13) stresses that the “intersectionality” of
feminist archaeology and Indigenous archaeology allows archaeologists to deconstruct
cultural structures and hiearchies of gender, class, race, ethnicity and build a “common
ground” around the declonization of our interpretations. L. Smith (2005) further adds that
the practice these two fields helps archaeologists recognize that the (scientific)
knowledge we create reinforces and legitimizes specific identities. The intersection of
feminist and Indigenous archaeology allows one to explore Native American plant use
beyond our naturalized assumptions and infuse agency into our positivist models of
human behavior.
More broadly this dissertation seeks to interwine the paradigms of the New
archaeology” and post-processual archaeology to create relevance within the sciencehistory dichotomy as discussed by Nichols et al. (2003). One should not view this
particular piece of work as “anti-science” or saturated with “history.” Instead I hope to
achieve a holism that creates nuanced interpreations of cultural phenonomena that we are
still grappling with – such as with agency during the process of colonialization. It is
within this fusion of different subfields (i.e. archaeobotany, feminist arhcaeology and
indigenous archaeology) that we can recognize the potiential of the discipline to explain
11
the larger questions of human behavior, as related to plants, within our past, present and
future.
Continuity and Change During Colonization
Within the last two decades, continuity and change has become a major analytical
category within the discipline, especially within Indigenous archaeology, to understand
human agency while intentionally evaluating shifts within material culture (i.e. Lightfoot
1995; Mitchell and Schrieber 2010; Rogers 1990). This interpretation shifts the emphasis
in analysis and interpretation from stressors and their effects, as seen in the narrow
ecological orientations of the earlier New Archaeology paradigm (Binford 1962; Kelley
1990) to variability within Native American lifeways and their choices (Jordan 2010;
Silliman 2009). The continuity and change discourse has become an important lens for
analysis because it enables archaeologists to explore patterns of continuity instead of
assuming passive change, especially during the period of European colonization of the
Americas. The approach acknowledges that, when people are exposed to new situations
in their biological or cultural environments, what they were accustomed to do before, and
what they know about the world around them, will be important parts in their decisionmaking. Their actual cultural trajectory under such stressors as environmental change or
colonialist inroads can be understood only in reference to what they were accustomed to
do and accustomed to consider of significance before. The emphasis on local variability
has shifted the center of analytic gravity away from sweeping generalizations of
processes and patterns of change to interpretations that seek to understand Native
American communities in their own terms and cultural structures (Mitchell and Scheiber
2010:12).
12
In regards to interpretations of variability within Indigenous material
assemblages, Lightfoot (1995) and Silliman (2009) note that too much weight has been
placed on categorizing the material culture of post-Contact populations in western ways
of thinking about them. The categorization has roots within the cultural construction of
acculturation discussed in the section above, as it only measures cultural change in one
direction, as ratio, and in a “shopping cart kind of way” – as the basket fills, the
community is more assimilated (Farnsworth 1992). All decision making that governs the
cultural practices and agency of the colonized community is reduced to a simple flow of
culture from one side to the other.
Many archaeologists within the Indigenous archaeology have pushed beyond
segregating, classifying and ranking Indigenous cultural practices and cultural
technologies (Hart 2004; Silliman 2005). Instead, they advocate a shift in focus to the
interrelationships that tie human choices to the material world, everyday cultural
practices, and the creation and maintenance of Indigenous spaces and places (i.e. Loren
2008; Scheiber and Mitchell 2010). Silliman (2005) advocates for the use of methods that
highlight accommodation, resistance and identity, instead. Within these concepts, he is
able to incorporate the Indigenous use of space and establishment and maintenance of
identity within their colonized spaces and landscapes. An example of this can be seen in
investigations conducted by Deegan (1996) in the southeastern United States and also
Silliman (2005; 2009) in New England which evaluate individual and community
negotiation of tradition. Unlike acculturation, evaluating cultural accommodation
portrays Native Americans as social actors, taking into account, the reality of their lives
and how these lives are vested in the experiences of colonization (Silliman 2005). To
13
understand Native American actions during colonialism, it is important to bring their own
narratives into the picture. With reference to plant usage, one can document their plantrelated activities, but also their oral history and other narratives. Archaeology is a useful
tool for evaluating the long term implications of cultural continuities and changes as seen
the material record, alongside the documentary data (which includes narratives of
colonized and colonizer). It is through this multi-disciplinary lens, we can understand the
faces of colonization and the proclamations of independence and autonomy, assimilation,
hybridization, and resistance (Rubertone 2000).
One can thus always document histories of Native Americans in the Colonial
Period as being characterized by continuity and change (this comes close to being
tautological: what other possibilities could there be? Wouldn’t any population, studied at
two different places in time, show some continuity and some change?). The same can be
stated for employing an agency approach. However, it is important to note the ways in
which continuity and change are valuable for studying material culture and decisionmaking processes surrounding that material use. In New England within the current
archaeological literature, continuity and change have been successfully documented and
discussed in different aspects of Native American life, such as pottery (Johnson 1999),
mortuary practice (Vitelli 2009), domestic spaces (Silliman 2009), language (Bragdon
2009); settlement organization (Handsman and Lamb Richmond 1995), and
intercommunity connections (Jordan 2010), among many other dimensions. The above
literature has brought Native American decision making into sharper focus.
For example outside of the Northeast, in the analysis of the Arikara, a tribal
community located in the North Great Plains, Rogers (1990:213) notes that there is a
14
clear and definable relationship between historical change and shifts in the material
culture, such as architectural features, burial items, and technological tools. The Arikara
were open to accepting Euro-Americans goods but depending on the historical
circumstances there was often little replacement of Native categories and material culture
with Euro-American goods – they were often added to the Arikara assemblages.
However, during some periods the use of Native material items significantly changed,
such as in the construction of abode mud brick houses. Rogers (1990:224) states that his
investigations “indicate that, at least in the case of the Arikaras, it is possible to construct
a fairly strong link between certain kinds of historical processes and associated
archaeological assemblages.” This cultural perspective can be used to understand the
Mashantucket Pequot use of plants related to social change during colonization. Because
plant use is deeply embedded within knowledge structures, one should expect change and
variation within that use during this time period. However, highlighting the continuities
and changes which occur within the material culture, (in this case the plants found at the
household level) should be seen as necessary to comprehensively understand the cultural
dynamics during this time. Not analytically favoring one category over the other
(continuity vs. change or vice versa) highlights the choices and also the levels of cultural
complexity that existed within this specific Native American communities.
Structure of the Thesis
In this chapter, I provide an outline of the argument that permeates the rest of this
body of work. I suggest that many of the scholarly approaches to do not present Native
Americans as active participants in history and contexts, especially regarding their use of
plants. This dissertation suggests an alternative approach that is based on agency to
15
understand the changes and continuities with Native American lifeways during the
Colonial Period. Within the agency approach, I present the directions that Native
American decision making took during the Colonial Period, so that the plant data from
the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation can serve to evaluate, and thus to establish, the
historical trajectory of decisions relative to plant usage in this part of New England after
the arrival of the Europeans.
Chapter Two explains why plant analyses within an agency approach differ from
other environmental approaches and are especially useful for understanding Native
Americans lifeways during the Colonial Period. I address why plants are an important
cultural variable and how they are deeply embedded our cultural structures. I also
highlight past hypotheses of plant use during colonization. Then I develop the cultural
model at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation and discuss the expectations related to
Mashantucket Pequot plant use during the Colonial Period.
Chapter Three contextualizes the cultural variables within New England that can
be assumed to have affected Native American plant use after European Contact. I define
the traditional homeland of the Mashantucket Pequot, highlight ecological characteristics
of the physical landscape and present a sketch of Indigenous plant use before the arrival
of Europeans within that regional context. Then, I discuss the post-Contact history of the
Mashantucket Pequot Reservation. Within that section, I summarize past studies of
Native American plant use after the arrival of Europeans. I also discuss, at the regional
and local level, specific variables, such as war, habitat and land loss, settlement patterns,
religious movements, and emerging market system. I also introduce the sites which were
utilized to evaluate the expectation and which the plant data was recovered. This
16
background sets the stage for the succeeding chapters to explore the decisions related to
Mashantucket Pequot plant use from 1675-1800 A.D.
Chapter Four highlights the methods used in this study. First, I explain how the
archaeological sites were chosen for the analysis and describe them. I discuss the
taphonomic and cultural processes that are associated with archaebotoanical remains and
the archaeological contexts. Then I discuss the sampling strategy and field-processing
employed; laboratory processing and identification in the laboratory; the cultural
categorization of identified plant remains; and the analytical methods employed, presence
and density analysis. Last, I discuss the historical data and how I examined the
description of Mashantucket Pequot plant use within Indigenous and Colonial accounts. I
discuss which colonial and Indigenous narratives were studied and how I evaluated for
patterns of continuity and change within those records.
Chapters Five through Seven discuss the results of this investigation. First, I
assess the data related to diet composition (Chapter Five), medicinal use (Chapter Six),
and then land use (Chapter Seven). For each chapter, I present the archaeological data
first and then proceed to discuss relevant colonial and Indigenous historical accounts.
This analysis shows that Native American decision making about plants, even under then
most serious assaults of the Colonial Period, functioned to keep the Mashantucket Pequot
autonomous from the colonists, contrastive in land use, food and medicine, and largely
unresponsive if not actively contravening the Colonial economic expectations and
policies. The results demonstrate that Mashantucket Pequot chose strategies relative to
plants that were the most consistent with older patterns of subsistence and land use. The
results support the notion that the Mashantucket Pequot maintained their traditional
17
cultural practices, knowledge and decision-making in regards to plant use as dynamic and
active participants in the colonial landscape.
Chapter Eight summarizes the results of the preceding chapters, moves on discuss
the complexity of Indigenous environmental interactions, and introduces some additional
dimensions that help to put the observed plant data in context. Then, I proceed to discuss
future work that will complement the data presented in this investigation and further
explore agency of Indigenous individuals and communities on the post-Contact
landscape.
18
Figure 1. Location of the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation
in Southeastern Connecticut.
19
CHAPTER 2
A MODEL OF PLANT USE AT THE
MASHANTUCKET PEQUOT RESERVATION
Introduction
The Mashantucket Pequot entered the Colonial Period with an 11,000 year history
of interacting with plants, that contrasted sharply with the way the colonists were
accustomed to deal with them. In this chapter, I lay out my expectations for decisionmaking about plant use, in the situation in which the Mashantucket Pequot found
themselves in the early Colonial Period. These expectations will then be evaluated in
Chapters 5 through 7 against the decisions taken, as they are reflected in the
archaeological plant samples.
From the analysis of the Mashantucket Pequot ten sites from 1675-1800 A.D. and
the historical record, I will systematical evaluate Mashantucket Pequot continuity and
change of plant-related strategies related to food and medicine. The strategies related to
that use even might highlight alternative traditional practices as has been reported for
ground stone usage in the Contact period by Nassaney and Volmar (2003) and also other
various material culture, such as architectural features and technological items in the
Colonial period by Rogers (1990), mentioned in Chapter One. I would expect the
historical data not to support these expectations, or even contradict them. Many of the
indigenous decisions taken would have been relatively invisible to the colonial observers,
based upon their own Euro-centric awareness and cultural structures related to plants.
20
In this investigation, the Indigenous communities do not adapt to the biological
environment and the processes of colonization (Balée 1998). Instead, the Indigenous
adaptive strategies are seen to emerge from the interpenetrations of culture and the
biological environment, which are inherently tied to agency (Crumley 1994; Whitehead
1998). This agency framework allows one to explore the interrelationships between
nature and culture not as a dichotomy but in a synergistic fashion. Mashantucket Pequot
plant interactions are seen as embedded in a more encompassing structure of decision
making with other biological and cultural variables. The decisions illustrate both the
resilience and transformations (continuities and changes) within Indigenous knowledge
systems (van der Leeuw and Redman 2002). As the Mashantucket Pequot decisions
change and/or remain the same in response to economic motives, political
marginalization and social histories, cultural practices and knowledge systems will be
influenced accordingly (Ingerson 1994).
Why are the Cultural Uses of Plants an Important Variable?
Plants recovered from archaeological sites are not often looked at within an
agency approach and tied to social contexts and cultural identities in archaeology (i.e.
Hastorf 1998; 1999; Palmer and Van Der Veen 2002; Twiss 2012). Yet, the physical
remains of plants left behind by individuals and communities at archaeological sites, like
other aspects of material culture, are the result of human decision making, of the choices
made, of completed actions, knowledge availability, and goals and strategies. Plants
reach into all aspects of life from food consumed to the landscapes, which are traversed,
from the rituals that are performed, and to the zoning of activities of the landscape
through space and time. Generally, plants comprise resources and orient actions of all
21
cultural groups, in this case Native Americans, in way that demonstrates that they have
thought about, interacted with, modified, managed and domesticated for thousands of
years (Delcourt and Delcourt 2004; Delcourt et al. 1998; Oliver 2010). And plants do not
need to have been domesticated to maintain a deep meaningful role within the
community. For example, the use of non-domesticated plants, such as the “hidden
harvests” of wild plants managed and gathered in and around habitation sites, can play
integral roles in local and regional food security (Grivetti and Ogle 2000; Bharucha and
Pretty 2010). “Hidden harvests,” such as nuts, roots, tubers and even wild grains, are tied
to specific choices made by the community. These types of plant are deeply embedded in
the knowledge structures and they are related to the survival of cultural lifeways tied to
individuals and communities (Huss-Ashmore and Johnston 1994).
Plants as cultural variables are dynamic, yet often problematic in archaeological
contexts, because most of their parts deteriorate quite rapidly once they have been
utilized (Minnis 1981; Wright 2010). Independent of their importance to the people who
utilized them or interacted with them, they will usually be only a numerically small
component on the periphery of the longer lasting raw materials such as stone or bone
(Miksicek 1987). At the same time, though, because of their seasonal and spatial
variability in different environments such as the temperate forests in New England, plant
remains tend to be more closely associated with specific times, and specific places (see,
for example Anderson 2005; Gardner 1997; Munson 1984). Given the ease which most
plant parts decay, they do not lend themselves to convey lasting messages, or to mark
places forever, as stone artifacts might. And if they are preserved through time or
accessible in a given context, their last presence is typically quite labor intensive, such as
22
the processes of domestication or in storage technology (Fuller and Weber 2005; Jones et
al. 1999; Van Der Veen 2007).
Many plants are useful for producing certain predictable states in their consumers,
such as maintaining a constant food source or medicinal plants for curing specific
conditions like gout and stomach pains (Huss-Ashmore and Johnston 1994; Moerman
1996, 1999; Stepp and Moerman 2001). While these properties might be quite
predictable, they require careful experimentation, prior experience, and detailed
knowledge about time and place. In that way, plants lend themselves to being integrated
into cultural strategies of the passage of knowledge between generations, and thus
enculturation, and the construction of positions of respect, specialized access to
knowledge, and scheduling of activities in time and space (Deur and Turner 2005; Oliver
2010). In the colonial context in New England, it is the Native Americans that possessed
the knowledge of the native plants through more than 11,000 years of cultural interaction
with them (Hart 1999, 2008). Thus, they are extremely important variables to explore
when attempting to understand cultural complexity of any community.
Heterarchy and Plant Use
To understand the broad pattern of Native American plant use within the
household and community level and the complexities involved, it is useful to employ the
concept of heterarchy (Crumley 1979; 2005). Crumley (1979:144) defines heterarchy as
“the relation of elements to one another when they are unranked, or when they possess
the potential for being ranked in a number of different ways, depending on systemic
requirements.” As noted by Davies (2009) this organizing principle may be context
specific and involve fluctuating power relations and flexibility within the social
23
structures. Chilton (2010) employs this concept to interpret the components of social
complexity in the Late Woodland period (1000-1500 A.D.) that preceded the Colonial
Period under discussion here.
I do not use the concept in the traditional sense of defining a characteristic kind of
social complexity and political centralization. In southern New England, during the preContact period Native Americans maintained a non-hierarchical strategy when they
procured resources, not dominated by rank-ordered few favored resources (like Zea mays
(corn)) and maintain a broad based and diverse set of resources (Bernstein 1993; Chilton
1999; Sidell 2002). I refer to this strategy as “heterarchical”, in that it helps to understand
the use of resources within the social sphere (as seen in the traditional use of the term
heterarchy, as defined for example by Crumley 1979). I employ this concept to
understand the continuities and changes (complexities) within Indigenous environmental
strategies that have traditionally been viewed within more hierarchically models of social
complexity and plant use.
“Heterarchical” models for Native American plant decision-making are useful,
precisely because they allow for and help to maintain diversity within use, as the
preferred Native American strategy, even in situations where domestic plants become
part of the resource structure. Many pre- and post-contact Native American populations,
including many Indigenous populations today, often defy ranking within their social
structure (Crumley 2005) and “allow for decision making at a range of scales without
recourse to an integrated vertical control hierarchy” (Davies 2009). Within this
investigation, I extended the use of heterarchy (which was developed as a useful
analytical tool to model social order) to the use of environmental variables because it
24
admits to diversity of organization within the social order, especially in regards to human
environmental interactions. A “heterarchical” use of plant resources and set of embedded
ideologies would have helped to underwrite flexibility within the social order.
Although there were significant pressures from the colonial authorities to have the
Native Americans engage in the Euro-American notion of improvements to the land,
Indigenous communities may have continued to practice in plant strategies that revolved
around the use of a diversity of plants and habitats. Their accustomed “heterarchical”
strategy with wild plants vs. domesticated cultigens (either Indigenous or EuroAmerican) would have made it easier for them to chose plant interactions that allowed to
remain independent of their colonizers, logically different, and in control of their special
and temporal placement. The “heterarchical” use of plants would have been independent
of the expectations of the colonizers, an expectation that has strong implications for the
distribution of plants at archaeological sites of this period.
Frameworks of Native American Plant Use within Colonial New England
In the latter part of the twentieth century and up to today, specific hypotheses,
some more refined than others, have emerged regarding plant use of Native Americans
during the time of European colonization (Bragdon 1996a; Bennett 1955; Cronon 1983;
Gremillion 1993; McBride 2007; Newsom and Trieu 2011). Bennett (1955:395) is one of
the first scholars to hypothesize a continuity and change scenario in which contact with
Europeans during the early Colonial Period resulted in minimal change of Native
foodways:
“Indian-even- the Christianized ones – took to domesticated animals and
to European crops only in a small way, continuing to prefer their
25
traditional hoe cultivation of corn, beans, squash, and pumpkins and their
activities in hunting and fishing. Against cattle in their unfenced cornfields
and against hogs rooting in their (they supposed) clam banks, they indeed
complained. But if there was change in the composition of the diet of the
southeastern New England Indians between 1605 and the debacle of King
Philips War, it seems likely to have been small.”
Bennett (1955) thoroughly researches the above statement through historic documents
from 1605 and 1676 but he does not offer any causes for the continuities and/or changes
within Native American subsistence and land use practices during this period and
afterward.
Decades later, Cronon (1983) departs from Bennett’s work in a more nuanced
discussion of Native environmental strategies within the Colonial landscape. He
hypothesizes that cultural transformations related to plant and animal use emerged from
the field of tensions between human institutions (also known as structure in Giddens
1991) and ecological availability. He (1983) counters the assumption that the cultural
lifeways of Native Americans were forced by the environment and passive. Instead, he
hypothesizes that the transformations of the landscape that occurred from pre-colonial to
post-Colonial times were deeply embedded in agency and “cultural reproductions” of
behaviors within Native American lifeways. As stated in the beginning quote for this
chapters, Cronon (1983) believes that the environment may initially shape the range of
choices available to individuals but then their culture reshapes the environment – it is a
cyclical human-environmental interaction which he calls mutual determination. Cronon
(1983) admits that his goal is to explain why New England habitats have changed as they
26
did during the Colonial Period and not to rewrite Native American history in New
England. Nevertheless, Cronon’s deep historical analyses on the regional scale
demonstrate that Native Americans actively shaped the Contact and post Contact
landscapes. However, his notion of agency takes a turn when he (1983:170) discusses the
emerging market system and remarks that the “transition to capitalism alienated the
products of land as much as the products of human labor and so transformed natural
communities as profoundly as it did human ones.” Cronon (1983:170) appears to suggest
that change in all aspects of Native lifeways, especially with their use of plants, is
inevitable when Colonial forces meet up against Native American communities. After
capitalism penetrates, agency gets shelved and Native Americans (even the colonists) are
no longer in control of their use of plant and animal resources in New England.
This dissertation explicitly evaluates Cronon’s agency-driven hypotheses an
analysis of the plant macro-remains from Native American post-Contact archaeological
sites. Similar to Gremillion (1993), I believe that historical documents, as heavily utilized
in Bennett (1955) and Cronon (1993), although useful, are insufficient for investigating
the cultural variation in the role of plants within Native communities in New England.
This dissertation exposes that variation at the local scale with the help of the
archaeological and historical records. Plant evidence directly tied to Native Americans is
essential for understanding the full scope of plant use at a time when cultural
assimilation, acculturation and the emerging market system are thought to be major
factors of change.
This dissertation is also an explicit effort to overcome the tautology that many
continuity and change approaches have suffered from, as highlighted specifically in
27
Bennett (1955). Similar to Bragdon’s (1996a:xiii) research of Native Americans at the
time of Contact, I suggest that the Mashantucket Pequot maintained and also adjusted
their “motivations, structural relations and cultural perceptions” as they chose to engage
in conservative plant strategies in regards to their land use, diet and medicinal practices
from 1675-1800 A.D. I postulate that in the context of the colonial onslaught within their
way of life, plants became important variables in Native American culture and society.
The Mashantucket Pequot decisions to maintain their traditional plant strategies, and
selectively engage in certain colonial strategies of land and plant use, aided in their
cultural survival in the face of severe insults on their culture.
For this dissertation, I utilized a modified agency approach from Cronon’s (1983),
in which the variables relative to Native American decision-making about plants are laid
out in advance, and reasonable choices relative to plant usage (which includes changes
AND continuities) are anticipated, within the complex of ecological and cultural
variables of the Colonial Period. My approach foregrounds Native Americans which has
not been done within the investigations regarding Native American plant use during the
Colonial Period in New England. I build off previous archaeobotanical investigations
conducted by Gremillion (1993, 1995) in the Southeast and the comprehensive
investigation of North American Native Americans by Newsom and Trieu (2011). These
two studies highlight the dynamics of Native American plant strategies after European
Contact but characterize Native foodways as conservative and culturally prescribed.
Furthermore, Newsom and Trieu (2011:570) hypothesize that if Native foodways shifted
it revolved around the suitability of the specific plant to the local environmental
28
circumstances, the ease of the adoption or cultural use within existing planting systems
and subsistence strategies.
I accept the above premises of conservatism and adaptation by Gremillion (1993,
1995) and Newsom and Trieu (2006) in this study of the relationship between agency and
patterns of continuity and change within the households of Mashantucket Pequot
community. I consider households and communities to have been the major buildings
blocks for dealing with plant decision making; they are the ‘medium’ for structuring
domestic activities inside and outside the physical and ideological parameters of a
dwelling (Allison 1999). The household is considered a primary reference point and stage
for plant-related activities and helps to situate human environmental interactions. These
relationships are important because activities within a house (or multiple houses) are
linked with the formation of defined cultural units that are the building blocks of social
organization (Hodder 1990; Wilk and Ashmore 1988; Wilk and Rathje 1982).
Although traditionally in household archaeology the dwelling is at the heart of the
investigation (Wilk and Ashmore 1988; Meher 1995), this analysis illustrates that the
household does not have to be confined within the walls of a structure. Instead,
households, in which the social agents act, can encompass a much broader cultural
canvas and include physical spaces within a settlement site, such as hearths, and other
activity areas located outside the structures. It is important to realize that the
archaeological remains that archaeologists take as evidence of households, such as house
walls, hearths, and storage units, are also artifacts that produce in their users the sense of
the existence of the household, that is, as designs for the future (see Wobst 2006). .
Similarly, plant use within households at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation, at once is
29
a reflection of the existence of households, as well as part of the culture that helped to
generate the sense of the inhabitants that they were part of households, that is, attempts to
make those households easier to think, in the terms of the Mashantucket Pequot
traditions, and in the contexts in which the Mashantucket Pequot found themselves. In
that way, plant use within the household at Mashantucket is seen as an important axis of
decision making that links Mashantucket tradition and memory to their survival of the
Colonial Period (Silliman 2009).
The case study presented in this dissertation offers an opportunity for Indigenous
communities and scholars to recover the historical trajectory of Mashantucket Pequot
plant use in a problem directed fashion. Too often within contemporary investigations of
Indigenous knowledge systems the historical development and the trajectory of plants
within the past are missing (Spriggs 1993), as is the case at the Mashantucket Pequot
Reservation. It is important that the Mashantucket Pequot to connect with their traditional
plant uses. The objective of this investigation is to provide useful cultural insights and
information to the Mashantucket Pequot and outside audiences about how their plant use
has been shaped and about their cultural continuity within New England. My goal is to
disentangle Indigenous decision making related to plant use during the Colonial Period
and to provide a nuanced history of plant use from 1675-1800 A.D., a period in which
Mashantucket Pequot plant strategies are not yet well known or understood. Many parts
of their historical plant use, especially during the period of colonization, are not presently
part of Mashantucket oral histories and community narratives, nor of present practice. By
systematically evaluating Mashantucket plant decision making in the Colonial Period
against archaeological data, colonial documents and Indigenous narratives, one gets a
30
better understanding of how the Mashantucket Pequot survived this most difficult part of
their history. More broadly, the analysis of the Mashantucket Pequot will shed light on
how Indigenous and colonized populations (re)conceptualized their socio-natural world
while retaining traditional and adopting innovative practices of plant use. Documenting
the human-environmental interactions of marginalized communities within contested
landscapes is highly relevant for contemporary societies confronting issues of resource
depletion, social changes and colonization.
The Model at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation
In this dissertation, I suggest that plant resources and decision making about plant
usage constituted an important part of Native American resistance and identity formation
during the early Colonial Period. During this period, the Native American communities
were faced with severe Euro-American pressures on their lands and resources. Yet, plants
and plant uses were deeply embedded in their senses of who they were (relative to
outsiders such as the colonists), how they moved, how they scheduled themselves in
space and time, how they cured themselves of diseases and other problems, how they
practiced ritual and ceremony, and how they were forced to engage with the colonists in
the early Colonial Period. Given the colonists’ impacts on their land, their location, their
numbers, their religion, and their ability to organize and move, I expect that Native
households and communities would have favored those decisions about plants that
allowed them to remain flexible in their social organization, and allowed them to
maintain their own Indian identity as well as possible within and beyond the colonized
spaces. Thus rather than becoming like the colonizers in their plant decision making,
Native Americans would have decided in the direction of the most conservative,
31
contrastive, and most enabling choices available to them, given their accustomed
lifeways and the ever-present contrast with the colonists. These cultural practices should
be observable in their decisions taken.
From the above general statement, a set of more specific assumptions will be
evaluated against the Mashantucket Pequot data, in the direction of diet composition
usage of medicinal plants and land. All three dimensions are important for understanding
Native Americans under the onslaught of their colonial invaders. Each category will be
discussed below.
Diet Composition
In regards to diet composition from 1675-1800 A.D, it is assumed that a diverse
set of plant resources will continue to be utilized by the Mashantucket Pequot. A broad
diet associated with the Mashantucket Pequot plant use it would allow them to remain
relatively mobile within their reservation lands and allowed them to stay out of the
colonial market as much as possible. It would also keep them relatively invisible in this
section of southeastern New England and inaccessible to the colonizers. I expect to
observe:
(1) Continued use of a diversity of food plants which include wild plants, mast,
fruits, and weedy seeds
(2) Continued use of tropical cultigens, such as maize, beans and squash and
native domesticates, such as sunflower and goosefoot in the heterarchical
ways they had interacted with them in the past.
(3) Adoption of Euro-American cultigens and plants that easily incorporated into
Indigenous plant strategies, such as the use of peach and apple, without unduly
32
affecting the scheduling of other Indigenous plant activities.
Medicinal Plants
Because plant resources related to medicinal practices in Indigenous communities
are often deeply and multiply linked to their knowledge structures, traditions, and
understanding or supporting social roles in Indigenous communities, it is expected
that medicinal plant use will be preserved and remain relatively stable, if not intensify
within the Mashantucket Pequot. The knowledge structure of medicinal plant use is nonBritish, non-capitalist market, deeply tied to tradition via healing which is under
conditions of great stress during this time period. Thus, medicinal use of Native
Americans were very different from the colonizers, in an cultural structure full of
symbolism and rich in traditional knowledge; hence under stress this type of knowledge
and use would be maintained, if not intensified. From 1675-1800 A.D., I expect to
observe the:
(1) Continued presence of medicinal plants at all sites due to the deep links within
knowledge structures.
(2) Limited presence of medical plants within the archaeological record of
remains due to their specialized cultural use at the household level.
Land Use
In spite of the serious changes in the cultural and biological variables at the
Mashantucket Pequot Reservation during the study period, it is postulated that land use
would remain stable and unchanged because of how engrained traditional plant use was
within Mashantucket knowledge structures. In addition, the Mashantucket Pequot would
use their land to be as contrastive as possible to their colonizers, because that helped them
33
to retain their social difference and control, and that difference would help them to
maintain their distance from the colonizers, and to remain socially distinct and
autonomous. From 1675-1800 A.D. at Mashantucket, I would expect to observe:
(1) Continued exploration of different habitats associated with the plant types
present regardless of the physical circumscription of land and changes in
environmental variables, such as bedrock, soil, elevation, and water distance.
(2) Continued use of a spectrum of seasonal plants and maintenance of storage at
each habitation site.
(3) Continued use of traditional agricultural systems and methods for cultivating
tropical cultigens such as maize, beans and squash, coupled with a very
limited presence and use of Old World cultigens with home gardens at each
household.
(4) Short duration of occupations at habitation sites regardless of architectural
features to assure that plant resources would remain stable across the
Reservation.
(5) Limited evidence of fences and property lines and adoption of other EuroAmerican land strategies, such as use of common lands by domesticated
animals.
Within these three dimensions, I have highlighted my expectations tied to the
decisions and knowledge structures associated with plant use during the Colonial Period.
Although my primary data will be the archaeobotanical progagules (seeds), I also will
refer to the historical colonial and indigenous accounts. They are also considered
reflective of decision-making and the continuities (or lack their of) within indigenous
34
knowledge, structure and plant use strategies. However, many of the historical accounts
are not specifically tied to the Mashantucket Pequot community and/or do not provide
information about specific time period under investigation (1675-1800 A.D. ).
The colonial accounts are expected to articulate a different story about Indigenous
decision-making in regards to plant use. These accounts are narrated within colonial
perspectives and reflect an understanding of Native plant use through the eyes of EuroAmerican plant strategies. Thus, the colonial accounts are expected to be different from
both the archaeological data and/or historical Indigenous accounts. Both of these lines of
evidence will be discussed in more detail in the next chapter.
Summary
Within the above three categories of diet, medicine and lands use, I expect the
archaeological data about plants not to be significantly different from their predecessors
in the period between 1675-1800 A.D.. However, the colonial records may be signaling
alternative narratives of being within Mashantucket Pequot lifeways that may not run
parallel to the archaeological data. Nonetheless, I anticipate that the Mashantucket Pequot
succeeded in maintaining their identity, in part, because they engaged in the most
conservative, identity defining decision-making related to plant use.
35
CHAPTER 3
THE STUDY AREA
Introduction
To explore the dimensions of the Mashantucket Pequot plant use, this
investigation employs methods from two data sources: archaeobotanical and historical
(colonial and Indigenous). Since the early 1980’s, archaeological and historical data have
been collected through collaborative efforts between the Mashantucket Pequot
community, local residents, and scholars that included experts in all the subfields of
anthropology, historians, and ecologists. This effort, called the Ethnohistory Project, is
headquartered at the Mashantucket Pequot Museum and Research Center (MPMRC),
which opened its doors in 1999. Dr. Kevin McBride, the tribal archaeologist at MPMRC,
has supervised the larger collaborative project.
In the summer of 2008, I was presented with an opportunity by the Mashantucket
Pequot Tribal Nation to conduct the analysis of archaeobotanical remains from the
Colonial Period and help it better understand its cultural trajectory relative to plants. I
was not involved in the excavation or field processing of the samples in the years
previous (except for the site 72-91 in 2009), but undertook the lab analysis and database
management of the archaeobotanical remains from the Colonial Period, particularly of
these ten sites introduced in the previous chapter (Table 1). In total, over 18,015 liters of
soil has been analyzed from over 216 cultural contexts with the ten Mashantucket Pequot
sites chosen for this analysis. Within those archaeological sites, a total of 8,301 plant
remains have been identified (Table 1).
36
Within this chapter I discuss the cultural variables that are likely to have affected
Native American plant use after European Contact in southern New England. I define the
traditional homeland of the Mashantucket Pequot that has been occupied by Native
peoples for over 11,000 years. I highlight the environmental characteristics of the
physical landscape and sketch Indigenous plant use before the arrival of the Europeans
within the regional context. I also discuss the post-Contact history of the Mashantucket
Pequot Reservation and I summarize the previous studies of Native American plant use
after the arrival of Europeans. There are also many of variables that can be expected to
affect Native American decision-making in this period. Within this investigation, I focus
on the following because they are most pertinent to the time period under consideration
and expected to have been of importance to Mashantucket Pequot decision making - war,
habitat and land loss, settlement patterns, architectural innovation, religious movements,
emerging market system and gender roles. The discussion of these variables sets the stage
for the following chapters to explore the decisions related to Mashantucket Pequot plant
use from 1675-1800 A.D.
The Mashantucket Reservation is a small part of the Mashantucket Pequot preContact homeland (250 square miles) which has been inhabited by Indigenous peoples
for over 11,000 years (Jones and Forrest 2003). It is an ideal area to examine decision
making about plants because of the rich archaeobotanical, paleoecological, and
documentary record that has been recovered from this area. It is also one of the oldest
continuously occupied reservations in the United States (established in 1666 A.D.). Thus
it should reflect particularly well on the Mashantucket community life during the
colonization of southern New England (Den Ouden 2005; Rubertone 2000:437).
37
Historically, the Mashantucket Pequot faced and overcame many social, economic and
political challenges
Throughout the Colonial Period, they were violently pushed to the periphery
within southeastern New England but made specific decisions to continually occupy and
maintain their homeland. Most colonists believed that the Mashantucket Pequot
assimilated into colonial culture and left behind their “Indian ways” (Mancini 2009;
Mandell 2008; Starna 1990). However, the persistence of the Mashantucket Pequot in
southern New England, especially on the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation,
demonstrates that there is another side to the story of colonization, one of cultural
persistence within a marginalized communities. Because of contradictions among the
narratives of histories, the contemporary members of the Mashantucket Pequot have
made it an important research goal to learn how their ancestors lived during the
eighteenth to the twentieth centuries.
Native American Plant Use Prior to the Colonial Period
The Physical Landscape
At the time of European contact, southern New England provided a rich habitat
for Native American communities, which included the Mashantucket Pequot. According
to Foster and Aber (2004) and Fuller et al. (1998), there was regional variation in forest
composition corresponding to differences in climate, substrate and natural/or humaninduced fire and within a specific homeland there most certainly was variation in forest
composition as well. Within the current Mashantucket traditional homeland of over 250
square miles (Figure 2), there are different habitats, which included estuarine, wetland,
woodland and open-field habitat from the Connecticut coast to the inland. Based upon
38
pollen analyses conducted by Trent (1981) and Jacobucci (2006) in nearby Lantern Hill
Pont (a little less than a mile away from southern boundary of the Mashantucket Pequot
Reservation), at the time of earliest contact the local woodland vegetation was comprised
of Carya sp. (hickory), Castanea sp. (chestnut), Quercus sp. (oak), Betula sp. (birch) with
increases in Ambrosia sp. (ragweed), Gramineae (grass) and other herb pollen in
comparison to the pre-Contact period. The rise in ragweed, grasses and herb pollens
reflects European land clearance for settlement or cultivation. At the resolution examined
within these two studies it is unclear as of yet if the increase in the levels of herb pollens
can be attributed to Indigenous or Colonial anthropogenic factors.
The current reservation of the Mashantucket Pequot also contains a diversity of
environments, similar to the larger regional landscape. According to local pollen studies,
the landscape dramatically changed from the pre-Contact period as more Euro-Americans
settled within the region and cleared land for agricultural and grazing purposes (Trent
1981). The current vegetation of the Mashantucket watershed is a fragmented deciduous
forest dominated by Quercus sp. (oak), Carya sp. (hickory), Fraxinus sp. (ash), beech
Fagus sp. (beech), Betula sp. (birch) and Acer sp. (maple) with conifers, such as Pinus
sp. (pine) found in sandy soils (Thorson and Webb 1991).
Great Cedar Swamp, located in the heart of the current Mashantucket Pequot
Reservation, was and continues to be a vital physical and/or spiritual resource for
Indigenous peoples in the region (Simmons 1990). When Indigenous communities
inhabited the area around 11,000 B.P., they settled along the banks of the swamp and
used its resources for food, fuel and architectural purposes (Jones and Forrest 2003). The
current swamp vegetation is dominated by Acer rubrum (red maple), Pinus strobus
39
(white pine), Tsuga candensis (hemlock) and Chamaecyparis thyoides (Atlantic White
Cedar) (Shulford 1975 in Thorson and Webb 1991). The shrub layer consists of
Vaccinium corymbosum (highbush blueberry), Clethra alnifolia (sweet pepperbush) and
Lindera benzoin (spicebush). Also growing along the swamp edges are Rhus glabra
(sumac), Rhododendron maximum (rhododendron), and Alnus rugosa (alder).
Such an environment lends itself to a complex strategy of plant exploitation, in
which diverse plant resources were available over relative small distances, allowing
Native Americans to deal flexibly with plants, in the face of environmental or political
variation in their habitat.
The Cultural Variables within the Traditional Homeland
At the beginning of the Contact period, the traditional homeland of the Pequot
comprised roughly 250 square miles of southeastern New England (McBride 2007;
Figure 2). It constituted a somewhat fluid space for the Pequot (Starna 1990; Handsman
and Lamb Richmond 1995), and included a diverse range of habitats that were used for
hunting, gathering wild plants, cultivating domesticates, and harvesting marine resources
along the coast (McBride 1990). Plant use in the pre-Contact period is relevant to the
argument here because it defines the Native American structure and agency vis-à-vis
plants before the time period(s) under investigation in this dissertation.
The Pequot homeland was similar to that of many other regional Algonquian
speaking groups in that it created a network of social and economic relations that bound
Native individuals and communities before contact and set the stage for their social
relations in the colonial period. The pre-Contact boundaries of the traditional homelands
were the outcomes of many cultural variables that affected social and settlement
40
organization and intertribal conflicts (Chilton 2005; Johnson 1999; McBride and
Bellantoni1983). Within those physical and symbolic spaces, matrilineal organization
created the parameters for familial descent, political organization, and land use after the
arrival of Europeans (Ives 2011; Lamb Richmond and Den Ouden 2003).
Cultural fluidity within the Mashantucket Pequot homeland helped to maintain
pre-Contact and Contact period regional social relations at the local and regional levels
(Johnson 1999). That fluidity also allowed the Mashantucket Pequot to exploit the
diverse range of habitats mentioned above. McBride (2007) hypothesizes that at the time
of Contact, the Mashantucket Pequot were semi-sedentary and relatively mobile with a
mixed subsistence strategy that included hunting, gathering, fishing and horticultural
activities. The archaeological record from southern New England signals that the
creation, use and management of the plant and animal resources within these homelands
did not become specialized or focused on a very few natural resources, even with the
introduction of maize at 1000 A.D. (Chilton 1999; 2001, 2008, 2010; Heckenberger,
Petersen and Sidell 1992). Bernstein’s (1993:1) observation that “intensification took the
form of economic diversification and cultural modification of the landscape” well
characterizes plant and animal use in southern New England. Evidence at sites in Rhode
Island (Bernstein 1993), Connecticut (Bendremer 1993; McBride and Dewar 1987) and
also within Middle Connecticut River Valley (Chilton 2002, 2008; Chilton et al. 2000;
Kasper 2008) indicates that whether Native communities plant maize, harvest nuts or
even shellfish, they did not specialize on any one specific resource. Instead, Native
communities appear to have use a diverse spectrum of plant and animals resources within
their Indigenous homelands (Bernstein 1993; Chilton 1999; Sidell 2002).
41
Wild Plants and Domesticates
Archaeologists characterize the Algonquian groups of southern New England at
the time of contact, as exploiting a variety of wild plants within different habitats to
create a diverse subsistence base, even while participating in horticultural and agricultural
activities (Chilton 1999, 2002; Bernstein 1993; George and Dewar 1999; Little 1995;
Johnson 1999; Stein 2008). Around 1000 A.D., Native communities within this region
also incorporated a range of domesticates Indigenous to the Americas, like Zea mays
(corn), Helianthus sp. (sunflower), Phaseolous vulgaris (bean) and Curcubita sp.
(squash) (Bendremer 1999; Largy and Morenon 2008; Little 2002; Little and
Schoeninger 1995; Chilton 2006). However, this introduction of maize apparently did not
curtail the use or importance of other wild plants found in the environmentally diverse
homelands (Chilton 1999; 2010). For example, Native communities continued to use the
products of nut-bearing trees and other wild seeds (Bennett 1955; Kasper 2008; Bernstein
1999), including fleshy and weedy ones, such as Chenopodium sp. (goosefoot), Rhus sp.
(sumac), Vaccinium sp. (blueberry) and nut mast, such as Carya sp. (hickory), Corylus
sp. (hazelnut) and Quercus sp. (oak) (Bendremer 1999; Newsom and Trieu 2006). This
continued use of a spectrum of wild plants even after domesticated crops entered the
cultural records is very similar to many other Native communities in other regions of
North America (Anderson 2005; Lewis 1993). In contrast, much less is known about
what happened to plant use in the Colonial Period, after Old World plant domesticates are
introduced in New England.
42
Use of Different Habitats
What has become most evident to archaeologists working within this region is
that Native peoples utilized diverse habitats on the basis of archaeobotanical remains
from a number of different habitats, which include woodland and open field habitats
(Hart et al. 1999; 2008; Trigg et al. 2007). However, what is a little less obvious is the
use of wetland habitats. Only within the last two decades have regional archaeologists
come to recognize the vital role that this diverse ecosystem plays in Native American
subsistence, medicine and ritual lifeways (McBride 1992; Nicholas 1992). Wetlands are
an important ecological niche for human settlement and subsistence due to the variety of
plant and animal communities which makes them highly productive ecosystems (Lillie
and Ellis 2007; Larson 1990). In North America, a focus on wetlands has also emerged
as more archaeologists recognize wetlands as an important resource base for humans
(Purdy 1991). Wetland research is important because more than half of the land mass
within current reservation boundaries at Mashantucket is wetland associated (Figure 1).
According to McBride (1992:10), there is a “high correlation between the location of
aboriginal sites and wetland, but it is not clear what role wetlands play in aboriginal
subsistence economies.” This investigation hopes to shed additional light on how the
Mashantucket Pequot exploited their local wetlands and other habitats, such as
woodland, edge, and open fields, during the Colonial Period.
Prior Plant Studies about the Colonial Period
Scholars, such as Bennett (1955), Cronon (1983), Fisher et al. (1997), Gremillion
(1993;1995) and Newsom and Trieu (2006) have postulated that pre-Contact and Contact
period subsistence strategies significantly influenced Native American plant use into the
43
Colonial Period. In a preliminary analysis of the Mashantucket Pequot, McBride (2007)
highlights similar trends and demonstrates a high degree of continuity from pre-Contact
to the eighteenth century. Based upon primary documents and the archaeobotanical
record, Native Americans during the Colonial Period exploited a range of wild plants
during the Colonial Period, which included fleshy and weedy seeds, such as
Chenopodium sp. (goosefoot), Rhus sp. (sumac), Vaccinium sp. (blueberry) and nut mast,
such as Carya sp. (hickory), Corylus sp. (hazelnut) and Quercus sp. (oak) (Bennett 1955;
Newsom and Trieu 2006; 2011). They also incorporated a range of Indigenous
domesticates, like Zea mays (corn), Helianthus sp. (sunflower), Phaseolous vulgaris
(bean) and Curcubita sp. (squash). In New England as of yet, it is unclear if, how and
why Native Americans incorporated ‘Old World’ crops into their subsistence strategies
and how those incorporations may or may not have affected their traditional plant
strategies. This research will build on those previous historical and archaeological
analyses while creating expectations about Native American plant decision making
against Colonial Period data from the 17th and 18th centuries.
The History of the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation
Disease, War and Population Loss
One of the most significant cultural variables that affected Native American
population in southern New England was European introduced disease. Spiess and Spiess
(1987) believe that an epidemic between 1616 and 1622 significantly impacted Native
Americans in Northern New England and the Massachusetts Bay – reducing population
by 90%. A little more than a decade later, two episodes of small pox in 1633 and 1634
significantly reduced Connecticut and Rhode Island Native American populations. Cave
44
(1996:43) hypothesizes that before this small pox epidemic there were over 16,000
Pequot in southern New England and that roughly 80% of the Pequot population
succumbed to disease. Vasta (2007:109) notes this high level of population loss
undoubtedly affected daily activities, especially those which surround subsistence, as not
only were there fewer people to feed but also fewer individuals to participate in activities
related to obtaining foodstuffs.
Disease was not the only factor that affected population levels of the Pequot.
Before the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation was established in 1666, the Pequot
engaged in several wars that significantly diminished their numbers within southern New
England. Occurring between 1634-1638 was the first major conflict in which it is
estimated 400-700 Pequot were killed, including both men, women and children. (Fickes
2000:61). Decades later, during King Philips War (1675-1676), many more
Mashantucket Pequot lost their lives to battles against other local tribes (Mohegan and
Narragansett) and colonial powers. Pequot men became a pivotal resource for the
Connecticut colonial authorities, as they served as auxiliaries and scouts in colonial
militias (Johnson 1977:627). Also from 1713-1800 A.D reservation population levels
significantly declined as Pequot men participated in the many wars for the 18th century,
which included King William’s War (1689-1696), Queen Anne’s War (1703-1713), King
George’s War (1744-1748), the French and Indian Wars (1754-1763) and the
Revolutionary War (1775-1783) (Mancini 2009; McBride n.d.:151-2). The loss of Pequot
men may have had significant impacts at the household and community levels. Vasta
(2007:113) notes that men were traditionally tied to hunting activities and this loss would
45
have severely impacted that subsistence practice at the household level (and I might add,
have made decisions about plants relatively more important).
Habitat , Land Loss and Settlement Patterns
The size of the Mashantucket ancestral homeland was significantly diminished
after the Pequot War when the English claimed the Pequot territory by the right of
sequestered lands, which viewed the homeland as common land that could be taken
anytime. Laws were instituted that forbade large Native American communities from
settling in southeastern Connecticut (Den Ouden 2005). Consequently, the treaty of
Hartford forbade the Pequot from residing in their former territory in southeastern New
England. They were placed under Mohegan control near Nameag (New London) along
the west bank of the Thames River. In 1651, the Pequot Indians were relocated by the
English authorities from Nameag and granted a reservation at Noank, a 500-acre neck of
land in their former territory located at the mouth of the Mystic estuary along Long Island
Sound (Figure 2; Campisi 1990). In 1658, only seven years after Noank was
appropriated, the Pequots appealed to the Connecticut colonial government for more
lands because the soils and firewood at Noank had been severely depleted (Hoadley
1850-1890 5:43 in McBride 2007:36). In 1666, the Pequots were given a reservation
(2,500 acres) ten miles northeast from Noank. This location called Mashantucket is the
current reservation of Pequots (Figure 2).
After the reservation was established in 1678, the Mashantucket Pequots were
given lands called Walnut Hill, a 600 acre parcel about two miles west of Mashantucket
(Figure 2). They also had access and potentially utilized hunting territory in northeastern
Connecticut and south-central Massachusetts due to their services provided during the
46
King Philips War (1675-1676). According to McBride’s estimates (2007), during the late
seventeenth century the Mashantucket would have held in total over 3,600 acres of land
including Mashantucket, Noank, Walnut Hill and other coastal/estuarine habitats (Figure
2).
During the second decade of the eighteenth century, appropriation and
circumscription of the Mashantucket reservation lands continued as the English
population and economy recovered after the devastation of King Philip’s War (16751676). Dozens of new European settlements were established in the interior areas of the
New England landscape as the older colonial towns along the rivers and coast grew and
became more populated (McBride 2007). Expanding English settlement into the interior
and along the coast significantly reduced and eventually eliminated Mashantucket Pequot
access to hunting grounds and coastal resources (McBride 1990). For example in 1712,
the Mashantucket Pequot rights to plant and inhabit the lands at Noank were taken away
by the colonial powers within the Connecticut General Assembly. Also in 1721 the Town
of Groton acquired 500 acres of the Mashantucket reservation (called the “South Hill”)
and gave that land to Groton proprietors (Figure 3). This area was known to contain the
Pequots’ best planting fields and apple orchards (CSA Indian Papers I:95a in McBride
2007). In 1730’s, the Pequot lost their right to farm at Mashantucket “West Half” and
then, in 1760, over 800 acres of this area of the reservation become the “property” of the
English. By 1750, the Mashantucket had physically lost 60% of the original reservation
lands of 1666 (Figure 3).
47
Religious Movements
In the second half of the eighteenth century the Mashantucket Pequot Indians
were exposed to other significant cultural factors – the influence of Christianity and the
Brotherton Indian Movement – but yet continued to maintain their ties to the current
Reservation. Many colonists had the goal to convert Native Americans to Christianity so
that they would participate in more ‘ ‘civilized’ ways of being, such as leading a more
sedentary existence that heavily relied on farming activities and herds of domesticated
animals (Silverman 2003). As more Mashantucket Pequot converted, visible changes
started to occur within the reservation with the construction of Euro-American style
framed houses and the use of domesticated animals (Lammi 2005; Vasta 2007). Samson
Occum, a Native missionary, was able to recruit at least half of the Mashantucket Pequot
population during 1785-1810 (McBride 1996:26). Occum touted that Christian Indian
farming communities preserved the best elements of Native American society and also
incorporate what he considered the best elements of white society. The latter included
Christianity and education that would promote sobriety and a strong work ethic, as well
as increased reliance on Euro-American agricultural and land use strategies that would
help bolster the communities in the new landscape (McBride 1996:21). The introduction
of Christianity to Native communities, such as the Mashantucket Pequot, was not
necessarily just centered around religious conversion; Euro-Americans pushed for a
complete overhaul of traditional Native lifeways toward Euro-American ways of living in
order to solidify cultural domination and political stability (Brooks and Warrior 2006;
O’Brien 1997; Richter 2001).
48
Emerging Market Systems
The emerging market system with its wage labor and indentured servitude
occurring off the reservation played a significant role on the Reservation during the
eighteenth century. Many men, women and children left the Reservation to work in
English homes and many of their daily activities revolved around Euro-American
subsistence and land use strategies. Many Native households and families became reliant
on wage labor and incurred debt (Mandell 2008). Pequot men also began to work in nontraditional wage jobs, such as the whaling industry, to provide for themselves and their
families living with the reservation boundaries (Mancini 2009). However, Mashantucket
Pequot women were more often the community members that continued to foster cultural
ties to Reservation (McBride, personal communication 2012).
Site Context
To evaluate the expectations outlined in Chapter Two and the above-discussed
variables, ten Mashantucket archaeological sites were chosen for this charred seed
analysis. So far more than 400 years of written history and over 200 archaeological sites
(dating between 11,000 years ago to the present) have been identified and investigated
within the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation and the area immediately surrounding it. In
terms of this dissertation, ten of the fifty-five post-Contact sites are the focus of this
analysis (Figure 4). To date, the ten Mashantucket Pequot sites have produced the largest
archaeobotanical corpus of charred seeds (propagules) in New England.
The criteria according to which these ten sites were selected from the fifty-five
post-Contact period sites were as follows: (1) each had been systematically excavated;
and (2) each contained cultural activities related to plants that yielded archaeobotanical
49
remains. Given my assumption about plant resources constituting an important part of
Native American resistance and affirmation of their identity during the early Colonial
Period, these ten sites allowed me to explore their decision making across time and space.
In short, for this analysis to take place, I needed Indigenous archaeological sites with
physical evidence (plant remains) of social contexts and activities. These sites had
moderate to excellent plant preservation and also evidence of the context in which the
plants were deposited. Also, the archaeobotanical remains recovered from these specific
ten sites were available for analysis. Later Mashantucket Pequot sites would have been
included in this analysis but reservation lands were leased to Europeans in the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries, making it difficult to define specifically Mashantucket
environmental interactions. The ten sites represent the maximum number of
archaeological sites available at the present time at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation
with well preserved plant remains from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
Eight of the ten sites are single component homesteads (wigwam or framed
structure) except 72-91 and 72-88. 72-91 is the Mohantic Fort site, which was occupied
during and right after King Philips War (1675-1676 A.D. ) and also during the late
eighteenth century. However, the archaeological component utilized in this analysis is the
fort, which represents a fortified place of refuge for the Mashantucket with multiple
households occupied during the time of King Philips War. The late eighteenth century
material culture excavated was not included because it contained low artifact densities
and few archaeobotanical remains. 72-88 is a domestic storage facility site with
numerous pit features from the Historic period and other temporal components. Both 7291 and 72-88 were useful for comparing multi-context sites with the single component
50
homesteads. Wigwams were identified at the sites based upon the patterned presence of
post molds or holes in a circular fashion. Framed structured were identified based upon
the uniform rectangular or geometric presence of large stone architectural artifacts. Each
site also contained long-term deposits of repeated activity (middens and multi-episodic
trash pits), and also short-term deposits (structures, hearths, single episodic storage and
trash pits) (Table 2). The analysis of both long and short-term contexts establishes
baseline cultural proxies for the selection of specific plants at each site discussed below.
Chronology and Location of Sites
The chronology and duration of occupation of the recovered sites was established
through a combination of diagnostic artifacts (mean ceramic dates and mean pipe stem
dates), historical records and, for the earlier historic sites, C-14 dates when available
(Mashantucket Site Files; Table 1 and Figure 3). The ability to define the duration of
occupation via the material culture present is useful for understanding the temporal
variability of Mashantucket Pequot homesteads within the Reservation boundaries. In
total from 1675 to 1800 A.D., thirty-four Mashantucket Pequot sites have been identified
and excavated (Figure 4). Within those thirty-four sites, with the aid of Kevin McBride, I
have been able to calculate the duration of occupation across time (as seen in Figure 3).
This is an unprecedented number of Native American historic archaeological sites for
which the durations of occupation can be reconstructed with confidence. The ten sites
chosen from this analysis are part of this well-dated data set and provide a more
comprehensive sample than can be obtained anywhere else in New England. The ten sites
and their cultural contexts in relation to the presence of archaeobotanical remains will be
discussed below (in chronological order of occupation).
51
Within each section, I highlight the site locations within the Mashantucket Pequot
Reservation (Figure 3). This is important because it offers a glimpse at how the
Mashantucket Pequot utilized and managed their local landscapes. Even in 1675, the
Reservation at its maximum was only 2500 acres and quickly dwindled down to 200
acres in 1856. Thus, space is an essential variable for understanding decision making
relative to plant use from 1675-1800 A.D.
72-91 (Mohantic Fort)
72-91 is a fortified village occupied by the Mashantucket Pequot between 16751680 A.D. (Table 1). It was constructed roughly nine years after the Reservation was
established in 1666 A.D. The fort was used to protect men, women and children during
King Philips War (1675-1676) and afterwards to defend against other colonial and Indian
raids. Interestingly, the fort is located just east of the Reservation boundaries of 1666
A.D. (Figure 3). It is thought that English enforcement of the boundaries were relatively
lax (Kevin McBride, personal communication 2010). This site is the only one among the
ten chosen for this analysis that has multiple households. The households were identified
based upon the presence of wigwams within the palisaded walls.
72-91 has been excavated intermittently from 1986 to the present. During these
excavations, the field crew uncovered a wigwam with associated hearths (Feature
32/83/116) and storage/refuge pits (Feature 92) located in the northeast area. Feature 2,
the palisade trench, was also extensively excavated, especially the entrance which was
located to the south. In the summer of 2009, the author was a co-director of the
excavation of middens located in the northeast and northwest areas outside the palisade
wall (areas N35W60/N28E4 – no feature numbers).
52
At the time the fort was occupied the land legally accessible for the Mashantucket
Pequot would have been around 3600 acres. That included the Reservation itself (2500
acres), and Walnut Hill (600 acres) located south of the Reservation in the interior and
Noank along the coast (500 acres) (Figure 3). This area would also have been available
during the occupation of 72-164A and 73-34A. All three of these sites fall within the last
quarter of the seventeenth century when the population would have comprised about 360
men, women and children living on the Reservation (McBride 2007).
72-164A (Homestead)
This site was generated by a single household and was located within the heart of
the Reservation lands between 1680-1690 A.D. (Figure 3). It was broadly
contemporaneous with 72-91, the fort. 72-164A was excavated between 2003-2004. It is
unknown whether or not there are any architectural features, but it was determined to
have been a single household based upon the distribution of artifacts within the two pits
features (Features 3/4) and one midden (Feature 1) identified and excavated.
72-34A (Homestead)
This site is a single household and was inhabited by the Mashantucket Pequot
between 1680-1690 A.D. East of 72-164A, 72-34A is located within the heart of the
reservation and contained a wigwam structure (Figure 3). It most likely is broadly
contemporaneous with the fort 72-91. 72-34A was excavated intermittently in the years
of 1984, 1985, 1988 and 1992. No midden deposits were recovered. It also contained one
hearth (Feature 6), and four pits (Features 35/37/38/40) were discovered and excavated.
53
72-58 (Homestead)
This is a single household site that was occupied between 1760-1770 A. D. It is
located well within the reservation boundaries, between 72-34A and 72-164A. 72-58 was
excavated in 2003-2004 (Figure 3). It could not be ascertained if the structural remains at
the site testified to the presence of a wigwam or a framed stone structure. A midden
(Feature 4), one hearth (Feature 6), and four pits (Features 3/9/11/12) were uncovered
and included in this investigation.
By the time 72-58 was inhabited, large amounts of land had been taken from the
Mashantucket Pequot by the colonial authorities. In 1713, they had lost Noank (500
acres) as a coastal and agricultural resource. In 1725/30, the Mashantucket Pequot also
had lost Walnut Hill (600 acres) for hunting purposes (Figure 2). Lastly, even within the
boundaries of the Reservation itself, South Hill (1721 – 500 acres) and the West Half
(1750 -500 acres) had been appropriated by the colonial authorities (Figure 3).
72-171 (Homestead)
This site is referenced in a 1774 colonial account as the Indian House
(Connecticut Indian Papers). It was inhabited by the Mashantucket Pequot between 17651775 A. D. It is located within the reservation boundaries just north of 72-34A and 72-58
(Figure 3). 72-171 has been excavated intermittently in 1998, 2003 and 2005. The type of
architecture as yet has not been classified. During excavation it could not be determined
if there was a stone or wigwam structure. One hearth (Feature 5) and four pits (Features
9/10/13/15) were discovered and provide the cultural contexts for the charred
archaeobotanical remains utilized in this study.
54
72-88 (Storage Facility)
Prior to the Colonial Period, this site had been a multi-component site (3000 -200
B.P.). In the Colonial Period, it found its use as a communal storage facility for the
Mashantucket (Kevin McBride, personal communication 2010). It is located outside the
reservation boundaries, about 200 ft. from the fort 72-91 (Figure 3), and was excavated in
1994 and 1995. It appears to have been revisited a number of times by the Mashantucket
Pequot, although it lacks identified architectural features. Recent analysis has determined
that this site is located about 400 ft. away from the nearest water body (Kasper and
McBride 2009), which places the site the farthest away from a water body in comparison
to the mapped pre- and post-contact sites. This helps to corroborate the notion that the
site constituted a storage facility for the Mashantucket Pequot. The storage and/or refuse
pits used in this analysis (Features 6/19/23) were all stratified, and were dated between
1775-1800 A.D, based on diagnostic pipe stems, ceramics and metal (Table 1).
72-97C (Homestead)
This site was a single household, occupied by the Mashantucket Pequot between
1780-1785 A.D. (Table 1). It is also located outside the reservation boundaries just north
of 72-88 (Figure 3). 72-97c was excavated in 1992. One wigwam was uncovered within
the site boundaries. Also, one hearth (Feature 1) and two pits (Features 2/3) were
identified and excavated.
72-161 (Homestead)
This Mashantucket Pequot site contained a wigwam and was determined to have
been produced by a single household. It is located just outside the 1666 reservation
boundaries near the Great Cedar Swamp, close to 72-91 (Figure 3). 72-161 was
55
excavated between 1992-1993. Based upon the diagnostic artifacts, this site is thought to
have been occupied by the Mashantucket Pequot between 1780-1790 A.D. Only pits
(Features 1/12/32/40) were identified and excavated.
72-70B (Homestead)
This site contained a framed structure and was thought to have been occupied by
the Mashantucket Pequot between 1780-1800 A.D. The site is located just northeast of
72-58 (Figure 3). 72-70B was excavated in 1992. It contained a midden (Feature 1) and
pits (Features 2/3/4/6/7/8). There is limited evidence that an earlier framed structure may
have been burned with a second structure rebuilt as the same location (Kevin McBride,
personal communication 2010).
72-66 (Homestead)
This Mashantucket Pequot site contained a framed structure with a stone chimney
(S15W12 – no feature number). It was occupied between 1785-1795 at the end of the
Revolutionary War (1784). It is located north of 72-34A within the present reservation
boundaries (Figure 3). Site 72-66 was excavated 1995 and 1996. Within the excavation, it
was noted that an earlier hearth was raised to accommodate a floor (Kevin McBride,
personal communication 2010). One midden (S30E5- no feature number) was also
identified and excavated.
Summary
From 1675-1713 A.D, the Mashantucket Pequot were living in multiple and
single households at sites like 72-91, 72-164A, and 72-34, and engaging in a residential
mobility strategy over 3500 acres of land (Figure 2). Kasper and McBride (2009)
estimate that sites may have been occupied seasonally or for 2-3years. At the time of
56
occupation of the Fort, 72-91, the Mashantucket Pequot had been living within the
Reservation boundaries for only nine years and the population likely consisted of 360
total people (men, women and children) (Mancini 2009). During 1713-1800 A.D.,
reservation population levels significantly declined as Pequot men participated in the
French and Indian Wars (1754-1763), and the Revolutionary War (1775-1783) (Table 1;
Mancini 2009). In addition, colonial authorities trimmed the Mashantucket Pequot
landholdings from 3500 acres in 1666 to 1000 by 1740 (Figures 2 and 3; Campisi 1990).
During this period the Pequot shifted from wigwams to more permanent framed
structures. Domestic homesteads of the Mashantucket Pequot nevertheless continued to
reflect a relatively short duration of occupation (on average between 5-10 years) as seen
in Figure 4. The Mashantucket were more restricted in their settlement choices as they
are limited to 1000 acres of land within the Reservation boundaries and start to inhabit
sites such as, 72-58, 72-171, 72-161 and 72-66 (McBride 2007). Also during this phase,
Christianity began to take roots within the Reservation system (Love 2007) and more
men, women and children were leaving the Reservation to engage in market economy
and work for English farmsteads and other industries, such as whaling (Mancini 2009;
Vasta 2007).
It is clear that the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were times of cultural
upheaval that introduced many new variables and changes relevant to Native American
decision-making about plants. As discussed, pre-Contact and Contact period plant use,
disease, war, land loss, religious movements, and the emerging market system are all
cultural variables that would inform and shape the decision-making of Indigenous
communities within the region, and more specifically at the Mashantucket Pequot
57
Reservation. All of these cultural variables played a significant role in Native lifeways
during this time period. However, it is as yet unclear, how they affected Native
American plant use during the Colonial Period. The social, cultural, political and
biological variables outlined in this chapter are essential to understand the decisions
employed by Native individuals and communities whether to maintain traditional plant
use strategies or adopt Euro-American lifeways.
58
Structure Range of
Feature Contexts Total Identifiable Volume Floated from Identifiable Plant
Occupation Analyzed
Plant Remains
Features
Remains Per Liter of
Soil Floated
Wigwam/ 1675-1680 96
5097
6668
0.764
Fort
None
1680-1690 5
174
440.5
0.395
Wigwam 1680-1690 16
95
76
1.25
Untyped 1760-1770 11
2175
1485
1.464
Untyped 1765-1775 11
121
1584
0.071
Unknown 1775-1800 5
36
2154
0.016
Wigwam 1780-1785 3
137
346
0.395
Wigwam 1780-1790 67
231
4422
0.043
Framed 1780-1800 10
24
66
0.363
Framed 1785-1795 3
321
46
6.978
59
Table 1. Dates of Occupations, Cultural Contexts and Archaeobotanical Remains Recovered at the
Ten Mashantucket Pequot Archaeological sites
72-164A
72-34A
72-58
72-171
72-88
72-97C
72-161
72-70B
72-66
72-91
Site
Figure 2. Location of the Mashantucket Pequot Traditional Homeland, Reservation and
Appropriated Mashantucket Lands in Southeastern New England.
60
Figure 3. Location of Ten Mashantucket Pequot Archaeological Sites 1675-1800 A.D.
61
62
Figure 4. Ranges of Occupation for the Surveyed Historic Period Sites from 1670-1820 A.D. at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation.
Arrows Indicates Sites Analyzed in this Analysis: (1) 72-91 (1675-1680); (2) 72-164A (1680-1690); (3) 72-34A (1680-1690); (4) 7258 (1760-1770); (5) 72-171 (1765-1775); (6) 72-88 (1775-1800); (7) 72-97C (1780-1785); (8) 72-161 (1780-1790); (9) 72-70B (17801800); and (10) 72-66 (1785-1795).
CHAPTER 4
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
Introduction
In this chapter, I first discuss the cultural and biological processes associated with
presence of archaebotoanical remains. I highlight: (1) sampling strategy and processing in
the field; (2) sorting and identification of plant remains in the laboratory; and (3)
ecological and cultural categorization of plant remains. After that, I discuss the historical
data and how I examined Mashantucket Pequot plant use within Indigenous and colonial
accounts. Last, I discuss the data manipulation and interpretation and why those methods
are appropriate for analyzing Indigenous plant use with the use of archaeobotanical and
historical records.
The Formation of the Archaeobotanical Record
Understanding the cultural and biological formation processes of macrobotanical
assemblages is as important in New England as in different regions around the world
(Ford 1979; Miksicek 1987; Minnis 1981; Lyons and Orchard 2007). Archaeologists
tend to broadly label the study of the cultural and natural processes that generate
botanical samples as taphonomic ones (Lyons and Orchard 2007; Théry-Parisot, Chabal
and Chrzavex 2010). Efremov (1940:85), a paleontologist, originally defined the
investigation of taphonomic processes narrowly as “the study of the transition (in all its
details) of animal remains from the biosphere into the lithosphere.”
In the 1960-1980’s as the “New Archaeology” became the dominant paradigm
within the discipline of archaeological investigation, the term was ‘borrowed” and
63
applied to encompass the cultural and natural processes seen within the archaeological
record (Binford 1981; Potts 1988; Schiffer 1987). Such processes are of research interest
in and off themselves while the study of archaeological formation processes includes
biological and also cultural processes developed to understand past human behavior
(Luman 2010). Two different sets of processes need to be parsed out to gain a full
understanding of how plant fragments (both macro and micro) undergo many changes
from the time they are harvested or utilized by an individual or community to the time
when the analyst weighs, counts and identifies them. Thus, to investigate past plant use
related to diet, medicine and land use at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation, it is
necessary to explore the archaeological formation processes, both cultural and biological.
Cultural Processes
Not all seeds recovered from archaeological sites can or should be labeled as
cultural. Thus, both non-charred and charred seeds are recovered from archaeological
sites (Minnis 1981). Archaeobotanists tend to utilize this distinction in treatment to
categorize the cultural feasibility of the recovered seeds – with the presence of charring
being the most important sorting factor. It is assumed that uncharred seeds are “modern”
in origin and part of the more recent seed rain because they would not have survived the
environmental agents of deterioration (chemical, physical or biological) for any lengthy
period of time (see below for a more depth discussion of the environmental processes and
the presence of “modern” seed rain). However, more archaeologists and archaeobotanists
are questioning that belief and conducting in depth analyses on the presence of noncharred organic materials within the site and have labeled uncharred remains cultural as
well (Lyons and Orchard 2007). This has been possible because the investigators have
64
been able to reconstruct the localized depositional nature and patterning of the “modern”
vs. cultural seed populations recovered from archaeological deposits.
In this investigation, due to the environmental processes associated with the
archaeological contexts (such as high pH level of New England soils and the constant
presence of non-charred seeds in the samples), I consistently categorized charred seeds as
associated with cultural activities. As stated by Minnis (1981:147) many
paleoethnobotanists retain the charred seeds as genuinely cultural and uncharred seeds as
“modern” seed rain “unless there is a specific reason to believe otherwise.” With the
highly acidic soils within the Reservation boundaries, it is assumed that uncharred seeds
would have decomposed rapidly. Thus, uncharred seeds found within the archaeological
samples are attributed with the “modern” seed rain while charred seeds (depending on
their context) were deemed cultural.
Preserved cultural botanical remains, such as charred seeds, are not deposited in
a random fashion but, as noted above, neither provide an accurate representation of the
spectrum of plants utilized by the inhabitants of the site (Ford 1979; Minnis 1981).
Dennell (1976: 231) argues that preservation of botanical remains is biased due to various
cultural and biological factors, such as the plant’s type and usage. Archaeobotanists tend
to place a heavy emphasis on the cultural processes and believe that the composition of a
botanical sample is a function of specific human choices and cultural activities;
If we can decipher the cultural context in which the remains were covered then we
can start to understand the cultural behaviors. Specific behaviors, such as plant harvesting
and collection, garden activities, plant processing and storage, food consumption, ritual
and ceremonial activities are ways in which plants can enter the archaeological record.
65
Gremillion (1989) states that there is no simple correspondence between the cultural
behaviors associated with plants and the types and portions of preserved plant remains
that are recovered by archaeologists. Commonly, the spatial and cultural information of
the plant identified is gleaned from ethnographic and/or historical data, as seen at the
Mashantucket Pequot Reservation (Holmes 2007; McBride 2007) Recent analysis
centered around soil chemistry has helped within this area of inquiry to better understand
settlement patterns and subsistence (Wells 2004; Salisbury 2012) but this type of analysis
has not yet been conducted at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation.
As outlined by Minnis (1981:145), there are several different processes in which
seeds can become part of the cultural record found in either a primary deposit (e.g. a
roasting pit) or secondary deposit (trash pit) at an archaeological site. First, seeds may
enter the record through direct plant use, which is usually related to the collection,
processing, and/or consumption of the plant resource, in this case, the seed. The charred
seeds uncovered at sites are typically associated with accidents in any of above activities
such as in cooking, burning of debris and stored materials. Minnis (1981:145) notes that
uses other than food activities may also leave behind charred plant materials, such as the
processing of medicinal plants, so one must proceed with caution when making
interpretations about dietary patterns from the archaeobotanical assemblage.
Seeds can also become part of the record, indirectly, such as when plants are used
in feeding a fire. Seeds can blow into hearths or be burned on trash middens and pits.
Minnis (1981:145) is concerned about the seed rain, which accumulates after a structure
is abandoned. Sometimes the archaeological site is prone to natural fires. If this occurs:
“weedy annuals, which tend to produce prodigious quantities of seed, would begin
66
growing on and around abandoned sites and would thus intensify local seed rain.”
However, based upon Minnis’s (1981) ethnoarchaeological results from Mimbres, it is
highly unlikely that the charred seeds, especially ones recovered from the lower levels of
archeological contexts, are the result of post-depositional charred seed rain. It is assumed
the charred seeds present within the archaeological contexts are either directly or
indirectly related to cultural activities associated with the plant.
Even if the analyst is able to determine direct or indirect use of the plant, there
still exists a bias within the record due to differential factors specific to each plant
species. Different foods, medicinal and fuel plants have different chances of survival
depending upon their morphological characteristics. For example, Carya sp. (hickory)
versus Quercus sp. (oak) nutshell has a greater chance of survival in a fire hearth because
it is much thicker. According to Munson et al. (1971), only plants that are dense, have
inedible parts (such as maize cobs) and/or can be ingested fully (such as small Rhus sp.
(sumac) seeds), to survive within the cultural record.
Environmental Processes
Biological processes or environmental agents of deterioration strongly affect the
cultural residues left behind at archaeological sites (Pearsall 2000). According to Schiffer
(1987), these processes fall into three categories: chemical, physical or biological.
Chemical processes, such as high acidity within soils can significantly affect the
archaeobotanical record, as in New England (Frink 1992). However, it seems that
physical processes such as freezing, thawing, precipitation and erosion contribute the
most to the continued degradation of archaeobotanical remains not affected by the initial
organic decay once they are deposited (Schiffer 1987; Frink 1992; Miksicek 1987). Also
67
soil composition; such as its texture and levels of acidity (pH level) influence the record.
Post-depositional processes tend to move archaeobotanical remains from their original
place of deposition and can vary depending on context of deposition, such as a sheet
midden versus a bell-shaped pit (Pearsall 2000). The above biological factors were all
carefully considered when analyzing the Mashantucket Pequot botanical assemblages.
Within this investigation, it is assumed that the uncharred seeds present are more
than likely associated with “modern” seed rain rather than the archaeological record
under investigation. The non-charred seeds recovered at Mashantucket may have entered
the archaeological record from different routes. For example, as modified from Keepex
(1977), the presence of “modern” seeds in different archaeological contexts may occur
due to four reasons: 1) seeds in the soil before excavation, such as part of seed rain
redeposited post-depositionally by rodents or other animals; 2) aerial contamination of
exposed archaeological contexts; 3) careless cross-contamination of the cultural (on-site)
soil with non-cultural (off-site) soils; and 4) cross-contamination in the flotation process.
Each one of these would add more modern non-charred seeds to the archaeological
samples of interest.
Related to the biological agents, Keepex (1977) also lists vertical seed dispersals,
which include, plowing, root holes and drying cracks, down washing, earthworms and
other burrowing animals. Archaeological sites with middens and architecture will have a
greater chance of housing seed-disseminating organisms such as rodents (Clark 1968).
Bacteria and fungi can also attack the deposited botanical remains, bringing in other
organism such as beetles, ants, flies and even termites which can all disturb the in situ
68
nature of the botanical remains deposited (Schiffer 1987). All of these factors were taken
in consideration and hence the non-charred seeds were not included in this investigation
Sampling Strategy and Processing
Within the exception of the midden excavation at 72-91 in the summer of 2009, I
did not collect the samples utilized in this analysis. However, the systematic collection
procedures have been developed and implemented by Dr. Kevin McBride. At each of the
sites chosen for this analysis, the sampling strategy for the flotation samples was as
follows. All features were 100% sampled in the field. No soil was screened and all soil
was processed for flotation. During the summer months, bucket flotation with the use of
fresh water occurred from 1987 to 2005 at Avery Pond, located at the east of the
Reservation (as highlighted in Pearsall 2000). After 2005 to the present, the bucket
processing switched to the man-made pond behind the Natural Resources Department on
the Reservation. Different size mesh was utilized in the flotation process – an 1/8 screen
for the heavy fractions and fine industrial-size mesh for the light fraction. Each sample
was then naturally dried within the individual meshes. Then it was brought back to the
lab for preliminary sorting.
Lab Analysis
In the last twenty years, a strict protocol (under the supervision of Dr. Kevin
McBride and Roberta Charpentier) has been employed by the Mashantucket Pequot
Museum and Research Center (MPMRC) to sort the majority of the soil samples floated.
If samples had not been previously sorted by MPMRC lab technicians, the heavy and
light fractions processed via flotation and larger excavated samples were sorted utilizing
standard geologic sieves.
69
When I entered the project, two of the ten sites, (1) 72-171 (occupied between
1765-1775) and (2) 72-164A (1680-1690 A.D.), had never been analyzed for
archaeobotanical remains and that effort was completed by me. The remaining eight of
the ten sites had been previously analyzed for macrobotanical remains but there were
some methodological issues which came to light (which is some instances were not at the
fault of the original analyst) and in order to remedy these I had to reevaluate the eight
assemblages.
Seven sites of the ten sites were originally analyzed by Patricia Fragola and
Madonna Grady employed at Public Archaeological Lab (Table 2). I reanalyzed all
samples identified by PAL to family, genus and when possible species-level, as there
were many inconsistences within the identifications and databases. Two sites, 72-91
(1675-1680 A.D.) (with an overlap in analysis with PAL) and 72-58 (1760-1770 A.D.),
were previously analyzed under the supervision of Dr. Heather Trigg and Dr. Steve
Mrozowski (University of Massachusetts, Boston) (Table 2). Select specimens of Zea
mays (corn) were also analyzed by Dr. Walton Galinat (University of Massachusetts
Suburban Experiment Station) and Phaselous vulgaris (bean) specimens were identified
by Dr. Lawrence Kaplan (Emeritus, University of Massachusetts, Boston). I carefully
checked each of the UMass, Boston identifications and found them, in general, not
problematic. Overall, I reprocessed more than 3000 samples, carefully checked the
previous identification and then weighted each of the identifiable remains (which had not
been conducted before).
As advocated by Pearsall (2000) and Fritz (2005), each botanical sample, that
had not been previously sorted, was divided into three parts to aid in the identification
70
process: 2 mm, 1 mm, and fine fraction (any material that had not been caught by the 1
and 2 mm geological sieves- usually consists of powdered charcoal and unidentifiable
plant fragments). However, all fractions and materials analyzed in this analysis were
scanned using a Leica stereoscopic microscope at magnifications of 10x to 40x. All
charred seeds, nutshells, nutmeats and other identifiable plant materials were removed
and/or analyzed.
Identification Criteria
References such as Weed Seeds of the Great Plains (Davis 1992), Seed
Identification Manual (Martin and Barkley 2000), Illustrated Taxonomy of Weed Seeds
(Delorit 1970) and Seeds and Fruits of Plants of Eastern Canada and Northeastern
United States (Montgomery 1977) along with on-line databases and resources, such as
Identification Criteria for Plant Remains Recovered from Archaeological Sites in the
Central Mesa Verde Region (Adams and Murray 2004), Laboratory Guide To
Archaeological Plant Remains From Eastern North America (Fritz 2009), and Seed ID
Workshop (McDonald et al. 2012) were useful for identifying the archaeobotanical
remains. Also, the large modern seed collection (10,000 specimens), housed at the
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Department of Anthropology and additional
comparative specimens at the MPMRC were utilized for comparative purposes.
Often times specific plants are known by several common names, varying based
upon geographic region and/or local custom (Adams 2004). Therefore all plants will be
discussed using their scientific nomenclature and then by their common names. The
majority of plant remains identified are scientifically labeled after names from the Flora
of the Northeast (Magee and Ahles 2007). Some domesticates, such as Zea mays or
71
Prunus persica are not discussed in that flora reference; then other references and
personal communication with other archaeobotanists aided in the identification process.
All specimens within the assemblages were identified to the lowest taxon
possible. As discussed by Adams (2004), the taxonomic level to which a botanical
specimen is identified can be associated with a number of different variables, such as the
condition of specimen (e.g. whether or not is highly vitrified), whether or not similar
botanical remains can be identified within the region, and/or the “comfort level” of the
individual analyst. For example, if only a single seed of Rhus sp. (sumac) was recovered
and identified at a site, I would be hesitant to assign a species category to the specimen
due to its limited presence at the site. Typically archaeobotanists tend to identify a
specimen to species level only when there is a high presence (in some instances of 20+)
of the seed within a specific context or at the site level (G. Jones Personal
Communication 2004).
Within this analysis, I have integrated the taxonomic levels for identifications
from Bohrer and Adams (1977) and from personal communications with Dr. Glynis
Jones (2004; University of Sheffield), Dr. Ksenjia Borojevic (2003; Boston University)
and Dr. Lee Newsom (2007; Penn State University) to create four different categories: (1)
absolute – when the specimen was identical to the named genus and species; (2) genus
type - when the specimen has morphological characteristics that closely resemble
different species within the named genus and one cannot rule out all the possible species
within the genus; (3) family type - when the specimen has morphological characteristics
that closely resemble those of several genera within the plant family and one cannot rule
out all the possible genera with the family level and (4) indeterminate type – when the
72
specimen could be identified as a nutshell/nutmeat/seed but could not be identified
further into a specific taxonomic category (the specimen may be able to be identified but
the specific identification is unknown at the present time).
For the seed analysis, the following criteria as seen in Appendix A were utilized
to identify the charred seeds from the sites. For each taxon listed, I observed and recorded
the following to identify each specimen: 1) the part of the plant identified; 2) the genus
type plants recorded with the state of Connecticut (USDA 2012) to highlight the diversity
of that specific species within the sub-region of New England; 3) longitudinal section; 4)
cross section; 5) size class; 6) length; 7) width; 8) thickness; 9) surface characteristics.
Even with all these categories recorded, it was often extremely difficult to identify each
specimen to an absolute taxonomic level. This was primarily due to the poor preservation
of the seed or nut remains, or because there were too many possibilities of species within
that genus for that specific identification. Overall, there were more genus level
identifications than other taxonomic levels. In total, 10 categories are family-level
identifications, 33 genus, and 11 species. (Appendix A).
Ecological and Cultural Categorization of the Archaeobotanical Plants
After the identifications were completed, the plant remains were categorized into
1) food values; 2) medicinal utility and 3) habitat use. These types of filters were useful
for the presence and density analysis highlighted in Chapters Five through Seven.
Food Categorization
It is important to understand which and how the plants identified at Mashantucket
were used for food. Therefore, I associated each archaeological plant type identified with
its ethnographically reported food use. Plant types, as in the habitat and medicinal
73
categorization, were only included in this analysis if they were identified to genus and
species level. Family level identifications were not included because of the vast quantity
of different plant species that would have fallen under that identification. In total, thirtyfive plants were categorized as food resources within the ethnographic recorded (as seen
in Appendix B). Six plant types, Acalypha sp. (copperleaf), Carpinus caroliniana
(beech), Galium sp. (bedstraw), Myrica pensylvanica (bayberry), Nyssa sylvatica
(tupelo), and Potamogeton sp. (pondweed) were not mentioned in any regional
ethnographic contexts as foodstuffs, only as medicine from around North America. Thus,
these six plant types were not part of the investigation of food resources but are include in
the medicinal investigation.
When plant types were identified to the genus level, similar to the habitat
categorization, I utilized the USDA plant presence for the state of Connecticut as a
biological framework to assess which plants can have been used by the Mashantucket
Pequot. For example, nine species of Asclepias sp. (milkweed) are noted by the USDA to
exist within Connecticut (Appendix B). Therefore, I researched those specific nine
species in the ethnographic literature and also included data if the genus name was only
mentioned (no species name identified) within the ethnographic account. For example
within the table, this information was listed with the genus name and sp., such as
Ascelpias sp. However, the USDA information provides necessary biological data to
build bridges between the plants present in Connecticut and what species the
Mashantucket Pequot may have utilized after European contact. Currently in this
investigation, there are no plants that have been identified in the assemblage that are not
currently found within Connecticut.
74
The ethnographic information related to a specific plant type and its food use is
listed in five different geographic categories: 1) Mashantucket Pequot; 2) New England;
3) Northeast; 4) Southeast; and 5) other regions (which includes the Southwest and
Northwest). Each species name is listed along with appropriate tribal community
followed by the cultural use of the plant (Appendix B). It is important to note that even if
a specific plant type (and its associated species found in Connecticut) was not recorded
within the immediate geographic boundaries of the Mashantucket Pequot, the
ethnographic information recorded for the plant’s use in other regions, such as Southwest
and/or Northwest, is useful to demonstrate the specific cultural uses of the plant type and
the cultural knowledge embedded in that use of the plant. The information gathered from
other regions offer suggestion of how that plant type may have been used but it by no
means signals a direct correlation as to the direct use of the plant within the
Mashantucket Pequot community.
For both the food (and medicine) categorization, I included historical and
ethnographic documents of Mashantucket Pequot plant use (e.g. Occum 1756 in Brookes
2006; Bulter 1939 in Simmons 1990). I also evaluated other historical ethnographic
resources within New England (Bennett 1955; Lamb Richmond 1989; Moerman 1998;
Tantaquidgeon 1972), the Northeast (Black 1980; Herrick 1977; Moerman 1998;
Tantaquidgeon 1946; 1972), the Southeast (Hamel and Chiltoskey 1972; Swanton 1928;
Tantaquidgeon 1972) and then other regions within Moerman (1998). This broad scope
for the ethnographic information allowed for an exploration of what types of plants could
have been utilized for medicine by the Mashantucket Pequot from 1675-1800 A.D.
75
Medicinal Categorization
To better understand the use of medical plants at Mashantucket, I associated each
archaeological plant type recovered with its recorded ethnographic use. Plant types were
only included in this analysis if they were identified to genus and/or species level. I did
not attempt to categorize the eleven plant types that were identified to the family level
because an overwhelming spectrum of plants would have fallen under that identification.
All plant there were identified to either genus and/or species level were included were
found to be utilized for medicinal purposes. Over forty-one plants were included in this
analysis. I followed the same protocol as described above for the food uses (as seen in
Appendix C).
Habitat Categorization
Classifying the habitats in which the archaeological specimens occur is useful to
gain a better understanding of land use practices of the Mashantucket Pequot. Originally,
McBride (2007) and Trigg et al. (2007) had attributed the archaeobotanical types
identified to their respective habitats. I apply a similar methodology to the
archaeobotanical types identified based upon the habitat data provided in Magee and
Ahles (2007). Within this analysis, five habitat categorizations were utilized: 1)
woodland; 2) field; 3) wetland; 4) coastal; and 5) anthropogenic disturbance. The
identified family type specimens were not included in this categorization due the large
amount of species under each family. The habitat categorization was limited only to type
specimens identified to genus and species level.
Table 3 lists all the specific habitat distinctions listed by Magee and Ahles (2007)
that are now included in the more consolidated habitat categories for this investigation.
76
Each category and associated plant taxa were pared down based upon key word
descriptors within the habitat listing per plant species . For plant types identified to the
genus level within the archaeobotanical assemblage, the USDA plant species listed for
the state of Connecticut (2012) was used to categorize the spectrum of plant taxa and
associated habitats. At the species level, the detailed habitat distinctions within each plant
type were utilized to determine habitat categorization. For example, depending on the
genus, there could be five known species under, Carya sp. or 151 known species for the
type specimen identified as Carex sp. with Connecticut.
This is a simplification of ecological variation but these categorizations were
created to clarify the cultural choices imbued in land use practices. In total, 56 different
ecosystem distinctions listed were condensed into the woodland category for this
investigation. Twenty-nine ecosystem distinctions within the field habitat category.
Eighty ecosystem distinctions for the wetland category. Fourteen ecosystem distinctions
within the coastal habitat category. Fifteen ecosystem distinction for the anthropogenic
structural disturbances category. Please refer to Appendix D for the complete individual
distinctions per habitat.
Table 3 highlights the condensed habitat categorization, woodland, field, wetland,
coastal and disturbance, for each of the identified types within the archaeobotanical
record. Each of the habitats in which the specific species could exist was recorded to
create a master list of habitat categorization of all the type specimens identified, as
highlighted in Table 3. A type specimen can be attributed to more than one habitat
distinction as seen with Carex sp. This habitat information was utilized to conduct a
presence analysis in Chapter Seven.
77
Other Historical Data
Primary and secondary data sources, which include both Indigenous and colonial
accounts, were utilized for this analysis. Colonial documents, such as Connecticut Indian
Papers (n.d), Overseer records (n.d.), Land deeds (n.d.) and Account books (n.d.) were
examined. Also, Indigenous primary sources coming from Mashantucket Pequot Tribal
members, such as S. Occum, Herbs and Roots (1754 in Brooks and Warrior 2006) and
other relevant Indigenous accounts to the region, like G. Tantaquidgeon, Folk Medicine
of the Delaware and Related Algonquian Indians (1971) were dissected for information
regarding Indigenous environmental strategies.
Most of the primary sources were located at the MPMRC. In addition I
supplemented this information with a research trip to the National Archives in
Washington D.C. In the last 25 years, through the Ethnohistory Project, there has been an
extensive effort to collect colonial and Indigenous narratives regarding Mashantucket
Pequot lifeways on the post-Contact landscape. The most relevant colonial document(s)
were the Connecticut Indian Papers (n.d). and overseers accounts (n.d.) related to the
Reservation . These documents had been previously transcribed as part of the 25
Ethnohistory Project under the supervision of Dr. Kevin McBride. With the use of the
Connecticut Indian Papers (n.d) and overseers accounts (n.d), I was able to systematically
reconstruct land loss within the Reservation boundaries and reconstruct some of what the
Mashantucket themselves had to say about their plant usage. Mancini (2009) and Holmes
(2007) have evaluated land use through other methodological lenses but this was the first
project that comprehensively evaluated those sources for Mashantucket Pequot plant use.
More specifically, plant related practices were highlighted in letters from overseers to the
78
Connecticut General Assembly and also appeals from Mashantucket sachems to the
Assembly.
Not only have colonial documents been systematically collected and transcribed
at the MPMRC but also contemporary Mashantucket Pequot members have been
interviewed to record oral histories, traditions and stories. These interviews are relevant
for the larger Ethnohistory project as they highlight the contemporary practices of
traditional ecological knowledge at the Reservation. Although those interviews were
informative for understanding contemporary plant practices of the Mashantucket Pequot,
as stated earlier, the goal of this project was not to reconstruct that traditional ecological
knowledge. Thus at this time, the use of those accounts was cursory and will be more
beneficial for future projects which examine present knowledge structures (and their
relation to actions taken in the past, as grounded in the archaeological record).
In summary, the historical data were evaluated for information containing land
use, diet composition, and medicinal and ritual plants, as related to the expectations in
Chapter Three. Within the examination, the colonial and Indigenous accounts are viewed
as artifacts or ‘written’ traces of Native American plant use in the post-Contact period.
Although many of the historical documents were created within either colonial and or
Indigenous frames of reference, they nevertheless reveal aspects of Mashantucket Pequot
cultural practices and lifeways that are not easily seen in the archaeological record. The
historical data were evaluated for information containing ‘improvements in the land’ (or
lack there of) yields of crops within Mashantucket lands, and land loss and acquisitions,
and any mentions of plants used for food and medicine.
79
Data Manipulation and Interpretation
The archaeological data were recorded by presence, percentage frequency, and
density analysis. The three analyses are useful for analyzing plants in the archaeological
record where different excavation and sampling strategies may have occurred (as in the
ten sites used for this analysis). They sensitively address issues in preservation and postdepositional factors that may have affected the archaeobotanical assemblages recovered
at archaeological sites.
Presence (Gremillion 1995; Hubbard 1976) and density analysis (Miller 1988)
measures how commonly a particular plant species is represented in archaeological
samples. It does not measure the abundance of the plant species within the sample
because it assumes that the absolute counts of any particular plant are highly influenced
by the degree of preservation. Instead it evaluates the number of samples in which the
taxon appears within a group of samples. Each sample is scored as present or absent
within each sample or at the site level. An important factor in presence analysis
(especially in analyses which evaluate plant data in a heterarchical fashion) is that the
score of one plant species does not affect the score of another. Therefore the scores of
different types of plants can be evaluated independently and cannot be utilized to
compare the importance of one plant over the other (Popper 1988; Hubbard 1980).
On the other hand, percentages express the relationships of the taxons to each
other in the whole, as opposed to simple presence (Fritz 2005). They can be utilized to
gain a better understanding of the variation between samples and sites due to preservation
issues. For example, this type of analysis helps to recognize how different taxa are not
“equally preserved in different contexts” (Miller 1988:74), a very important consideration
80
if one wants to reconstruct variability at the intra and inter site level at the Mashantucket
Pequot Reservation.
Anther method used in this investigation, density analysis of plant data (Miller
1988) measures the number of charred plant remains versus the total volume of soil
floated with a particular cultural context or at the site. Typically used in archaeobotanical
analyses are the counts and weights of the archaeobotanical material per sample. Miller
(1988) states that choosing the volume of soil floated as the norming variable against he
counts or weight of the plant remains, one is able to evaluate hypotheses against variation
in density, the effects of preservation, and recovery rates. Again, this type of analysis will
be useful to standardize the archaeobotanical data for intra and inter site level
comparisons of hearth, pit and architectural features.
Summary
In this analysis, archaeobotanical methods, such as presence, percentage and
density analyses, and spatial tools alongside the colonial and Indigenous historical data,
will evaluate the expectations related to land use, diet composition and medicinal plant
use. The data generate will help to reconstruct the decisions related plant use at the
household and community level and are valuable for environmentally oriented and
human dimension based research, which focuses on understand the Indigenous
knowledge structures and decision making during colonialism.
81
Site
Range of
Occupation
PAL
UMassBoston
KCK
72-91
1675-1680
X
X
X
72-164A
1680-1690
72-34A
1680-1690
72-58
1760-1770
72-171
1765-1775
72-88
1775-1800
X
X
72-97C
1780-1785
X
X
72-161
1780-1790
X
X
72-70B
1780-1800
X
X
72-66
1785-1795
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Table 2. Archaeobotanical Investigators For Each Site.
82
Acalypha sp.
Asclepias sp.
Carex sp.
Carpinus caroliniana
Carya sp.
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
Comptonia peregrina
Cornus sp.
Corylus americana
Crataegus sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Cyperus sp.
Galium sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Ilex sp.
Juglans cinerea
Juglans nigra
Juglans sp.
Juncus sp.
Lactuca sp.
Myrica pensylvanica
Nyssa sylvatica
Phaselous vulgaris
Phytolacca americana
Polygonum hydropiper
Polygonum sp.
Portulaca sp.
Potamogeton sp.
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Rubus sp.
Scirpus sp.
Triticum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Viburnum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Zea mays
three seed mercury
milkweed
sedge
ironwood
hickory
goosefoot/amaranth
sweetfern
dogwood
hazelnut
hawthorne
squas
umbrella sedge
bedstraw
huckleberry
holly
butternut
black walnut
walnut
rush
lettuce
bayberry
tupelo
common bean
pokeweed
water pepper
smartweed
pursalane
pondweed
peach
plum
oak
sumac
bramble
bulrush
wheat
blueberry
viburnum
vetch
violet
grape
corn
ANTHROPOGENIC COASTAL OPEN WETLANDS WOODLANDS
DISTURBANCE
1
0
3
0
0
1
0
4
2
5
3
6
14
34
35
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
4
0
4
1
1
6
4
1
2
0
2
0
1
1
0
1
3
5
1
0
1
0
2
1
0
4
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
3
6
7
3
1
0
3
5
4
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
3
4
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
3
5
5
5
12
3
1
0
4
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
3
1
0
2
0
0
1
0
3
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
3
3
8
13
5
1
0
2
0
0
1
0
0
19
0
1
0
1
0
0
3
2
2
2
4
0
1
2
4
20
2
1
4
2
3
2
1
7
2
6
2
3
3
23
4
1
0
2
0
0
1
1
2
4
5
1
0
3
3
6
1
0
3
0
0
2
2
16
8
10
1
0
2
1
1
2
0
2
0
0
Table 3. Habitat Categorizations of Identified Archaeobotanical Types (Based Upon
Magee and Ahles 2007).
83
CHAPTER 5
RESULTS OF DIET COMPOSITION
Introduction
My objective in the next three chapters is to present the results and assess whether
Mashantucket decisions related to plant use from 1675-1800 A.D. were conservative and
in the interests of maintaining their cultural autonomy within their plant use as
anticipated. I address the expectations outlined in Chapter Three and evaluate the results
in terms of Mashantucket Pequot decisions related to plant use within their diet
composition, then, medicinal practices, and finally land use. In each chapter, or case
study, I present the archaeological data and then provide supplementary colonial and
Indigenous historical accounts.
Before I move onto a discussion of the wild plants recovered (both mast products
and other wild plants) recovered, it is necessary to provide an overview of the results.
Within the ten sites, over fifty-three different plant types were identified from over
18,000 liters of soil processed (Table 4). Identifications were made to the species level
when possible. In total, ten plant types were identified to the family level, twenty-nine to
genus level, and eleven to species level, three to the indeterminate level (charred plant
material to can not categorized to the family, genus or species level). See Chapter 4 for a
more detailed discussion of the criteria utilized to identify each type (Appendix A). Also
see Appendix E for a complete inventory of the seeds identified from each archaeological
site. Due to space constraints, plant remains that were categorized as “non-identifiable”
or “plant material” are not included in Appendix E.
84
Generally, at the ten sites there are tropical cultigens, such as Zea mays (corn) and
Phaselous vulgaris (bean), and wild plants, like Rubus sp. (raspberry) and Viola sp.
(violet) (Table 4). Sites 72-91 (26 types - 1675-1680 A.D.) and 72-58 (37 types - 17601770 A.D.) yield the largest number of plant types (Figure 5; Note that graphs which
present information from the ten sites are temporally organized in the x-axis from 1675 to
1800 A.D.). The other eight sites yielded between seven to eighteen plant types.
As seen in Table 4, each plant type was not recovered at each site. The only plant
types that were identified at all sites were the mast plant, Corylus americana (hazelnut)
and indeterminate seeds (which include whole seeds and seed fragments). Another mast
plant, Carya sp. (hickory) and indeterminate nutshell were recovered from all sites except
72-88. Zea mays (corn) was found all but two sites, 72-161 and 72-70B. A variety of
other plant types is found at six of the ten sites including Cornus sp. (cherry), Quercus sp.
(oak), and Rhus sp. (sumac). From five sites, five plant types, Comptonia peregrina
(sweetfern), Gaylussacia sp. (huckleberry), Prunus persica (peach), Rubus sp.
(raspberry), and unidentified nutmeat, were recovered. Twenty different plant types were
only found at one site each (Table 4).
To address the differential volume of soil floated at each site and how that may
have affected the plant types recovered, the counts and weights of the plant type within
each site assemblage were standardized using a method common in archaeobotanical
analysis, as discussed by Popper (1998). The method allows for site comparisons within
presence and density analyses as it calculates how many plant remains were recovered
per volume (liter) of soil floated. In total, site 72-66 (6.978), 72-58 (1.464), 72-34A
(1.25), and 72-91 (.764) had the highest amount of seeds recovered per one liter of soil
85
floated (Table 1). Typically, there were increased density of seeds per volume of soil
floated at sites that had higher number of features excavated and soil floated (Table 1).
However site 72-171 (.071) yielded a low quantity of botanical remains in comparison to
the 1,584 liters of soil floated (Table 1). This may be explained by many seeds having
been sorted into the wood charcoal samples that have not been analyzed as of yet. On the
other end, 72-66 (6.978) yielded the largest amount of seeds recovered per volume of soil
floated – with only 46 liters from two feature contexts. The increase in material relates to
one context in particular, Feature 1, may relate to its use as a firebox/hearth within the
framed house structure. It may have presented an optimal environment to preserve plant
remains.
In Figures 6 to 15, the standardized counts for the plant types identified at each
site are illustrated as percentages within a density analysis. At all sites, mast remains,
such as Carya sp. (hickory), Corylus americana (hazelnut), Quercus sp. (oak) and
unidentifiable nutshell/nutmeat tend to dominate the assemblages. Another plant type,
which is a significant portion of the assemblages, is Zea mays (corn), except at sites 7270B and 72-66 (Figures 6-15). The high percentages of mast products within each
assemblage are likely a preservation issue because nutshell is much more likely to
survive in archaeological contexts due to their taphonomic durability in comparison to
other types of plant remains.
The remaining plant types identified in Table 4 comprise less than 5% of each
archaeobotanical assemblage per site (Figures 6-15). The “less than 5% plant types” are
important to identify, quantify, as they provide essential information for understanding
food, medicine and land use of the Mashantucket Pequot. To further tease out the cultural
86
and taphonomic processes associated with these types of plant remains, the next section
focuses on the analysis of the food remains recovered from the ten sites.
Archaeological and Ethnographic Data Associated with Food-Related Activities
To better understand how the Mashantucket Pequot utilized the recovered
archaeological species as a food, each plant type in Table 4 was related to the
ethnographic record (as discussed in Chapter 4; Appendix B). This was completed to
create a connection between the archaeobotanical remains recovered and the indigenous
knowledge that is reflected in the presence of those remains. The detailed ethnographic
information gathered from the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation, New England, the
Northeast, the Southeast, and other regions in North America, helped to decipher the
cultural choices embedded in the presence and variability of the recovered plant types as
a possible food resources. To reiterate, family level identifications were not included in
this analysis of food-associated plant types because of the vast quantity of different plant
species that would have fallen under that identification. It also needs to be mentioned
again that for plant types identified to the genus level, I utilized the USDA plant
information for the state of Connecticut as the biological assessment which plants could
have been consumed. For example, out of the fourteen species of Prunus sp. (cherry)
noted by the USDA to exist within Connecticut, a large number of the species, seven, are
noted as a food resource within the ethnographic literature. However, in a different
direction, none of the species under the genus Potamogeton sp. (pondweeds) are noted as
having been consumed as food resource across North America. Thus, it is not
incorporated into this analysis of potential foodstuffs consumed by the Mashantucket
Pequot.
87
In total at the ten sites, thirty-five plants were categorized as food resources
within the ethnographic recorded (Table 5). Six plant types that were identified in the
archaeological record, Acalypha sp. (copperleaf), Carpinus caroliniana (beech), Galium
sp. (bedstraw), Myrica pensylvanica (bayberry), Nyssa sylvatica (tupelo), and
Potamogeton sp. (pondweed) were not mentioned in regional ethnographic contexts as
foodstuffs, only as medicine and will be discussed in the next chapter. These plant types
are included in the diagrams in this chapter to document their co-occurrence with food
plants.
Within the ethnographic analysis, four of the thirty-five plant types recovered,
Chenopodium/Amaranthus sp. (goosefoot), Phytolacca americana (pokeweed), Prunus
persica (peach), and Zea mays (corn) are directly referred to as food source within
primary and secondary documents specifically tied to the Mashantucket Pequot
Reservation (e.g. Connecticut Indian Papers n.d.; Occum 1756 in Brookes 2006; Bulter
1939 in Simmons 1990; Appendix B). Eight of the thirty-five plant types are referred to
within the ethnographic literature from New England (e.g. Bennett 1955; Lamb
Richmond 1989; Moerman 1998; Tantaquidgeon 1972). Twenty-two of the plant types
are discussed in the ethnographical literature of the Northeast (e.g. Black 1980; Herrick
1977; Moerman 1998; Tantaquidgeon 1946; 1972). Sixteen of the plant types are
mentioned in the Southeast literature (e.g. Hamel and Chiltoskey 1972; Swanton 1928;
Tantaquidgeon 1972) Lastly, thirty-five of the plants types, all but Polygonum hydropiper
(water pepper) are documented as food plant in North America, which includes the
Southwest and Northwest (e.g. Moerman 1998; Appendix B). Although many of the
plants recovered are not directly tied to ethnohistorical data from the Mashantucket
88
Pequot Reservation, many can be categorized as a potential food source for the
Mashantucket based upon the regional data from across North America. These thirty-five
ethnographic connections across North America of the plant types recovered at ten sites
are important because they demonstrates that plant knowledge is widely shared across
time and space, similar to knowledge associated with material culture, such as lithic,
ceramics and metals. Connecting the ethnographic record to the archaeological record
allows us to recognize how plant knowledge is embedded in Native American lifeways in
the past, as do the plant types mentioned in Appendix B. I now proceed to discuss the
results of the plant types recovered as food as related to the expectations outlined in
Chapter Two.
Wild Plant Use
To reconstruct the decision-making associated with wild plant use and explore the
assumption the Mashantucket Pequot continued to use a diversity of wild plants (mast
products, weedy, fruits and other seeds), I investigated the presence and density of mast
products and other wild plants recovered from the ten sites. Within the ethnographic
analysis of the archaeobotanical data, thirty-five plants types were included in this
analysis of food processing and consumption of the Mashantucket Pequot (Appendix B).
First, I conducted a density analysis based upon the standardized counts of the
food-related plant types from each site (Figure 16). The recovered food-related seed
plants were categorized as a wild plants (which encompasses weeds, fruits and other wild
types), mast products (nutshell and nutmeat), tropical cultigens, and Old World cultigens.
The categorization was utilized to understand how many food plant types were exploited
locally in and around the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation. Although mast products are
89
also wild plants, I have divided wild plants into two categories because mast products and
other wild plants (fruits, weeds and other wild types) lend themselves to distinctive
cultural interpretations. Also, no local indigenous domesticates, such as Chenopodium sp.
(goosefoot) were recovered within any of the sites, although domesticated varieties of
Chenopodium sp. (goosefoot) have been recovered in the archaeological record during
the Late Woodland in New England (George and Dewar 1999). The wild varieties of the
local indigenous domesticates were included in the wild plant food category.
As highlighted in Figure 16, each site with its associated household(s) (except 7288, which is interpreted as a storage/refuse area) tends to have two categories of foodrelated plants - mast products and wild plants, with limited tropical and Old World
cultigens. I would like to highlight the increased density of mast and wild plants at site
72-66 (occupied between 1785-1795 A.D.). As stated above, at this site over 40 liters of
soil were floated for a recovery of 8.03 plant fragments recovered per 1 liter of soil
floated (Table 1). Rhus sp. (sumac), at 3.25 seeds per liter of soil floated, comprises the
majority of assemblage along with indeterminate seeds recovered at 3.52 seeds per liter
of soil floated. The increased number of Rhus sp. (sumac) and indeterminate seeds at this
site can be more likely attributed to the preservation context, the firebox within the
household structure. Also many of the indeterminate seeds were too vitrified to identify
to a family, genus or species. Although this particular context is important due to the
sheer quantity of botanical remains recovered, it gives a unique snapshot at cultural
decisions associated with one context, the hearth. Other contexts at 72-66 would also
have been useful for to a comprehensive understanding full-spectrum of plants utilized by
the Mashantucket Pequot during the time of occupation.
90
To explore the variability of these food types across the sites, I evaluated the
percentages of each food-related types in the assemblages (Figure 17). What is most
significant is the large amount of mast products in all of the plant assemblages. Mast is an
important factor within the broad spectrum of the Mashantucket Pequot plant use within
these sites. It constitutes a significant portion of the total number of plant remains
preserved at the Mashantucket Pequot sites, from less than 10% to more than 70% at the
individual sites by number, and it would have provided the Mashantucket Pequot
households with significant sustenance independent of the amount of available land.
To understand the Mashantucket Pequot decisions related to the use of mast
products, I also conducted a density analysis of the mast products recovered at the ten
archaeological sites (Figure 18). To compare these sites to each another, I have
standardized the weights of nutshell per type, which is a standard a method instead of
utilizing the counts of the nutshell to determine cultural significance and practices (Miller
1988). The six mast types were standardized by dividing the total weights of each species
per site by the total volume of soil floated per site. The result is the number of individual
mast types per one liter of soil floated at each site.
In Figure 18, the use of Carya sp. (hickory) and Corylus americana (hazelnut)
appears to vary while the use of other mast products (butternut, bitternut and oak) has a
relatively low density (Figure 19). For example, at the time the fort 72-91 was occupied
the area should have had relatively abundant woodland resources from Carya sp.
(hickory), Corylus americana (hazelnut) and Quercus sp. (oak) (McWeeney 1994; Trent
1981). But during their stay at the site, apparently, the Mashantucket Pequot were
selecting hickory over Corylus americana (hazelnut) and Quercus sp. (oak). However
91
after 72-164A is occupied there appears to be a switch in nut usage from Carya sp.
(hickory) to Corylus americana (hazelnut). Even when Carya sp. (hickory) resources
became scarce the Mashantucket appear to maintain their use of mast products and switch
to Corylus americana (hazelnut) beginning at sites 72-58. The use of Carya sp. (hickory)
seems to decline after 72-58 is occupied with a slight increase at 72-171 and then Corylus
americana (hazelnut) tends to dominate the assemblages from 1775-1800 A.D along with
other Juglans sp. (Figure 18).
Unlike other Indigenous communities in North America, Quercus sp. (oak) and
other mast types, do not appear to have been selected by the Mashantucket, except at very
low increments at from 1675-1800 A.D. as seen in Figure 19. The general low density at
these select sites could have a number of explanations: 1) a lack of access to this type of
resource; 2) its low biological presence within this region of southeastern Connecticut;
and 3) a cultural preference of the Mashantucket Pequot; or 4) it not being contrastive to
colonial newcomers. For example, at 72-91, the low presence of many of these other
mast products shows that a combination of these four reasons may be at work. This is
important because as land becomes more circumscribed from the occupation of 72-164A
(mean date of occupation - 1685 A.D.) to 72-66 (1790 A.D.), the Mashantucket continue
to funnel their ecological knowledge into the use of mast products and do not fully rely
upon domesticates (either Old World or Tropical) (Figure 16) Mast products continue to
be a significant part of the Mashantucket diet into the eighteenth century.
How do these mast products correlate with the other types of wild plant
recovered from the individual sites? In Figure 16, wild plants (which include fruits,
weeds and other wild plants) comprise from 10%-90% of the plant assemblages
92
depending on the site. Coupled with mast products, the overall composition of the
archaeobotanical assemblages at each site sites is dominated by these two food types.
Although, site 72-88 yields a different patterning of wild plants to the cultigens present
within it overall site assemblage. 72-88 is interpreted as being a storage/refuse area, thus
the higher percentages of tropical cultigens, primarily Zea mays (corn), is not surprising.
To further explore the Mashantucket decisions related to the different types of
food types present, specifically wild plants which include mast products, I have evaluated
three different feature contexts: stratified pits, shallow pits and hearths. For the stratified
and shallow pit analysis, four sites, 72-91, 72-58, 72-171 and 72-161, were selected
because they are contextually similar and have over 1000 liters of soil floated and
analyzed per site (Table 1). For the hearth analysis, three sites, 72-91. 72-58 and 72-66,
were chosen for the same reasons as outline for the stratified and shallow pits.
The standardized density data from stratified pits are based on the following sites
and associated features: (1) 72-91, Feature 92; (2) 72-58, Features 3, 12, and 13; (3) 72171, Feature 13; (4) 72-161, Feature 1 and 137. In Figures 20-23, wild plants (which
include mast products) dominate the stratified pit assemblages within these four sites. At
72-91, mast products comprise over 69% (Figure 20), 72-58 over 64% (Figure 21), 72171 over 76% (Figure 22), 72-161 over 85% (Figure 23). These numbers correlate well
with the overall mast product percentages recovered at each site in Figure 16. The
stratified pit assemblages are remarkably similar to the overall site assemblages –
possibly due to the fact that many of the botanicals recovered are from these wellpreserved contexts. When evaluating the specific decisions that were employed in the
creation of these contexts, comparing 72-91, 72-171 and 72-161 to 72-58 gives a unique
93
glimpse at different behaviors associated with presence of the mast products. Very little
nutmeat has been recovered from the stratified pits within the three sites in contrast to the
larger amount of nutmeat recovered from the stratified pits, specifically Feature 13, at 7258 (Figure 21). But that is not to say that all these stratified pits were at some point
storage pits. They still may have been utilized later as refuse pits as the household was
abandoned. But the increased presence at 72-58 could possibly signal roasting activity in
which the inhabitants of the site were participating.
Although 72-58 stratified contexts were the only ones to yield nutmeat, many
additional wild plants are located within the four stratified pit assemblages. Especially
72-91 and 72-58 have a variety of wild plants – all food related – which comprise less
than 5-10% of the stratified pit assemblages. In Figures 20-23, although the wild plant
types are not ubiquitous within the stratified pits that should not diminish their cultural
significance. These types of plants would have supplied the Mashantucket Pequot with a
wide variety of foods to subsist upon. I would like to note the decrease in presence of
wild plant types after 72-171 (1765-1775 A.D.) is inhabited. It is hard to discern if this
decrease is due to a cultural event, such as a decline in resources related to land
circumscription, or related to taphonomic and preservation issues within those specific
sites.
The analysis of shallow pits, less than 50 centimeters in depth, from these four
sites helps to further clarify the relationship between the decrease in plant types and
decision-making of the Mashantucket Pequot after 72-171 was occupied (1765-1775
A.D.). At each site, more than four shallow pits are included in this analysis. These
specific feature contexts may be associated with short-term storage or refuse or even a
94
single episodic event at the site related to food consumption and processing. At site 72-91
(Figure 24) and 72-58 (Figure 25) nine plant types are represented and after 72-171
(Figure 26) and 72-161 (Figure 27) are occupied this number does not significantly
diminish. Although mast products are not a significant plant type recovered from these
contexts, in comparison to stratified pits, the shallow pits do offer a unique glimpse at
perhaps what could be considered “snap shot” decisions related to the types of plants
utilized and chosen for consumption. For example, wild plants (excluding mast products),
such as Prunus sp. (cherry), Cornus sp. (cherry) and Rhus sp. (sumac) at select sites,
continue to make up a significant portion of the plants exploited at all four sites (Figures
24-27).
Last, I evaluated hearth contexts from three sites: (1) 72-91, Features 26, 32, 77,
83, and 116; (2) 72-58, Feature 6; and (3) 72-66, Feature 1. The above statements of
continued use of different types of wild plants (which include mast products) is also
corroborated (Figures 27-30). It is assumed that the plant types recovered from the hearth
contexts at these three sites are more likely a representation of a last time the hearth was
utilized. Mast products appear to make up a significant portion of both 72-91 (Carya sp.
and Corylus americana; Figure 28) and 72-58 (Quercus sp.; Figure 29) with decrease
numbers of other wild plants. It is interesting to note that Quercus sp. (oak) from 72-58
was not recovered in vast quantities in other contexts. It is only seen in these specific
cooking contexts while other mast products are seen to be stored or part of refuse pits in
the stratified or shallow pits.
The presence or cooking of mast products are significantly decreased within site
72-66 (Figure 30). Mast products comprise a very small portion with wild plants, such as
95
Rhus sp. (sumac) and indeterminate seeds (as mentioned earlier) comprising the majority
of the sample. Although different plant types are represented at each site, roughly nine
different plant types are represented within each hearth and wild plants do not appear to
diminish in representation with the plants consumed by the Mashantucket Pequot from
1675-1800 A.D. (Figures 28-30).
It is important to note that all different types of wild plants, not just mast
products, have been recovered at 72-66 and also the other nine sites (Figures 6-15).
Often within the assemblages, there is a significant presence of fruits, like Gaylussacia
sp. (huckleberry), Rhus sp. (sumac) Rubus (raspberry) and weedy seeds, such as
Chenopodium sp. (goosefoot), Phytolacca americana (pokeweed) and Polygonum sp.
(knotweed). As noted in the ethnographic uses for each archaeological plant type, often
the weedy seeds are utilized for immediate consumption while the fruits can be consumed
on site or dried for future use (Appendix B). This diversity in ways to consume these
types of plants would have been extremely useful to the Mashantucket Pequot, especially
during times in which harvests of cultigens were not as bountiful or for storage during the
winter months when other foodstuffs were not available.
This analysis of wild plants suggests continuity during a time period in which
Native Americans were being asked to convert fully to Euro-American farming
technique. However, the variability that exists within each assemblage is most probably
related to specific cultural choices at the household level and also the environmental
circumscription which the Mashantucket Pequot were having to manage and overcome
during this time period. The Mashantucket Pequot are not relying upon domesticates to
create the foundation for their food resources from 1675 to 1800 A.D. Instead, they
96
appear to heavily rely upon plant resources from “wild” contexts, the “hidden harvests,”
in spite of decreasing availability of such lands within the boundaries of the Reservation.
This archaeological data support my expectation about the continued use of wild plants
and also suggests that the Mashantucket managed those wild plant resources, possibly by
harvesting and management for mast trees, and/or by propagating other wild-based plants
such as weedy seeds and shrub-based fruits.
Tropical Cultigens
The archaeological data about tropical cultigens are presented in this section to
investigate the expectation that the Mashantucket Pequot continued to use tropical
cultigens during this period of land circumscription. Based upon the ethnographic
information related to the archaeological data, three plant types recovered are considered
a tropical cultigen: (1) Cucurbita sp. (squash); (2) Phaselous vulgaris (common bean);
and (3) Zea mays (corn). Figure 16, which was utilized to discuss the presence of mast
products and wild plants, also highlights these plant types. Typically, the tropical
cultigens comprise a small portion, around 5%, of the archaeobotanical assemblage per
site (Figures 6-15). At site 72-91 and 72-88, tropical cultigens have higher presence – at
72-91 around 22% (Figure 6) and 72-88 around 50% (Figure 11). This is more likely
related to the cultural contexts in which these remains are recovered - the remains are
associated with storage or refuse pits. The increase of tropical cultigens at 72-88 also
helps to support the interpretation that the site is indeed a storage area that was utilized by
the Mashantucket Pequot during different points in time. The only two sites that these
types of remains were not recovered at 72-161 and 72-70B, which where occupied
between 1780-1800 A.D. (Figures 13 and 14). However at these sites, mast products,
97
wild plants and also Old World domesticates are recovered (Figures 13 and 14). The lack
of these remains recovered could be tied to the recovery methods – less than 230 liters at
72-161 and 72-70B less than 66 liters of soil were floated and analyzed (Table 1).
However, if the lack of the tropical cultigen is associated with specific household
decisions this is extremely significant and may demonstrate a cultural shift. As recorded
in the ethnographic information about the archaeological plant types (Appendix B), these
specific tropical cultigens have been recorded in the New England and Northeast region.
The Mashantucket Pequot not participating in the consumption of Tropical cultigen
plants would have deeper meaning within the household and decision-making processes
of the Mashantucket Pequot, perhaps signifying the beginnings of a shift within the
traditional knowledge related to plants.
Although they are not as frequent as mast, weeds or fruits, tropical cultigens, such
as Zea mays (maize) are present at eight of the ten sites (Figures 6-12, 15; Table 5). There
is also a variable representation of Cucurbita asp. (squash) recovered at two sites, 72-91
and 72-58 and Phaselous vulgaris (beans) recovered at four sites, 72-91, 72-58, 72-171,
and 72-66 (Table 4). Generally, tropical cultigens are present in all of the cultural
contexts under investigation – stratified pits, shallow pits, and hearth. However, they do
seem to decrease in presence within all contexts (Figures 20-30). In spite of lower
presence of tropical cultigens, this analysis demonstrates that the Mashantucket Pequot
continue to cultivate and harvest tropical cultigens from 1675-1800 A.D. with some shifts
in the later part of the eighteenth century. The data supports the expectation that the
Mashantucket maintained their use of Indigenous cultigens and wild plants even in face
of serious circumscription of habitats, resources and social challenges.
98
Euro-American Cultigens
In following section, I present the results, which explore the expectation that the
Mashantucket Pequot adopted Old World cultigens and plants that easily incorporated
into their traditional plant strategies without affecting the scheduling of other Indigenous
plant activities. In total only two Old World cultigens have been recovered within all ten
archaeological sites from 1675-1800 A.D. that are labeled as foodstuffs (Table 5;
Appendix B). The two Old World species are Prunus persica (peach), which has been
recovered at five sites, and Triticum sp. (wheat), which has been identified at two sites
(Figures 6, 10, and 12-15). Generally the Old World cultigens comprise a small portion
of the site assemblages (if they are present at all) (Figure 17). Many households do not
have these plant types from 1675-1800 A.D. For example, Prunus persica (peach) is in
higher densities at 72-91 (Figure 6). It reappears in the plant assemblage at 72-171, 7297C, 72-161, 72-70B and 72-66 but again in relatively low numbers. Old World cultigens
are relatively rare and cultivating peach would have been a multi-year investment for the
Mashantucket Pequot and should be seen as a significant addition to their subsistence.
The management and harvest of peach trees may have paralleled other plant strategies,
such as their use of hickory and other nut mast trees. The Mashantucket Pequot may have
chosen this particular Old World cultigen due to its similarity to other Indigenous mast
and fruit products. That is, it leant itself to adoption into the Mashantucket Pequot
environmental strategies.
As noted in the ethnographic information regarding these species, they tend to
have multiple ways to consume and are easily processed for later consumption (Appendix
B). For example, the Iroquois tended to eat Prunus persica (peach) in select ways: the
99
fruit is mashed, made into small cakes, and dried for future use. Also, it is eaten raw or its
fruit can be sun or fire dried and stored for future use and used as food for the hunt, dried
as fruit cakes soaked in warm water and cooked as a sauce or mixed with corn bread
(Waugh 1916:129 in Moerman 1988). I did not find ethnographic connections in the use
of Triticum sp. (wheat) within any indigenous communities east of the Mississippi, but
within communities in the Southwest and California it was utilized to bake bread ((Bean
and Saubel 1972:142 in Moerman 1998) and also used to make gruel (perhaps as a
supplement for maize) (Russell 1908:76 in Moerman 1998). Perhaps the variety of
relatively simple processing methods associated with these select Old World
domesticates made them suitable candidates for adoption onto Mashantucket household
diets.
It appears that the archaeological evidence supports my expectation and suggests
that the Mashantucket Pequot did not buy wholeheartedly Euro-American cultigens
during this time period. They appear to rely more heavily upon tropical domesticates and
wild plants as the main source of food (Figure 17). The presence of wheat and peach
seems only cursory until 72-97C A.D. (occupied in 1780 A.D.) when Old World
cultigens rise above 1% for the first time (Figure 17).
Other Historical Data
The following historical information directly relevant to the Mashantucket Pequot
Reservation during the 17th and 18th century parallels and supports the archaeological
data that discusses the cultural use and consumption of mast products, other wild plants
and cultigens. The archaeological component to the Ethnohistory project is an attempt to
add to the sparse historical record. Therefore the historic information should be seen as
100
supplementary to the archaeological information while offering further information to
understand Mashantucket Pequot decision making during this tumultuous time period of
land and social circumscription.
I begin with a discussion with the historical documents about the Mashantucket
Pequot use of tropical cultigens – a topic which can often be found in many historical
accounts as Euro-Americans appear extremely interested in the progressive use of these
types of crops (Bennett 1955; Cronon 1983). The following colonial account from 1761
demonstrates that the Mashantucket are still growing tropical crops, such as maize and
beans. It highlights that Mashantucket Pequot are in contestation with colonial figures
about herbage areas and planting bean and corn.
“William and Justice Minor [colonial inhabitants of Ledyard] put their
unruly horses Cattle and Sheep into the said large pasture and have eat up
and destroyed good part of their corn and beans… Some of them did plant
ye field of about an acre with corn and beans which one N. Holdredge
challenging the improvement by force of lease from said Williams which
have now been gathered and carried away.” (Connecticut Indian Papers
Oct. 2, 1750)
The products of their Mashantucket Pequot labor had been carried away. At this
time in the colonial record, the Pequot had been living on the Reservation for over fifty
years and exploitable land would have dwindled down to 1000 acres (Figure 3). What is
also noted and will be discussed in Chapter Seven is that they are having difficulty
“improving” the land within the Reservation boundaries due to its physical nature, which
is rocky and unfit for planting. However, in spite of the challenges from the colonial
authorities, the Mashantucket Pequot strive to find suitable land to continue to cultivate
traditional cultigens (rather than Old World crops) within this contested space.
101
As recovered in the archaeological record, there are some Old World crops that
are cultivated by the Mashantucket Pequot. A colonial account from 1702 discusses the
management of fruit trees (more likely Old World domesticates such as Prunus persica
(peach) and Malus sp. (apple), although Malus sp. (apple) has not been recovered
archaeologically at Mashantucket but has been mentioned in other historical accounts
(Connecticut Indian Papers n.d.). The following account is one of the first that speak to
the land conflicts that arise between Euro-Americans and the Mashantucket Pequot –
which involved the use of Old World crops within the lands on and around
Mashantucket.
“Indians have been much disturbed again by some of the people of Groton
by their driving said Indians from their improvements and taking away
their fields and fruit trees which for a long time they have planted and
improved on at Mashantucket lands.” (Connecticut General Assembly
Records 1702).
At the time of this narrative, over 3500 acres of land would have been accessible.
This would have included the original 1666 boundaries of the Reservation, Walnut Hill
and Noank (Figures 2 and 3). The reservation would have been lived on for over 30
years and resources may have started to decrease when this account was written,
highlighting how their improvements near the reservation boundaries had been disturbed
and managed products had been taken away. What is important to note is that those Old
World cultigens that are incorporated into Mashantucket plant strategies are easily
adopted due to their similarity to the cultivating and harvesting requirements of
traditional plant resources. The archaeological and historical record supports the
expectation that the Mashantucket Pequot adopted Euro-based plants that were easily
102
incorporated into Indigenous land use and plant practices and that allowed the
Mashantucket Pequot to maintain their cultural strategies of autonomy and heritage.
Summary
Within this chapter, I have discussed how the diet composition of the
Mashantucket Pequot was quite dynamic and involved the use of wild plants, as well as
tropical cultigens in various ways. Although the expectations outlined in Chapter Two
are supported by the archaeological data alongside the supplementary historical accounts,
I would also like to address the many nuances that exist within the datasets. Each site
assemblage illustrates the choices that the Mashantucket Pequot took from 1675-1800
A.D. Not all the same plants were used within each household across time and space but
the variable presence across these ten sites suggests that the Mashantucket Pequot were
able to maintain their traditional plant-based knowledge of mast products, fruits, wild
weedy seeds, and tropical cultigens with the incorporation of select Old World cultigens.
In essence, as certain plants types decreased in use, others were incorporated in the
assemblages to maintain a cultural foundation for their traditional Indigenous identity and
their survival as Mashantucket Pequot and the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation.
103
72-91:
16751680
A.D
Asclepias sp.
Boraginaceae Family
Carpinus caroliniana
Compositae Family
Cyperaceae Family
Cyperus sp.
Galium sp.
Juglans nigra
Juncus sp.
Labiatae Family
Latuca sp.
Polygonaceae Family
Polygonum sp.
Portulaca sp.
Potamogeton sp.
Ranunculaceae Family
Vibernum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitaceae Family
Acalypha sp.
Carex sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Illex sp.
Juglans sp.
Nysaa sylavatica
Phytolaca americana
Scirupus sp.
Triticum sp.
Ericaceae Family
Juglans cinerea
Legumosaeae Family
Vaccinium sp.
Vitis sp.
Chenopodium/Amaranthus sp.
Crataegus sp.
Gramineae Family
Myrica pensylvanica
Phaselous vulgaris
Prunus sp.
Comptonia peregrina
Gaylussacia sp.
Prunus persica
Rubus sp.
Unidentified Nutmeat
Cornus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Zea mays
Indeterminate Nutshell
Carya sp.
Inderterminate Seed Fragments
Corylus americana
Totals of Plant Types Per Site
72-164A: 72-34A: 72-58:
1680168017601690 A.D. 11690
1770
A.D.
A.D.
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
72-171:
17651775
A.D.
72-88:
17751800
A.D.
72-97C:
17801785
A.D.
72-161:
17801790
A.D.
72-70B:
17801800
A.D.
70-66:
17851795
A.D.
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
26
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
14
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
37
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
12
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
15
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
7
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
18
1
1
1
1
14
1
1
1
1
9
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
14
Table 4. Presence of All Identified Plant Types Across the Ten Sites.
104
Totals of
Specific Plant
Types at Ten
Sites
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
8
9
9
10
10
72-91:
16751680
A.D
Asclepias sp.
Cyperus sp.
Juglans nigra
Juncus sp.
Latuca sp.
Polygonum sp.
Polygonum hydropiper
Portulaca sp.
Vibernum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Carex sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Illex sp.
Juglans sp.
Phytolaca americana
Scirupus sp.
Triticum sp.
Juglans cinerea
Vaccinium sp.
Vitis sp.
Chenopodium/Amaranthus sp.
Crataegus sp.
Phaselous vulgaris
Prunus sp.
Comptonia peregrina
Gaylussacia sp.
Prunus persica
Rubus sp.
Cornus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Zea mays
Carya sp.
Corylus americana
Totals of Plant Types Per Site
72164A:
16801690
A.D.
1
7234A:
168011690
A.D.
72- 7258: 171:
1760- 17651770 1775
A.D. A.D.
72- 7288: 97C:
1775- 17801800 1785
A.D. A.D.
72161:
17801790
A.D.
7270B:
17801800
A.D.
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
21
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
23
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
9
1
1
1
7
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
11
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
14
1
1
6
1
1
10
1
1
5
Table 5. Presence of Food Types Identified Across the Ten Sites.
105
70- Totals
66: of Plant
1785- Type at
1795 All
A.D. Sites
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
1
4
4
5
1
5
1
5
1
5
6
1
6
1
6
1
8
1
9
1
10
9
0A
17
.D
60
.
-1
72
77
-1
0
71
A
.D
:1
.
76
517
72
75
-8
A
8:
.D
17
.
75
-1
80
72
0A
-9
7C
.D
:1
.
78
017
72
85
-1
A
61
.D
:1
.
78
017
90
72
-7
A
0B
.D
.
:1
78
018
00
70
A
.D
-6
6:
.
17
85
-1
79
5A
.D
.
-5
8:
72
.
.D
.D
69
0A
01
68
011
69
:1
72
-3
4A
68
0A
51
16
7
:1
68
64
A
-1
72
72
-9
1:
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Figure 5. Number of Plant Types Per Site.
106
72-91: 1675-1680 A.D
Carya sp.
63%
Indeterminate
Phaseolus Corylus
Seed Fragments
vulgaris americana
Myrica 2%
1%
2%
pensylvanica
Zea mays Whole
Indeterminate
3%
1%
Nutshell
3%
Comptonia
peregina
4%
Zea mays
Fragment
20%
Figure 6. Percentages of Plant Types at 72-91. (Color Scheme: Gray – Mast Products;
Orange – Tropical Cultigens; Yellow – Wild Plants; White – Indeterminate Types; Pink –
Old World Cultigens. Plant types less than 1% are listed in order of their percentages
with the assemblages: Rubus sp., Juglans sp., Carex sp. Crateagus sp., Gaylussacia sp.,
Rhus sp., Vitis sp., Prunus persica, Zea mays Cupule, Curcurbita sp., Polygonum
hydropiper, Ilex sp., Juglans cinerea, Indeterminate nutmeat, Triticum sp., Vaccinium sp,
Scurpis sp., Prunus sp., Potamogeton sp., Quercus sp.)
107
72-164A: 1680-1690 A.D.
Corylus
Rhus sp. Zea mays Cupule Quercus sp.
americana
1%
1%
1% Cornus sp. 1%
1% Asclepias sp.
1%
Chenopodium sp.
2%
Gaylussacia sp.
2%
Indeterminate
Nutmeat
2%
Carya sp.
3%
Indeterminate
Seed Fragments
30%
Indeterminate
Nutshell
58%
Figure 7. Percentages of Plant Types at 72-164A (Color Scheme: Gray – Mast Products;
Orange – Tropical Cultigens; Yellow – Wild Plants; White – Indeterminate Types).
108
72-34A: 1680-1690 A.D.
Indeterminate
Myrica
Rubus sp. Gaylussacia sp. Nutshell
Cornus sp.
pensylvanica
2%
1%
3%
1%
1%
Nyssa sp.
Acalypha sp.
Indeterminate
2%
1%
Nutmeat
4%
Zea mays
Fragment
4%
Indeterminate
Seed Fragments
12%
Comptonia
peregina
29%
Corylus
americana
26%
Carya sp.
14%
Figure 8. Percentages of Plant Types at 72-34 (Color Scheme: Gray – Mast Products;
Orange – Tropical Cultigens; Yellow – Wild Plants; White – Indeterminate Types).
109
Gaylussacia sp.
1%
Rubus sp.Viburnum sp.
1%
Quercus sp. Indeterminate
Zea mays Cupule 1%
Nutshell
2%
1%
2%
Cyperus sp.
Carya sp.
Zea mays
1%
3%
Fragment
4%
72-58: 1760-1770 A.D.
Indeterminate
Nutmeat
43%
Indeterminate
Seed Fragments
15%
Myrica
pensylvanica
Rhus sp.
5%
8%
Corylus
americana
11%
Figure 9. Percentages of Plant Types at 72-58.
(Color Scheme: Gray – Mast Products; Orange – Tropical Cultigens; Yellow – Wild
Plants; White – Indeterminate Types. Plant types less than 1% are listed in order of their
percentages with the assemblages: Scurpis sp., Polygonum sp., Cornus sp., Curcurbita
sp., Zea mays whole, Chenopodium sp., Carex sp., Vaccinium sp., Phytolaca sp.,
Phaselous vulgaris, Juglans sp., Galium sp., Comptonia peregrina, Vitis sp., Latuca sp.,
Juncus sp., Illex sp., Crataegus sp., Carpinus carolinia).
110
Zea mays
Cupule
1%
Chenopodium sp.
1%
72-171: 1765-1775 A.D.
Indeterminate
Myrica
Nutmeat
pensylvanica
1%
1%
Carya sp.
28%
Cornus Quercus
sp.
sp.
2%
1%
Prunus sp.
2%
Prunus persica
2%
Phaseolus
vulgaris
Rhus sp.
3%
5%
Juglans nigra
6%
Indeterminate
Nutshell
23%
Corylus
americana
19%
Indeterminate
Seed Fragments
8%
Figure 10. Percentages of Plant Types at 72-171 (Color Scheme: Gray – Mast Products;
Orange – Tropical Cultigens; Yellow – Wild Plants; White – Indeterminate Types).
111
72-88: 1775-1800 A.D.
Comptonia
peregina
8%
Zea mays
Cupule
38%
Cornus sp.
8%
Indeterminate
Seed
Fragments
8%
Prunus sp.
8%
Corylus
americana
15%
Quercus sp.
8%
Zea mays Whole
8%
Figure 11. Percentages of Plant Types at 72-88 (Color Scheme: Gray – Mast Products;
Orange – Tropical Cultigens; Yellow – Wild Plants; White – Indeterminate Types).
112
Vicia sp.
Juglans sp. 72-97C: 1780-1785 A.D.
1%
Prunus persica Triticum sp.
Phytolaca sp. 1%
Viola sp.
1%
1%
1%
Crataegus sp.
1% Carya sp.
Portulaca sp.
1%
1%
Cornus sp.
1%
1%
Chenopodium sp.
Acalypha sp.
1%
1%
Juglans cinerea
3%
Zea mays Cupule
9%
Indeterminate
Nutshell
Corylus
50%
americana
11%
Indeterminate
Seed Fragments
17%
Figure 12. Percentages of Plant Types at 72-97C (Color Scheme: Gray – Mast Products;
Orange – Tropical Cultigens; Yellow – Wild Plants; White – Indeterminate Types; Pink –
Old World Cultigens).
113
72-161: 1780-1790 A.D.
Triticum sp.
Comptonia 1%
peregina
1%
Rubus sp.
3%
Rhus sp.
4%
Juglans cinerea
Gaylussacia sp.
0%
Nyssa sp.
1%
0%
Prunus sp.
0%
Vaccinium sp.
0%
Corylus
americana
39%
Indeterminate
Seed Fragments
17%
Indeterminate
Nutshell
17%
Carya sp.
17%
Figure 13. Percentages of Plant Types at 72-161 (Color Scheme: Gray – Mast Products;
Orange – Tropical Cultigens; Yellow – Wild Plants; White – Indeterminate Types; Pink –
Old World Cultigens).
114
72-70B: 1780-1800 A.D.
Carya sp. Crataegus sp.
3%
3%
Corylus
americana
36%
Indeterminate
Seed Fragments
30%
Vitis sp.
3%
Indeterminate
Nutshell
6%
Prunus
persica
6%
Myrica
pensylvanica
12%
Figure 14. Percentages of Plant Types at 72-70B (Color Scheme: Gray – Mast Products;
Orange – Tropical Cultigens; Yellow – Wild Plants; White – Indeterminate Types; Pink –
Old World Cultigens).
115
70-66: 1785-1795 A.D. Rubus sp.
Carya sp.
0%
Phaseolus
Quercus
vulgaris
sp.
0%
Corylus
0%
americana
0%
1%
Prunus persica
Gaylussacia sp.
1%
2%
Zea mays
Fragment
2% Indeterminate
Nutshell
3%
Rhus sp.
47%
Indeterminate
Seed Fragments
44%
Figure 15. Percentages of Plant Types at 72-66 (Color Scheme: Gray – Mast Products;
Orange – Tropical Cultigens; Yellow – Wild Plants; White – Indeterminate Types; Pink –
Old World Cultigens)
116
117
Figure 16. Density Food Categorization Per Volume (L) of Soil Floated.
0 A.D
A.D.
5-168
.D.
: 167
-1690
1
0
9
.
8
6
690 A
2
7
.
0 A.D
4A: 1
80-11
6
6
1
1
:
2
5 A.D
0-177
7
A
6
4
7
3
.D.
1
:
5-177
8
72
6
.
5
7
800 A
1
2
7
1:
85 A.D
775-1
1
:
72-17
A.D.
8
8
80-17
7
1
72.D.
:
-1790
C
0
7
8
9
7
.
1
800 A
72
1:
5 A.D
780-1
1
72-16
:
B
5-179
0
8
7
7
1
2
:
7
70-66
!"
#"
$"
%"
&"
'"
("
)"
*"
OLD WORLD CULTIGENS
WILD PLANTS
MAST PPRODUCTS
TROPICAL CULTIGENS
7
2-
:
91
A
64
:1
4A
72
68
:1
7
2-
:
58
17
60
.
.D
0A
69
11
0
.
.D
0A
69
-3
1
0-
68
.D
0A
8
16
-1
72
16
75
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
7
7
:
88
2-
-1
65
17
72
:
7C
-9
17
72
1:
16
1
72
:
0B
-7
17
:
66
70
.
.D
5A
9
17
85
7
1
.
.D
0A
0
8
-1
80
.
.D
0A
9
17
078
.
.D
5A
8
7
-1
80
.
.D
0A
0
8
-1
75
.
.D
5A
7
7
118
Figure 17. Percentages of Food Categories Across Ten Sites.
72
70
:1
71
1
-
7
-1
.
.D
A
WILD PLANTS
MAST PPRODUCTS
TROPICAL CULTIGENS
OLD WORLD CULTIGENS
119
Figure 18. Mast Products Per Volume (L) of Soil Floated.
.D
D.
680 A
.
90 A.
675-1
1
:
0 A.D
1
80-16
6
1
A.D.
:
72-9
-1169
0
A
.D.
8
4
770
6
6
1
1
.
:
0
6
A
775 A
72-1
7
4
1
1
3
0 A.D
5
:
2
6
8
7
A.D.
: 17
5-180
72-5
1
7
7
7
.D.
1
1
-1785
:
0
8
72
8
8
7
790 A
1
1
72
A.D.
:
0
C
8
.D.
: 17
-1800
1
0
72-97
6
8
1
7
795 A
1
1
:
72
5
B
8
0
: 17
72-7
70-66
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.012
0.014
0.016
Carya sp.
Corylus sp.
Quercus sp.
Juglans sp.
Juglans nigra
Juglans cinerea
-
72
:
91
16
72
16
4A
A
34
72
:1
-
72
58
7
:1
72
-
17
0
72
-9
18
75
72
-1
:
61
:
0B
120
0A
7
.D
5A
9
7
-1
85
17
.
.D
:
66
0-
0
8
-1
80
17
.
.D
0A
-7
72
9
7
-1
80
17
.
.D
A
5
8
7
-1
80
17
.
.D
:
7C
0A
Figure 19. Percentages of Mast Products.
72
:
88
.
.D
5A
7
7
-1
65
17
.
.D
A
:
71
-1
70
7
-1
60
.
.D
0A
9
16
1
-
0
68
.
.D
0A
69
1
0-
68
:1
.D
0A
8
16
75
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
.
Carya sp.
Corylus sp.
Juglans cinerea
Juglans nigra
Juglans sp.
Quercus sp.
72-91 STRATIFIED PIT 1675-1670 A.D
Rubus sp.
1%
Zea mays Whole
1%
Phaselous vulgaris
1%
Indeterminate Seed
Fragments
1%
Indeterminate
Nutshell
1%
Zea mays fragment
26%
Carya sp.
68%
Figure 20. Percentages of Plant Types Recovered from Stratified Pits at 71-91 (Color
Scheme: Gray – Mast Products; Orange – Tropical Cultigens; Yellow – Wild Plants;
White – Indeterminate Types; Pink – Old World Cultigens. Plant types less than 1% are
listed in order of their percentages with the assemblages: Myrica pensylvanica, Carex sp.,
Galyussacia sp., Corylus americana, Vitis sp., Rhus sp., Polygonum hydropiper,
Indeterminate Nutmeat, Cucurbita sp. Seed, Prunus persica, Juglans sp., Juglans
cinerea).
121
72-58 STRATIFIED PIT 1760-1770 A.D.
Cyperus sp.
1%
Rubus sp.
1%
Zea mays Cupule Vibernum sp.
1%
Quercus 1%
sp.
1%
Indeterminate
Nutmeat
49%
Gaylussacia sp.
1%
Indeterminate
Nutshell
2%
Zea mays Fragments
4% Myrica
pensylvanica
5%
Rhus sp.
8%
Corylus sp.
12%
Indeterminate
Seed Fragments
13%
Figure 21. Percentages of Plant Types Recovered from Stratified Pits at 71-58 (Color
Scheme: Gray – Mast Products; Orange – Tropical Cultigens; Yellow – Wild Plants;
White – Indeterminate Types; Pink – Old World Cultigens. Plant types less than 1% are
listed in order of their percentages with the assemblages: Cornus sp., Zea mays Whole,
Carya sp., Chenopodium sp., Polygonum sp., Scirpus sp., Galium sp., Carex sp.,
Vaccinium sp., Latuca sp., Juncus sp., Carpinus sp.).
122
72-171 STRATIFIED PIT 1765-1775 A.D
Zea mays
Cupule
2%
Phaselous
Rhus sp.
vulgaris
7%
Juglans
nigra
4%
6%
Indeterminate
Seeds
11%
Indeterminate
Nutshell
38%
Carya sp.
32%
Figure 22. Percentages of Plant Types Recovered from Stratified Pits at 72-171 (Color
Scheme: Gray – Mast Products; Orange – Tropical Cultigens; Yellow – Wild Plants;
White – Indeterminate Types; Pink – Old World Cultigens).
123
72-161 STRATIFIED PIT 1780-1790 A.D.
Juglans cinerea
2%
Scirpus Rhus sp.
sp.
3%
2%
Indeterminate
Nutshell
5%
Indeterminate
Seeds
10%
Carya sp.
43%
Corylus sp.
35%
Figure 23. Percentages of Plant Types Recovered from Stratified Pits at 72-161 (Color
Scheme: Gray – Mast Products; Orange – Tropical Cultigens; Yellow – Wild Plants;
White – Indeterminate Types; Pink – Old World Cultigens).
124
72-91 SHALLOW PIT: 1675-1680 A.D.
Illex sp. Myrica
2% pensylvanica
3%
Indeterminate Comptonia
Seed Fragments peregrina
5%
6%
Crataegus sp.
8%
Carya sp.
38%
Indeterminate
Nutshell
22%
Phaselous
vulgaris
8%
Zea mays
fragment
8%
Figure 24. Percentages of Plant Types Recovered from Shallow Pits at 72-91
(Color Scheme: Gray – Mast Products; Orange – Tropical Cultigens; Yellow – Wild
Plants; White – Indeterminate Types; Pink – Old World Cultigens).
125
72-58 SHALLOW PIT 1760-1770 A.D.
Carpinus Cucurbita sp. Seed
caroliniana
3%
3%
Galium sp.
3%
Zea mays
Fragment
3%
Zea mays Whole
3%
Prunus sp.
39%
Cyperus sp.
6%
Illex sp.
19%
Cornus sp.
22%
Figure 25. Percentages of Plant Types Recovered from Shallow Pits at 72-58
(Color Scheme: Gray – Mast Products; Orange – Tropical Cultigens; Yellow – Wild
Plants; White – Indeterminate Types; Pink – Old World Cultigens).
126
72-171 SHALLOW PIT 1765-1775 A.D.
Cornus sp.
33%
Zea mays Cupule
0%
Myrica
pensylvanica
16%
Prunus persica
17%
Indeterminate
Nutshell
17%
Indeterminate
Seed Fragments
17%
Figure 26. Percentages of Plant Types Recovered from Shallow Pits at 72-171
(Color Scheme: Gray – Mast Products; Orange – Tropical Cultigens; Yellow – Wild
Plants; White – Indeterminate Types; Pink – Old World Cultigens).
127
72-161 SHALLOW PIT 1780-1790 A.D.
Galium sp.
1%
Carpinus sp.
1%
Latuca
sp.
1%
Prunus persica
1%
Rhus sp.
1%
Triticum sp.
6%
Indeterminate
Nutmeat
9%
Zea mays fragment
51%
Cornus sp.
29%
Figure 27. Percentages of Plant Types Recovered from Shallow Pits at 72-161
(Color Scheme: Gray – Mast Products; Orange – Tropical Cultigens; Yellow – Wild
Plants; White – Indeterminate Types; Pink – Old World Cultigens).
128
72-91 HEARTH 1675-1680 A.D.
Gaylussacia sp.
1%
Juglans cinerea Crataegus sp.
1%
4%
Indeterminate
Seed Fragments
6%
Inderminate
Nutshell
11%
Carya sp.
47%
Zea may Fragments
12%
Corylus sp.
18%
Figure 28. Percentages of Plant Types Recovered from Hearths at 72-91 (Color Scheme:
Gray – Mast Products; Orange – Tropical Cultigens; Yellow – Wild Plants; White –
Indeterminate Types; Pink – Old World Cultigens).
129
72-58 HEARTH 1760-1770 A.D.
Indeterminate Seed
Fragments
Corylus sp. Illex sp.
4%
Rhus
sp.
3%
3%
4%
Vaccinium sp.
4%
Zea may
Fragments
4%
Zea mays
Whole
7%
Quercus sp.
57%
Myrica pensylvanica
14%
Figure 29. Percentages of Plant Types Recovered from Hearths at 72-58 (Color Scheme:
Gray – Mast Products; Orange – Tropical Cultigens; Yellow – Wild Plants; White –
Indeterminate Types; Pink – Old World Cultigens).
130
72-66 HEARTH 1785-1795 A.D.
Inderterminate Nutshell
0%
Phaseolus vulgaris
0%
Carya sp.
0%
Prunus persica Rubus sp.
1%
1% Gaylussacia sp.
1%
Zea mays Fragments
2%
Rhus sp.
39%
Indeterminate Seed
Fragments
56%
Figure 30. Percentages of Plant Types Recovered from Hearths at 72-66 (Color Scheme:
Gray – Mast Products; Orange – Tropical Cultigens; Yellow – Wild Plants; White –
Indeterminate Types; Pink – Old World Cultigens).
131
CHAPTER 6
RESULTS OF MEDICINAL PLANTS
Introduction
In the following chapter, I discuss the medicinal data recovered from the ten
Mashantucket Pequot sites. Plants related to medicinal practices are often deeply linked
to the knowledge structures, traditions, in Indigenous communities. I expected that
medicinal plant use to be preserved and remain relatively stable if not even intensified
under the stresses of colonialism within the Mashantucket Pequot community from 16751800 A.D. I also anticipated that medicinal plants would be relatively hard to observe
archaeologically, since they tend to be rare and are often known only to a few people,
such as medicinal practitioners. Medicinal use is often tied to special contexts, such as
ritual areas. Consequently, I assume that medicinal plants would be differentially
distributed across the ten sites.
Archaeological and Ethnographic Data Associated with Medicinal Use
Similar to the dietary analysis, I investigated past ethnographic research on the
specific plant types I had identified within the archaeological record. Plant types were
only included in the ethnographic analysis if they were identified to genus and/or species
level. I did not attempt to categorize the eleven plant types that were identified to the
family level because an overwhelmingly large number species would have fallen under
that identification. However, I included ethnographic data if the genus name was
mentioned (no species name identified) within the ethnographic account.
Appendix C highlights the 41 plant types identified within the archaeological
contexts that can be attributed to medicinal use based upon the ethnographic record. To
132
document the ethnographic use of the plant, the following ethnographic and historical
resources, similar to the food ethnographic analysis, were utilized associated with each
geographic area: 1) Mashantucket Pequot (e.g,, Occum 1756 in Brookes 2006; Bulter
1939 in Simmons 1990); 2) New England (e.g. Bennett 1955; Fischer et al. 1997; Lamb
Richmond 1989; Tantaquidgeon 1972); 3) Northeast (e. g. Black 1980; Herrick 1977;
Tantaquidgeon 1946; 1972); and 4) Southeast (e.g. Hamel and Chiltoskey 1972; Swanton
1928; Tantaquidgeon 1972). It is important to note that even if a specific genus (and its
associated species found in Connecticut) was not recorded within the immediate
geographic boundaries of the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation, the ethnographic
information recorded in other geographic regions, such as the Northeast and Southeast,
was useful to demonstrate the knowledge embedded in the use of the plant type. In
essence, the information gathered from other regions is suggestive of how that type of
medical plant may have been used but not necessarily that it was used that way within the
Mashantucket Pequot community.
As recorded in Appendix C, out of the forty-one plant types identified at the ten
Mashantucket Pequot sites from 1675-1800 A.D, five medicinal plant types were directly
tied to the ethnographic accounts recorded from the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation
(Brooks and Warrior 2006; Simmons 1990). These include: (1) Rubus sp. (raspberry,
used for dysentery); (2) Rhus sp. (sumac, used for throat aid); (3) Quercus sp. (oak, used
for dysentery); (4) Prunus sp. (cherry, cold remedy and used for menstrual problems);
and (5) Comptonia peregrina (sweet fern , used for poison ivy) (Appendix D) . Except
for Prunus sp. (cherry), the plant types listed are not very frequent at the sites. The low
presence of medicinal plants directly associated with the Mashantucket ethnobotanical
133
record is more likely a factor of non-documentation because, as the archaeological record
illustrates as discussed in this section, medicinal plant types are recovered within specific
contexts at the ten households.
Medicinal Continuity
Table 6, highlights the presence of the different medicinal plant types found at
each site as outlined in Appendix C (Note: many of these plants can also be considered
serving other functions such as food, basket making etc.). Across those sites, select wild
plant medicinal types, including mast products, create roughly 54-98% of the total plants
per site (Figure 6-15). I assume that these larger quantities of wild plants types not only
correlates to the types of foodstuffs were consumed but also what types of plants were
used as medicine at the ten sites.
Ten plant types occur at more than five sites (Table 6). The medical plant types
with the highest presence are: (1) Corylus americana (hazelnut), is recovered at ten sites;
(2) Carya sp. (hickory), recovered at nine sites; and (3) Zea mays (corn), recovered at
eight sites. The remaining thirty-one plant types occur in less than four of the ten
archaeological sites.
Also, fifteen of the plant types are only found at one site (Table 6). Many of the
“one site” medicinal plant types are recovered from 72-91 (2 plant types), 72-58 (8
types), 72-171 (1 types) and 72-97 (3 types). The high rate of unique plant types
occurring at 72-58 is more likely not related to a cultural phenomenon but a product of
the intensive soil sampling and archaeobotanical processing of this specific site.
However, it is a possible that this specific household, during its occupation from 1760-
134
1770 A.D., may have contained unique knowledge in regards to the use of wild plants
which lead to the increase in archaeological visibility of “one site” plant types.
In essence, the observed distribution highlights significant variability of the
medicinal plants across the sites. Few plants types are recovered from all sites, signifying
the lack of continuity within the medical use of specific plant types at each site.
However, as the presence of specific plant types shift through time and space, there is
unique knowledge that is embedded within each plant type (Table 6; Appendix C) and
that knowledge was more likely passed down from generation to generation. Although
the given plant types were not recovered at each individual site from 1675-1800 A.D, it
does not necessary demonstrate the loss of that type of medicinal knowledge. Glaza
(2003) notes that wild plants as medicine well into the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
The archaeological data recorded in this analysis coupled with his findings suggest that
the knowledge was orally transmitted and a significant social activity because there is
very little record of it with the Mashantucket Pequot written arches. The medicinal
knowledge stayed alive, however, its usage (and preservation of evidence for it) appears
significantly more sporadic as conditions of cultural deposition and preservation
warranted.
Overall, the data do not demonstrate continuity in specific plant types but do
express a broad foundation and continuation of knowledge associated with variety of
medicinal plants recovered from 1675-1800 A.D. Thus, my expectation that there would
be continued presence of medicinal plants at all sites due to the deep links within
knowledge structures is not fully supported by the data. It is not seen within the
quantification of the medicinal data from each but is partially fulfilled through tracing the
135
presence of the certain plant types across the ten sites (especially the plant types with
more than two occurrences – often that presence is spread apart temporally; Table 6 It is
important to recognizing that the knowledge embedded in each plant type (Appendix C)
and how that knowledge could have been transmitted across time and space from 16751800 A.D.
Medicinal Visibility
To investigate the second expectation about the limited presence of medical plants
within the archaeological record is due to a specialized cultural use at the household
level, I have conducted a presence and densisty analysis of specific contexts from five of
the ten sites. A subset of sites, 72-91, 72-58, 72-171, 72-161 and 72-66 (which were also
analyzed in Chapter Five), contained similar contexts (stratified pits, shallow pits and
hearths) and had moderate to high quantities of botanicals preserved within these specific
contexts. The five sites each contain the following number of medicinal plant types based
upon the soil analyzed: 72-91, 22 types – 6,668 liters of soil sampled and processed; 2)
72-58, 25 types – 1,485 liters; 3) 72-171, 11 types - 1,584 liters; 4) 70-161, 11 types –
4,422 liters; and 5) 70-66, 9 types – 66 liters (Table 6).
First, I will discuss the results for the presence analysis at these sites. Site 72-66
did not have stratified and shallow pit, thus, those contexts were not included in that
portion of the analysis. Within Figure 31, sites 72-91 contains at least seventeen and 7258 contains twenty-four plant types within stratified contexts. At those two sites, the
stratified botanical assemblage comprises roughly 77-92% of the total plant types
recovered (Table 7). Thus, many of the medicinal plant types are recovered are found
within the stratified pit contexts.
136
The stratified pits at the occupation of 72-58 (1760-1770 A.D.) have the highest
presence of medicinal plants in contrast to the remaining contexts within the other sites
have very limited quantities of medicinal plant types (Figure 31). If these stratified pits
are interpreted as refuse from the clean up of house floors, fire hearths and other plantrelated activities within the household, it is not surprising that they would contain the
highest presence of medical plant types and that the other contexts, such as shallow pits
and even hearths, contain a limited spectrum of plant types (Figure 31). It is possible that
the hearth and shallow pit contexts are associated with single episodic activities that
would have involved a limited spectrum of plant types, such as prepping a certain plant
type(s) for a concoction to heal. From 1675-1800 A.D. it appears that shallow and hearth
contexts remain as deposits of medicinal plants but the number of plant types present
with stratified contexts are significantly changed after the occupation of 72-58. Based
upon the data, it is hard to determine if the decrease in plant types within stratified
contexts is due to a shift in household activities, such as the decrease in overall use of pits
for refuse etc., or if there was a decrease in medicinal activities.
To explore a shift of the plant assemblages within the specific contexts, a
categorization similar to the one used in Chapter Five was applied to a density analysis to
better understand why specific plant types may be decreasing in number and if that could
be associated with a certain cultural activity, such as storage, cooking, prepping etc.. The
plant types were categorized into mast products, wild plants, tropical cultigens, or Old
World cultigens. Typically, these categories are associated with food-related activities but
these plants also can be utilized as medicine, as seen in the ethnographic information
provided within each plant type (Appendix C). As analyzed in Chapter Five for the
137
dietary remains, the raw counts of plant types were standardized by dividing the total
number of seeds recovered by the amount of soil processed per site and these
standardized numbers were then utilized. .
As seen in Figure 32, the high to moderate density of mast products, tropical
cultigens and wild plants is impressive at 72-91 and 72-58 - between 1 to 16 seeds
recovered per liter of soil floated within the stratified contexts. The other context, which
yields a similar amount of medicinal plant types, is the hearth at 72-66 with wild plants –
with .5 wild seeds per liter of soil floated (Figure 33). However, the majority of the
feature contexts, contains medicinal plant remains in low frequency - less then .5
medicinal seed remains per liter of soil floated (Figures 32-34). Although many of the
potentially medicinal plants occur in low frequency, their cultural significance may have
been considerably larger. A variety of plant types, across the medicinal spectrum of usage
is found at all sites dating from 1675-1800 A.D. This demonstrates that medicinal plants
such as tropical and Old world cultigens, nuts, shrubs fruits, and other wild plant
varieties, were continually used and played a role in Mashantucket Pequot plant practices
but may be low frequency. So based upon the data presented, my expectation of few
medicinal plants within each household due to Mashantucket specialized cultural use
cannot be considered as fully validated by the data. Besides the two stratified contexts at
72-91 and 72-58 (Figure 32), hearth and shallow contexts had similar frequencies of
mast, wild plant, tropical cultigens and Old World cultigens (Figure 33 and 34) To
resolve the question, other cultural contexts, such as ritualized spaces, are needed to
explore and better understand the variability of medicinal behavior among the
Mashantucket Pequot at the household level.
138
Other Historical Data
There are few historical (colonial or indigenous) accounts that discuss
Mashantucket Pequot use of medicinal plants. It is not surprising that Medicinal
knowledge is privileged information among Native Americans, and it would be have
been very difficult for outsiders to gain access to it. That is why the archaeological data
and ethnographic information compiled are so important for reconstructing Mashantucket
Pequot medical plant knowledge and use. One of the few historical accounts is from the
religious Pequot leader, Samson Occum (1754) in “Herbs and Roots”:
“Take some Weecup [basswood bark] and sweet fern for the boy – And
for your self the same Weecup and sweet fern or some sage, or hyssop –
and take some bone and burn it thoroughly and point it fine and [it] about
half a spoon full at a time with a little water just before or after a meal.
And make Power of great centry, to take in drink, either water or weak
punch.” (S. Occum 1754 in Brooks and Warrior 2006).
Occum’s (1754) list of Native remedies highlights that the use of plants as
medicine had not been lost among the Mashantucket Pequot, even within the converted
Christian community that emerged in the mid-eighteenth century. The knowledge
embedded in plants as medicine continues to proliferate and is seen many generations
later within notes from Martha Langavin, a powerful matriarchal figure in Pequot history
(Simmons 1990). Listed below are a select portion of plants used for medicine by
Mashantucket Pequot women and men:
“Running blackberry (Rhus hispidus): cook roots and drink for dysentery.
Sumac (Rhus hirta): berries used to make tea for stomach aches. Wild
Cherry (Prunus serotina): drink made from bark. Good for colds. Oak:
White Oak (Quercus alba): cook and steep and drink for dysentery as a
last emergency. It’s too powerful, much more powerful than hardhack.
Used just once.” (M. Langavin transcribed by E. Butler in Simmons 1990)
139
What Martha describes correlates to what is found in the archaeological record at a select
portion of the ten sites (Table 6). Perhaps some of these species were grown in the home
gardens attached to the homesteads, as suggested by Largy and Rainey (2006) during the
eighteenth century on Nantucket Island.
Summary
Through this analysis of the medicinal plants, I suggest that the decision-making
embedded in the traditional ecological knowledge has the Mashantucket Pequot reacting
conservatively to the inroads of colonial people and if not amplifying the use of their
medicinal practices during colonization. It was surprising to recover many medicinal
plant types between 1675-1800 A.D. (Table 6). The data verifies my expectation that
medicinal plant usage should have remained stable because they were part of the
knowledge structure of Mashantucket Pequot lifeways. Many of the plants, like Carya sp.
(hickory), Comptonia peregrina sweet fern, and Zea mays (corn) are at almost all sites
from 1675-1800 A.D. Other plant types have moderate representation across the
assemblage.
My second expectation of low density of medicinal plants within the household
and the relation to specialized cultural practices was hard to substantiate given the nature
of the data and contexts analyzed. Thus, I cannot resolve if the low density is related to
specific cultural activities at the household level although I can make some suggestions
as the “big picture” of Mashantucket Pequot medicinal use during this time of social and
land circumscription. It appears reasonable to conclude that the medicinal plants were
one of the ways in which the Mashantucket Pequot remained autonomous against the
140
colonial outsiders. Specific decisions, within this investigation of the medicinal plants,
highlight the continuity of medicinal plants.
141
Asclepias sp.
Carpinus caroliniana
Cyperus sp.
Galium sp.
Juglans nigra
Juncus sp.
Latuca sp.
Polygonum
hydropiper
Polygonum sp.
Portulaca sp.
Potamogeton sp.
Vibernum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Acalypha sp.
Carex sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Illex sp.
Juglans sp.
Nysaa sylavatica
Phytolaca americana
Triticum sp.
Juglans cinerea
Vaccinium sp.
Vitis sp.
Chenopodium sp.
Crataegus sp.
Myrica pensylvanica
Phaselous vulgaris
Prunus sp.
Comptonia peregrina
Gaylussacia sp.
Prunus persica
Rubus sp.
Cornus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Zea mays
Carya sp.
Corylus sp.
Total of Plant Types
Per Site
9
1
1
1
1
1
22
1
1
10
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
72-34A:
168011690
A.D.
25
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
72-58:
17601770
A.D.
11
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
72-171:
17651775
A.D.
6
1
1
1
1
1
1
72-88:
17751800
A.D.
15
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
72-97C:
17801785
A.D.
11
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
72-161:
17801790
A.D.
142
Table 6. Presence of Medicinal Plants.
72-164A:
16801690
A.D.
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
72-91:
16751680
A.D
6
1
1
1
1
1
1
72-70B:
17801800
A.D.
9
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
70-66:
17851795
A.D.
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
8
9
10
Total
Plant
Type
Across
Sites
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
92%
31%
31%
77%
36%
32%
72-58: 17601770 A.D..
45%
18%
55%
72-171: 17651775 A.D.
82%
9%
64%
0
89%
0
143
Table 7. Percentages of Medicinal Plants at 72-91, 72-58, 72-171, 72-161 and 72-66.
Stratified Plant
Presence
Shallow Pit Plant
Presence
Heart Plant Presence
72-91: 16751800 A.D
72-161:
1780-1790 70-66: 1785A.D.
1795 A.D.
72-91:
1675-1680
A.D
72-58:
1760-1770
A.D.
72-171:
1765-1775
A.D.
72-161:
1780-1790
A.D.
70-66:
1785-1795
A.D.
Hearth Plant Presence
Shallow Pit Plant Presence
Stratified Pit Plant Presence
144
Figure 31. Counts of Medicinal Plants at 72-91, 72-58, 72-171, 72-161 and 72-66.
0
5
10
15
20
25
4
2
0
6
8
10
12
14
16
72-58:
1760-1770
A.D.
72-171:
1765-1775
A.D.
72-161:
1780-1790
A.D.
Stratified Mast
145
Figure 32. Stratified Pit Medicinal Density at 72-91, 72-58, 72-171 and 72-171.
72-91:
1675-1680
A.D
Stratified Old World
Stratified Toprical Cultigens
Stratified Wild Plants
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
72-58:
1760-1770
A.D.
72-171:
1765-1775
A.D.
72-161:
1780-1790
A.D.
70-66:
1785-1795
A.D.
Hearth Mast
Hearth Old World Cultigens
146
Figure 33. Hearth Medicinal Density at 72-91, 72-58, 72-171, 72-161, 72-66.
72-91:
1675-1680
A.D
Hearth Tropical Cultigens
Hearth Wild Plants
72-161:
1780-1790
A.D.
147
Figure 34. Shallow Pit Medicinal Density at 72-91, 72-58, 72-171 and 72-161.
Shallow Mast
Shallow Old World Cultigens
0
72-171:
1765-1775
A.D.
Shallow Tropical Cultigens
2
72-91:
72-58:
1675-1680
1760-1770
A.D
A.D.
Shallow Wild Plants
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
CHAPTER 7
RESULTS OF MASHANTUCKET LAND USE
Introduction
From 1666-1856, parcel by parcel, the Mashantucket reservation and surrounding
lands were taken away by the English colonial powers. In total, the Mashantucket lost
approximately 2300 acres from the reservation lands originally appropriated to them in
1666. Much of what was taken was considered their best agricultural lands, and included
other domesticated resources, such as apple orchards. With any change in circumstances,
there are expected outcomes. In the case of the Pequot during 1600-1800’s, one would
expect an array of changes occurring during colonization – ranging from modifications in
cultural and political interactions to subsistence strategies. In spite of the historical
accounts (both English and Native American), it is not clear how the circumscription of
resources and exposure to European lifeways affected Mashantucket Pequot land use.
One may hypothesize that during the institutional and later phases of the Reservation
from 1675-1800 A.D., the Mashantucket Pequot land use would remain relatively
unchanged because of how engrained traditional plant use would have been within
Mashantucket knowledge structures. Thus, conducting an analysis of environmental data
in comparison to the archaeobotanical and associated historical data will be helpful for
understanding the adaptive strategies of the Mashantucket Pequot and whether traditional
strategies changed or were maintained during this time period.
148
Archaeological and Ecological Data Associated with Land Use
To evaluate my first land use expectation, that the Mashantucket Pequot
continued to use different habitats in spite of the circumscription of land and resources, I
analyze the ecological data in relation to the archaeological record. First, I categorized
the forty-one plant types identified to genus and species at the ten sites by their habitat
distinctions as outlined in Magee and Ahles (2007). The plant types identified were
categorized as woodland, field, wetland, coastal and modern anthropogenic disturbance
habitats (Table 8). This classification of the habitats associated with the archaeological
data allows me to suggest specific habitat choices of the Mashantucket Pequot from
1675-1800 A.D.
Of the 41 types categorized, 38 identified plant types are considered to be multihabitat - more than two habitat categorizations (Table 8). The two types attributed to only
one habitat category include Juglans cinerea (butternut) and Juglans nigra (walnut)
within woodlands (based on Magee and Ahles 2007; Table 8). Multi-habitat types such
as Acalypha sp. (copperleaf) can be found in field or disturbance habitats, Comptonia
peregrina (sweetfern) in woodland, field, and/or disturbance habitats, and Polygonum sp.
(knotweed) in anthropogenic disturbance, coastal, open, wetland, or woodland habitats.
In total of the plants identified, 29 of the identified habitat types occur in woodland, 35 in
field, 24 in wetlands, 32 in anthropogenic disturbance, and 16 in coastal (Table 8). One
type, Corylus americana (hazelnut) is found at all sites at Mashantucket Pequot from
1675-1800 A.D. and is associated with woodland, field, and disturbance habitats (Table
4; Table 8). Carya sp. (hickory) is found at nine of the sites and may be present in
similar habitats as Corylus americana (hazelnut). Zea mays (corn) was recovered from
149
eight sites, except 72-161 and 72-70B and can be grown in field to disturbance habitats.
Please refer to Table 8 to compare the remaining types found at each site with their
associated habitats.
Habitat Use
With the habitats of the plant remains characterized, I conducted a presence
percentage analysis of plant types per habitat. All identified archaeological types
identified and their associated habitats per site were recorded. The raw data was then
transformed into percentage data to gain a better understanding which plant types with
their associated habitats could have been exploited during site occupation (Table 9;
Figure 35).
Within the percentage analysis, the percentages of plant types within their habitat
categorization are relatively stable (Table 9; Figure 35). Depending upon the habitat
category, the variation is around one to three percent at 72-91, 72-164A and 72-34A. The
mean percentage for these three sites for exploitation of woodlands is 23% +/- 3, 27.5%
+/-1.5 within field habitats, 15% +/-1 for wetland habitats, 23% +/-2 for anthropogenic
disturbance, and 12% +/- 1 for coastal habitats (Table 9).
A similar trend of habitat exploitation continues even when the Reservation is
confined to 1000 acres by 1760. During the late eighteenth century, the mean percentages
of habitat representation within the plant assemblage do not drastically fluctuate (if at
all), except within plants utilized from anthropogenic disturbance areas (Table 9; Figure
35). Within the woodlands no difference in the means is noted. Within field habitats, it is
slightly shifts from 27.5% +/- 1.5 to 26.5% +/-2.5. Within wetland habitats it moves from
15%+/- 1 to 16%+/-2. Within coastal habitats, the mean shifts from 12%+/- 1 to
150
13.5%+/2.5. Lastly, within the anthropogenic disturbance habitats, the means have the
most range in variation from 23%+/-2 to 25%+/-5. As the woodland, field, wetland, and
coastal habitats became less accessible due to landscape circumscription, this data
demonstrates that they could be pulling plant recourses from anthropogenic-disturbed
habitats more often.
To further investigate the expectation that the Mashantucket Pequot continued use
of different habitats regardless of the physical circumscription of land and other
resources, environmental data projected within Geographic Information Systems (GIS),
such as soil, surface, bedrock, surface elevation, and water resources were projected
(Table 10; Figures 36-40). It may be assumed that the shift in reservation size and the
introduction of colonial subsistence strategies would be reflected in the location and
environmental aspects of each site. GIS was used to test whether the changing boundaries
of the Mashantucket Pequot reservation itself impacted the Pequot choice in placing
themselves on the landscape.
There is no discernable pattern to land use in relation to soil, surface, bedrock,
and evaluation (Table 10; Figures 36-40). These environmental variables do not appear to
be a contributing factor to settlement practice and land use. Many of the variables are
relatively homogenous across the reservation, especially within soil, surface and bedrock.
I further investigated distance to water bodies because may of the plants collected from
the Reservation assemblages can be denoted to be from wetland habitats (Figure 40).
Distance to water is often thought of as a defining variable for site locations, often times
to the detriment of our archaeological models (see Curran 2010) but with the defined
spatial landscape and cultural record, the Mashantucket Reservation lends itself to an
151
interesting case study when approaching the analysis of water as a significant variable in
site selection.
In Figure 41, a simple line graph which highlights the distance to the nearest
water source– illustrates despite the changing boundaries of the reservation and potential
loss of resources, there does not appear to be significant alteration of distances to
important locale resources important to the native subsistence strategy from 1675-1800
A.D. But can one define the variability within distance to water based upon settlement
structures and mobility, wigwams vs. framed structure, as land becomes more
circumscribed from 1675-1800 A.D? To answer this question, I analyzed the fifty-five
post-Contact Mashantucket sites, which have been identified from the 1980’s to the
present and include the ten sties in the study for settlement structure vs. distance to water
(Figure 4). Within the data set of the fifty-five sites, overall there is a range of 100 to 700
ft. from settlement site to a water body from 1675-180 A.D. (Figure 42). But within the
time frame that wigwams would have been utilized (1675-1750 A.D), the mean distance
of homesteads with wigwam structures to water bodies is 285 ft. (Figure 42). And after
framed structures are constructed (1750-1800 A.D.), there is also a comparable mean for
both framed without (213 ft.) and with (228 ft.) foundation (Figure 42). As the Figure 41
defined, this analysis of settlement structure demonstrated that the mean distance to water
bodies does not shift dramatically when we see architecture changing in later part of the
eighteenth and into the nineteenth century.
To further test the above results within a defined spatial landscape, I also
conducted a random point analysis within GIS. For random points generated within the
reservation boundaries the mean was 600 feet to the nearest water body, while the mean
152
was 300 ft. for the archaeological sites (Table 11). Although the range of variation
overlaps between the random points and archaeological sites, it appears that distance to
wetlands and/or a water source is a significant variable in settlement location based upon
the means generated in this spatial analysis. (Table 11) However, the Mashantucket
Pequot do not appear significantly to alter their patterns of settlement in relation to
distance to water from 1675-1800 A.D.
The above data related to the habitat exploitation within the archaeological record
affirm my expectation that the Mashantucket Pequot would be exploiting a variety of
habitats in spite of the circumscription of resources and land. The variables analyzed via
GIS (Table 10; Figures 36-40), when combined with the archaeobotanical data,
demonstrate that traditional subsistence strategies as associated with certain habitats were
not substantially altered. When the reservation is established in 1666 A.D. the
Mashantucket Pequot have over 3500 acres of land to exploit, which includes the
Reservation (2500 acres), traditional hunting grounds at Walnut Hill (600 acres) and
access to coastal land resources at Noank (500 acres) (Figure 2). And by 1760 A.D. (the
occupation of 72-58), this area is limited even further by the colonial authorities to 1000
acres. However, in spite of this, the Mashantucket Pequot households studied in this
analysis appear to make choices that include exploiting, processing, and utilizing
medicinal and food plants from a variety of different habitats. This is not to say that the
Pequot didn’t adopt any colonial strategies related to land use and management of plants,
however this data illustrates maintenance of traditional plant-based and land strategies
within this discrete spatial context.
153
Seasonal Plant Use and Storage
With the use of Magee and Ahles (2007), I conducted a seasonality analysis on
the plant types recovered from the ten Mashantucket Pequot sites. Within the analysis, I
investigate my expectation that seasonal plants would be continually used along with
storage facilities at each site. Plant types identified to family level were not included in
this analysis because of lack of resolution when defining the rates of maturation within
the multitude of plants under that level of identification. In Table 12, forty-one plant
types identified to genus and species level were included.
Plant types germinate, fruit and mature at different points through out the spring,
summer and fall. These biological processes are of great cultural significance to
individuals, households, and communities, such as the Mashantucket Pequot. The plant
types identified at the ten Mashantucket Pequot sites from 1675-1800 A.D. demonstrate a
pattern of seasonality in relatively equal amount from spring, summer and fall. The plant
types can be grouped into four separate time frames for the beginnings of the plant
maturation, fruiting, ripeness etc. –beginning in April, May, June and July/August (Table
12). Roughly ten plant types can be attributed to each temporal category of maturation,
creating a relatively equal distribution of potential plant usage for the Mashantucket
Pequot from 1675-1800 A.D. from 1675-1800 A.D.
I assessed how the seasonality of the plant types was reflected in individual sites.
Therefore, I conducted a presence analysis of the seasonality data within the sites that had
been previously analyzed for diet and medicine – 1) 72-91; 2) 72-58; 3) 72-171; 4) 72161; and 5) 72-66. These intra-site analyses (Tables 13-17), show that the sites are
relatively similar, containing plant types from April to October.
154
Site 72-91 contained wigwams, which may have been seasonally occupied for less
than 1 year. And almost 70 years later, at site 72-58 (structure unknown but more likely a
stone foundation due to the time period), the seasonality charts look remarkably similar
(Tables 13 and 14). The uniformity of the seasonality regardless of plant types becomes
even more pronounced at sites 72-171, 72-161, and 72-66 (Tables 15-17). Even with the
lower number of plant types at these three sites, they still suggest that the Mashantucket
Pequot exploited plants across spring, summer and fall.
The plant types at the select households above were also more than likely not
consumed immediately and were stored and utilized when needed (the ethnographic
tables mention the storability of almost each plant type – Appendix B and C). At 72-91,
72-58, 72-171, 72-161, storage pits have been excavated (except 72-66). So the above
information corroborates that storage were more likely maintained by the Mashantucket
Pequot as they exploited plant types from a variety of different habitats across different
times of the year, even at sites like 72-91 where wigwams were inhabited and 72-58
where the habitation structure are unknown. Thus, as expected, the Mashantucket Pequot
continued their use of a spectrum of seasonal plans and maintained their storage was fully
supported.
Traditional Agricultural Systems and Home Gardens
Next, I will assess my expectation that the Mashantucket Pequot continued to use
traditional agricultural systems and cultivated home gardens with tropical cultigens such
as Zea mays (corn), Phaselous vulgaris (beans) and Curcurbita sp. (squash). Although
there is no archaeological evidence of home gardens during the seventieth or eighteenth
centuries, there is evidence of home gardens during the nineteenth and twentieth
155
centuries. Both Glaza (2003) and Handsman (2008) report that the Mashantucket Pequot
women tended adjacent gardens that grew food and medicinal products. Glaza (2003)
also notes that the Mashantucket Pequot women grew ornamental plants around the
households. As highlighted in the dietary analysis and medicinal analysis, traditional
cultigens continued to be in use, especially Zea mays (corn) recovered at all sites except
72-161 and 70B, and also wild plants recovered at all sites (Figures 6-15). Perhaps some
of these wild plants were cultivated in and around the household.
There is no evidence of Old World cultigens within those gardens during the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries (Glaza 2003). Within the archaeological assemblages
from 1675-1800 A.D., there is only limited presence of Euro-American products, with
Prunus persica (peach) only recovered at five sites and wheat from two sites (Table 4)
and even these are not frequent (Figures 6, 10, and 12-15). Triticum sp. (wheat) with the
households at Mashantucket may have been cultivated in the home gardens or supplied
by local overseers (individuals who were appointed by the colonial authorities to act as an
advocate and intermediary for any issues related to the Reservation and the local
communities) or bought from local markets in and around the Reservation.
The limited presence of Old World plant products at any of the households signals
that the Mashantucket who were tending the gardens and harvesting wild plants from
nearby areas, may have been resisting the adoption of Euro-American agricultural
practices. They continued to rely upon wild plants and traditionally used tropical
cultigens to provide adequate food, medicinal products and possibly grains acquire from
the overseers as a supplement during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Although
there is no direct archaeological evidence of the presence of these gardens at each
156
household, The archaeological evidence at the ten sites and the collected ethnographic
evidence collected for the nineteenth and twentieth centuries suggest that home gardens
probably were a large part of the maintaining Mashantucket Pequot subsistence
strategies. The data do not contradict my expectation of the continued use of home
garden and traditional agricultural systems within each household.
Duration of Occupation
In the following section, I analyze the expectation of short durations of
occupations at habitation sites to maintain stable plant supply of food across the
Reservation. During 1666-1750, the low site frequency is not a reflection of the nature of
occupation on the reservation nor does it reflect archaeological site visibility.
Documentary research clearly indicates that there are two communities during this period
that were semi-aggregated on the landscape (Connecticut Indian Papers n.d; McBride
1990). Their sites have yet to be identified and are likely located in areas of the former
reservation, such as the West side and South hill. Given their low site visibility, the sites
that have been excavated within the Reservation boundaries (not within the West side or
South hill) do suggest relatively short durations of occupation, most likely from seasonal
up to 2-3 years. At Mashantucket, wigwams do not appear to be intended as permanent
structures. The occupation of the wigwam structures for a limited time (1-3 years)
appears to reflect continuing seasonal movements in the 17th/early 18th century between
Noank, Mashantucket, Poquatonnock and perhaps shifting of households to maintain wild
plant resources and field horticulture soils in and around the reservation.
Between 1750-1800, the increase in site number, in comparison to the earlier
period of 1675-1750, is not evidence for indication of increase in population. Instead, it
157
reflects the loss of reservation land and resources, 989 acres from 2500 acres. The
Mashantucket Pequot Indians were exposed to the influence of Christianity and the
Brotherton Indian Movement, as noted in Chapter Three. Visible changes started to occur
within the reservation with the construction of framed houses and the use of domesticated
animals (Lammi 2005; Vasta 2007). In 1755, the historical documents note that all of the
domestic structures are wigwams. However, 1761, 30% percent of domestic structures
are framed without stone foundations and in the later part of the eighteenth century we
begin to see domestic structures being built upon stone foundations. Framed structures
without stone foundations or sills (low single course of field stone to place a sill plate)
were intended to for longer occupation than wigwams simply based on the investment of
materials and labor and are also much easier to identify within the archaeological record.
The longer duration of occupation within these framed structures is also reflected in the
nature, density and variety of architectural debris (window glass, nail types), variety and
complexity of features and artifact densities. These sites also don't have true foundations
in the form of dug cellars, suggesting the Mashantucket do not have the means or desire
to construct a framed dwelling that is built to last, and with the lack of a cellar may not
have the same capacity for storage as their Euro-American neighbors. Almost all of the
framed structures without a true foundation/dug cellar have storage facilities in the form
of traditional "pits", sometimes within the structure.
In essence, the duration of occupation of homesteads during this second half of
the eighteenth century is relatively low, 5-10 years, as seen in Figure 4. The low duration
of occupation at these habitation sites may be a reflection of the quality of structures (not
necessarily be built to last), underlying economic means or even the intention to maintain
158
mobility within the reservation boundaries. However, beginning in the third quarter of the
eighteen-century, there appears to be a trend toward a longer duration of occupation (1120 vs. 1-10 years). This may correlate with the loss of the west side of the reservation,
and changes in economic strategies, such as the adoption of domesticated animals.
The information presented above supports my expectation that the Mashantucket
Pequot maintain variability within their mobility strategies regardless of architectural
features. The archaeological data presented in the land use section may corroborate that
the Mashantucket Pequot within specific households were choosing to live within one
area for only a short period of time not to overexploit and to remain mobile with their
uses of traditional plant-based resources within woodland, open-field, wetland and
mixed/edge habitats. In essence, the diversity within the land use strategies demonstrates
continuity and also the adaptability of the Mashantucket Pequot from 1675-1800 A.D.
Euro-American Land Use
In the following section, I explore my expectation that with these ten sites that
there should be limited evidence of fences and property lines and adoption of other EuroAmerican land strategies, such as use of common lands by domesticated animals. In
Figure 32, it is clear that the Mashantucket Pequot appear to continually exploit a
diversity of habitats and food and medicinal resources within Reservation boundaries
from 1666 to 1800 A.D. However, based upon the archaeological data recovered from
the ten sites (Figure 6-15), it is difficult to discern whether the Mashantucket Pequot fully
engage in Euro-American strategies of land use at all, which included fencing of lands
and maintaining property distinctions among tribal members. Although there are many
stonewalls located on the contemporary lands of the Reservation, we have been unable to
159
determine if they are associated with the households and sites analyzed for this analysis
since historical about their construction are non-existent. Also, often the archaeological
excavation of the ten sites was centered on the domestic structures and many times it was
difficult to clearly define the boundaries of the homestead. Thus, there is no clearly
defined archaeological data on the stonewalls and fence lines with the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries. However, the archaeological data presented in this chapter does
support the expectation that the Mashantucket Pequot exploited a variety of different
habitats and continued to engage in a land strategy that was maintained traditional
strategies of subsistence and may be seen as contrastive with patterns of Euro-American
land use that involved large scale land clearance and commodity-driven agricultural
activities.
Other Historical Data
Within the colonial accounts, there seems to be different narratives in regards to
land use strategies of the Mashantucket Pequot during the late seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. Within the Connecticut Indian Papers (1731), there is little acknowledgment
that Indigenous communities are using any other land management practices, except for
agricultural purposes. The following colonial narrative is a representative example that
highlights how Euro-Americans viewed Mashantucket Pequot land use – through the lens
of agricultural yields and production – rarely mention Indigenous use of woodland and
wetland ecosystems.
“We find the number of Wigwams on the Mashantucket land to be fifteen
and no more and the Indians improvement of said land was about ten or
twelve acres consisting about ten property enclosures or corn field
scattering about [because] the great part of said is rocky land not fit for
planting” (Testimony of colonist, William Morgan and Zachariah Maynor
160
to the Connecticut Assembly, Connecticut Indian Papers October 14,
1731).
At the time this narrative is recorded, the Mashantucket Pequot are still living
within wigwam structures and lands available for resource use within the reservation
system would have been around 1000 acres. The availability of resources and land had
dramatically shifted from when the Reservation was first established in 1666 with around
3500 acres available (Figures 2 and 3). Now less than sixty years and two to three
Mashantucket generations later, the Mashantucket Pequot are defined by the colonists as
not to be engaging in Euro-American agriculture (only fifteen acres enclosed noted
within this account) and that the land itself is “unfit” for planting. Instead, as highlighted
in the presence analysis of habitat use and distance to wetlands (Figures 35, 41-42) the
Mashantucket Pequot appear to utilize different habitats for plant resources within their
households.
As noted by Anderson (2005), and Nicholas (1992), archaeologists tend to
overlook how significant ‘marginal’ ecosystems, especially wetlands, were in shaping the
Indigenous plant use strategies, even during the Colonial Period. This contemporary
Indigenous account from Alice Brend, a tribal member at Mashantucket, demonstrates
the use of wetland resources and the pattern of generational continuity and offers a
glimpse at how important these resources are within Indigenous ecological knowledge:
“My mother knew everything and of course taught me quite a bit and
different herbs and what’s good for you and what’s not. We used to cook
greens, and we used to get different things out of the swamps and the
woods, picking different things. Then she’d cook them up and we’d have
them for greens on the table. She knows how to get the stuff for cold and
showed me where it was to get it.” (Alice Brend, Mashantucket Pequot
Tribal Member 1987 in Starna 1990)
161
Her claim of swamps as a viable ecosystem is unusual in comparison to colonial accounts
dating back to contact with Europeans and is also supported by the archaeological data
from the ten sites that the Mashantucket Pequot did use resources from wetlands (Table
8; Figure 35). However, within the colonial dialogue directly related to the Mashantucket
Pequot Reservation and Native Americans within the regions there is little mention of
Indigenous individuals and communities utilizing wetlands resources, as they are often
depicted as dark and gloomy places, unviable and useless to Euro-American economy
(Cronon 1983). Within this region of southwest Connecticut, they appear to be invisible
to the colonist but certainly not to the Mashantucket Pequot community, as one can
discern from the oral accounts and archaeological evidence related to the habitat data.
Within this region, the colonial narratives from 1675—1800 A.D. also offer an
interesting glimpse of Mashantucket Pequot attempts at engaging in Euro-American land
strategies. They often speak to the Mashantucket Pequot inability to properly engage in
Euro-American land strategies. This account from 1761 is a representative of the ways
colonial narratives speak about Mashantucket Pequot land use:
“We also viewed the Indian families which seem to be flourishing their
houses and wigwams filled with children and youth but as there are great
disputes relating to their number we cannot ascertain to the same with any
great degrees of certainty. Some of them have made handsome
improvements and have some cattle and seem to be desirous of improving
after the English manner. Their improvements are on the eastern part of
the land which yet remains undivided which in our opinion considering it
in quality is near as good as the western part that is divided.” (Connecticut
General Assembly Records 1761)
The above highlights that the Mashantucket are having difficulty improving the
land within the Reservation boundaries and creating “Euro-American”-like spaces.
European improvements were defined by creating herbage for domesticated animals,
162
cultivating planting fields and fencing for property (Donahue 2004). At this time in the
colonial record, the Pequot have been living on the Reservation for over fifty years and
exploitable land would have dwindled down to 1000 acres (Figure 2). However, in spite
of land circumscription, the Mashantucket Pequot still are pulling from different habitats,
as seen in the archaeological record, and finding it difficult to engage in Euro-American
land strategies or “improvements to the land”, as highlighted in the colonial narrative.
Summary
Although there were significant pressures from the colonial authorities to have the
Native Americans engage in the Euro-American notion of improvements to the land,
Indigenous communities continued to choose to engage in specific plant strategies that
revolved around the use of a diversity of plants and habitats, which may have been
contrastive to some of the supplementary colonial narratives mentioned above. Their
accustomed traditional strategies with wild plants vs. domesticated cultigens (either
Indigenous or Euro-American) would have put a premium on choosing those plant
interactions that allowed to remain independent of their colonizers, logically different,
and in control of their special and temporal placement, independent of the expectations of
the colonists. Overall, the data provided in this chapter are in support of the expectations
laid out in Chapter 2 and have strong implications for the distribution of plants at
archaeological sites and the adaptive strategies of the Mashantucket Pequot during this
period.
163
Acalypha sp.
Asclepias sp.
Carex sp.
Carpinus caroliniana
Carya sp.
Chenopodium Amaranthus sp.
Comptonia peregrina
Cornus sp.
Corylus americana
Crataegus sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Cyperus sp.
Galium sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Ilex sp.
Juglans cinerea
Juglans nigra
Juglans sp.
Juncus sp.
Lactuca sp.
Myrica pensylvanica
Nyssa sylvatica
Phaselous vulgaris
Phytolacca americana
Polygonum hydropiper
Polygonum sp.
Portulaca sp.
Potamogeton sp.
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Rubus sp.
Scirpus sp.
Triticum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Viburnum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Zea mays
Total Plant Types Per
Habitat
Anthropogic Coastal
Disturbance
Field
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
32
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Wetland
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Woodland Total
Habitats
Per Plant
Type
2
1
4
1
5
1
2
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
16
35
Table 8. Habitat Presence
164
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
24
29
5
3
4
3
4
3
5
4
4
3
1
1
3
5
2
3
2
2
2
2
5
2
2
2
5
4
5
5
5
2
5
4
2
5
4
2
ANTHROPOGENIC
DISTUBANCE
COASTAL
FIELD
WETLANDS
WOODLANDS
25%
11%
29%
14%
21%
72-91:
16751680
A.D
23%
13%
26%
16%
23%
21%
16%
24%
18%
23%
23%
14%
28%
14%
21%
29%
5%
33%
10%
24%
33%
5%
33%
10%
19%
165
Table 9. Percentages of Habitat Categories.
21%
12%
26%
15%
26%
21%
13%
24%
16%
26%
30%
5%
30%
10%
25%
20%
17%
30%
13%
20%
72-34A:
72-164A: 168072-171:
72-88:
72-97C: 72-161:
72-70B: 70-66:
1680177517801780178017851690
72-58: 1760- 17651690 A.D. A.D.
1770 A.D. 1775 A.D. 1800 A.D. 1785 A.D. 1790 A.D. 1800 A.D. 1795 A.D.
Site
72-91
72-34a
72-164a
72-58
Range of
Soil
Surface
Bedrock
DEM Distance
Occupation Descriptor Description Descriptor Elevation to Water
(Feet)
CharltonCantonWaterford
Paxton
Group
1675-1680
Till
154.31
345.55
1680-1690
Sudbury
Sandy
Loam
1680-1690
CharltonCantonPaxton
1760-1770
CharltonCantonPaxton
72-171
1765-1775
72-88
1775-1800
72-97c
1780-1785
72-161
1780-1790
72-70b
1780-1800
72-66
1785-1795
CharltonCantonPaxton
Sudbury
Sandy
Loam
Sudbury
Sandy
Loam
CharltonCantonPaxton
CharltonCantonPaxton
CharltonCantonPaxton
Till
Hope Valley
Alaskite
Gneiss
320.12
72.44
Till
Hope Valley
Alaskite
298.86
Gneiss
376.34
Till
Hope Valley
Alaskite
Gneiss
323.07
139.47
Hope Valley
Alaskite
Gneiss
290.00
99.84
Till
Sand Gravel
Overlaying Waterford
Sand
Group
168.75
404.39
Sand
Waterford
Group
142.91
297.43
Till
Waterford
Group
145.12
206.69
Till
Hope Valley
Alaskite
Gneiss
321.90
108.00
Till
Plainfield
Formation
120.80
208.28
Table 10. Environmental Variables at Each Site –
Soil, Bedrock, Surface, Elevation and Water.
166
Random Points
Arch Sites
N
79
56
Mean
600 ft.
308 ft.
Std. Deviation
680 ft.
206 ft.
Range
0-1280 ft.
102-614 ft.
Table 11. Mean Distance to Water: Random Point versus Archaeological Sites
167
Comptonia peregrina
Corylus americana
Juglans cinerea
Juglans nigra
Juglans sp.
Myrica pensylvanica
Prunus persica
Carpinus caroliniana
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Viola sp.
Carya sp.
Crataegus sp.
Nyssa sylvatica
Gaylussacia sp.
Ilex sp.
Viburnum sp.
Asclepias sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Carex sp.
Scirpus sp.
Zea mays
Vicia sp.
Rubus sp.
Potamogeton sp.
Galium sp.
Juncus sp.
Rhus sp.
Phaselous vulgaris
Cucurbita sp.
Lactuca sp.
Phytolacca americana
Polygonum hydropiper
Portulaca sp.
Triticum sp.
Cyperus sp.
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
Cornus sp.
Polygonum sp.
Acalypha sp.
Vitis sp.
sweetfern
hazelnut
butternut
black walnut
walnut
bayberry
peach
ironwood
plum
oak
violet
hickory
hawthorne
tupelo
huckleberry
holly
viburnum
milkweed
blueberry
sedge
bulrush
corn
vetch
bramble
pondweed
bedstraw
rush
sumac
common bean
squash
lettuce
pokeweed
water pepper
pursalane
wheat
umbrella sedge
goosefoot/amaranth
dogwood
smartweed
three seed mercury
grape
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
1 1
1
1 1
1
1 1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1
1 1
1 1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Table 12. Total Seasonality of Plant Types from All Ten Mashantucket Sites 1675-1800
A.D. (Highlighted when each plant type flowers or fruit on a yearly basis).
168
sweetfern
hazelnut
butternut
walnut
bayberry
peach
plum
oak
hickory
hawthorne
huckleberry
holly
blueberry
sedge
bulrush
corn
pondweed
bramble
sumac
squash
common bean
lettuce
water pepper
wheat
grape
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
169
Table 13. Seasonality of Plant Types at 72-91. Range of Occupation is 1675-1680 A.D
(Highlighted when each plant type flowers or fruit on a yearly basis).
Comptonia peregrina
Corylus americana
Juglans cinerea
Juglans sp.
Myrica pensylvanica
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Carya sp.
Crataegus sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Ilex sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Carex sp.
Scirpus sp.
Zea mays
Potamogeton sp.
Rubus sp.
Rhus sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Phaselous vulgaris
Lactuca sp.
Polygonum hydropiper
Triticum sp.
Vitis sp.
sweetfern
hazelnut
walnut
bayberry
ironwood
oak
hickory
hawthorne
huckleberry
holly
viburnum
sedge
bulrush
blueberry
corn
bedstraw
bramble
sumac
rush
squash
common bean
pokeweed
lettuce
goosefoot/amaranth
smartweed
umbrella sedge
dogwood
grape
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
170
Table 14. Seasonality of Plant Types at 72-58. Range of Occupation is 1760-1770 A.D.
(Highlighted when each plant type flowers or fruit on a yearly basis).
Comptonia peregrina
Corylus americana
Juglans sp.
Myrica pensylvanica
Carpinus caroliniana
Quercus sp.
Carya sp.
Crataegus sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Ilex sp.
Viburnum sp.
Carex sp.
Scirpus sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Zea mays
Galium sp.
Rubus sp.
Rhus sp.
Juncus sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Phaselous vulgaris
Phytolacca americana
Lactuca sp.
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
Polygonum sp.
Cyperus sp.
Cornus sp.
Vitis sp.
171
Table 15. Seasonality of Plant Types at 72-171. Range of Occupation is 1765-1775 A.D.
(Highlighted when each plant type flowers or fruit on a yearly basis).
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Comptonia peregrina
sweetfern
1
1
Corylus americana
hazelnut
1
1
Juglans nigra
black walnut
1
1
Myrica pensylvanica
bayberry
1
1
Prunus persica
peach
1
1
Prunus sp.
plum
1
1
1
Quercus sp.
oak
1
1
1
Carya sp.
hickory
1
1
Zea mays
corn
1
1
Rhus sp.
sumac
1
1
1
1
1
Phaselous vulgaris
common bean
1
1
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp. goosefoot/amaranth
1
1
1
1
Cornus sp.
dogwood
1
1
1
1
172
Table 16. Seasonality of Plant Types at 72-161. Rang of Occupation is 1780-1790 A.D.
(Highlighted when each plant type flowers or fruit on a yearly basis).
Comptonia peregrina
Corylus americana
Juglans cinerea
Prunus sp.
Nyssa sylvatica
Carya sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Rubus sp.
Rhus sp.
Triticum sp.
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
sweetfern
1
1
hazelnut
1
1
butternut
1
1
plum
1
1
1
tupelo
1
1
hickory
1
1
huckleberry
1
1
1
blueberry
1
1
1
1
bramble
1
1
1
1
sumac
1
1
1
1
1
wheat
1
1
1
hazelnut
peach
oak
hickory
huckleberry
corn
bramble
sumac
common bean
173
Table 17. Seasonality of Plant Types at 72-66. Range of Occupation is 1785-1795. A.D.
(Highlighted when each plant type flowers or fruit on a yearly basis).
Corylus americana
Prunus persica
Quercus sp.
Carya sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Zea mays
Rubus sp.
Rhus sp.
Phaselous vulgaris
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
$
-,
*%
)*
.#$
+#
*
'
$)
%-
/
(#
)+
.#$
*
&'
%-
/.
(#
+
$)
#.
+
-(
*%
)
$*
(#
$.
$*
*%
#
*!
$*
+.
-+
%
*
#
++
*
$
*%
#
+&
*
.#$
*0
-,
*
$
$)
%-
(#
*+
.$
*
1.
*!
%
#
,!
*
$
).
-)
!
*
#
,!
*
$
!"#
174
Figure 35. Percentages of Habitats Represented Within the Archaeobotanical Record.
WOODLANDS
$!"#
OPEN FIELD
%!"#
WETLANDS
ANTHROPOGENIC DISTUBANCE
COASTAL
&!"#
'!"#
(!"#
)!"#
*!"#
+!"#
,!"#
$!!"#
Figure 36. Elevation (ft) at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation.
175
Figure 37. Surface at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation.
176
Figure 38. Bedrock at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation.
177
Figure 39. Soils at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation.
178
Figure 40. Hydrography at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation.
179
0.00
50.00
100.00
150.00
200.00
250.00
300.00
350.00
400.00
450.00
180
Figure 41. Distance to Water.
1677 1685 1690 1750 1763 1770 1790 1790 1790 1790
Distance to Water (Feet)
Distance to Water (Feet)
Feet
Wigwam
1666-1800
285
Framed w/o
Foundation
1750-1856
218
Framed w/
Foundation
1750-1980
248
Mininum Distance
Average Distance
Maximum Distance
181
Figure 42. Proximity of Mashantucket Post-Contact Sites to Water Resources.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
CHAPTER 8
THE FACES OF CONTINUITY AND CHANGE AT THE MASHANTUCKET
PEQUOT RESERVATION
Introduction
This investigation has explored how the Mashantucket Pequot, at the household
level managed and adapted their plant strategies when faced with the challenges of
colonization from 1675-1800 A.D. This chapter summarizes the results and discusses the
complexity of Indigenous plant use and decision-making processes on a colonized
landscape as well as future work to complement the data presented in this investigation.
I have evaluated the how Indigenous households and communities made decisions about
plants that allowed them to remain flexible in their social organization, and maintain their
Indigenous identity within colonized spaces. There are alternative hypotheses, which
could have been explored with this dissertation. For example, that Indigenous individuals
and communities kept living like Indigenous peoples because they had no choice. They
had limited resources to access the Euro-American lifestyle and thus they were poor and
marginal and subsisted however they could, including continuing cultural practices that
would keep them alive within the colonized landscape. However, in this dissertation, it is
assumed that agency or human choice is embedded within cultural practices and
knowledge structures of the communities under study.
I did not excavate the data analyzed in this dissertation, nor were they collected in
the field to settle a specific set of competing hypotheses. They were collected to
document decisions taken by Mashantucket Pequot, in regard to plant resources (about
182
which not much was known, much less published before). It would require the critical
test of new problem-directed field work, to settle the question if the Mashantucket Pequot
decisions were completely forced by their having been marginalized so completely that
the observed behaviors were the only choice they had, as a result of their dire poverty and
colonial subjugation, or if they can be better explained by an agency approach, in which
the decisions were the ones taken because they were the culturally most appropriate and
best informed decisions for Mashantucket Pequot individuals to take, within the range of
decisions that would have been open to them.
In this direction, it would be useful to compare plant data sets from EuroAmerican sites to Indigenous households each containing multiple contexts, such as fire
hearths, storage, refuse pits and house gardens clearly associated with distinct
architectural structures, with directly connected and abundant historical narratives (both
indigenous and colonial). Unfortunately, the Euro-American archaeological data and
colonial/indigenous accounts in regards to plant use are very sparse in this region. At the
site level, data utilized are also limited: (1) the field methods may have steered
archaeological to areas that did not yield high quantities of plant material and they were
not necessarily optimized in a problem directed approach to understand humanenvironmental interactions; (2) lacked control over the field processing and as an analyst,
it would have been useful to “start from scratch” during the identification process, instead
of reanalyzing and working through the methodological issues of identification created
by other analysts; and lastly (3) the generally poor and differential preservation of the
archaeobotanical materials at New England sites. Imagine how much more we would
183
know about the Mashantucket plant strategies if we had desert plant preservation
conditions in New England.
Although this data set certainly has limitations, I need to reiterate that there are
many positive aspects of its collection, processing and analysis. The ten sites chosen for
this analysis are unprecedented with the region in the amount of soil floated/analyzed and
also the amount of recovered archaeobotanical information. It has allowed me to assess
my research assumptions and move beyond it correcting simpler notions of decision
making due to environmental and cultural determinism, such as biological forcing,
colonial power, or depictions of communities and individuals act kindly to their
environments, as mentioned in Chapter One.
Through an analysis of the archaeological and historical data, I have evaluated a
model of decision-making and expectations that have the Mashantucket Pequot reacting
conservatively to the process of colonization. Within that model, I explore the dynamic
cultural practices involved with the Mashantucket Pequot plant use and demonstrate that
the Mashantucket Pequot at the household level continued to use wild plants and tropical
cultigens with supplementary additions of Old World domesticated crops from the late
seventeenth into the eighteenth centuries. This illustrates traditionalism in the face of
change and how the selection of the most conservative strategies, which in this
investigation are labeled as heterarchical, allowed them to stay culturally autonomous in
the processes of colonization. Specific decisions, such as the use of mast products, other
wild plants and tropical cultigens as food and medicine, highlight those responses which
are conservative and help to keep them as autonomous as possible under the colonial
onslaught from 1675-1800 A.D.
184
Living with the Land: Agency and the Complexity of Environmental Strategies
The data presented within this investigation support the notion that the
Mashantucket Pequot chose plant strategies that has them ‘living with the land’ and the
“hidden harvests” of wild plants, from nuts to wild weedy and fruits plants, and also
tropical cultigens dominate the archaeological assemblages. In many examples, these
decisions are corroborated in the Indigenous and colonial narratives. The household
decision making, in its continuity and variation, indicates that the Mashantucket Pequot’s
use of plants was deeply embedded in their cultural practices and local knowledge of the
landscape from 1675-1800 A.D. The post-Contact adaptive strategies related to plant use
have connections to the pre-Contact period as there appear to be similar patterns of
exploitation of the spectrum of wild plants utilized and the presence of tropical cultigens
(Chilton 1999, 2002; Bernstein 1993; George and Dewar 1999; Little and Schoeninger
1995; Johnson 1999).
So what types of specific decisions are evident from ‘living with the land’ when
faced with land and resource circumscription? And how do those decisions reflect the
struggles the Mashantucket Pequot faced with colonization? These are challenging
questions and much research has gone into searching for motives and meanings within
the cultural structures of past archaeological communities (Brumfiel 2000; Dornan 2002).
However, because of the analysis of plant-related material culture at the household level,
I am able to sketch the network of historical variables and the knowledge structures
related to plant use of the Mashantucket Pequot. The household analysis at Mashantucket
highlights broad temporal and spatial tendencies within the archaeobotanical data and
185
chronicles the decisions of plant use actually taken within this Indigenous, but yet
colonized, landscape.
Based upon the plant data, it is clear that the Mashantucket Pequot struggled to
maintain traditional lifeways in the face of colonial forces. For example, mast products
continued to be used at the domestic sites but there is quite a variation when that is
broken down into five mast plant types identified (Figure “Mast Standardized”. At 72-91,
the Mohantic Fort occupied between 1675-1680 A.D., Carya sp. (hickory) dominates the
household assemblages. However, only five years after the fort occupation, Corylus
americana (hazelnut) increases at the cost of Carya sp. (hickory) in 72-58 (Figure “Mast
Standardized:). After 72-58 is occupied, Carya sp. (hickory) is present but is not the main
nutshell present, except when 72-66 is occupied from 1785-1795 A.D.
Within the archaeological and historical records, Carya sp. (hickory) is noted as
the most important nut bearing trees in the eastern United States for Indigenous
communities (Gremillion 1995; Bennett 1955). Is pattern of cultural use similar in New
England? And if Carya sp. (hickory) is an important plant resource, then why did the
Mashantucket Pequot mast use shift away from hickory after late seventeenth century?
Could it be related to wartime (King Philips War) and need to feed more mouths with the
storage of Carya sp. (hickory) and Zea mays (corn)? More upland, terrestrial
environments, like Walnut Hill, West Half and South Hill were lost to the Pequot during
the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. This comprised over 3000 acres of
exploitable land for trees, such as Carya sp. (hickory). It is possible that this shift in
nutshell presence of Carya sp. (hickory) correlates to that land loss for the Mashantucket
Pequot. The increase in the use of Corylus americana (hazelnut) may correlate with the
186
changing forest composition as early successional species, such as Pinus strobus (white
pine), Betula sp. (birch) and Acer maple (red maple) become more abundant due to the
rapidly changing southern New England landscape (Foster et al. 2008). It is important to
understand that mast products were part of Indigenous communities diet and patterns of
environmental strategies even when forced to become sedentary within the Reservation
boundaries. The use of mast products is one way in which traditional ecological
knowledge and plant practices may have been kept alive and passed from generation to
generation between households at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation during the late
seventeenth to eighteenth centuries.
The physical presence of tropical cultigens, fruits, and other wild plants used for
medicine has a very similar use patterns among the ten archaeological sites. From the
data it is reasonable to suggest that the different types of medicinal plants across these
select households were one of the ways in which the Mashantucket Pequot remained
culturally autonomous. Medicinal plants such as tropical and Old world cultigens, nuts,
shrubs fruits, and other wild plant varieties, were apparently continually used and played
a role in Mashantucket Pequot plant practices but tend to have low ubiquity. As stated in
Chapter Six, additional contexts, such as ritualized spaces, with differential presence (not
necessarily higher ubiquity) of plant remains are needed to understand the variability
within the cultural behaviors related to Mashantucket Pequot medical plant at the
household level.
It also is important to highlight that the Mashantucket continued to exploit a
diversity of types of habitat types. In spite of increasing circumscription, woodland, open
field, coastal, and wetland (such as the Great Cedar Swamp) habitats continued to be
187
central, along with new formed anthropogenic areas, to the environmental strategies of
the Mashantucket Pequot. At no point during the occupation of the ten domestic sites did
the households at Mashantucket cease to harvest plants from the diversity of habitats
within and around the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation. The knowledge and decisions
associated with the use of wild plants, which include fruits and weedy seeds, were passed
along from generation to generation and made a significant contribution to the plant–
related food and medicinal stores of each of the households analyzed. The plant types
identified at the select households above were also more than likely not consumed
immediately and were stored and utilized when needed. Traditional storage practices
were more likely maintained by the Mashantucket Pequot as they exploited plant types
from a variety of different habitats across different times of the year, even at sites like 7291 with its wigwams and 72-58 were that kind of habitation structure are unknown.
The colonial narratives document significant pressures from the colonial
authorities to either engage with or not to interfere in the Euro-American notion of
improvements to the land. In response, the Mashantucket Pequot choose to choose to
participate only in those plant strategies that allowed to maintain if not broaden the
diversity, variation, and flexibility in the use of plants and their habitats. The
heterarchical values placed upon wild plants and domesticated cultigens (either tropical
or Old World) allowed the Mashantucket Pequot to pass along the plant related
knowledge and continue exploiting a diverse subsistence base. The presence of wild
plants alongside domesticates at all ten sites demonstrates that the Mashantucket Pequot
“lived with the land” and that they continually utilized products which have been labeled
as “hidden harvests” (Grivetti and Ogle 2000) in order to survive. Merchant notes
188
(2010:85) that colonial production altered the local ecology that in turn undermined
Native American production. Although the local ecology was certainly modified by the
large scale land clearance that had started in the sixteenth century the Mashantucket
Pequot environmental strategies from 1675-1800 A.D. do not appear radically changed.
Though this had not been the focus of the dissertation it is important to note that
Mashantucket Pequot decision making, in the directions in which it is reverberated across
the data in this investigation, may have been made easier by many of the Indigenous plant
interactions being female centered, in contrast to the Euro-American male centered
economy. This pattern is similar to other geographic regions in North America, which
include the Southeast (Perdue 1998; Scarry and Scarry 2005) and the Northwest coast
(Duer and Turner 2005). In New England, Indigenous women are associated with
domestic activities, which include maintaining the household, farming and the gathering
of plants (Merchant 2010). It has also been noted that women are an integral part of the
social and economic systems during and after the time of European colonization (Ives
2011: Lamb Richmond and Den Ouden 3003; Ives 2011). They maintained their
sociocultural authority and produced much of what we know today at Native American
culture materialities (baskets etc.) (Lamb Richmond and Den Ouden 2003).
The Indigenous narratives at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation and those of
associated cultural groups corroborate those early studies and analyses of the role of
women within southeastern New England. More specifically, Mancini (2009) has
documented during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Mashantucket Pequot men
leaving the reservation to engage in whaling and other capitalistic endeavors along the
coast and other towns of New England. A similar phenomenon can be seen within a
189
small, colonial rural town in Vermont during the nineteenth century – as capitalism takes
a hold within the areas surrounding the town, there is migration but yet resistance and
persistence of traditional lifeways (Barron 1987).
The women at Mashantucket Pequot maintained the households and sustained the
communities in the increasingly oppressive colonial world. In essence they were the
keepers, modifiers, and transmitters of the traditional ecological knowledge. Given the
continued presence of wild plants (which were used both for food and medicine) within
households from 1675-1800 A.D., women may have fostered a sense of continuity with
environmental strategies and resisted engaging in plant strategies that interfered with
their traditional ways of gathering, harvesting and cultivating plants from 1675-1800 AD.
Usually the colonial authorities and other colonial figures dealt with the men within the
reservation systems (Bragdon 1996b). Women must have been an important contribution
to keeping the Mashantucket Pequot plant interactions “Mashantucket Pequot” and
traditional and autonomous from the Europeans, in the face of Euro-American strategies
of “improving the land” within the Reservation.
In regards to Christianity and changes within cultural practices, Bragdon (1996b)
states that women were often more conservative in their responses to converting to
Christianity as it highly affected their cultural autonomy, especially within marriage
choice and family planning. That conservatism may also be seen within the continuities
of plant use at the Mashantucket Pequot. Even after many Mashantucket Pequot
converted to Christianity in the later part of the eighteenth century, which advocated for
an overhaul of the Indigenous ways of being (Rubin 2005), traditional plant strategies for
food and medicinal purposes continue to be maintained (with household variations) in a
190
heterarchical fashion from 1765-1800 A.D. As noted by Mancini (2002), it is sometimes
hard to discern the patterns of medicinal plant use, as this line of practice appears to shift
dramatically within the historical accounts after the rise of Christianity. However, the
archaeological evidence presented in this analysis has created temporal and spatial
connections between the use of plants at the household level.
Further Research
Wood Analysis
The next step in the macrobotanical analysis at the Mashantucket Pequot
Reservation from the extant collections is the evaluation of the use of wood resources that
have been recovered at all the sites within this investigation. The analysis of the wood
charcoal will be one of the first within the region to utilize the innovate methods, such as
the minimum piece diameter analysis (Marguerie and Hunot 2007; Scholtz 1986;
Tusenius 1986) to decipher cultural patterns and to reconstruct the decisions which
surround wood use at the household and community levels. This archaeobotanical
research would complement the research conducted by Foster and Aber (2004), Foster et
al. (2008) and Ireland et al. (2010) to learn about the intensive utilization of wood
products, coupled with the history of deforestation, reforestation, and other anthropogenic
impacts. This analysis would be one of the first to study an continuously occupied
indigenous landscape to understand major changes in forest composition and structure
occurred after the arrival of Europeans. The wood data will be integrated with the
documentary record to identify Native American decisions in relation to their access to
fuel resources and further establish a historically contextualized and more nuanced
understanding of the Native Americans within a contested landscape
191
Animal Resources
At the sites analyzed, there has been extensive recovery of animal bone as well.
The faunal data (analyzed by M. Vasta and Randy Noaks) are being analyzed in parallel
to the botanical data to create more inclusive understanding of subsistence and land-based
strategies at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation. Vasta (2007) notes that during the
eighteenth century there is a shift to more domesticated animals, such as pig, into the
Indigenous diet. This is an interesting trend in comparison to plant-based subsistence
because the plant use suggests conservatism of traditional practices while the animal use
may demonstrate a more radical shift toward Euro-American subsistence strategies.
More research is needed to create a more comprehensive picture of animal and plant
resources at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation during colonization.
Site Analysis
Investigating Mashantucket Pequot environmental interaction into the ninetieth
and twentieth centuries will continue the story presented in this investigation and also to
support the preliminary evidence that medicinal use continued into the twentieth century..
It will be useful to complement the data set presented in this investigation to identify
whether the patterns of continuity in decision making which characterize the period
between 1675-1800 A.D. are maintained into the present day, especially after the
Mashantucket Pequot face more political, economic and social challenges with this
colonized space in Connecticut. The preliminary data demonstrates a shift to a more
equal balance between Euro-American and tropical cultigens and wild plants around the
later part of the eighteenth century. Investigating the eighteenth to twentieth century data
more comprehensively may introduce a lasting transformation in which Euro-American
192
products are being cultivated by the Mashantucket Pequot for more than just cursory use,
as highlighted in this analysis (McBride personal communication). Over 15 identified
Mashantucket sites from 1800-1930 A.D. can be explored and expand our knowledge of
traditional ecological knowledge during the later phases of colonization at Mashantucket.
Final Remarks
“Put your ear to the ground and listen and you know the ceremonies
[Indigenous knowledge] are all around us. We just have to be patient and
listen.” (Native American elder in Lamb Richmond 1989:33).
This project was sponsored by the Mashantucket Pequot Nation. It turns our
attention to how Indigenous societies, when faced with conflict and competition for
resources, engage their own traditions and Euro-American practices. This investigation
accentuates the complexity of the cultural lifeways and how Native Americans
(re)conceptualized their socio-natural world during the process of colonization. Even
though large portions of land were appropriated and resources became more
circumscribed, the Mashantucket Pequot chose heterarchical strategies relative to plants
that helped them to stay as autonomous an possible and that was the most consistent with
older patterns of subsistence and land use.
The plant decision-making that has been the focus of this investigation, I hope,
will aid in placing Indigenous individuals and communities into the contexts of
colonization as more active participants in their own past, and as long-term stewards of
the environments. This dissertation has shown that even as small a space as the
Mashantucket Pequot Reservation is a rich testimony to the 11,000-year history, and
continues to provide important information about Mashantucket Pequot decision-making,
even under the most severe constraints during the early Colonial Period.
193
!""#$%&'(!(
(
)##%(*+&,#+&!(-)#%(./+(&%#$.&*!,&/$(
!
194
milkweed
Asclepias sp.
nutlet
Forget me
not
sedge
Beech
Boraginaceae
Family
Carex sp.
Carpinus
caroliniana
seed
seed
achene
Asteraceae Family aster
seed
Common
Part
Name
Cooperfleaf seed
Taxonomic
Identification
Acalypha sp.
oblong;
elliptic
obtriangular;
obovate
elliptic; ovate Circular;
but typically elliptic
much longer
than thick;
large
variable
variable
variable
large
4.8 mm
1.3-3.7 mm
1.0-4.5 mm
variable
5.3-9.5 mm
1. 5 mm
elliptic
Length
ellliptic
small
Cross Section Size Class
151 SPECIES: Carex abscondita (thicket sedge); Carex
obvate; ovate traiangular;
acutiformis (lesser pond sedge); Carex aestivalis (summer sedge);
elliptic
Carex alata (broadwing sedge); Carex albicans (whitetinge
sedge); Carex albolutescens (greenwhite sedge); Carex albursina
(white bear sedge); Carex alopecoidea (foxtail sedge); Carex
amphibola (eastern narrowleaf sedge); Carex annectens
(yellowfruit sedge); Carex appalachica (Appalachian sedge);
Carex aquatilis (water sedge); Carex arctata (dropping woodland
sedge); Carex argyrantha (hay sedge); Carex atlantica (prickly
bog sedge); Carex aurea (golden sedge); Carex backii (Back's
sedge); Carex baileyi (Bailey's sedge); Carex barrattii (Barratt's
sedge); Carex bebbii (Bebb's sedge); Carex bicknellii (Bicknell's
sedge); Carex blanda (eastern woodland sedge); Carex brevior
(shortbeak sedge); Carex bromoides (brome-like sedge); Carex
brunnescens (brownish sedge); Carex bullata (button sedge);
Carex bushii (Bush's sedge); Carex buxbaumii (Buxbaum's sedge);
Carex canescens (silvery sedge); Carex castanea (chestnut sedge);
Carex cephaloidea (thinleaf sedge); Carex cephalophora (ovalleaf sedge); Carex collinsii (Collins' sedge); Carex communis
(fibrousroot sedge); Carex comosa (longhair sedge); Carex
conoidea (openfield sedge); Carex crawei (Crawe's sedge); Carex
crawfordii (Crawford's sedge); Carex crinita (frindged sedge);
Carex cristatella (crested sedge); Carex cryptolepis (northeastern
sedge); Carex cumulata (clustered sedge); Carex davisii (Davis'
sedge); Carex debilis (white edge sedge); Carex deweyana (Dewy
sedge); Carex diandra (lesser panicled sedge); Carex digitalis
(slender woodland sedge); Carex Disperma (softleaf sedge); Carex
eburnea (bristleleaf sedge); Carex echinata (star sedge); Carex
emoryi (Emory's sedge); Carex exilis (coastal sedge); Carex
festucacea (fescue sedge); Carex flava (yellow sedge); Carex
folliculata (northern long sedge); Carex formosa (handsome
sedge); Carex glaucodea (blue sedge); Carex gracilescens (slender
SAME
ovate
elliptic
NUMEROUS SPECIES
NUMEROUS SPECIES
Contemporary Species Identified in CT (Based Upon USDA
Face View
Plants Database)
3 SPECIES: Acalypha gracilens (slender threeseed mercury);
obovate
Acalypha rhomboidea (common threeseed mercury); Acalypha
virginica (Virginia threeseed mercury)
9 SPECIES: Asclepias amplexicaulis (clasping milkweed);
obovate
Asclepias exaltata (poke milkweed); Asclepias incarnata (swamp
milkweed); Asclepias purpurascens (purple milkweed); Asclepias
quadrifolia (fourleaf milkweed); Asclepias syriaca (common
milkweed); Asclepias tuberosa (butterfly milkweed); Asclepias
verticillata (whorled milkweed); Asclepias viridiflora (green
comet mildweed)
4.1 mm
1.0-1.2 mm
.9-4.0 mm
variable
3.4-7.2 mm
1.1 mm
Width
3.0 mm
.6-2.2 mm
.6-6.0 mm
variable
.5-1.0 mm
1.1 mm
Thickness
sharply longitudinally nutlet attached to a
single, usally 3ribbed, slightly
lobed, reticulately
granular at the apex
veined brach about
2.3 cm long
areoolate
variable
variable
reticulately veined
Idenfitication criteria based
upon Montgomery 1977:57 Carpinus carolininia
Citation of Identication
Criteria
Idenfitication criteria based
upon Montgomery 1977:108 Acalypha rhomboidea
distinct, rather
Idenfitication criteria based
spongy marginal
upon Montgomery 1977:54 wing and a silky
Asclepias incarnata;
coma at the hilum
Asclepias sullivantii (not
end which is the
currently in CT); Asclepias
pod's upper end;
syriaca; Asclepias tuberosa;
shows position of
Asclepias verticillata;
raphae by a series of Asclepias viridiflora
striations
remanent style base Identification criteria based
with or without a
upon Adam and Murrary
papus
2004 - Compositae family
Montgomery 1977:72-89 Compositae (Asteraceae)
family
hilum appears sub- Identification criteria based
terminal, lateral, sub- upon Montgomery 1977: 58basal or basal
61 - Boraginaceae family
range is small or long Identification criteria based
and contorted
upon Montgomery 1977:9899 - Carex aurea; Carex
comosa; Carex luplina; Carex
pseudocyperus; Carex stipata
Surface
Comments
Characteristics
rugulose and aerolate raphe ridge and
caruncle evident
Common
Name
hickory
goosefoot
sweet fern
dogwood
hazelnut
Taxonomic
Identification
Carya sp.
Chenopodium Amaranthus sp.
Comptonia
peregrina
Cornus sp.
Corylus sp.
nut
seed
nutlets
seed
nut
Part
ovate
8 SPECIES: Cornus alternifolia (alternateleaf dogwood); Cornus elliptic
amomum (silky dogwood); Cornus canadensis (bunchberry
dogwood); Cornus florida (flowering dogwood); Cornus obliqua
(silky dogwood); Cornus racemosa (gray dogwood); Cornus
rugosa (roundleaf dogwood); Cornus sericea (redosier dogwood)
3 SPECIES: Corylus americana (American hazelnut); Corylus
cornuta (beaked hazelnut); Corylus heterophylla (Siberian
hazelnut)
Cross Section Size Class
elliptic
elliptic
elliptic
elliptic
large
large
large
variable
sub-globose; slightly angled large
elliptic;
obovate
Face View
25 SPECIES: Amaranthus albus (prostrate pigweed); Amaranthus elliptic
blitoides (mat amaranth); Amaranthus blitum (purple amaranth);
Amaranthus cannabinus (tidalmarsh amaranth); Amaranthus
caudatus (love-lies bleeding); Amaranthus cruentus (red
amaranth); Amaranthus hybridus (slim amaranth); Amaranthus
powellii (Powell's amaranth); Amaranthus pumilus (seaside
amaranth); Amaranthus retroflexus (redroot amaranth);
Amaranthus spinosus (spiny amaranth); Amaranthus tuberculatus
(roughfruit amaranth); Chenopodium album (lambsquarter);
Chenopodium ambrosiodes (Mexican tea); Chenopodium
berlandieri (pitseed goosefoot); Chenopodium bonus-henricus
(good King Henry); Chenopodium botrys (Jerusalem oak
goosefoot); Chenopodium capitatum (blite goosefoot);
Chenopodium glaucum (oakleaf goosefoot); Chenopodium
murale (nettleleaf goosefoot); Chenopodium pratericola (desert
goosefoot); Chenopodium rubrum (red goosefoot); Chenopodium
simplex (mapleleaf goosefoot); Chenopodium standleyanum
(Standley's goosefoot); Chenopodium urbicum (city goosefoot)
SAME
elliptic
Contemporary Species Identified in CT (Based Upon USDA
Plants Database)
5 SPECIES: Carya alba (mockernut hickory); Carya cordiformis
(bitternut hickory); Carya glabra (pignut hickory); Carya ovalis
(red hickory); Carya ovata (shagbark hickory)
13-15 mm
3.0-7.0 mm
4.0 mm
.7 -3.2 mm
2-4 cm
Length
12 mm
2.0-5.8 mm
3.1 mm
.7-1.5 mm
NA
Width
10 mm
2.0-5.5 mm
2.3 mm
.4-1.2 mm
NA
Thickness
Comments
smooth or slightly
ridged
apex abruptly
pointed and base
truncate; involucre
long, beaked and
laciniate or lacerate
at the apex
smooth or
basal area puckered
longitudinally ribbed, and ridged
glossy,
veined and sulcate;
smooth; longitudinally
nerved
surrounded by a
fleshy involucre or
husk which becomes
dry and hard at
maturity. The husk
dehisces into 4
sections at maturity.
smooth or margin
the embryo is folded
slightly ridged; faintly or coiled in the seed often evident in the
and irregularly
roughened or undulate, form or the external
very faintly areolate; markings
winged margins,
concave-convex
Surface
Characteristics
slightly ridged and
nervied; smooth
Idenfitication criteria based
upon Montgomery 1977:150 Myrica asplenifolia
Identification criteria based
upon Montgomery 1977: 8990 - Cornus alternifolia;
Cornus candensis: Cornus
florida; Cornus purpusii
(Cornus Obliqua); Cornus
racemosa; Cornus rugosa;
Cornus stolonifera (Cornus
sericea)
Indentiification based upon
Montgomery 1977:57 Corylus americana; Corylus
cornuta
Idenfitication criteria based
upon Adams and Murray
2004 - Cheno-Am-Type and
Montgomery 1977: 50, 69-70 Amaranthus albus;
Amaranthus graecizans;
Amaranthus retroflexus;
Amaranthus tuberculatus;
Chenopodium album;
Chenopodium botrys;
Chenopodium capitatum;
Chenopodium glaucum;
Chenopodium hybridum
(Chenopodium simplex)
Citation of Identication
Criteria
Identification criteria based
upon Montgomery 1977:128129 - Carya cordiformis;
Carya ovalis; Carya ovata
seed
huckleberry seed
Gaylussacia sp.
Gramineae Family grass
seed
achenes
bedstraw
flatsedge
Cyperus sp.
achene
Galium sp.
sedge
Cyperaceae
seed
seeds
gourd
Cucurbita sp.
Part
seed
Ericaceae Family heath
Common
Name
hawthorne
Taxonomic
Identification
Crataegus sp.
ovate
17 SPECIES: Galium album (white bedstraw); Galium aparine
(stickywilly); Galium asprellum (rough bedstraw); Galium boreale
(northern bedstraw); Galium circaezans (licorice bedstraw);
Galium glaucum (waxy bedstraw); Galium labradoricum
(northern bog bedstraw); Galium lanceolatum (lanceleaf wild
licorice); Galium mollugo (false baby's breath); Galium obtusum
(bluntleaf bedstraw); Galium palustre (common marsh bedstraw);
Galium pilosum (hairy bedstraw); Galium sylvaticum (Scotch
mist); Galium tinctorium (stiff marsh bedstraw); Galium trifidum
(threepetal bedstraw); Galium triflorum (fragrant bedstraw);
Galium verum (Yellow Spring bedstraw)
3 SPECIES: Gaylussacia baccata (black huckleberry);
Gaylussacia dumosa (dwarf huckleberry); Gaylussacia frondosa
(blue huckleberry)
NUMEROUS SPECIES
variable
medium
large
obtraingular
ellipitic
variable
medium
variable
elliptic; elliptic variable
triangular
triangular;
elliptic
elliptic
large
Cross Section Size Class
elliptic;
obliquely
obtriangular
elliptic; ovate variable
obliquely
elliptic
elliptic;
obiquely
oblong
15 SPECIES: Cyperus amuricus (Asian flatsedge); Cyperus
eilliptic;
bipartitus (slender flatsedge); Cyperus dentatus (toothed
obovate
flatsedge); Cyperus diandrus (umbrella flatsedge); Cyperus
echinatus (globe flatsedge); Cyperus erythrorhizos (redroot
flatsedge); Cyperus esculentus (yellow nutsedge); Cyperus
filicinus (fern flatsedge); Cyperus fuscus (brown flatsedge);
Cyperus grayi (Gray's flatsedge); Cyperus lupulinus (Great Plains
flatsedge); Cyperus odoratus (fragrant flatsedge); Cyperus
squarrosus (bearded flatsedge); Cyperus strigosus (strawcolored
flatsedge); Kyllinga gracillima (pasture spikesedge)
NUMEROUS SPECIES
variable
NUMEROUS SPECIES
Contemporary Species Identified in CT (Based Upon USDA
Face View
Plants Database)
30 SPECIES: Crataegus anomala (Arnold hawthorne); Crataegus obovate;
brainerdii (Brainerd's hawthorne); Crataeus chrysocarpa
obliquely
(fireberry hawthorn); Crataegus compta (adorned hawthorn);
ellipitic
Crataegus crus-galli (cockspur hawthorn); Crataegus dilatata
(broadleaf hawthorn); Crataegus dissona (northern hawthorn);
Crataegus dodgei (Dodge's hawthorn); Crataegus flabellata
(fanleaf hawthorn); Crataegus holmesiana (Holmes' hawthorne);
Crataegus intricata (Copenhagen hawthorne); Crrataegus
iracunda (stolonbearing hawthorn); Crataegus jesupii (Jesup's
hawthorn); Crategus lucorum (grove hawthorn); Crataegus
lumaria (roundleaf hawthorn); Crataegus macrosperma (bigfruit
hawthorn); Crataegus membranacea (tissueleaf hawthorn);
Crataegus mollis (downy hawthorn); Crataegus monogyna
(oneseed hawthorn); Crataegus pedicellata (scarlet hawthorn);
Crataegus pequotorum (Connecticut hawthorn); Crataegus
pringlei (Pringle's hawthorn); Crataegus pruinosa (waxyfruit
hawthorn); Crataegus punctata (dotted hawthorn); Crataegus
scabrida (rough hawthorn); Crataegus schuettei (Schuette's
hawthorn); Crataegus spatiosa (New London hawthorn);
Crataegus submollis (Quebec hawthorn); Crataegus suborbiculata
(Caughuawaga hawthorn); Crataegus succulenta (fleshy
hawthorn)
Cucurbita pepo (field pumpkin)
ovate
variable
1.9 mm
1.3-3.0 mm
variable
1.1-2.5 mm
1.5-2.0 mm
7 to 26 mm
5.5-6.5 mm
Length
variable
1.5 mm
.8-3.0
variable
.8 mm
.9-3.0 mm
variable
2 to 3 mm
4.6-3.2 mm
Thickness
Surface
Characteristics
rough; ridged
Comments
smooth; embryo
depression clearly
visible near the base of
the dorsal side
slightly roughned
unicate hispid and
verrucose; rugulose
smooth and often
reticulate
rough surface, with a
fairly smooth seed
margin;
.7 to 1.1 mm 1 mm or less smooth or rough with sometimes difficult
paraellel striations
to distinguish from
triangular
sometimes visible
Ploygonum achenes
.6-1.2 mm
.6-1.1 mm
angles rounded and
sides slightly concave,
surface reticulate,,
style base small; faces
slightly convex
7 to 11 mm
3.6-4.6 mm
Width
Idenfitication criteria based
upon Montgomery 1977:105 Gaylussacia baccata
Idenfitication criteria based
upon Adams and Murray 2004
- Gramineae-type
Identification criteria based
upon Martin and Barkley
2000:188 - Ericaceae type
Idenfitication criteria based
upon Montgomery 1977:185 Galium aparine; Galium
boreale; Galium circaezans;
Galium lanceolatum; Galium
mollugo; Galium verum
Idenfitication criteria based
upon Montgomery 1977:99 Cyperus esculentus; Cyperus
filiculmis (Cyperus
lupulinus); Cyperus
schweinitzii (not currently
found in CT)
Identification criteria based
upon Adams and Murray 2004
- Curcurbita pepo-type
Idenfitication criteria based
upon Adams and Murray 2004
- Cyperaceae-type
Citation of Identication
Criteria
Idenfitication criteria based
upon Montgomery 1977:176 Crataegus monogyna;
Crataegus pruinosa;
Crataegus punctuta
rush
mint
lettuce
legume
bayberry
Juncus sp.
Labiatae Family
Lactuca sp.
Legumosaeae
Family
Myrica
pensylvanica
fruit
seed
achene
nutlet
seed
butternut/bla nut
ck walnut
nut
!"#$%$&'(")%$*0$$#Juglans cinerea butternut
Juglans sp.
seed
!"#$%$&'(")%$*+,%-.$//
undefined
black walnut nut
nutshell
!"#$%$&'(")%$*+,%'$)%
undefined
Juglans nigra
nutmeat
undefined
Part
seed
Common
Name
holly
Taxonomic
Identification
Ilex sp.
elliptic or
ovate
elliptic or
ovate
elliptic
variable
variable
variable
obliquely
elliptic
Face View
SAME SPECIES
NUMEROUS SPECIES
elliptic
small
variable
medium
large
variable
variable
variable
elliptic to
oblong with
and without
beak
elliptic
large
variable
large
triangular; to medium
sides are flat
and third often
is rounded
elliptic to
obliquely
elliptic
variable
variable
variable
large
Cross Section Size Class
obtriangular
elliptic; often variable
shaped like a
kidney bean
4 SPECIES: Latuca biennis (tall blue lettuce); Lactuca canadensis obliquely
(Canada lettuce); Lactuca hirsuta (hairy lettuce); Lactuca serriola elliptic to
(prickly lettuce)
obvate
24 SPECIES: Juncus acuminatus (tapertip rush); Juncus ambiguus ovate to
(seasice rush); Juncus anthelatus (greater poverty rush); Juncus
elliptic
articulatus (jointleaf rush); Juncus brachycarpus (whiteroot rush);
Juncus brachycephalus (smallhead rush); Juncus brevicaudatus
(narrowpanicle rush); Juncus bufonius (toad rush); Juncus
canadensis (Canadian rush); Juncus debilis (weak rush); Juncus
dichotomus (forked rush); Juncus diffusissimus (simpod rush);
Juncus dudleyi (Dudley's rush); Juncus effusus (common rush);
Juncus gerardii (saltmeadow rush); Juncus greenei (Greene's
rush); Juncus marginatus (grassleaf rush); Juncus militaris
(bayonet rush); Juncus nodosus (knotted rush); Juncus pelocarpus
(brownfruit rush); Juncus secundus (lopsided rush); Juncus
subcaudatus (woodland rush); Juncus tenuis (poverty rush);
Luzula multiflora (common woodrush)
NUMEROUS SPECIES
elliptic to
ovate
3 SPECIES: Carya alba (mockernut hickory); Juglans cinera
(butternut); Juglans nigra (black walnut)
SAME
SAME
NUMEROUS SPECIES
NUMEROUS SPECIES
Contemporary Species Identified in CT (Based Upon USDA
Plants Database)
6 SPECIES: Ilex glabra (inkberry); Ilex laevigata (smooth
winterberry); Ilex montana (mountain holly); Ilex mucronata
(catberry); Ilex opaca (American holly); Ilex verticillata (common
winterberry)
NUMEROUS SPECIES
3.6 mm
variable
3.5-5.6 mm
2mm
.4-.9 mm
2.5-4 cm
2.5 cm
4 cm
variable
variable
variable
3.6 mm
Length
3.2 mm
variable
1.0-1.5 mm
1.5 mm
.2-.5 mm
2.5-3.0 cm
3.0 cm
2.5 cm
variable
variable
variable
1.7 mm
Width
3.2 mm
variable
.2-.5 mm
1 mm
.2-.5 mm
variable
variable
variable
1.3 mm
Thickness
verrucose
smooth
Citation of Identication
Criteria
Idenfitication criteria based
upon Montgomery 1977:52 Illex verticillata
despcription is for
wild legumes - for
dometicated see
Phaselous vulgaris
Idenfitication criteria based
upon Montgomery 1977:151 Myrica pensylvanica
Identification critieria based
upon Montgomery 1977:8283 - Lactuca biennis, Lactuca
canadensis, Lactuca
pulchella, Lactuca serriola
Idenfitication criteria based
upon Adams and Murray 2004
- Legumosaeae type
Idenfitication criteria based
upon Adams and Murray 2004
- Labiatae-type
Identification criteria based
upon Montgomery 1977:129130 - Juncus acuminatus,
Juncus balticus ( Juncus
arcticus, not currently found
in CT), Juncus brevicaudatus,
Juncus bufoniuss, Juncus
dudleyi, Juncus effusus,
Juncus filiformis (not
currently found in CT),
Juncus nodosus, Juncus tenuis
Identification critieria based
upon Montgomery 1977: 129 Juglans cinerea
Identification critieria based
upon Montgomery 1977:129 Juglans nigra
Nutshell is very thick Identification critieria based
in comparision to
upon Montgomery 1977:129 Carya sp. (hickory) Juglans cinera; Juglans nigra
All nutmeat that
cannot be identified
to family, genus or
species level
All nutshell that
cannot be identified
to family, genus or
species level
All seeds that cannot
be identified to
family, genus or
species level
smooth to rough; may fruit usually consists
have fine cellular
of four nutlets
pressed together in a
patterning
sphere, each nutlet
with two flat facets
and one rounded
facet
longtitudinally ribbed
and transversely
rugose; pappus none to
capillary bristles
longitudinaly striate
and faintly areolate;
slghtly caudate at the
apex and base;
jagged ridges to
strongly rugose
strongly rugose
jagged ridges
variable
variable
variable
Surface
Comments
Characteristics
smooth or longuitudlly
ridge
common
bean
pokeweed
bindweed
water pepper achenes
knotweed
purslane
Phaselous
vulgaris
Phytolacca
americana
Polygonaceae
Family
Polygonum
hydropiper
Polygonum sp.
Portulaca sp.
seeds
achenes
achene
seed
seed
stone
Part
Common
Name
tupelo
Taxonomic
Identification
Nyssa sylvatica
elliptic
elliptic
ovate
elliptic
obliquely
triangular;
elliptic
elliptic;
triangular
elliptic; ovate triangular
elliptic
small
variable
medium
variable
medium
small
large
Cross Section Size Class
elliptic often elliptic
shaped like a
kidney bean
ellliptic
Face View
33 SPECIES: Fagopyrum esculentum (buckwheat); Polygonella ovate;
articulata (coastal jointweed); Polygonum achoreum (leathery
elliptic;
knotweed); Polygonum amphibium (water knotweed); Polygonum obovate
arenastrum (oval-leaf knotweed); Polygonum arifolium
(halberdleaf tearthumb); Polygonum aviculare (prostrate
knotweed); Polygonum bellardii (narrowleaf knotweed);
Polygonum buxiforme (box knotweed); Polygonum careyi (Carey's
smartweed); Polygonum cespitosum (Oriental lady's thumb);
Polygonum cilinode (fringed black bindweed); Polygonum
convolvulus (black bindweed); Polygonum cuspidatum (Japanese
knotweed); Polygonum erectum (erect knotweed); Polygonum
glaucum (seaside knotweed); Polygonum hydropiper
(marshpepper knotweed); Polygonum hydropiperoides (swamp
smartweed); Polygonum lapathifolium (curly knotweed);
Polygonum minus (pgymy smartweed); Polygonum nepalense
(Nepalese smartweed); Polygonum orientale (kiss me over the
garden gate); Polygonum pensylvanicum (Pennsylvania
smartweed); Polygonum persicaria (spotted ladysthumb);
Polygonum punctatum (dotted smartweed); Polygonum
ramosissimum (bushy knotweed); Polygonum robustius (stout
smartweed); Polygonum sachalinense (giant knotweed);
Polygonum sagittatum (arrowleaf tearthumb); Polygonum
scandens (climbing false buckwheat); Polygonum tenue (pleatleaf
virginianum
(jumpseed)
2knotweed);
SPECIES:Polygonum
Portulaca gradiflora
(rose
moss); Portulaca oleracea obliquely
(little hogweed)
elliptic
SAME SPECIES
NUMEROUS SPECIES
SAME SPECIES
SAME SPECIES
Contemporary Species Identified in CT (Based Upon USDA
Plants Database)
SAME SPECIES
.8 mm
2.3-3.8 mm
2.3 mm
variable
2.5 mm
.8-1.5 cm
7.5 mm
Length
.7 mm
1.5-3.0 mm
1.8 mm
variable
2.9 mm
.5 to .8 cm
5.8 mm
Width
.4 mm
.8-2.0
1.0 mm
variable
1.5 mm
3 to 5 mm
4.1 mm
Thickness
embryo curved and
seed tending to be
reniform
may be winged or
wingless;
characteristics of
calyx are useful in
identification
Comments
Identification critieria based
upon Montgomery 1977:160 Phytolacca americana
Identification critieria based
upon Adams and Murray 2004
- Polygonaceae-type and
Montgomery 1977:164-168 Includes speceis of the
families - Polygonum, Oxyria,
Rumex and
Identification critieria based
upon Montgomery 1977:166 Polygonum hydropiper
Identification critieria based
upon Montgomery 1977:165167 - Polygonum achoreum,
Polygonum aviculare,
Polygonum cilinode,
Polygonum coccineum,
Polygonum convolvulus,
Polygonum douglasii,
Polygonum hydropiper,
Polygonum lapathifolium,
Polygonum natans,
Polygonum pensylvanicum,
Polygonum persicaria,
Polygonum punctatum,
Polygonum sagittatum,
Polygonum scandens,
Polygonum tenue, Polygonum
virginianum
Citation of Identication
Criteria
Identification critieria based
upon Montgomery 1977:49 Nyssa sylvatica
Identification criteria based
upon Adams and Murray 2004
- Phaseolous vulgaris- type
5-6 concentric rows of embryo coiled within Identification criteria based
sculptured papillae
the seed coast
upon Montgomery 1977: 169 Portulaca oleracea
faintly rugulose,
conspicuously
longitudinally striate
and areolate; smooth;
finely striate;
puncticulate
striate and pucticulate
smooth
smooth and obsurely
areolate
Surface
Characteristics
promininet, rounded
ridges with
intervening nerves
smooth
Common
Name
pondweed
peach
plum
oak
buttercup
sumac
Taxonomic
Identification
Potamogeton sp.
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Ranunculaceae
Family
Rhus sp.
Part
seed
seed
nut
stone
stone
achene
elliptic
obliquely
elliptic;
elliptic;
obovate
Face View
8 SPECIES: Cotinus coggygria (European smoketree); Rhus
aromatica (fragrant sumac); Rhus copallinum (winged sumac);
Rhus glabra (smooth sumac); Rhus typhina (staghorn sumac);
Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy); Toxicodendron
rydbergii (western poision ivy); Toxicodendron vernix (poison
sumac)
NUMEROUS SPECIES
elliptic
variable
14 SPECIES: Prunus alleghaniensis (Allegheny plum); Prunus
elliptic
americana (American plum); Prunus avium (sweet cherry);
Prunus cerasus (sour cherry); Prunus domestica (European plum);
Prunus mahaleb (Mahaleb cherry); Prunus maritima (beach
plum); Prunus nigra (Canadian plum); Prunus pensylvanaica (pin
cherry); Prunus persica (peach); Prunus serotina (black cherry);
Prunus spinosa (blackthorn); Prunus susquehanae (Sesquehana
sandcherry); Prunus viginiana (chokecherry)
12 SPECIES: Quercus alba (white oak); Quercus bicolor (swamp elliptic; ovate
white oak); Quercus coccinea (scarlet oak); Quercus ilicifolia
(bear oak); Quercus macrocarpa (bur oak); Quercus muehlenbergii
(chinkapin oak); Quercus palustris (pin oak); Quercus phellos
(willow oak); Quercus prinoides (dwarf chinkapin oak); Quercus
prinus (chestnut oak); Quercus rubra (northern red oak); Quercus
stellata (post oak); Quercus velutina (black oak)
Contemporary Species Identified in CT (Based Upon USDA
Plants Database)
28 SPECIES: Myriophyllum pinnatum (cutleaf watermilfoil);
Potamogeton alpinus (alpine pondweed); Potamogeton
amplifolius (largeleaf pondweed); Potamogeton bicupulatus
(snailseed pondweed); Pontamogeton confervoides (Tuckerman's
pondweed); Potamogeton crispus (curly pondweed); Potamogeton
diversifolius (waterthread pondweed); Potamogeton epihydrus
(ribbonleaf pondweed); Potamogeton foliosus (leafy pondweed);
Potamogeton friesii (Fries' pondweed); Potamogeton gramineus
(variableleaf pondweed); Potamogeton hillii (Hill's pondweed);
Potamogeton illinoensis (Illinois pondweed); Potamogeton natans
(floating pondweed); Potamogeton nodosus (longleaf pondweed);
Potamogeton oakesianus (Oakes' pondweed); Potamogeton
obtusifolius (bluntleaf pondweed); Potamogeton ogdenii (Ogden's
pondweed); Potamogeton perfoliatus (claspingleaf pondweed);
Potamogeton praelongus (whitesterm pondweed); Pontamogeton
pulcher (spotted pondweed); Potamogeton pusillus (small
pondweed); Pontamogeton richardsonii (Richardson's pondweed);
Potamogeton robbinsii (Robbins' pondweed); Potamogeton
spirillus (spiral pondweed); Potamogeton strictifolius (narrowleaf
pondweed); Potamogeton vaseyi (vasey's); Potamogeton
zosteriformis (flatsterm pondweed); Stuckenia pectinata (sago
pondweed)
SAME
SPECIES
large
large
elliptic
variable
variable
variable
circular; if
large
broken open, a
very thin
nutshell (less
than .2 mm) is
visible
elliptic
elliptic
variable
Cross Section Size Class
elliptic;
oblong;
variable
.8-1.7 mm
Thickness
3.9-11.0 mm 3.9-7.3 mm
variable
1.0-2.9 mm
Width
veined; slighlty
rugulose; smooth;
jagged ridges
Surface
Characteristics
obscurely areolate;
pitted; rugose
2.5-3.4 mm
variable
2.5-4.3 mm
variable
1.6-2.5 mm
variable
smooth; slightly
roughened
variable
24 mm or less 15 mm or less 15 mm or less smooth
5.5-14 mm
variable
2.0-3.5 mm
Length
Identification criteria based
upon Newsom (personal
communication 2007)
Indentiification based upon
Montgomery 1977:181 Prunus americana; Prunus
nigra; Prunus pensylvanica;
Prunus pumila (not currently
found in CT); Prunus
serotina; Prunus virginiana
ovule on a curved
stalk and hilum
depressed
Identification criteria based
upon Montgomery 1977: 5051 - Rhus aromatica; Rhus
copallina; Rhus radicans;
Rhus typhina;
fragments of Quercus Idenfitication criteria based
sp. nutshell can often upon Adams and Murrary
difficult to
2004 - Quercus-type
distinguish if
Montgomery 1977:110-111 Castanea sp. nutshell Quercus alba; Quercus
bicolor; Quercus borealis
(Quercus rubra); Quercus
macrocarpa; Quercus
muhlenbergii; Quercus
palustris; Quercus prinodes;
Quercus velutina
seeds often laterally Identification criteria based
compressed; margins upon Montgomery 1977: 170often ridged; apex
175 - Ranuculaceae family
typically tapers to
persistent style
margin ridged
pit divided into two
halves and can split
Citation of Identication
Criteria
outer margin slighly Identification criteria based
winged; beak termine upon Montgomery 1977: 151at the apex
152 - Potamogeton epihydrus;
Potamogeton foliosus;
Potamogeton gramineus;
Potamogeton illinoensis;
Potamogeton natans;
Potamogeton pectinatus
(Stuckenia pectinata);
Potamogeton pusillus
Potamogeton richardsonii;
Potamogeton zosteriformis
Comments
Common
Name
berry
rush
wheat
Taxonomic
Identification
Rubus sp.
Scirpus sp.
Triticum sp.
Part
seed
achene
stone
Contemporary Species Identified in CT (Based Upon USDA
Face View
Plants Database)
47 SPECIES: Dalibarda repens (robin runaway); Rubus
obliquely
allegheniensis (Allegheny blackberry); Rubus alumnus (oldfield ovate;
blackberry); Rubus andrewsianus (Andrews' blackberry); Rubus obliquely
aptatus (drybank dewberry); Rubus arenicola (sanddwelling
elliptic
dewberry); Rubus argutus (sawtooth blackberry); Rubus
baileyanus (Bailey's dewberry); Rubus bigelovianus (lowland
blackberry); Rubus canadensis (smooth blackberry); Rubus
cuneifolius (sand blackberry); Rubus dissimilis (bristly Oswego
blackberry); Rubus elegantulus (showy blackberry); Rubus
flagellaris (northern dewberry); Rubus floricomus (manyflower
blackberrry); Rubus fraternalis (northeastern dewberry); Rubus
frondosus (yankee blackberry); Rubus gnarus (Pollock's Mill
blackberry); Rubus hispidus (bristly dewberry); Rubus idaeus
(American red raspberry); Rubus illecebrosus (strawberry
raspberry); Rubus insons (New England blackberry); Rubus
insulanus (island blackberry); Rubus laciniatus (cutleaf
blackberry); Rubus multifer (kinnickinnick dewberry); Rubus
multispinus (devil's blackberry); Rubus notatus (bristle berry);
Rubus novanglicus (New England dewberry); Rubus obsessus
(New York dewberry); Rubus occidentalis (black raspberry);
Rubus odoratus (purpleflowering raspberry); Rubus parlinii
(Parlin's dewberry); Rubus particeps (Kingston dewberry); Rubus
pensilvanicus (Pennsylvania blackberry); Rubus pergratus (upland
blackberry); Rubus philadelphicus (Philadelphia blackberry);
Rubus phoenicolasius (wine raspberry); Rubus plicatifolius
(plaitleaf dewberry); Rubus positivus (New London dewberry);
Rubus pubescens (dwarf red blackberry); Rubus pugnax
(pugnancious blackberry); Rubus recurvans (recurved blackberry);
Rubus recurvicaulis (arching dewberry); Rubus rosa (rose
blackberry); Rubus rossbergianus (Connecticut blackberry); Rubus
saltuensis (Tolland County blackberry); Rubus semisetosus
(swamp blackberry); Rubus setosus (setose blackberry); Rubus
37 SPECIES: Bulbostylis capillaris (densetuft hairsedge);
obovate;
Eleocharis equisetoides (jointed spikesedge); Eleocharis
elliptic
erythropoda (bald spikerush); Eleocharis obtusa (blunt spikerush);
Eleocharis ovata (ovate spikerush); Eleocharis palustris (common
spikerush); Eleocharis parvula (dwarf spikerush); Eleocharis
quadrangulata (squarestem spikerush); Eleocharis rostellata
(beaked spikerush); Eleocharis tenuis (slender spikerush);
Eleocharis tuberculosa (cone-cup spikerush); Fimbristylis
autumnalis (slender fimbry); Lipocarpha micrantha (smallflower
halfchaff sedge); Schoenoplectus acutus (hardstem bulrush);
Schoenoplectus americanus (chairmaker's bulrush);
Schoenoplectus fluviatilis (river bulrush); Schoenoplectus
maritimus (cosmopolitan bulrush); Schoenoplectus novae-angliae
(New England bulrush); Schoenoplectus pungens (common
threesquare); Schoenoplectus purshianus (weakstalk bulrush);
Schoenoplectus robustus (sturdy bulrush); Schoenoplectus smithii
(Smith's bulrush); Schoenoplectus subterminalis (swaying
bulrush); Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani (softstem bulrush);
Schoenoplectus torreyi (Torrey's bulrush); Scirpus atrocinctus
(blackgirdle bulrush); Scirpus atrovirens (green bulrush); Scirpus
cyperinus (woolgrass); Scirpus expansus (woodland bulrush);
Scirpus georgianus (Georgia bulrush); Scirpus hattorianus
(mosquito bulrush); Scirpus longii (Long's bulrush); Scirpus
microcarpus (panicled bulrush); Scirpus pedicellatus (stalked
bulrush); Scirpus pendulus (rufous bulrush); Scirpus polyphyllus
(leafy bulrush); Trichophorum alpinu (alpine bulrush);
planifolium
bulrush)
4Trichophorum
SPECIES: Elymus
repens(bashful
(quackgrass);
Elymus trachycaulus
elliptic
(slender wheatgrass); Secale cereale (cereal rye); Triticum
aestivum (common wheat)
circular
triangular;
elliptic
large
variable
variable
Cross Section Size Class
elliptic;
obovate
3-5 mm
.7-2.9 mm
2.0-3.7 mm
Length
3 mm
.5-2.1 mm
1.2-2.5 mm
Width
3 mm
.3-1.2 mm
1.0-2.1 mm
Thickness
smooth
reticulate; faintly
areolate; smooth;
faintly papillose
Surface
Characteristics
faintly reticulately
veined; puccticulate;
smooth; alveolate
dorsal side has a
ridge running down
middle; embryo at
the base
angles prominate
margin ridged
Comments
Idenfitication criteria based
upon Adams and Murray
2004 - Triticum-type
Identification criteria based
upon Adams and Murray 2004
- Scirpus-type Montgomery
1977: 101-102 - Scirpus
americanus (Schoenoplectus
americanus); Scirpus
atrovirens; Scirpus cyperinus;
Scirpus hudsonianus
(Trichophorum alpinum);
Scirpus lineatus (not currently
found in CT); Scirpus
rubriotinctus; Scirpus validus
(Schoenoplectus
tabernaemontani)
Citation of Identication
Criteria
Identification criteria based
upon Montgomery 1977: 182183 - Rubus acaulis (not
currently found in CT); Rubus
allegheneinsis; Rubus
chamaemorus (not currently
found in CT); Rubus
flagellaris; Rubus idaeus;
Rubus occidentalis; Rubus
odoratus; Rubus parviflorus
(not currently found in CT);
Rubus pubescens
Common
Name
blueberry
viburnum
vetch
violet
grape
grape
corn
Taxonomic
Identification
Vaccinium sp.
Viburnum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Vitaceae Family
Zea mays
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
stone
seed
Part
eilliptic;
ovate
SAME SPECIES
NUMEROUS SPECIES
variable
obovate
25 SPECIES: Hybanthus concolor (eastern greenviolet); Viola
obvate
affinis (sand violent); Viola arvensis (European field pansy); Viola
blanda (sweet white violet); Viola brittoniana (northern coastal
violet); Viola canadensis (Canadian white violet); Viola cucullata
(marsh blue violet); Viola hirsutula (southern woodland violet);
Viola labradorica (alpine violet); Viola lanceolata (bog white
violet); Viola macloskeyi (small white violet);Viola nephrophylla
(northern bog violet); Viola odorata (sweet violet); Viola pedata
(birdfoot violet); Viola pubesens (downy yellow violet); Viola
renifolia (white violet); Viola rostrata (longspur violet); Viola
rotundifolia (roundleaf yellow violet); Viola sagittata (arrowleaf
violet); Viola selkirkii (Selkirk's violet); Viola septentrionalis
(northern woodland violet); Viola sororia (common blue violet);
Viola striata (striped cream violet); Viola tricolor (johnny
jumpup); Viola triloba (three-lobe violet)
5 SPECIES: Parthenocissus quinquefolia (Virginia creeper); Vitis obovate
aestivalis (summer grape); Vitis labrusca (fox grape); Vitis
palmata (catbird grape); Vitis riparia (riverbank grape)
7 SPECIES: Vicia cracca (bird vetch); Vicia faba (fava bean);
elliptic
Vicia hirsuta (tiny vetch); Vicia pannonica (Hungarian vetch);
Vicia sativa (garden vetch); Vicia tetrasperma (lentil vetch); Vicia
villosa (winter vetch)
13 SPECIES: Viburnum acerifolium (maplefeaf viburnum);
Viburnum dentatum (sounther arrowwood); Viburnum lantana
(wayfaringtree); Viburnum lantanoides (hobblebush); Viburnum
lentago (nannyberry); Viburnum nudum (possumhaw); Viburnum
opulus (European cranberrybush); Viburnum plicatum (Japanese
snowball); Viburnum prunifolium (blackhaw); Viburnum
rafinesqueanum (downy arrowwood); Viburnum recognitum
(southern arrrowwood); Viburnum setigerum (tea viburnum);
Viburnum sieboldii (Siebold's arrowwood)
Contemporary Species Identified in CT (Based Upon USDA
Face View
Plants Database)
10 SPECIES: Ilex mucronata (catberry); Vaccinium angustifolium elliptic;
(lowbush blueberry); Vaccinium corymbosum (highbush
obovate
blueberry); Vaccinium fuscatum (black highbush blueberry);
Vaccinium macrocarpon (cranberry); Vaccinium myrtilloides
(velvetleaf huckleberry); Vaccinium oxycoccos (small cranberry);
Vaccinium pallidum (Blue Ridge blueberry); Vaccinium
stamineum (deerberry); Vaccinium vitis-idaea (lingonberry);
Cross Section Size Class
medium
variable
large
rectangular;
elliptic
variable
large
variable
obovate;obtria large
ngular
elliptic
ellipitic
elliptic
obliquely
variable
elliptic; elliptic
6 mm-1 cm
variable
4.2-5.2 mm
1.5-2.6 mm
2.0-3.4 mm
4.7-7.9 mm
.7-1.8 mm
Length
7 mmm to 1
cm
variable
3.7-3.8 mm
.8-1.7 mm
2.0-3.4 mm
4.2-7.0 mm
.5-1.2 mm
Width
3 - 4 mm
variable
2.7-2.9 mm
.8-1.7 mm
2.0-3.4 mm
1.8-3.0 mm
.3-1.1 mm
Thickness
smooth
variable
rugulose; smooth
scalariform; areolate
smooth
roughened with two
ridges on one surface
and on the other;
undulate; deeply
grooved
Surface
Characteristics
areolate; reticulate;
Idenfitication criteria based
upon Montgomery 1977:203 Parthenocissus vitacea; Vitis
riparia
Idenfitication criteria based
upon Montgomery 1977:141142 - Vicia americana; Vicia
angustifolia; Vicia cracca;
Vicia tetrasperma; Vicia
villosa
Idenfitication criteria based
upon Montgomery 1977:202203 - Viola arvensis; Viola
canadensis; Viola cucullata;
Viola eriocarpa (Viola
pubesens); Viola fimbriatula
(Viola sagittata); Viola
pedata; Viola pubescens;
Viola rostrata
Citation of Identication
Criteria
Identification criteria based
upon Montgomery 1977: 107108 - Vaccinium
angustifolium; Vaccinium
caespitosum (Vaccinium
cespitosum, not currently
found in CT); Vaccinium
corymbosum; Vaccinium
macrocarpon; Vaccinium
myrtilloides; Vaccinium
oxycoccos; Vaccinium
vacillans (Vaccinium
pallidum) ; Vaccinium vitisidaea
Identification criteria based
upon Montgomery 1977: 6465 - Viburnum acerifolium;
Viburnum alnifolium
(Viburnum lantanoides);
Viburnum cassinodies
(Viburnum nudum); Viburnum
dentatum; Viburnum edule
(not currently found in CT);
Viburnum lentago; Viburnum
opulus; Viburnum
rafinesquianum
Identification criteria based
upon Martin and Barkley
2000
embryo depression Identification criteria based
visible on dorsal side upon Adams and Murray 2004
- Zea mays-type
rounded on dorsal
side with dorsal
sulcus ending in
ciricular depression
in middel
base with caruncle
and raphe ridge
Comments
Taxonomic
Identification
Zea mays
Common
Name
corn
cupule
Part
Contemporary Species Identified in CT (Based Upon USDA
Plants Database)
SAME SPECIES
large
Cross Section Size Class
rectangular; elliptic
often as
irregular
edges due to
breaking
away from
the cob
Face View
Length
3-4 mm or
more
Width
3-6 mm or
more
Thickness
2-3 mm or
more
Surface
Comments
Characteristics
smooth on the interior; variable in size,
porous on the exterior shape and
appearance; has a
deep cup-shaped
pocket in which two
spikelets (each with a
kernel) once was
present
Citation of Identication
Criteria
Identification criteria based
upon Adams and Murray 2004
- Zea may-type
!
!""#$%&'()(
(
#*+$,-.!"+&/(0,,%(/!*#-,.&1!*&,$(,0("2!$*(*3"#4(
!
!
204
Common
Name
milkweed
sedge
hickory
Taxonomic
Identification
Asclepias sp.
Carex sp.
Carya sp.
Contemporary Species
Identified in CT (Based
Upon USDA Plants
Database)
Asclepias incarnata
(swamp milkweed);
Asclepias syriaca
(common milkweed);
Asclepias verticillata
(whorled milkweed);
Asclepias viridiflora
(green comet mildweed)
Carex aquatilis (water
sedge); Carex utriculata
(Northwest Territory
sedge)
Carya alba (mockernut
hickory); Carya
cordiformis (bitternut
hickory); Carya ovata
(shagbark hickory)
Pequot
Asclepias sp. Mohegan:
Cooked and
used for food
(Tantaquidgeon
1972:83);
New England
Carya cordiformis - Iroquois:
Fresh nutmeats crushed, boiled,
and liquid used a drink. Nutmeats
crushed, mixed with cornmeal and
beans or berries and make into
bread (Waugh 1916:123). Fresh
nutmeats crushed and mixed with
corn pudding (Parker 1910:99).
Nut pounded, boiled, resulting oil
seasoned with salt and used as
gravy. Nutmeat oil added to the
mush used by the False Face
Societies and seasoned and mixed
with mash potatoes (Waugh
1916:123). Carya ovata Iroquois: Fresh nutmeats crushed
boiled, and oil used as baby food.
Fresh nutmeats crushed, boiled and
liquid used as a drink (Parker
1910:99). Fresh nutmeats crushed
and mixed with bread (Parker
Asclepias syriaca -Iroquois:
Stalks eaten as greens in spring
(Parker 1910:93). Tender stems,
leaves, and immature flower
clusters cooked and seasoned with
salt, pepper, or butter (Waugh
1916:117).
Northeast
Carya sp. - Cherokee: Wood ash
and water used as a lye to skin
corn, corn ground into a fine meal
and made into bread. Nuts dried
used for future use. Nuts and
shells ground into a fine meal and
used to make soup. Wood ash,
salt, and black better used to cure
pork (Sturtevant 1955:491);
Seminole: Plant used for food
(Sturtevant 1955:491); Carya
alba- Cherokee: Unspecified
uses as food.
Southeast
Chenopodium Amaranthus sp.
Carya sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
goosefoot
Common
Name
Amaranthus albus
(prostrate pigweed);
Amaranthus blitoides
(mat amaranth);
Amaranthus caudatus
(love-lies bleeding);
Amaranthus cruentus
(red amaranth);
Amaranthus hybridus
(slim amaranth);
Amaranthus powellii
(Powell's amaranth);
Amaranthus retroflexus
(redroot amaranth);
Chenopodium album
(lambsquarter);
Chenopodium murale
(nettleleaf goosefoot);
Chenopodium
pratericola (desert
goosefoot);
Chenopodium rubrum
(red goosefoot);
Contemporary Species
Identified in CT (Based
Upon USDA Plants
Database)
Chenopod
ium sp. Good as a
green like
spinach
(Simmons
1990:156)
Pequot
New England
1910:99) and pudding (Parker
1910:99). Nuts crushed, mixed
with cornmeal and beans or berries
and made into bread. Used as a oil
to season with salt in gravy
(Waugh 1916:123). Nutmeat oil
added to the mush used by the
False Faces Societies and seasoned
and mixed with mash potatoes
(Waugh 1916:123).
Amaranthus retroflexusIroquois: Cooked and seasoned
with salt, pepper, or butter (Waugh
1916:117). Chenopodium albumIroquois: Cooked and seasoned
with salt, pepper, or butter (Waugh
1916:117).
Northeast
Chenopodium album-Cherokee:
Young growth mixed with
mustard leaves, morning glory
leaves, or potato leaves for
flavoring. Young growth
parboiled, fried, and eaten (Boaz
1966:253). Leaves mixed with
other leaves and used for greens
(Perry 1975:32).
Southeast
Cornus canadensis
(bunchberry dogwood);
Cornus sericea (redosier
dogwood)
Corylus americana
(American hazelnut);
Corylus cornuta (beaked
hazelnut); Corylus
heterophylla (Siberian
hazelnut)
Crataeus chrysocarpa
(fireberry hawthorn);
Crataegus macrosperma
(bigfruit hawthorn);
Crataegus mollis
sweet fern
dogwood
hazelnut
hawthorne
Comptonia
peregrina
Cornus sp.
Corylus sp.
Crataegus sp.
Contemporary Species
Identified in CT (Based
Upon USDA Plants
Database)
SAME
Common
Name
Taxonomic
Identification
Pequot
Cornus
canadensis Abenaki: Fruits
eaten for food
(Rousseau
1947:170);
New England
Corylus americana - Iroquois:
Fresh nutmeats crushed, boiled,
and liquid used as a drink. Fresh
nutmeats crushed and mixed with
bread or corn pudding (Parker
1910:99) Nuts crushed, mixed with
cornmeal and beans or berries, and
made into bread (Waugh
1916:123). Nuts pounded, boiled,
resulting oil seasoned with salt and
used as gravy (Waugh 1916:123).
Nutmeat oils added to the mush
used by the False Face Societies.
Nutmeats, after skimming off the
oil, seasoned and mixed with mash
potatoes. Corylus cornuta Algonquin, Quebec: Nuts used for
food (Black 1980:79). Iroquois:
Fruit roasted and eaten (Rousseau
1945:85).
Crataegus pruinosa-Iroquois:
Fruit mashed, made into small
cakes and dried for future use
(Waugh 1916:128). Raw or cooked
fruit sun or fire dried and stored for
Cornus canadensis - Algonquin,
Quebec: Berries used as a nibble
fruit Black 1980:102).
Northeast
Crataegus macrospermaCherokee: Fresh fruit used for
food (Perry 1975:56).
Corylus americana - Cherokee:
Nuts used for food (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:37); Chippewa:
Nuts used for food in season and
stored for winter.
Southeast
Cucurbita sp.
Crataegus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Contemporary Species
Identified in CT (Based
Upon USDA Plants
Database)
(downy hawthorn);
Crataegus pruinosa
(waxyfruit hawthorn);
Crataegus submollis
(Quebec hawthorn);
Cucurbita pepo (field
pumpkin)
Common
Name
gourd
Pequot
New England
future use. Dried fruit taken as a
hunting food. Dried fruit cakes
soaked in warm water and cooked
as a sauce or mixed with corn
bread (Waugh 1916:128).
Crataegus submollis-Iroquois:
Same uses as pruinosa.
Cucurbita pepo-Iroquois: Fresh or
dried flesh boiled, mashed, and
mixed into the paste when making
corn bread. Dried flesh pounded,
sifted, soaked in cold water,
sweetened, grease added, and
baked into cakes. Flesh cut into
strips, dried and stored away. Flesh
boiled, cornmeal, and sugar added
and eaten as a pudding with sugar
and milk. Dried flesh pounded into
fine meal or flour, boiled,
sweetened, grease added, and used
as a sauce. Squash eaten at feasts
of ceremonial importance and
longhouse ceremonies. Flesh
boiled, baked in ashes or boiled,
mashed and sweetened, or boiled
with green beans, butter and salt,
and eaten. Flesh fried and
sweetened or seasoned with salt,
pepper, and butter (Waugh
1916:113); Kamia: Species used
for food (Gifford 1931:21);
Meskwaki: Squash sliced into
rings, sun dried, pressed, and
Northeast
Cucurbita pepo-Cherokee:
Species used for food (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:51). Flesh used
for food (Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:21). Rappahannock: Seeds
eaten as "tid-bits" (Speck et al.
1942:30);
Southeast
huckleberr
y
flatsedge
Cucurbita sp.
(continued)
Cyperus sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Common
Name
Taxonomic
Identification
Cyperus erythrorhizos
(redroot flatsedge);
Cyperus esculentus
(yellow nutsedge);
Cyperus odoratus
(fragrant flatsedge);
Gaylussacia baccata
(black huckleberry)
Contemporary Species
Identified in CT (Based
Upon USDA Plants
Database)
Pequot
New England
Gaylussacia baccata - Iroquois:
Fruits dried, soaked in water and
used in bread (Parker 1910:96).
Fruit mashed, made into small
cakes, and dried for future use.
Raw or cooked fruit sun or fire
dried and stored for future use
(Waugh 1916:128). Fruits eaten
raw. Dried fruit taken as hunting
food (Waugh 1916:128). Fruits
dried, soaked in water and used in
pudding. berries dried, soaked in
cold water, heated slowly, and
mixed with bread meal or hominy
in winter. Fruits dried, soaked in
water, and used as a sauce (Parker
1910:96). Berries dried, soaked in
cold water, heated slowly, and
used as a winter sauce. Dried fruit
cakes soaked in warm water and
cooked as a sauce or mixed with
cornbread (Waugh 1916:128).
Fruits dried, soaked in water, and
used in soups (Parker 1910:96).
stored for winter use (Smith
1928:257).
Northeast
Gaylussacia baccata - Cherokee:
Berries mixed with flour or
cornmeal, soda and water and
made into bread. Berries frozen
for future use. Berries used for
food. Berries used to make
cobblers and pies. Berries used to
make jam and canned for future
use (Perry 1975: 39).
Southeast
Contemporary Species
Identified in CT (Based
Upon USDA Plants
Database)
None mentioned
ethnographically except
Ilex sp.
SAME
SAME
Juglans cinerea
(butternut); Juglans
nigra (black walnut)
(See above)
Common
Name
holly
butternut
black
walnut
butternut/
black
walnut
Taxonomic
Identification
Ilex sp.
Juglans cinerea
Juglans nigra
Juglans sp.
Pequot
New England
Juglans nigra-Iroquois: Fresh
nutmeats crushed, boiled, and
liquid used as a drink. Fresh
nutmeats crushed and mixed with
bread (Parker 1910:99). Nuts
crushed, mixed with cornmeal and
beans or berries, and made into
bread (Waugh 1916:123). Fresh
nutmeats crushed and mixed with
corn pudding (Parker 1910:99).
Nuts pounded, boiled, resulting oil
seasoned with salt and used as
gravy. Nutmeats crushed and
added to corn soup (Waugh
1916:123). Fresh nutmeats
crushed, boiled, and oil used as a
delicacy in corn bread and pudding
(Parker 1910:99). Nutmeat oil
added to the mush used by the
FalseFace Societies. Nutmeats
crushed and added to hominy.
Nutmeats, after skimming off the
oil, seasoned and mixed with
mashed potatoes (Waugh
1916:123).
Northeast
Juglans nigra- Cherokee: Nuts
dried in the rafters for future use.
Nuts mixed with skinned hominy
corn, water, and pinto beans
(Perry 1975:43). Nuts used for
food (Carlson and Jones
1940:522).
Southeast
Contemporary Species
Identified in CT (Based
Upon USDA Plants
Database)
Juncus effusus
(common rush)
Lactuca canadensis
(Canada lettuce);
SAME SPECIES
SAME SPECIES
Common
Name
rush
lettuce
common
bean
pokeweed
Taxonomic
Identification
Juncus sp.
Lactuca sp.
Phaselous
vulgaris
Phytolacca
americana
Eat like
greens
(Simmons
1990:
157)
Pequot
Mohegan:
Cooked as used
for food (Speck
and Dexter
1952:6);
Phaselous
vulgarisAbenaki:
Beans used for
food (Rousseau
1947:169).
New England
Phaselous vulgaris-Iroquois:
Seeds cooked, mixed with corn
bread paste, and again cooked in
the making of the bread. Seedpods
cooked and used to make soup.
Beans boiled with green sweet
corn, meat, and seasoned with salt,
pepper, and butter or fat. Dried
seedpods soaked, boiled, seasoning
and butter added, and eaten as a
soup. Seeds washed with hot
water, cooked until soft, and sugar
added to make a sweet soup. Ripe
seeds boiled with beer or venison,
mashed until thoroughly mixed,
and eaten as soup. Seedpods
cooked and eaten whole or cooked
with butter, squash, or meat. Seeds
boiled or fried in bear or sunflower
oil, seasoned and eaten. Seeds
cooked "like potatoes" and mashed
or pounded (Waugh 1916:103).
Iroquois: Stalks eaten as greens in
spring (Parker 1910:93).
Northeast
Cherokee: Crushed berries and
sour grapes strained, mixed with
sugar and conrmeal, and sued as a
beverage (Perry 1975:51).
Crushed berries used to add color
Lactuca canadensis - Cherokee:
Leaves cooked and eaten as
greens (Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:42).
Phaselous vulgaris-Cherokee:
Beans used to make bean bread.
Beans used to make hickory nut
soup (Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:24). Beans used for food
(Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975:21).
Southeast
SAME SPECIES
Polygonum hydropiper
(marshpepper knotweed)
Portulaca oleracea
(little hogweed)
SAME SPECIES
knotweed
purslane
peach
Polygonum sp.
Portulaca sp.
Prunus persica
Contemporary Species
Identified in CT (Based
Upon USDA Plants
Database)
water
pepper
Common
Name
Polygonum
hydropiper
Phytolacca
americana
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Pequot
New England
Iroquois: Fruit mashed, made into
small cakes, and dried for future
use. Raw or cooked fruit sun or fire
dried and stored for future use and
used as a hunting food. Dried fruit
cakes soaked in warm water and
cooked as a sauce or mixed with
corn bread (Waugh 1916:129).
Iroquois: Whole plant, except the
roots, used by older people as
pepper (Rousseau 1945:40).
Polygonum hydropiper Iroquois: Whole plant, except the
roots, used by older people as
pepper (Rousseau 1945:40).
Portulaca oleracea - Iroquois:
Cooked and seasoned with salt,
pepper, or butter (Waugh
1916:118).
Northeast
Cherokee: Fruit used food
(Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975:47);
Seminole: Plant used for food
(Sturtevant 1955:507);
Polygonum hydropiper Cherokee: Young growth boiled,
friend and eaten (Boaz 1966:253).
to canned fruit (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:50). Leaves
gathered into a bundle and dried
for future use (Perry 1975:51).
Young shoot cut, cooked and
eaten (Boaz 1966:251). Shoots,
leaves, and stems parboiled,
rinsed, and cooked alone or
mixed with other greens and eggs.
Peeled stalks cut lengthwise
parboiled, dipped in egg, rolled in
cornmeal, and fried lime a fish
(Perry 1975:51).
Cherokee: Young growth boiled,
friend and eaten (Boaz 1966:253).
Southeast
Common
Name
plum
Taxonomic
Identification
Prunus sp.
Contemporary Species
Identified in CT (Based
Upon USDA Plants
Database)
Prunus americana
(American plum);
Prunus cerasus (sour
cherry); Prunus
domestica (European
plum); Prunus nigra
(Canadian plum);
Prunus pensylvanaica
(pin cherry); Prunus
persica (peach); Prunus
serotina (black cherry);
Prunus viginiana
(chokecherry)
Pequot
Prunus
viginianaAbenaki: Fruits
eaten for food
(Rousseau
1947:168).
New England
Prunus americana- Iroquois:
Fruit sundried and boiled in water
to make coffee (Waugh 1916:145).
Fruit mashed, made into small
cakes and stored for future use.
Dried fruit taken as a hunting food.
Dried fruit cakes soaked in warm
water and cooked as a sauce or
mixed with corn bread (Waugh
1916:128). Prunus nigraAlgonquin, Quebec: Fruit Eaten.
Fruit made into preserves (Black
1980:95). Iroquois: Fruit mashed,
made into small cakes and dried
for future use. Raw or cooked fruit
sun or fired dried and stored for
future use. Dried fruit taken as a
hunting food. Dried fruit cakes
soaked in warm water and cooked
as a sauce or mixed with corn
bread. (Waugh 1916:128). Prunus
pensylvanaica- Algonquin,
Quebec: Fruit eaten fresh. Fruit
made into jelly (Black 1980:95).
Iroquois: Fruit mashed, made into
small cakes, and dried for future
use. Raw or cooked fruit sun or fire
dried for future use (Waugh
1916:128). Fruit used for food
(Rousseau 1945:46). Dried fruit
used as hunting food. Dried fruit
cakes soaked in warm water and
cooked as a sauce or mixed with
Northeast
Prunus americana- Cherokee:
Fruit used to make juice. Fruit
used for food, Fruit used to make
jelly (Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:50); Prunus cerasusCherokee: Fruit used as food
(Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975:28).
Prunus pensylvanaica Cherokee: Fruit used for food
(Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975:28).
Fruit used to make pies and jams
(Perry 1975:58). Prunus persicaCherokee: Fruit used for food
(Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975:47).
Prunus serotina- Cherokee:
Fruit used for food (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:28). Prunus
viginiana- Cherokee: Fruit used
for food (Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:28).
Southeast
Prunus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Contemporary Species
Identified in CT (Based
Upon USDA Plants
Database)
Pequot
New England
corn bread (Waugh 1916:128).
Prunus persica-Iroquois: Fruit
mashed, made into small cakes,
and dried for future use. Taken as a
hunting food. Dried fruit cakes
soaked in warm water and cooked
as a sauce or mixed with corn
bread (Waugh 1916:129). Prunus
serotina-Iroquois: Fruit mashed,
made into small cakes, and dried
for future use. Dried fruit taken as
a hunting food. Dried fruit cakes
soaked in warm water and cooked
as a sauce or mixed with corn
bread (Waugh 1916:128). Prunus
viginiana- Algonquin, Quebec:
Fruits used to make a wine (Black
1980:113). Cherries eaten fresh,
and made into preserves (Black
1980:96); Iroquois: Fruit mashed,
made into small cakes, and dried
for future use (Waugh 1916:128).
Fruits dried and used as a winter
food (Parker 1910:95). Raw or
cooked fruit sun or fire dried and
stored for future use. Dried fruit
taken as a hunting food. Dried fruit
cakes soaked in warm water and
cooked as a sauce or mixed with
corn bread (Waugh 1916:128).
Fruits pulverized, mixed with dried
meat flour, and eaten as a soup
(Parker 1910:95).
Northeast
Southeast
Contemporary Species
Identified in CT (Based
Upon USDA Plants
Database)
Quercus alba (white
oak); Quercus bicolor
(swamp white oak);
Quercus macrocarpa
(bur oak); Quercus
phellos (willow oak);
Quercus prinus
(chestnut oak); Quercus
rubra (northern red oak);
Quercus stellata (post
oak); Quercus velutina
(black oak)
Rhus aromatica
(fragrant sumac); Rhus
copallinum (winged
sumac); Rhus glabra
(smooth sumac)
Rubus allegheniensis
(Allegheny blackberry);
Rubus argutus
(sawtooth blackberry);
Rubus canadensis
(smooth blackberry);
Rubus flagellaris
(northern dewberry);
Rubus frondosus
(yankee blackberry);
Rubus idaeus (American
red raspberry); Rubus
laciniatus (cutleaf
blackberry); Rubus
Common
Name
oak
sumac
berry
Taxonomic
Identification
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Rubus sp.
Pequot
Rubus sp.Abenaki: Fruits
used to make
jelly (Rousseau
1947:169).
Rubus idaeusAbenaki: Fruits
eaten for food
(Rousseau
1947:169).
New England
Quercus sp.- Iroquois: Fresh
nutmeats crushed and mixed with
corn pudding. Acorns eaten raw by
children (Parker 1910:99).
Quercus alba-Iroquois: Acorns
used for food (Waugh 1916:123).
Quercus bicolor-Iroquois: Acorns
used for food (Waugh 1916:123).
Quercus prinus- Iroquois: Acorns
used for food (Blankinship
19056123). Quercus rubra Iroquois: Acorns used for food
(Waugh 1916:123).
Rhus glabra- Iroquois: Bobs
boiled and used as a drink in the
winter (Parker 1910:96). Sprouts
eaten raw (Parker 1910:93). Fresh
shoots peeled and eaten raw
(Waugh 1916:119).
Rubus sp.- Algonquin, Quebec:
Fruit used to make preserves
(Black 1980:94); Iroquois: Fruits
eaten raw. Fruits dried, soaked in
sugared water, cooked, and eaten
as a sauce. Dried berries soaked in
honey and water and used as a
ceremonial food by the Bear
Society (Parker 1910:95). Rubus
canadensis - Iroquois: Berries,
water and maple sugar used to
make a drink for home
consumption and longhouse
ceremonies. Fruit mashed, made
Northeast
Rhus Copaillnum- Cherokee:
Berries used for food (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:57). Rhus
glabra- Cherokee: Fruits eaten
by children (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:57).
Rubus sp.- Cherokee: Berries
mixed with apples to color the
jelly red (Perry 1975:58). Berries
used to make jelly (Perry
1975:58). Tips of new, young
shoots boiled with roots, and
eaten as soup (Teit 1928:89).
Rubus allegheniensisCherokee: Fruit used to make
juice. Fruit used for food (Hamel
and Chiltoskey 1975:26). Rubus
argutus - Cherokee: Fruit used
to make juice. Fruit used for food
(Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975:26).
Quercus phellos- Seminole: Plant
use for food (Sturtevant
1955:471).
Southeast
Rubus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Contemporary Species
Identified in CT (Based
Upon USDA Plants
Database)
occidentalis (black
raspberry); Rubus
odoratus
(purpleflowering
raspberry); Rubus
pubescens (dwarf red
blackberry)
Pequot
New England
Southeast
Rubus flagellaris- Cherokee:
Fruit used to make juice, and for
food (Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:26). Rubus idaeusCherokee: Fruit used for food
(Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975:52).
Rubus occidentalis- Cherokee:
Fruit used for food (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:52). Fresh fruit
used for food. Fruit used to make
pies, and preserves. Fruit canned
for future use (Perry 1975:57).
Rubus odoratus- Cherokee: Fruit
used for food (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:52). Fruit used to
make pies and jellies. Fruit
canned for future use (Perry
1975:57).
Northeast
into small cakes, and dried for
future use. Dried fruit taken as a
hunting food. Dried fruit cakes
soaked in warm water and cooked
as a sauce or mixed with cornbread
(Waugh 1916:127). Rubus idaeus
- Algonquin, Quebec: Fruit eaten
fresh, and preserved (Black
1980:92). Algonquin, Tete-deBoule: Fruits eaten for food
(Raymound 1962:130); Rubus
odoratus -Algonquin, Quebec:
Fruit used for food (Black
1980:92); Rubus occidentalisIroquois: Fruits dried, soaked in
water, and used in bread (Parker
1910:95). Fruit mashed, made into
small cakes and dried for future
use. Raw or cooked fruit sun or fire
dried and stored for future use.
Dried fruit taken as a hunting food
(Waugh 1916:127). Fruits dried,
soaked in water, and used in
pudding. Berries dried, soaked in
cold water, heated slowly, and
mixed with bread meal or hominy
in water. Fruits dried, soaked in
water, and used as a sauce. Berries
dried and soaked in cold water,
heated slowly, and used as a winter
sauce (Parker 1910:95). Dried fruit
cakes soaked in warm water and
cooked as a sauce or mixed with
rush
wheat
blueberry
Triticum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Common
Name
Scirpus sp.
Rubus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Eleocharis palustris
(common spikerush);
Elymus trachycaulus
(slender wheatgrass);
Triticum aestivum
(common wheat)
Vaccinium
angustifolium (lowbush
blueberry); Vaccinium
corymbosum (highbush
blueberry); Vaccinium
macrocarpon
(cranberry); Vaccinium
myrtilloides (velvetleaf
huckleberry);
Vaccinium oxycoccos
(small cranberry);
Vaccinium vitis-idaea
(lingonberry);
Contemporary Species
Identified in CT (Based
Upon USDA Plants
Database)
Pequot
Vaccinium
angustifoliumAbenaki: Frutis
eaten for food
(Rousseau
1947:171). Fruit
used as food
(Rousseau
1947:152).
New England
Vaccinium angustifolium Iroquois: Fruit mashed, made into
small cakes, and dried for future
use. Raw or cooked fruit sun or fire
dried and stored for future use.
Dried fruit taken as a hunting food
(Waugh 1916:128). Flowers used
to make preserves (Rousseau
1945:96). Dried fruit cakes soaked
in warm water and cooked as a
sauce or mixed with cornbread
(Waugh 1916:128). Flowers eaten
fresh (Rousseau 1945:96).
corn bread (Waugh 1916:127).
Fruits dried, soaked in water, and
used in soups (Parker 1910:95).
Rubus odoratus -Iroquois: Fruit
mashed, made into small cakes,
and dried for future use. Raw or
cooked fruit sun or fire dried and
stored for future use. Dried fruit
taken as a hunting food. Dried fruit
cakes soaked in warm water and
cooked as a sauce or mixed with
corn bread (Waugh 1916:127).
Rubus pubescens- Iroquois: Fruit
used for food (Parker 1910:95).
Northeast
Southeast
Vaccinium sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Contemporary Species
Identified in CT (Based
Upon USDA Plants
Database)
Pequot
New England
Vaccinium corymbosumAlgonquin, Quebec: Berries
canned or used to make fruit
pemmican and pate. Berries used
fresh. Berries used to make pies,
cobblers, and upside-down cakes,
and dried for future use. Raw or
cooked fruit sun or fire dried and
stored for future use. dried fruit
taken as hunting food. Dried fruit
cakes soaked in warm water and
cooked as a sauce or mixed with
corn bread (Waugh 1916:128).
Vaccinium macrocarponaAlgonquin, Quebec: Berries used
for food (Black 1980:105);
Algonquin, Tete-de-Boule: Fruits
eaten for food (Raymound
1962:134); Iroquois: Frit mashed,
made into small cakes, and dried
for future use. Raw or cooked fruit
sun or fire dried and stored for
future use. Dried fruit taken as a
hunting food. Dried fruit cakes
soaked in warm water and cooked
as a sauce or mixed with corn
bread (Waugh 1916:128).
Vaccinium oxycoccos- Iroquois:
Fruit mashed, made into small
cakes, and dried for future use.
Raw or cooked fruit sun or fire
dried and stored for future use.
Dried fruit taken as a hunting food.
Northeast
Southeast
Viburnum lentago
(nannyberry); Viburnum
nudum (possumhaw);
Viburnum opulus
(European
cranberrybush);
Viburnum plicatum
(Japanese snowball);
Viburnum prunifolium
(blackhaw);
Vicia faba (fava bean)
Viola blanda (sweet
white violet)
Parthenocissus
quinquefolia (Virginia
creeper); Vitis aestivalis
(summer grape); Vitis
vetch
violet
grape
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Contemporary Species
Identified in CT (Based
Upon USDA Plants
Database)
viburnum
Common
Name
Viburnum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Pequot
Viburnum
nudumAbenaki: Fruit
used for food
(Rousseau
1947:152).
Grains used for
food (Rousseau
1947:173).
New England
Dried fruit cakes soaked in warm
water and cooked as a sauce or
mixed with corn bread (Waugh
1916:128).
Viburnum lentago - Iroquois:
Fruit mashed, made into small
cakes, and dried for future use.
Raw or cooked fruit sun or fire
dried and stored for future use.
Dried fruit taken as a hunting food.
Dried fruit cakes soaked in warm
water and cooked as a sauce or
mixed with corn bread (Waugh
1916:128). Viburnum opulusAlgonquin, Quebec: Berries eaten
fresh. Berries made into preserves
(Black 1980:107); Iroquois: Fruit
mashed, made into small cakes,
and dried for future use. Dried fruit
taken as a hunting food. Dried fruit
cakes soaked in warm water and
cooked as a sauce or mixed with
corn bread (Waugh 1916:128).
Northeast
Viola blanda - Cherokee Leaves and stems mixed with
other greens, parboiled, rinsed,
and fried with grease and sea salt
until soft (Perry 1975:60).
Vitis aestivalis/Vitis labrusca Cherokee: Fruit mixed with sour
grape, pokeberry juice, sugar, and
cornmeal used as a juice. Fruit
Southeast
Zea mays
Vitis sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Contemporary Species
Identified in CT (Based
Upon USDA Plants
Database)
labrusca (fox grape);
Vitis riparia (riverbank
grape)
SAME SPECIES
Common
Name
corn
Pequot
Abenaki: Seeds
used to make
soup (Rousseau
1947:175).
New England
Iroquois: Seeds boiled into a
liquor and used in the preparation
of food for infants. Seeds used to
make a meal gruel for babies
(Waugh 1916:71). Stalks cut
between the joints and chewed to
quench the thirst (Sturtevant
19Elmore 19Cook 1930:119).
Dried, roasted seeds boiled in
water to make coffee (Waugh
1916:145). Seeds boiled into a
liquor and used as a beverage or
made into soup. Seeds ground into
a meal or flower and used to make
boiled bread. Seeds ground, mixed
with hot water, molded, dropped
into boiling water, and eaten as
dumplings. Seeds, pumpkin mush,
and maple sugar used to make
pudding. Seeds used to make
hominy. Seeds used to make
succotash. Seeds used to make
popcorn. Seeds used with beans,
squash, and meats to make soups
and broths. Seeds used to make
wedding bread or bread placed in
the coffin with the corpse. Seeds
used for ceremonial occasions,
such as False-Face Society
Northeast
used to make juice and dumplings
(Perry 1975:60). Fruit used for
food (Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:37 and Perry 1975:60).
Cherokee: Corn used for food
(Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975:30).
Seminole: Seeds used for food
(Sturtevant 1955:473);
Southeast
Zea mays
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Contemporary Species
Identified in CT (Based
Upon USDA Plants
Database)
Pequot
New England
functions. Seeds eaten raw or
cooked while traveling or hunting.
Corn on the cob roasted and eaten
(Waugh 1916:71).
Northeast
Southeast
Common
Name
milkweed
sedge
hickory
Taxonomic
Identification
Asclepias sp.
Carex sp.
Carya sp.
Ascelpias sp. - Cahuilla: Seeds ground into flour. Parboiled leaves used as greens from May until June (Bean and Saubel
1972:43); Jemez: Immature seeds used for food (Cook 1930:20); Karok: Juice used for chewing gum (Merriam
1966:212); Kiowa: Young fruits, after first removing the outer "hairy" surface, cooked and eaten (Vestal and Schultes
1939:47); Navajo: Plant eaten raw or boiled (Elmore 1944:69); Tewa: roots or immature pods eaten (Robbins et al.
1916:54); Asclepias incarnata - Menominee: Heads, deer broth, or fat used to make soup. Heads also added to cornmeal
mush. Dried heads stored for winter use (Smith 1923:205). Asclepias syriaca - Chippewa: Plant eaten before a feast to
increase the appetite. Flowers cut up, stewed, and eaten like preserves (Densmore 1928:320). Tender leaves, young green
seedpods, sprouts, and tops cooked as greens (Gilmore 1933:140); Dakota: Sprouts used in early spring for food (Baker
1981:363); Meskwaki: Buds used in soups. Buds cooked with meat or added to cornmeal mush, tastes like okra. Dried
buds stored away in paper bags for winter use (Smith 1928:256); Ojibwa: Young pods cooked like spinach (Arnason et
al. 1981:2205). Fresh flowers and shoot tips, mucilaginous like okra when cooked, used in meat soups. Dried flowers
freshened in the wintertime, made into soup (Smith 1932:397); Omaha: Tender shoots boiled and eaten as a vegetable
(Arnason et al. 1981:341). Young shoots used for food like asparagus. Inflorescence, before the flower buds opened, and
young fruits used as greens (Gilmore 1913:325). Boiled young sprouts, floral bud clusters, and young, firm green fruits
used for food; Pawnee, Ponca, and Winnebago: Boiled young sprouts, floral bud clusters, and young, firm green fruits
used for food (Gilmore 1913:109); Potawatomi: Flowers and buds used to thicken meat soups and to impart a very
pleasing flavor to the dish (Smith 1933:96). Asclepias verticillata - Hopi: Leaves and young shoots boiled with meat and
eaten (Fewkes 1896:18). Asclepias viridiflora - Blackfoot: Root pieces stored for winter soups. Plant used for spice
soups. Fresh roots used for food (Hellson 1974:101).
Carex sp. - Klamath: Pith juiced used as beverage. Fresh stems and tuberous base of stem used for food (Coville
1897:92); Montana, Indian: Young stems used for food (Blankinship 1905:9); Navajo, Kayenta: Seeds ground, cooked
into mush, and eaten (Wyman and Harris 1951:16); Thompson: Used as a general forage plant (Gifford 1933:515);
Carex aquatilis - Alaska Native: Stem bases eaten raw (Heller 1953:129). Carex utriculata- Gosiute: Lower: tender
stems and root parts eaten by children (Chamberlin 1911:365).
Carya sp. - Kalmath: Pith juice used as a beverage. Fresh stems used as food (Coville 1897:92); Montana Indian:
Young stems used for food (Blankinship 1905:9); Navajo, Kayenta: Seeds ground, cooked into a mush and eaten
(Wyman and Harris 1951:16); Thompson: Used as general forage plant (Gifford 1933:515). Carex aquatilis - Alaska
Native: Stem bases eaten raw (Heller 1953:129). Carex utriculata - Gosiute: Lower, tender stems and root parts eaten
by children (Chamberlin 1911:365). Carya alba - Choctaw: Pounded nutmeat boiled, made into past, and eaten as a
broth or soup. Carya ovata - Dakota, Omaha, Pawnee, Ponca and Winnebago: Nuts used to make soup. Sap used to
make sugar. Hickory chops boiled to make sugar. Nuts eaten plan or with honey (Gilmore 1913:74); Lakota: Nuts used
for food (Rogers 1980:49); Meskwaki: Nuts stored for winter use (Smith 1928:259); Ojibwa: Nuts used for food (Smith
1932:405);Omaha, Pawnee, Ponca and Winnebago: Nuts used to make soup. Sap used to make sugar. Hickory chips
used to make sugar. Nuts eaten plain or with honey (Gilmore 1913:74).
Other Regions (Moerman 1998)
Chenopodium Amaranthus sp.
goosefoot
Chenopodium sp.- Havasupai: Seeds parched, ground fine, boiled, thickened, made into balls, and eaten as dumplings.
Seeds ground, kneaded into thick paste, rolled into little balls, boiled and eaten as marbles (Blankinship 1905:66). Seeds
ground and eaten as a ground or parched meal (Blankinship 1905:67). Seeds used for food (Blankinship 1905:217);
Isleta: Leaves used as greens (Jones 1931:25); Keresan: Leaves used for greens (White 1962:560); Malecite: Species
used for food (Speck and Dexter 1952:6); Navajo: Seeds used to make bread. Seeds used to make a stiff porridge. Seeds
of several species ground and used like corn (Elmore 1944:44); Papago: Leaves eaten as greens in midsummer (Castetter
and Underhill 1935:14). Greens used for food (Castetter and Bell 1942:61); Pima: Leaves boiled, salted, strained, fried in
grease, and eaten as greens; Yaqui: Leaves eaten as greens (Curtin 1949:70); Yavapai: Parched, ground, boiled seeds
used for food. Leaves and stems boiled for greens (Gifford 1936:256). Amaranthus albus -Apache, Chiricahua &
Mescalero: Seeds winnowed, ground into flour and used to make bread (Castetter and Opler 1936:48). Eaten without
preparation or cooked with green chile and meat or animal bones (Castetter and Opler 1936:46); Apache, White
Mountain: Seeds used for food (Reagan 1929:155); Cochiti: Young plants eaten as greens (Castetter:16); Navajo,
Ramah: Threshed seeds ground into flower (Vestal 1952:25). Amaranthus blitoides- Acroma: Young plants boiled and
dried for winter use (Castetter:15); Apache, White Mountain: Seeds used for food (Reagan 1929:155); Hopi: Ground
seeds used to make mush (Vestal 1940:162). Seeds used as food (Castetter:22). Seeds formerly prized as food (Fewkes
1896:18); Seeds cooked and eaten as greens (Whiting 1939:74); Klamath: Seeds used for food (Coville 1962:96);
Laguna: Young plants boiled and dried for winter use (Castetter:15). Seeds ground into meal (Castetter:22). Young
plants boiled and eaten as greens (Castetter:15); Montana Indian: Seeds formerly used as articles of the diet. Used as a
potherb (Blankinship 1905:6); Navajo: Plant used as a sheep forage. Seeds ground into meal and made into stiff porridge
or mixed with goat's milk and made into gruel. Seeds ground into a meal and used for food (Elmore 1944:45). Boiled and
eaten like spinach, boiled and fried in lard, or canned; Spanish American: Boiled and eaten like spinach, or fried and used
for food (Robbins et al. 1916:53); Zuni: Seeds originally eaten raw, but later ground with black cornmeal, made into
balls, and eaten (Stevenson 1915:65). Amaranthus caudatus- Cocopa, Mohave: Fresh plants baked and eaten. Plants
cooked and eaten as greens. Plants cooked, rolled into a ball, baked, and stored (Castetter and Bell 1942:200).
Amaranthus cruentus- Hopi: plant used as a red coloring for paper bread distributed at kachina exhibitions (Fewkes
1896:18). Heads dried and used as a brilliant pink die for wafer bread (Whiting 1939:74); Keresan: leaves eaten as
greens (White 1962::558); Navajo, Ramah: Threshed seeds ground into flour (Vestal 1952:25); Sia: Seeds used for
food. Leaves used as greens (White 1962::107); Zuni: Feathery part of plant ground into a fine meal and used to color
ceremonial bread red (Stevenson 1915:87). Amaranthus hybridus-Acoma: Young plants boiled and dried for winter use.
Young plants boiled and eaten as greens (Castetter:16); Havasupai: Seeds parched, ground fine, boiled, and thickened,
made into balls, and eaten as dumplings (Blankinship 1905:66). Seeds parched, ground and used to make mush. Seeds
parched ground and used to make soup (Blankinship 1905:66). Leaves and squash flowers boiled, aground, and fresh or
dried corn and water added to make soup (Blankinship 1905:74). Leaves of young plants cooked like spinach
(Blankinship 1905:218). Young, Fresh, tender leaves boiled, drained, balled into individual portions, and served
(Blankinship 1905:66); Keres, Western: Collected and ground with meal for food. Young, tender plants used for greens
like spinach. Plant used as winter food by boiling and drying for winter storage (Swank 1932:26); Laguna: Young plants
boiled and dried for winter use. Young plants boiled and eaten as greens (Castetter:16). Amaranthus powellii- Hopi:
Chenopodium Amaranthus sp.
(continued)
Seeds used for food. Leaves used as greens (Colton 1974:283). Amaranthus retroflexus-Acoma: Young plants boiled
and dried for winter use. Young plants boiled and eaten as greens (Castetter:15); Apache, Chiricahua & Mescalero:
Seeds winnowed, ground into flour, and used to make bread (Castetter and Opler 1936:48). Leaves eaten without
preparation or cooked with green chile and meat or animal bones (Castetter and Opler 1936:46); Cochiti: Young plants
eaten as greens (Castetter:16); Isleta: Fresh, tender, young leaves eaten as greens (Jones 1931:21); Jemez: Young plant
used for food many generations ago (Cook 1930:20); Kres, Western: Seeds collected and ground with meal for food.
Young, tender plants used for greens like spinach. Plant boiled and dried for winter storage (Swank 1932:26); Laguna:
Young plants boiled and eaten as greens (Castetter:15); Mendocino Indian: Small, shiny black seeds used to make
pinole (Chesnut 1902:346); Navajo: Seeds ground, boiled, mixed with corn flour, and made into dumplings. Seeds
ground, boiled, and mixed with corn flour into a gruel (Steggerda 1941:222). Seeds used for food. Leaves and seeds
mixed with grease and eaten (Elmore 1944:46). Boiled and eaten like spinach, boiled and fried in lard, or canned
(Castetter:15). Leaves boiled and eaten like spinach. Leaves boiled and canned (Elmore 1944:46); Navajo, Ramah:
Seeds winnowed, ground with maize, made into bread, and used as a ceremonial food in Nightway. Leaves used as spring
greens, boiled with meat, boiled alone, or boiled and fried with meat or fat. Seeds stored for winter use (Vestal 1952:26);
Pueblo, Spanish American: Boiled and eaten like spinach, boiled and fried in lard, or canned (Castetter:15); Tewa:
Boiled or fried and used for food (Robbins et al. 1916:53). Chenopodium album-Alaska Native: Fresh leaves, properly
cooked, furnished significant amounts of vitamins C and A. Young tender leaves and stems used as a substitute for
spinach or other greens. young, tender leaves and stems cooked in a small amount of boiling water and eaten (Heller
1953:21); Apache: Young plants cooked as greens (Castetter:16); Apache, Chiricahua & Mescalero: Eaten without
preparation or cooked with green chile and meat or animal bones (Castetter and Opler 1936:46); Dakota: Young, tender
plant cooked as pottage (Gilmore 1913:78). Young plants boiled for food (Gilmore 1913:36); Diegueno: Leaves cooked
and eaten as greens (Hedges 1986:17); Eskimo, Inupiat: Leaves and stems dried for future use. Leaves and stems frozen
for future use. Leaves and stems eaten raw or cooked as hot greens with beans (Jones 1984:64); Hopi: Ground seeds used
to make mush (Vestal 1940:160). Leaves cooked with meat (Castetter:16). Leaves boiled and eaten with fat (Fewkes
1896:18). Boiled and eaten with other foods (Whiting 1939:73); Kawaiisu: Upper leaves boiled, "rinsed" in cold water,
and fried in grease and salt (Zigmond 1981:19); Lakota: Used as cooked greens (Rogers 1980:43); Luiseno: Leaves
used as greens (Sparkman 1908:233); Mendocino Indian: Young leaves boiled and eaten as greens (Chesnut 1902:346);
Miwok: Boiled greens dried and stored for later use. Boiled greens used for food (Barrett and Gifford 1933:159);
Montana Indian: seeds ground into flour and made into bread. Young plant used as a potherb (Blankinship 1905:9);
Navajo: Seeds dried and used like corn (Elmore 1944:43). Seeds ground and eaten as a nutrient (Hocking 1956:149).
Young, tender plants eaten raw, boiled as herbs alone or with other foods (Elmore 1944:43); Navajo, Ramah: Seeds
winnowed, ground with maize, made into bread, and used as a ceremonial food in Nightway. Foods Stored for winter use
(Vestal 1952:24); Ojibwa: Young plant cooked as greens (Arnason et al. 1981:2209). Leaves eaten as greens (Reagan
1928:240); Omaha: Young, tender plant cooked as pottage (Gilmore 1913:78); Paiute: Seeds parched, ground, and eaten
as meal (Kelly 1932:98). Species used for food (Steward 1933:244); Papago: Mixed with roasted cholla buds and eaten
as a vegetable stew (Castetter and Underhill 1935:16); Pawnee: Young, tender plant cooked as pottage (Gilmore
1913:78). Pima, Gila River: Leaves used for food (Rea 1991:7); Pueblo: Young plants cooked as greens (Castetter:16);
dogwood
hazelnut
hawthorne
Corylus sp.
Crataegus sp.
sweet fern
Comptonia
peregrina
Cornus sp.
Chenopodium Amaranthus sp.
(continued)
Shuswap: Leaves boiled with butter, salt, and pepper and cooked as greens (Palmer 1975:61); Spanish American:
Young plants cooked as greens (Castetter:16); Thompson: Boiled leaves eaten as greens (Turner et al. 1990:203). Zuni:
Young plants cooked as greens (Castetter:16). Chenopodium murale- Cahuilla: Boiled shoots and leaves eaten as greens
(Bean and Saubel 1972:52). Mohave: Young shoots boiled as greens (Castetter and Bell 1942:202). Papago: Seeds used
for food (Castetter and Bell 1942:62). Stalks eaten as greens in the summer (Castetter and Underhill 1935:14); Pima:
Seeds parched, ground, and eaten as pinole (Russell 1908:73). Chenopodium pratericola-Pima, Gila River: Leaves
boiled and eaten (Rea 1991:7). Chenopodium rubrum- Gosiute: Seeds used for food (Chamberlin 1911:366).
Comptonia peregrina - Chippewa: Leaves used to make a hot, tea-like beverage (Gilmore 1933:127); Ojibwa: Leaves
used to line buckets when picking blueberries and cover them to prevent spoiling (Smith 1932:420).
Cornus canadensis - Chippewa: Berries eaten raw (Densmore 1928:321); Cree, Woodlands: Fruit eaten as a fresh
nibble (Leighton 1985:36); Eskimo, Alaska: Gathered and mixed with other berries (Anderson 1939:715); Haisla and
HanakSiala: Berries mashed, mixed with oolichan (candlefish) grease, and eaten as a dessert. Berries dried for winter
use (Comption 1933:234); Hesquiat: Raw berries eaten with dogfish oil by the elders of the village at a big feast (Turner
and Efrat 1982:63); Kwakiutl, Southern: Pulpy berries extensively used for food (Turner et al. 1973:281); Makah:
Berries eaten fresh; Nitinaht: Berries eaten fresh and raw (Gunther 1973:43); Potawatomi: berries used for food (Smith
1933:98); Salish: Berries used for food (Smith 1933:98); Salish: Berries used for food (Turner and Bell 1971:81).
Cornus sericea -Thompson: Fruit eaten as a dessert. Berries and saskatoon berries smashed together, dried, rehydrated,
and eaten in the winter. The berries were also pounded with chokecherries, seeds and all, and used for food. Bitter, seedy
fruits eaten alone or smashed with dried, "white" saskatoon berries (Turner et al. 1990:204).
Corylus americana - Chippewa: Nuts used for food in season and stored for winter; Dakota: Nuts used as a body for
soup and eaten raw with honey (Gilmore 1913:74); Menominee and Meskwaki: Nuts, in the milk stage, eaten and also
dried for winter use (Smith 1923:630 and Smith 1928:256); Ojibwa: Nuts eaten as food and newly gathered nuts before
the kernel had hardened were favored (Smith 1932:397); Omaha: Nuts used as a body for soup (Gilmore 1913:74) and
eaten plain or mixed with honey (Gilmore 1913:326); Ponca and Winnebago: Nuts used as a body for soup or eaten raw
with honey (Gilmore 1913:74). Corylus cornuta - Cree, Woodlands: (Nuts used for food and nuts collected in quantity
to use at a latter time (Leighton 1985:37). Salish: Nuts used for food (Turner and Bell 1971:79). Thompson: Nuts eaten
for refreshment (Turner et al. 1990:190).
Crataegus chrysocarpa- Blackfoot: Berries used for food. Certain conditions had to be met before the berries were
eaten. Otherwise, they would cause stomach cramps. The procedure was to offer the tree a gift, for boys a little bow and
arrow made from the thorns, for the girls a pair of miniature moccasins fashioned from the leaves. In return, the tree
would not allow the berries to "bite" the stomach. The gifts were placed on the tree and the berries collected (Hellson
1974:102); Lakota: fruits eaten for food (Rogers 1980:56); Ojibwa: fruit used as food (Reagan 1928:236); Omaha:
Twigs used to make a hot, aqueous, tea-like beverage (Gilmore 1913:329). Fruit eaten by children fresh from the hand
(Gilmore 1913:326). Fruit sometimes eaten as a food, but mostly as a famine food (Gilmore 1913:87). Fruit eaten by
adults in times of famine (Gilmore 1913:326); Ponca: Fruit sometimes used for food, but mostly as a famine food
(Gilmore 1913:87); Potawatomi: Fruit eaten by deer, bears, and sometimes the indians (Smith 1933:107); Winnebago:
fruit sometimes used for food, but mostly as a famine food (Gilmore 1913:87). Crataegus mollis- Omaha: twigs used to
flatsedge
huckleberry
holly
butternut
black walnut
butternut/black
walnut
rush
lettuce
common bean
Cyperus sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Ilex sp.
Juglans cinerea
Juglans nigra
Juglans sp.
Juncus sp.
Lactuca sp.
Phaselous
vulgaris
gourd
Crataegus sp.
(continued)
Cucurbita sp.
Phaselous vulgaris- Apache, White Mountain: Beans used for food (Reagan 1929:159). Havasupai: Beans parched,
ground, and added to hot water to make soup. Beans cooked with fresh corn, cooked in hot ashes under a fire, or boiled.
Beans stored in granaries or in frame houses for later use (Blankinship 1905:227); Menominee: Berry used as a staple
make a hot, aqueous, tea-like beverage (Gilmore 1913:329). Fruit eaten by children fresh from the hand. Fruit eaten by
adults in times of famine (Gilmore 1913:326).
Cucurbita pepo- Apache, White Mountain: Blossoms baked as parts of certain kinds of cakes. Fresh used for food.
Blossoms used for food (Reagan 1929:156); Cocopa: Dried fruit strips stored and mixed with flesh of stored whole
pumpkins to improve flavor. Parched seeds used for food. Fresh boiled with rind on and sometimes mixed with maize
meal. Roasted flesh eaten with fingers (Gifford 1933:266); Kamia: Species used for food (Gifford 1931:21); Meskwaki:
Squash sliced into rings, sun dried pressed and stored for winter use (Smith 1928:257); Navajo: Fruit pulp and seeds used
for food (Hocking 1956:150). Navajo, Ramah: Blossoms used as seasoning for soup. Pumpkin cultivated and used for
food. Pumpkin peeled, cut into strips, sun dried, and stored in cellars or ground holes for winter use (Vestal 1952:47);
Ojibwa: Pumpkin rings dried for winter use (Smith 1932:400); Okanagan-Colville: Species used for food (Turner et al.
1980:98); Papago: Rind hung in long spirals from house roofs to dry, tied into bundles, stored and used for food
(Castetter and Underhill 1935:45). Pima: Fruit grown for food (Castetter and Bell 1942:101). Seeds roasted, cracked, and
the kernels eaten (Curtin 1949:72); Zuni: Fresh squash cut into spiral strips, folded into hanks, and hung up to dry for
winter use. Blossoms cooked in grease and used as a delicacy in combination with other foods. Fresh squash, either
whole or in pieces, roasted in ashes and used for food (Stevenson 1915:67).
Cyperus sp. - Pima, Gila River: Tubers eaten as a snack food primarily by children and roots boiled and eaten (Rea
1991:5,7). Cyperus erythrorhizos - Kamia: Pulverized seeds cooked in mush (Gifford 1931:24). Cyperus esculentus Costanoan: Tubers eaten (Bocek 1984:255); Paiute, Northern: Roots dried, ground, and mixed with other foods. Roots
eaten raw (Fowler 1989:44); Pomo, Kashaya: Tubers on the rootstock eaten raw, baked, or boiled like potatoes
(Goodrich and Lawson 1980:78). Cyperus odoratus - Cocopa and Mohave: Seeds used for food(Castetter and Bell
1942:192); Pima: Tubers eaten (Curtin 1949:99).
Gaylussacia baccata- Ojibwa: Species used for food (Reagan 1928:238).
Ilex sp. - Comanche: Leaves used to make a beverage (Carlson and Jones 1940:522).
Juglans sp.- Apache, Western: Walnuts pulverized, mixed with mescal juice, and used as a dip for cornbread. Nuts
parched with corn, ground, and eaten by the pinch (Buskirk 1986:187).
Juglans nigra- Comanche: Nuts used for food (Carlson and Jones 1940:522). Nuts stored for winter use (Carlson and
Jones 1940:531). Dakota: Nuts used to make soup. Nuts eaten plain or with honey (Gilmore 1913:74). Kiowa: Nuts used
for food (Vestal and Schultes 1939:20). Lakota: Nuts used for food (Rogers 1980:49). Meskwaki: Nuts were relished
(Smith 1928:259). Omaha: Nuts used to make soup (Gilmore 1913:74). Nuts eaten plain or mixed with honey (Gilmore
1913:326). Pawnee, Ponca, Winnebago (Gilmore 1913:74): Nuts used to make soup. Nuts eaten plain or with honey.
Juglans sp.- Apache, Western: Walnuts pulverized, mixed with mescal juice, and used as a dip for corn bread. Nuts
parched with corn, ground, and eaten by the pinch (Buskirk 1986:187).
Juncus effusus -Snuqualmie: Early sprouts eaten raw (Gunther 1973:23).
peach
plum
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
water pepper
knotweed
purslane
pokeweed
Phytolacca
americana
Polygonum
hydropiper
Polygonum sp.
Portulaca sp.
Phaselous
vulgaris
(continued)
Polygonum sp. - Paiute: Species used for food (Steward 1933:244).
Portulaca sp.- Pima, Gila River: Leaves used as greens (Rea 1991:5). Portulaca oleracea - Acoma: Plants cooked
with meat and eaten like spinach (Castetter:43); Apache, Chiricahua and Mescalero: Eaten without preparation or
cooked with green chile and meat or animal bones (Castetter and Opler 1936:46); Hopi: Cooked in gravy (Whiting
1939:75); Isleta: Plants oven dried, stored, and used as greens during the winter (Castetter:43). Plants dried in ovens,
stored, and used as greens in the winter (Jones 1931:39); Keres, Western: Plant cooked with meat as green (Swank
1932:62); Laguna: Plants cooked with meat and eaten like spinach (Castetter:43); Luiseno: Plants used for greens
(Sparkman 1908:232); Navajo: Seeds used for food (Elmore 1944:47); Navajo, Ramah: Leaves used as a potherb and
leaves boiled as greens with meat (Rea 1991:7); Pima, Gila River: Leaves boiled and eaten (Rea 1991:7); Tewa: Fleshy
plant tops boiled and eaten (Robbins et al. 1916:59).
Havasupai: Dried fruits pounded, stewed, and the water drunk. Fruit split open, pitted and sun dried for later
consumption (Blankinship 1905:224); Hopi: Fruits split open and dried for winter use. Fruits eaten fresh (Whiting
1939:79); Keres, Western - Fresh peaches eaten for food and peaches dried for winter use (Swank 1932:63); Keresan:
Fruit eaten fresh and dried for winter use (White 1962::562); Navajo, Ramah: Favorite fruit used for food (Vestal
1952:31).
Prunus sp.- Apache, Mescalero: Berries ground, formed into cakes and dried. Berries eaten fresh (Basehart 1974:48);
Coer d' Alene: Berries eaten fresh (Teit 1928:89); Melecite: Fruits eaten fro food (Speck and Dexter 1952:6); Micmac:
Bark used to make a beverage (Speck and Dexter 1951:258); Navajo: Fruits eaten as soon as they were picked (Elmore
1944:54); Oweekeno: Fruit used for food (Comption 1933:111); Thompson: Berries collected in large quantities and
cured (Teit 1928:237). Prunus americana-Apache, Mescalero: fruits dried and stored for future food use (Basehart
1974:50); Cheyenne: Fruits, sugar, and flower used to make a pudding. Fruits pulverized, sundried, boiled, and eaten as a
delicacy (Hart 1991:35). Sun dried plums stored for winter use (Grinnell 1905:177); Chippewa: Berries cooked, spread
on birch bark into little cakes, dried, and stored for winter use. Berries eaten raw (Densmore 1928:321); Crow: Ripe
plums used fresh. ripe plums dried for winter use (Blankinship 1905:19); Dakota: Fruit boiled, pitted, and dried for
article of food (Smith 1923:69). Navajo: Beans boiled and used in stews. Beans formed a large part of the vegetable diet
(Speck 1917:221). Navajo Ramah: plants, after harvesting the beans, used as stock feed. Beans cultivated and stored for
use during the winter (Vestal 1952:33). Ojibwa: Similar to white man's navy bean. original source of all the best
commercial pole beans, used alone or in many peculiar combinations (Smith 1932:406). Papago: Beans threshed, dried
on the ground or roofs, stored and used for food (Castetter and Underhill 1935:32). Beans grown for food (Castetter and
Bell 1942:99). Potawatomi: a great number of varieties of beans were used (Smith 1933:104). Sia: Cultivated beans
used for food (White 1962:106). Tewa: Beans used as a staple food (Robbins et al. 1916:100). Zuni: Beans boiled and
fried or crushed, boiled beans mixed with mush, baked in cornhusks, and used for food. Boiled and fried beans used for
food (Stevenson 1915:69).
Malcite: Shoots used for food (Speck and Dexter 1952:6).
Prunus sp.
(continued)
winter use (Baker 1981:364). Highly valued fruit pitted and dried for winter use (Gilmore 1913:87). Highly valued fruit
eaten fresh and raw (Gilmore 1913:87). fruit made into a sauce (Baker 1981:364); Isleta: Fruits eaten for food. Fruits
eaten fresh (Castetter:46). Fruit eaten for food (Jones 1931:46); Kiowa: Fruit gathered in great quantities and used
immediately. Fruit gathered in great quantities, dried, and stored for winter use (Vestal and Schultes 1939:129); Lakota:
Fruits eaten fresh (Kraft 1990:37). Fruits eaten for food (Rogers 1980:56). Fruits dried and eaten during famines (Kraft
1990:37); Meskwaki: plumbs eaten fresh. Plums eaten fresh. Plums made into plum butter for winter use (Smith
1928:263); Ojibwa: Fruit dried for winter use. Fruit eaten fresh. dried fruit ground into flower and used to make soup
(Reagan 1928:235); Omaha: Fruit pitted and dried for winter use (Gilmore 1913:326). Highly valued fruit pitted and
dried for winter use (Gilmore 1913:87). Fruit eaten fresh in season (Gilmore 1913:326). Highly valued fruit eaten fresh
and raw. Highly valued fruit cooked as a sauce; Pawnee: Highly valued fruit eaten fresh and raw, cooked as a sauce, or
dried with the pits for winter use; Ponca, Winnebago: Highly valued fruit pitted and dried for winter use. Highly valued
fruit eaten fresh and raw. Highly valued fruit cooked as a sauce (Gilmore 1913:87). Prunus nigra- Meskwaki: Plums
eaten fresh. Plums made into plum butter for winter use (Smith 1928:263). Ojibwa: Large quantities of plums found in
thickets and gathered for food and preserves (Smith 1932:409). Prunus pensylvanaica - Cree, Woodlands: Juice used to
make jelly (Leighton 1985:53); Ojibwa: Fruit dried for winter use and eaten fresh (Reagan 1928:235). Berries used for
food. The pin cherry was abundant around the Flambeau Reservation and the Ojibwe were fond of it. It was an education
in itself to see a group of Ojibwe women working on mats with a supply of fruit laden branches beside them. With one
hand they would start a stream of berries into the mouth and the stream of cherry stones ejected from the other corner of
the mouth seemed ceaseless. The Pillager Ojibwe also had the tree and used the same manner (Smith 1932:409). Dried
fruit ground into a flower and used to make soup (Reagan 1928:235); Potawatomi: Cherries eaten as the women worked
making baskets (Smith 1933:108). Prunus persica- Havasupai: Dried fruits pounded, stewed, and the water drunk. Fruit
split open, pitted, and sun dried for later consumption (Blankinship 1905:224); Hopi: Fruits split open and dried for
winter use. Fruits eaten fresh (Whiting 1939:79); Keres, Western: Fresh peaches eaten for food. Peaches dried for winter
use (Swank 1932:63); Keresan: Fruit dried for winter use, and eaten fresh (White 1962:562); Navajo, Ramah: Favorite
fruit used for food (Vestal 1952:31); Seminole: Plant used for food (Sturtevant 1955:507). Prunus serotina- Chippewa:
Twigs used to make a beverage (Densmore 1928:321). Berries cooked, spread on birch bark and little cakes, dried, and
stored for winter use. Berries eaten raw (Densmore 1928:321). Mahuana: Berries eaten mainly to quench the thirst
(Rogers 1980:70); Menominee: Cherries, if eaten when picked and allowed to stand for some time, said to make the
Indian drunk. Cherries eaten fresh (Smith 1923:71); Ojibwa: Ripe cherries used to make whisky (Smith 1932:409). Fruit
dried for winter use (Reagan 1928:235). This cherry was preferred to all other wild cherries and dried for winter use
(Smith 1932:409). Fruit eaten fresh. Dried fruit ground into flower and used to make soup (Reagan 1928:235);
Potawatomi: Cherries used mostly in wine or whisky. Cherries used for food (Smith 1933:108). Prunus viginianaApache, Western: Berries eaten raw (Buskirk 1986:190). Blackfoot: juice given as a special drink to husbands or the
favorite child. Berries greased, sun dried, and stored for future use. crushed berries mixed with back fat, and used to make
soup (Hellson 1974:104). Berry soup used for most ceremonial events (Hellson 1974:26). Peeled sticks inserted into
roasting meat as a spice. Berries considered a staple (Hellson 1974:104). Cheyenne: Fruits pounded, formed into flat
cakes, sun dried, and used as a winter food. Berries boiled, sugar and flower added, and eaten as a pudding (Hart
Quercus sp.
Prunus sp.
(continued)
oak
1991:35); Chippewa: twigs used to make a beverage (Densmore 1928:317). Fruits pounded, dried, and used for food
(Densmore 1928:321); Cree, Woodlands: Fruit and pits, sometimes with fish eggs, crushed, mixed with grease, and
eaten. Fruit used to make pancake syrup (Leighton 1985:53); Lakota: Leaves used to make a tea during the Sun Dance.
Berries eaten fresh (Kraft 1990:38). Fruits eaten for food (Rogers 1980:57). Berries mixed with cornstarch and sugar to
make a pudding. Small branches sucked or chewed for thirst during the Sun Dance (Kraft 1990:38); Menominee: bark
boiled into regular tea and drunk with meals. Cherries eaten fresh (Smith 1923:71); Meskwaki: Bark made into beverage,
and cherries eaten raw (Smith 1928:263); Montana Indian: Berries pulverized, shaped into round cakes, sun dried, and
stored for winter use, and used to make pemmican. Berries eaten raw. Berries mixed with sugar and flower and used to
make pudding. Berries pulverized, shaped into round cakes, sun dried, and used in soups and stews (Hart 1992:42);
Ojibwa: Fruit dried for winter use (Reagan 1928:235). Berries used fresh (Arnason et al. 1981:2222). Fruit of this cherry
was liked, especially after the fruit had been frosted (Smith 1932:409). Dried fruit ground into flower and mixed with
dried meat flower for soup (Arnason et al. 1981:2222). Okanagan-Colville: Berries mashed, seeds and all, and sun dried
into thin cakes. Berries eaten fresh. Berries stored for winter use (Turner et al. 1980:127); Omaha: fruit ponded with the
pits, made into thin cakes, and dried for winter use. Fruit eaten fresh. (Gilmore 1913:326); Potawatomi: Cherry used for
food and for seasoning or flavoring wine (Smith 1933:108); Thompson: Fruit used to make wine and juice. Fruit, with
the pit, dried for future use. Fruit used for food. Fruit used to make syrup. Fruit, with the pit, canned for future use
(Turner et al. 1990:264).
Quercus sp.- Apache, Mescalero: Acorns boiled, pounded, and mixed with mescal. Acorns eaten raw (Basehart
1974:41); Chippewa: Acorns, with the tannin removed by using wood ash lye and leached out with water, used for food
(Gilmore 1933:129); Comanche: Acorns used for food (Carlson and Jones 1940:524); Concow: Acorns made into bread
and eaten. Acorns used for food (Bocek 1984:248); Malecite: Acorns ground into a meal and used to make soup (Barrett
and Gifford 1933:142); Navajo: Dried acorns ground into flour. Acorns boiled like beans and roasted over coals (Elmore
1944:40); Round Valley Indian: Nuts dried, cracked, pulverized, water added, and the dough made into bread, or
brownish red mush (Chesnut 1902:333). Quercus alba - Menominee: Acorns boiled, simmered to remove lye, ground,
sifted, and made into pie. Acorns boiled, simmered to remove lie, ground sifted, and made into mush with bear oil
seasoning. Acorns boiled, simmered to remove lye, ground, sifted, cooked in soup stock to flavor, and eaten (Smith
1923:66). Meskwaki: Ground scorched acorns made into a drink similar to coffee. Dried acorns made into mush (Smith
1928:257). Ojibwa: Acorns soaked in lye water to remove bitter tannin taste, dried for storage, and used to make soup.
Lye for leaching acorns was obtained by soaking wood ashes in water. Acorns were put in a net bag and then soaked in
the lye, then rinsed several times in warm water. the acorns were then dried for storage, and when wanted, pounded into a
coarse flour which was used to thicken soups and form a sort of mush (Smith 1932:401). Quercus macrocarpa Cheyenne: Acorns formerly used for food (Hart 1991:26); Chippewa: Acorns roasted in ashes or boiled, mashed, and
eaten with grease or duck broth. Acorns boiled, split open and eaten like a vegetable (Densmore 1928:320); Dakota:
Acorns leached with basswood ashes to remove the bitter taste and used for food (Gilmore 1913:75); Lakota: Acorns
chopped and cooked in soups and meats. Acorns chopped, cooked over fire, and eaten (Kraft 1990:31); Ojibwa: Acorns
treated with lye to remove bitterness and eaten (Smith 1932:402). Omaha, Pawnee, Ponca, Winnebago: Acorns leached
with basswood ashes to remove the bitter taste and used as food (Gilmore 1913:75). Quercus rubra-Dakota: Acorns
sumac
berry
Rhus sp.
Rubus sp.
Quercus sp.
(continued)
leached with basswood ashes to remove the bitter taste and used for food (Gilmore 1913:75); Ojibwa: Acorns leached
with lye and used as one of the most important starchy foods (Smith 1932:402); Omaha: Acorns freed from tannic acid
by boiling with wood ashes and used for food (Gilmore 1913:327). Acorns leached with basswood ashes to remove the
bitter taste and used for food; Pawnee, Ponca: Acorns leached with basswood ashes to remove the bitter taste and used
for food (Gilmore 1913:75); Potawatomi: Dried, ground acorns used as a flour to make gruel. Hardwood ashes and water
furnished the lye for soaking the acorns, to swell them and remove the tannic acid. A bark bag or reticule served to hold
the acorns while they were washed through a series of hot and cold water to remove the lye. Then they aired dried in the
sun and became sweet and palatable. They were ground on depressions of rocks which served as a mortar with a stone
pestle, to a flour, which was cooked as gruel, sometimes called samp (Smith 1933:100). Quercus stellata- Kiowa:
Acorns used to make a drink similar to coffee. Dried, pounded acorns used for food (Vestal and Schultes 1939:22).
Quercus velutina- Lakota: Acorns used to make flour (Rogers 1980:49); Ojibwa: Acorns with tannic acid extracted,
equally as good as other acorns (Smith 1932:402).
Rhus aromatica-Midoo: Berries pounded and eaten (Merriam 1966:312). Rhus glabra- Apache, Chirichaua and
Mescalero: Bark eaten by children as a delicacy (Castetter and Opler 1936:44); Comanche: Fruits eaten by children
(Carlson and Jones 1940:524); Gosiute: Berries used for food (Chamberlin 1911:379); Meskwaki: Berries and sugar
sued to make a cooling drink in the summer time and stored for winter use (Smith 1928:255); Ojibwa: Fresh or dried
berries sweetened with maple sugar and made into a hot or cool beverage like lemonade (Smith 1932:397); OkanaganColville: seed heads used to make tea (Turner et al. 1980:59).
Rubus sp.- Carrier: Berries used to make jelly (Carrier Linguistic Committee 1973:79); Okanagon: Berries used as a
principal food (Teit 1928:238); Paiute: Berries used for food (Mahar 1953:83); Sanpoil and Nespelm: Berries eaten
dried. Berries eaten raw or dried (Ray 1932:102); Spokan: Berries used for food (Teit 1928:343). Rubus allegheniensisChippewa: Fruit dried for winter use. Fruit eaten fresh (Gilmore 1933:133). Menominee: Berries eaten fresh. Berries
made into pies. Berries dried for winter use (Smith 1923:71); Meskwaki: Berries eaten fresh. Berries made into pies.
Berries made into jams, and sun dried for winter use (Smith 1928:246); Ojibwa: Berries used to make jam for winter use
(Smith 1932:409). Potawatomi: Blackberries only used for food (Smith 1933:108). Rubus canadensis-Chippewa: Fruit
used for food (Gilmore 1933:133); Ojibwa: Berries used fresh, and preserved (Arnason et al. 1981:2223). Rubus
frondosus- Chippewa: Berries cooked, spread on birch bark into little cakes, dried, and stored for winter uses. Berries
eaten raw (Densmore 1928:321); Rubus idaeu- Alaska Native: Berries eaten raw, and made into jellies and jams (Heller
1953:93); Bella Coola: Berries eaten fresh, and cooked into jam (Turner 1973:209); Cree, Woodlands: Fruit eaten with
dried fish flesh and fish oil. Young, leafy shoots peeled and the tender inner part eaten (Leighton 1985:57); Eskimo,
Inupat: Berries used to make traditional desert (Jones 1983:107); Koyukon: Berries used for food (Nelson 1983:55).
Okanagan-Colville: Berries dried for future use. Berries frozen for future use. Berries eaten fresh. Berries canned for
future use (Turner et al. 1980:131); Tanana, Upper: Berries frozen for future use (Kari 1985:12). Berries eaten raw,
plain, or mixed raw with sugar, grease, or the combination of the two. Berries fried in grease with sugar or dried fish
eggs. Berries boiled with sugar and flour to thicken. Berries used to make pies. Berries used to make jam and jelly.
Berries preserved alone or in grease and stored in a birch bark basket in an underground cache (Kari 1985:12);
Thompson: Fruit steamed, dried, and made into a cake. Fruit sun dried loose on mats. Fruit frozen or made into a jam.
rush
wheat
blueberry
Scirpus sp.
Triticum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Rubus sp.
(continued)
Fruit eaten fresh (Turner et al. 1990:269). Rubus laciniatus- Hoh: Fruits stewed and used for food. Fruits eaten raw.
Fruits canned and saved for future use (Reagan 1936:63); Makah: Fresh fruit used for food. Fruit used to make
preserves, and jams (Gill 1983:272); Quileute: Fruits stewed and used for food. Fruits eaten raw. fruits canned and saved
for future food use (Reagan 1936:63). Rubus occidentalis-Chippewa: Fruit dried for winter use, and eaten fresh
(Gilmore 1933:133); Dakota: Young leaves steeped to make a tea like beverage. Fruit dried for winter use, and eaten
fresh (Gilmore 1913:84); Lakota: Fruits eaten for food (Rogers 1980:57); Menominee: Berries eaten fresh, not important
as a fresh fruit (Smith 1923:71); Meskwaki: Root bark used to make tea. Berries eaten fresh, and sun dried for winter use
(Smith 1928:264); Ojibwa: Berries used fresh, and preserved (Arnason et al. 1981:2224); Omaha, Pawnee, Ponca:
leaves used to make a hot, aqueous, tea-like beverage (Gilmore 1913:84). Fruit dried for winter use, and eaten fresh
(Gilmore 1913:326); Thompson: Sprouts or young shoots eaten like rhubarb (Gifford 1933:484). Rubus odoratus Chippewa: Fruit eaten fresh, and dried for winter use (Gilmore 1933:133). Rubus pubescens- Cree, Woodlands: Fruit
eaten fresh (Leighton 1985:57).
Sciripus sp. -Cahuilla: Pollen used to make cakes. Roots ground into flour. Seeds eaten raw or ground into mush (Bean
and Saubel 1972:139); Costanoan: Roots eaten raw or ground into flour and cooked (Bocek 1984:255); Keres,
Western: Tender shoots used for food (Swank 1932:68); Luiseno: Tender young shoots eaten raw (Sparkman 1908:233);
Pima, Gila River: Tubers eaten as snack food primarily by children (Rea 1991:5); Thompson: Fleshy rootstocks baked
and eaten (Gifford 1933:481). Eleocharis palustris - Paiute: Bulbs used for food (Steward 1933:245). Eleocharis sp. Paiute: Bulbs used for food (Steward 1933:245);
Elymus sp. - Pomo, Kashaya: Grain grounded into a fine powder and sued in pinole (Goodrich and Lawson 1980:101).
Triticum aestivum - Apache, White Mountain: Seeds used to make bread (Reagan 1929:161); Cahuilla: Parched seeds
ground into flour and used to make mush (Bean and Saubel 1972:142); Hailsa and HanakSiala: Grains used to make
bread and used for food (Comption 1933:208); Navajo, Ramah: Species used for food (Vestal 1952:17); OkanaganColville: Kernels boiled until open and eaten (Turner et al. 1980:57); Papago: Used for making native bread and grains
trampled, winnowed, softened with water, pounded and dried, and ground into flour (Castetter and Underhill 1935:37);
Pima: Seeds ground into meal, water and salt added and dough used to make tortillas and cakes. Parched, ground and
eaten as a thin gruel (Russell 1908:76); Pomo, Kashaya : Seed used in mush and to make flour for bread (Goodrich and
Lawson 1980:54); Sia: Corn and wheat used for food (White 1962:106); Zuni: Dried, ground wheat mixed with water to
make a beverage. Wheat made into flour and used to make doughnuts (Stevenson 1915:71).
Vaccinium angustifolium- Menominee: Sun dried berries and dried sweet corn sweetened with maple sugar and stored
for winter use (Smith 1923:66). Ojibwa: Berries sun dried for winter use (Smith 1932:401). Berries eaten fresh. Berries
canned for future use (Reagan 1928:238). Vaccinium macrocarpon- Anticosti: Fruits stored for winter use (Rousseau
1946:68); Chippewa: Berries cooked and used for food (Densmore 1928:321);Ojibwa: Fruit used for food (Reagan
1928:238). Vaccinium oxycoccos-Alaska Native: Fruit eaten raw. Fruit cooked and used for food (Heller 1953:103);
Algonquin, Quebec: Berries used for food (Black 1980:105); Algonquin, Tete-de-Boule: Fruits eaten for food
(Raymound 1962:134); Anticosti: Fruits stored for winter use (Rousseau 1946:68); Clallam: Leaves used to make tea
(Fleidher 1980:200); Cree, Woodlands: Fresh berries used for food. Berries stewed and eaten with smoked fish. Berries
picked in the fall and stored outside in birch bark containers for winter use (Leighton 1985:47); Eskimo, Alaska: Berries
Viburnum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
(continued)
viburnum
eaten occasionally, but not considered an important food source (Ager 1980:37); Eskimo, Inupiat: Berries whipped with
frozen fish eggs, fish (whitefish, sheepfish, or pike), blubber, and eaten. (Berries boiled with sugar, water, and flour into a
pudding. Berries boiled with dried fruit and eaten with meat or used as topping for ice cream, yogurt, or cake. Whole or
mashed berries used cooked or raw, whipped with fat, and made into a sauce. Berries boiled with sugar, water, and flour
and eaten with meats. Berries boiled, cooled, blackberries or blueberries added, and stored for winter use (Jones
1983:104); Haisla & HanakSiala: Berries boiled and stored in barrels of oolichan (candlefish) grease for winter use
(Comption 1933:247); Hesquiat; Raw berries, without sugar, eaten with oil. Berries stored with water in jars. Berries
made into jam (Turner and Efrat 1982:67); Kitasoo: Berries used for food (Comption 1933:336); Klallam: Berries stored
in boxes or baskets until soft and brown and used for food (Gunther 1973:45); Makah: Fruit eaten fresh (Gill 1983:307).
Berries stored in boxes or baskets until soft and brown and used for food (Gunther 1973:45). Fruit used to make pies,
jellies, and jams. Fruit canned for future use (Gill 1983:307); Menominee: Berries sweetened with maple sugar and eaten
(Smith 1923:65); Nitinaht: Berries formerly eaten in fall (Turner et al. 1983:109); Ojibwa: Fruit used for food (Reagan
1928:238). This was an important wild food (Smith 1932:401); Oweekeno: Berries used for food (Comption 1933:100);
Potawatomi: Berries sweetened with maple sugar and always used as an article of food (Smith 1933:99); Quinault:
Berries stored in boxes or baskets until soft and brown and used for food (Gunther 1973:45); Salish, Coast: Fruits dried
and used for food. Berries eaten fresh (Turner and Bell 1971:83); Tanana, Upper: Berries frozen for future use. Berries
eaten raw, plain, or mixed with sugar, grease, or the combination of the two. Berries fried in grease with sugar or dried
fish eggs. Berries boiled with sugar and flower to thicken. Berries used to make pies, jams, and jellies. Berries preserved
alone or in grease and stored in a birch bark basket in an underground cache (Kari 1985:10); Thompson; Fresh fruit used
for food. This fruit was not dried because it remained fresh for a long time and could be picked any time until winter
(Turner et al. 1990:221). Vaccinium vitis-idaea - Alaska Native: Berries mixed with rose hip pulp and sugar to make
jam. Berries cooked as a sauce. Berries stored for future use (Heller 1953:109); Carrier: Berries used to make jam
(Carrier Linguistic Committee 1973:76); Eskimo, Arctic: Juice diluted and sweetened to make a refreshing beverage.
Berries frozen and stored until the next spring. Berries used to make jams and jellies (Porsild 1953:22); Eskimo, Inupiat:
Berries whipped with frozen fish eggs and eaten as a frozen dessert. Raw berries mashed with canned milk and seal oil
into a dessert. Berries cooked with fish eggs, fish (whitefish, sheefpish, or pike), blubber, and eaten. Berries boiled with
sugar, water and flour into a pudding. Berries boiled with dried fruit and eaten with meat or used as a topping for ice
cream, yogurt, or cake. Whole or mashed berries used cooked or raw, whipped with fat, and made into a sauce. Berries
boiled with sugar, water, and flour into a topping for hot cakes or bread. Berries boiled with sugar, water, and flour and
eaten with meats. Berries boiled, cooled, black berries or blueberries added, and stored for winter use (Jones 1983:86);
Koyukon: Berries frozen for winter use (Nelson 1983:55); Tanna, Upper: Berries frozen for future use (Kari 1985:9).
Berries used for food (Guedon 1974:28). Berries eaten raw, plain, or mixed raw with sugar, grease, or the combination of
the two. Berries fried in grease with sugar or dried fish eggs. Berries boiled with sugar and flour to thicken (Kari 1985:9).
Berries preserved in caches (Guedon 1974:28). Berries preserved alone or in grease and stored in a birch bark basket in
an underground cache (Kari 1985:9).
Viburnum lentago-Dakota: Fruit eaten from the hand, but not gathered in quantity (Gilmore 1913:115); Menominee:
Berries used for food (Smith 1923:63); Ojibwa: Berries eaten fresh from the bush. Berries used in jam with wild grapes
vetch
violet
grape
corn
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Zea mays
Viburnum sp.
(continued)
(Smith 1932:398); Omaha, Pawnee, Ponca, Winnebago: Fruit eaten from the hand, but not gathered in quantity
(Gilmore 1913:115). Viburnum nudum - Algonquin, Quebec: Berries used for food (Black 1980:107). Viburnum
opulus- Chippewa: Fresh and dried fruits used as an acid sauce (Gilmore 1933:141); Menominee: Berries used for food
(Smith 1923:63); Okanagon, Thompson: Fruits occasionally used for food (Perry 1952:38). Viburnum prunifoliumMeskwaki: Berries eaten raw. Berries cooked into jam (Smith 1928:256).
Vicia sp. - Papago: Threshed, dried on the ground or roofs, storied and used for food (Castetter and Underhill 1935:33);
Thompson: Used as common forage plants (Gifford 1933:515); Vicia faba - Sia: Cultivated beans for food (White
1962:206).
Viola sp. - Leaves cooked with other potherbs and eaten (Boaz 1966:253);
Parthenocissus quinquefolia - Chippewa: Stalks cut, boiled, peeled and the sweetish substance between the bark and the
wood used for food (Densmore 1928:320). Vitis sp. - Comanche: Dried fruits stored for later use and used for food
(Carlson and Jones 1940:524); Hualapai: Fruit used to make juice and sun dried and stored for later use. Also eaten raw
from the vine (Watahomigie 1982:23). Vitis riparia - Omaha: Fruit dried for winter use and eaten fresh in season
(Gilmore 1913:326).
Cahuilla: Ground into meal, boiled, and eaten (Bean and Saubel 1972:153); Chippewa: Used to make "hominy." Kernels
pounded into a meal and used to make "parched corn soup." Fresh ears roasted into husks and used for food (Densmore
1928:319); Chocktaw: Seeds parched and mixed with water or boiled with or without meat (Bushnell 1909:8-9);
Dakota: Ripe, parched corn ground into a meal and used for food. Ripe corn hulled with lye from ashes and used to make
hominy. Sun drills corn silks ground with parched corn for sweetness. Sun dried corn silks stored for future use (Gilmore
1913:67); Delaware, Oklahoma: Dry, unparched corn made into flour and used to make bread. Ears boiled, cooled, the
grains dried and used for food. Ears sun dried, grains pounded into hominy grits and used for food. Dried corn boiled in
alkaline liquid and hulls combined with fresh or dried meat for stew. Used as the staple vegetable food to provide
nourishment for the soul and the body. Ears roasted and used for food. Dried corn boiled in alkaline liquid and hulls eaten
with milk and sugar or fried with potatoes (Tantaquidgeon 1972:55); Havasupai: Seeds used to make wafer bread (Spier
1928:103). Seeds used to make bread. Seeds parched, ground fine, boiled, thickened, made into balls, and eaten as
dumplings. Seeds ground, kneaded into a thick paste, rolled into little balls, boiled and eaten as marbles (Blankinship
1905:66). Seeds parched, ground, and used to make mush. Seeds parched, ground, and used to make soup. Seeds ground
and eaten as a ground or parched meal (Blankinship 1905:67). Seeds eaten fresh, baked on the cob, roasted, or boiled.
Seeds pit baked and stored for winter use (Blankinship 1905:66); Hopi: Seeds ground into meal and used to make wafer
bread (Whiting 1939:67). Pit baked, husked, strung, and sun dried (Whiting 1939:69). Grains soaked in water with
juniper ash, boiled, and washed to make hominy. Made into hominy and other dishes, plant constituted the main food
supply. Ground into meal (Whiting 1939:67). Ears pit baked, husked, strung, sun dried, and used as a sweetener in the
winter. Pit baked and eaten immediately (Whiting 1939:69); Isleta: Ground corn used to make a slightly intoxicating
beverage. Cornmeal used to make various breads. Parched corn eaten as a confection. Cornmeal used to make a mush.
Parched corn eaten as a staple. Evaporated liquid from crushed, soaked stalks used to make sugar. Corn husks used to
wrap tamales. Cornmeal used to make mush, dried and stored for winter use (Jones 1931:46); Kamia: Species used for
food (Gifford 1931:21); Kres, Western: Cornmeal used as one of the main foods (Swank 1932:77); Kiowa: valued as a
Zea mays
(continued)
food (Vestal and Schultes 1939:17); Menominee: Scorched or parched corn often used as a substitute for coffee.
Parched, ground corn mixed with bear oil and used as a trail ration. Roasted popcorn pounded into a meal added to dried
venison, maple sugar, or wild rice or all three. Ears roasted and made into hominy. Ears parboiled and the kernels sun
dried for winter use (Smith 1923:66); Meskwaki: Boiled or parched corn eaten or made into corn hominy grits. Boiled or
parched corn stored for winter use (Smith 1928:257); Navajo: Cornmeal and juniper ash water used to make a beverage.
Corn and juniper ash used to make bread and dumplings. Corn and meat boiled all night into hominy. Cornmeal porridge,
served in wedding baskets, used as a nuptial dish. Green corn roasted, shelled, ground, dried, and wrapped in corn husks,
like tamales, for journeys. Immature corn pounded, mixed with pumpkin, wrapped in a corn husk, and baked in ached.
Leaves eaten like lettuce (Elmore 1944:27); Navajo, Ramah: Cornmeal used to make ceremonial cakes. Young corn and
cob eaten. Roasted, dried corn on the cob stored for winter use (Vestal 1952:18); Ojibwa: Kernels dried for winter use.
Several sorts of corn were grown, modern and ancient. Ears were roasted and made into hominy (Smith 1932:402);
Omaha: Ripe, parched corn ground into a meal and used for food. Ripe corn hulled with lye from ashes and used to make
hominy (Gilmore 1913:67). Sun dried corn silks ground with parched corn for sweetness. Sun dried corn silks stored for
future use (Gilmore 1913:68); Papago: Grains parched, dried on mats on roofs, and used for food. Cornmeal used
ceremonially. Whole ears roasted in open pits, dried, grains removed, winnowed, and ground into meal. Whole ears
roasted in open pits, dried, grains removed, winnowed, and cooked whole with meat (Castetter and Underhill 1935:34);
Pawnee: Ripe, parched corn ground into a meal and used for food. Ripe corn hulled with lye from ashes and used to
make hominy. Sun dried corn silks ground with parched corn for sweetness. Sun dried silks stored for future use
(Gilmore 1913:67); Pima: Ground, baked in large cakes, and used for food. Boiled with ashes, dried, hulls washed or,
dried, parched with coals, and made into gruel (Russell 1908:72); Ponca: Ripe, parched corn ground into a meal and used
for food. Ripe corn hulled with lye from ashes and used to make hominy. Sun dried corn silks ground with parched corn
for sweetness. Sun dried silks stored for future use (Gilmore 1913:67); Potawatomi: Elm Bark Bags, filled with corn or
beans and peas, buried in the ground to keep fro the winter (Smith 1933:101); Pueblo: Cornmeal used ceremonially
(Castetter and Underhill 1935:34); Sea: Corn and wheat, the most important foods, used for food (White 1962:106);
Tewa: Corn ground and sifted into boiling water to make a gruel formerly drunk in the morning. Cornmeal mixed with
cold water and drunk as a nourishing drink. Corn ground on a matate, formed into cakes, rolled, and baked. Used as a
staple food (Robbins et al. 1916:78); Zuni: Popped corn ground as fine as possible, mixed with cold water, strained, and
used as a beverage. Toasted or untoasted corn ground into a flour and used to make bread. Corn used to make gruel. Corn
used to make popcorn. Toasted or untoasted corn ground into a flour and used to make bread eaten as a staple on journeys
(Stevenson 1915:73).
Plant Taxa listed in the USDA Plant Database in Connecticut Not Recorded in Native American
Food Practices Related to Plants
1) Asclepias amplexicaulis (clasping milkweed); Asclepias exaltata (poke milkweed);); Asclepias
purpurascens (purple milkweed); Asclepias quadrifolia (fourleaf milkweed); Asclepias tuberosa
(butterfly milkweed)
2)
Carex abscondita (thicket sedge); Carex acutiformis (lesser pond sedge); Carex aestivalis (summer
sedge); Carex alata (broadwing sedge); Carex albicans (whitetinge sedge); Carex albolutescens
(greenwhite sedge); Carex albursina (white bear sedge); Carex alopecoidea (foxtail sedge); Carex
amphibola (eastern narrowleaf sedge); Carex annectens (yellowfruit sedge); Carex appalachica
(Appalachian sedge); Carex arctata (dropping woodland sedge); Carex argyrantha (hay sedge); Carex
atlantica (prickly bog sedge); Carex aurea (golden sedge); Carex backii (Back's sedge); Carex baileyi
(Bailey's sedge); Carex barrattii (Barratt's sedge); Carex bebbii (Bebb's sedge); Carex bicknellii
(Bicknell's sedge); Carex blanda (eastern woodland sedge); Carex brevior (shortbeak sedge); Carex
bromoides (brome-like sedge); Carex brunnescens (brownish sedge); Carex bullata (button sedge);
Carex bushii (Bush's sedge); Carex buxbaumii (Buxbaum's sedge); Carex canescens (silvery sedge);
Carex castanea (chestnut sedge); Carex cephaloidea (thinleaf sedge); Carex cephalophora (oval-leaf
sedge); Carex collinsii (Collins' sedge); Carex communis (fibrousroot sedge); Carex comosa (longhair
sedge); Carex conoidea (openfield sedge); Carex crawei (Crawe's sedge); Carex crawfordii
(Crawford's sedge); Carex crinita (frindged sedge); Carex cristatella (crested sedge); Carex
cryptolepis (northeastern sedge); Carex cumulata (clustered sedge); Carex davisii (Davis' sedge);
Carex debilis (white edge sedge); Carex deweyana (Dewy sedge); Carex diandra (lesser panicled
sedge); Carex digitalis (slender woodland sedge); Carex disperma (softleaf sedge); Carex eburnea
(bristleleaf sedge); Carex echinata (star sedge); Carex emoryi (Emory's sedge); Carex exilis (coastal
sedge); Carex festucacea (fescue sedge); Carex flava (yellow sedge); Carex folliculata (northern long
sedge); Carex formosa (handsome sedge); Carex glaucodea (blue sedge); Carex gracilescens (slender
looseflower sedge); Carex gracillimia (graceful sedge); Carex granularis (limestone meadow sedge);
Carex grayi (Gray's sedge); Carex grisea (inflated narrow-leaf sedge); Carex gynandra (nodding
sedge); Carex haydenii (Hayden's sedge); Carex hirsutella (fuzzy wuzzy sedge); Carex hirta (hammer
sedge); Carex hirtifolia (pubescent sedge); Carex hitchcockiana (Hitchcock's sedge); Carex
hormathodes (marsh straw sedge); Carex hystericina (bottlebrush sedge); Carex interior (inland
sedge); Carex intumescens (greater bladder sedge); Carex lacustris (hairy sedge); Carex laevivaginata
(smoothshearth sedge); Carex lapponica (Lapland sedge); Carex lasiocarpa (woollyfruit sedge); Carex
laxiculmis (spreading sedge); Carex laxiflora (broad looseflower sedge); Carex leptalea (bristlystalked
sedge); Carex leptonervia (nerveless woodland sedge); Carex limosa (mud sedge); Carex livida (livid
sedge); Carex longii (Long's sedge); Carex lucorum (Blue Ridge sedge); Carex lupuliformis (false hop
sedge); Carex lupulina (hop sedge); Carex lurida (shallow sedge); Carex magellanica (boreal bog
sedge); Carex merritt-fernaldii (Fernald'a sedge); Carex mesochorea (midland sedge); Carex molesta
(troublesome sedge); Carex muehlenbergii (Muhlenberg's sedge); Carex nigra (smooth black sedge);
Carex nigromarginata (black edge sedge); Carex normalis (greater straw sedge); Carex novae-angliae
(New England sedge); Carex oligocarpa (richwoods sedge); Carex oligosperma (fewseed sedge);
Carex ormostachya (necklace spike sedge); Carex pallescens (pale sedge); carex panicea (grass-like
sedge); Carex pauciflora (fewflower sedge); Carex pedunculata (longstalk sedge); Carex pellita
(woolly sedge); Carex pensylvanica (Pennsylvania sedge); Carex plantaginea (plantainleaf sedge);
Carex platyphylla (broadleaf sedge); Carex polymorpha (variable sedge); Carex prairea (prairie
sedge); Carex prasina (drooping sedge); Carex projecta (necklace sedge); Carex pseudocyperus
(cypress-like sedge); Carex radiata (eastern star sedge); Carex retroflexa (reflexed sedge); Carex
retrorsa (knotsheath sedge); Carex rosea (rosy sedge); Carex scabrata (eastern rough sedge); Carex
schweinitzii (Schweinitz's sedge); Carex scoparia (broom sedge); Carex seorsa (weak stellate sedge);
Carex siccata (dryspike sedge); Carex silicea (beach sedge); Carex sparganioides (bur-reed sedge);
Carex spicata (prickly sedge); Carex sprengelii (Sprengel's sedge); Carex squarrosa (squarrose
sedge); Carex sterilis (dioecious sedge); Carex stipata (awlfruit sedge); Carex straminea (eastern
straw sedge); Carex striatula (lined sedge); Carex stricta (upright sedge); Carex styloflexa (bent
sedge); Carex swanii (Swan's sedge); Carex tenera (quill sedge); Carex tetanica (rigid sedge); Carex
tincta (tinged sedge); Carex tonsa (shaved sedge); Carex torta (twisted sedge); Carex tribuloides
(blunt broom sedge); Carex trichocarpa (hairyfuirt sedge); Carex trisperma (threeseeded sedge);
Carex tuckermanii (Tukerman's sedge); Carex typhina (cattail sedge); Carex umbellata (parasol
sedge); Carex vesicaria (blister sedge); Carex vestita (velvet sedge); Carex virescens (ribbed sedge);
Carex viridula (little green sedge); Carex vulpinoidea (fox sedge); Carex willdenowii (Willdenow's
sedge); Carex woodii (pretty sedge)
3) Carya glabra (pignut hickory); Carya ovalis (red hickory)
4) Amaranthus blitum (purple amaranth); Amaranthus cannabinus (tidalmarsh amaranth); Amaranthus
pumilus (seaside amaranth); Amaranthus spinosus (spiny amaranth); Amaranthus tuberculatus
(roughfruit amaranth); Chenopodium ambrosiodes (Mexican tea); Chenopodium berlandieri (pitseed
goosefoot); Chenopodium bonus-henricus (good King Henry); Chenopodium botrys (Jerusalem oak
goosefoot); Chenopodium capitatum (blite goosefoot); Chenopodium glaucum (oakleaf goosefoot);
Chenopodium simplex (mapleleaf goosefoot); Chenopodium standleyanum (Standley's goosefoot);
Chenopodium urbicum (city goosefoot)
5) Cornus alternifolia (alternateleaf dogwood); Cornus amomum (silky dogwood); Cornus florida
(flowering dogwood); Cornus obliqua (silky dogwood); Cornus racemosa (gray dogwood); Cornus
rugosa (roundleaf dogwood)
6) Corylus heterophylla (Siberian hazelnut)
7) Crataegus anomala (Arnold hawthorne); Crataegus brainerdii (Brainerd's hawthorne); Crataegus
compta (adorned hawthorn); Crataegus crus-galli (cockspur hawthorn); Crataegus dilatata (broadleaf
hawthorn); Crataegus dissona (northern hawthorn); Crataegus dodgei (Dodge's hawthorn); Crataegus
flabellata (fanleaf hawthorn); Crataegus holmesiana (Holmes' hawthorne); Crataegus intricata
(Copenhagen hawthorne); Crrataegus iracunda (stolonbearing hawthorn); Crataegus jesupii (Jesup's
hawthorn); Crategus lucorum (grove hawthorn); Crataegus lumaria (roundleaf hawthorn); Crataegus
membranacea (tissueleaf hawthorn0; Crataegus monogyna (oneseed hawthorn); Crataegus pedicellata
(scarlet hawthorn); Crataegus pequotorum (Connecticut hawthorn); Crataegus pringlei (Pringle's
hawthorn); Crataegus punctata (dotted hawthorn); Crataegus scabrida (rough hawthorn); Crataegus
schuettei (Schuette's hawthorn); Crataegus spatiosa (New London hawthorn); Crataegus
suborbiculata (Caughuawaga hawthorn); Crataegus succulenta (fleshy hawthorn)
8) Cyperus amuricus (Asian flatsedge); Cyperus bipartitus (slender flatsedge); Cyperus dentatus (toothed
flatsedge); Cyperus diandrus (umbrella flatsedge); Cyperus echinatus (globe flatsedge); Cyperus
filicinus (fern flatsedge); Cyperus fuscus (brown flatsedge); Cyperus grayi (Gray's flatsedge); Cyperus
lupulinus (Great Plains flatsedge); Cyperus squarrosus (bearded flatsedge); Cyperus strigosus
(strawcolored flatsedge); Kyllinga gracillima (pasture spikesedge)
9) Gaylussacia dumosa (dwarf huckleberry); Gaylussacia frondosa (blue huckleberry)
10) Ilex glabra (inkberry); Ilex laevigata (smooth winterberry); Ilex montana (mountain holly); Ilex
mucronata (catberry); Ilex opaca (American holly); Ilex verticillata (common winterberry)
11) Juncus acuminatus (tapertip rush); Juncus ambiguus (seasice rush); Juncus anthelatus (greater poverty
rush); Juncus articulatus (jointleaf rush); Juncus brachycarpus (whiteroot rush); Juncus
brachycephalus (smallhead rush); Juncus brevicaudatus (narrowpanicle rush); Juncus bufonius (toad
rush); Juncus canadensis (Canadian rush); Juncus debilis (weak rush); Juncus dichotomus (forked
rush); Juncus diffusissimus (simpod rush); Juncus dudleyi (Dudley's rush); Juncus gerardii
(saltmeadow rush); Juncus greenei (Greene's rush); Juncus marginatus (grassleaf rush); Juncus
militaris (bayonet rush); Juncus nodosus (knotted rush); Juncus pelocarpus (brownfruit rush); Juncus
secundus (lopsided rush); Juncus subcaudatus (woodland rush); Juncus tenuis (poverty rush); Luzula
multiflora (common woodrush)
12) Latuca biennis (tall blue lettuce); Lactuca hirsuta (hairy lettuce); Lactuca serriola (prickly lettuce)
13) Fagopyrum esculentum (buckwheat); Polygonella articulata (coastal jointweed); Polygonum
achoreum (leathery knotweed); Polygonum amphibium (water knotweed); Polygonum arenastrum
(oval-leaf knotweed); Polygonum arifolium (halberdleaf tearthumb); Polygonum aviculare (prostrate
knotweed); Polygonum bellardii (narrowleaf knotweed); Polygonum buxiforme (box knotweed);
Polygonum careyi (Carey's smartweed); Polygonum cespitosum (Oriental lady's thumb); Polygonum
cilinode (fringed black bindweed); Polygonum convolvulus (black bindweed); Polygonum cuspidatum
(Japanese knotweed); Polygonum erectum (erect knotweed); Polygonum glaucum (seaside knotweed);
Polygonum hydropiperoides (swamp smartweed); Polygonum lapathifolium (curly knotweed);
Polygonum minus (pgymy smartweed); Polygonum nepalense (Nepalese smartweed); Polygonum
orientale (kiss me over the garden gate); Polygonum pensylvanicum (Pennsylvania smartweed);
Polygonum persicaria (spotted ladysthumb); Polygonum punctatum (dotted smartweed); Polygonum
ramosissimum (bushy knotweed); Polygonum robustius (stout smartweed); Polygonum sachalinense
(giant knotweed); Polygonum sagittatum (arrowleaf tearthumb); Polygonum scandens (climbing false
buckwheat); Polygonum tenue (pleatleaf knotweed); Polygonum virginianum (jumpseed)
14) Portulaca gradiflora (rose moss)
15) Prunus alleghaniensis (Allegheny plum); Prunus avium (sweet cherry); Prunus domestica (European
plum); Prunus mahaleb (Mahaleb cherry); Prunus maritima (beach plum); Prunus spinosa
(blackthorn); Prunus susquehanae (Sesquehana sandcherry)
16) Quercus coccinea (scarlet oak); Quercus ilicifolia (bear oak); Quercus muehlenbergii (chinkapin oak);
Quercus palustris (pin oak); Quercus prinoides (dwarf chinkapin oak)
17) Cotinus coggygria (European smoketree); Rhus typhina (staghorn sumac); Toxicodendron radicans
(eastern poison ivy); Toxicodendron rydbergii (western poision ivy); Toxicodendron vernix (poison
sumac)
18) 47 SPECIES: Dalibarda repens (robin runaway); Rubus alumnus (oldfield blackberry); Rubus
andrewsianus (Andrews' blackberry); Rubus aptatus (drybank dewberry); Rubus arenicola
(sanddwelling dewberry); Rubus baileyanus (Bailey's dewberry); Rubus bigelovianus (lowland
blackberry); Rubus cuneifolius (sand blackberry); Rubus dissimilis (bristly Oswego blackberry); Rubus
elegantulus (showy blackberry); Rubus floricomus (manyflower blackberrry); Rubus fraternalis
(northeastern dewberry); Rubus gnarus (Pollock's Mill blackberry); Rubus hispidus (bristly dewberry);
Rubus illecebrosus (strawberry raspberry); Rubus insons (New England blackberry); Rubus insulanus
(island blackberry); Rubus multifer (kinnickinnick dewberry); Rubus multispinus (devil's blackberry);
Rubus notatus (bristle berry); Rubus novanglicus (New England dewberry); Rubus obsessus (New
York dewberry); Rubus parlinii (Parlin's dewberry); Rubus particeps (Kingston dewberry); Rubus
pensilvanicus (Pennsylvania blackberry); Rubus pergratus (upland blackberry); Rubus philadelphicus
(Philadelphia blackberry); Rubus phoenicolasius (wine raspberry); Rubus plicatifolius (plaitleaf
dewberry); Rubus positivus (New London dewberry); Rubus pugnax (pugnancious blackberry); Rubus
recurvans (recurved blackberry); Rubus recurvicaulis (arching dewberry); Rubus rosa (rose
blackberry); Rubus rossbergianus (Connecticut blackberry); Rubus saltuensis (Tolland County
blackberry); Rubus semisetosus (swamp blackberry); Rubus setosus (setose blackberry); Rubus
vermontanus (Vermont blackberry)
19) Bulbostylis capillaris (densetuft hairsedge); Eleocharis equisetoides (jointed spikesedge); Eleocharis
erythropoda (bald spikerush); Eleocharis obtusa (blunt spikerush); Eleocharis ovata (ovate spikerush);
Eleocharis parvula (dwarf spikerush); Eleocharis quadrangulata (squarestem spikerush); Eleocharis
rostellata (beaked spikerush); Eleocharis tenuis (slender spikerush); Eleocharis tuberculosa (cone-cup
spikerush); Fimbristylis autumnalis (slender fimbry); Lipocarpha micrantha (smallflower halfchaff
sedge); Schoenoplectus acutus (hardstem bulrush); Schoenoplectus americanus (chairmaker's bulrush);
Schoenoplectus fluviatilis (river bulrush); Schoenoplectus maritimus (cosmopolitan bulrush);
Schoenoplectus novae-angliae (New England bulrush); Schoenoplectus pungens (common
threesquare); Schoenoplectus purshianus (weakstalk bulrush); Schoenoplectus robustus (sturdy
bulrush); Schoenoplectus smithii (Smith's bulrush); Schoenoplectus subterminalis (swaying bulrush);
Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani (softstem bulrush); Schoenoplectus torreyi (Torrey's bulrush);
Scirpus atrocinctus (blackgirdle bulrush); Scirpus atrovirens (green bulrush); Scirpus cyperinus
(woolgrass); Scirpus expansus (woodland bulrush); Scirpus georgianus (Georgia bulrush); Scirpus
hattorianus (mosquito bulrush); Scirpus longii (Long's bulrush); Scirpus microcarpus (panicled
bulrush); Scirpus pedicellatus (stalked bulrush); Scirpus pendulus (rufous bulrush); Scirpus
polyphyllus (leafy bulrush); Trichophorum alpinu (alpine bulrush); Trichophorum planifolium (bashful
bulrush)
20) Elymus repens (quackgrass); Secale cereale (cereal rye)
21) 10 SPECIES: Ilex mucronata (catberry); Vaccinium fuscatum (black highbush blueberry); Vaccinium
pallidum (Blue Ridge blueberry); Vaccinium stamineum (deerberry)
22) Viburnum acerifolium (maplefeaf viburnum); Viburnum dentatum (sounther arrowwood); Viburnum
lantana (wayfaringtree); Viburnum lantanoides (hobblebush); Viburnum plicatum (Japanese snowball);
Viburnum rafinesqueanum (downy arrowwood); Viburnum recognitum (southern arrrowwood);
Viburnum setigerum (tea viburnum); Viburnum sieboldii (Siebold's arrowwood)
23) Vicia cracca (bird vetch; Vicia hirsuta (tiny vetch); Vicia pannonica (Hungarian vetch); Vicia sativa
(garden vetch); Vicia tetrasperma (lentil vetch); Vicia villosa (winter vetch)
24) Hybanthus concolor (eastern greenviolet); Viola affinis (sand violent); Viola arvensis (European field
pansy); Viola brittoniana (northern coastal violet); Viola canadensis (Canadian white violet); Viola
cucullata (marsh blue violet); Viola hirsutula (southern woodland violet); Viola labradorica (alpine
violet); Viola lanceolata (bog white violet); Viola macloskeyi (small white violet);Viola nephrophylla
(northern bog violet); Viola odorata (sweet violet); Viola pedata (birdfoot violet); Viola pubesens
(downy yellow violet); Viola renifolia (white violet); Viola rostrata (longspur violet); Viola
rotundifolia (roundleaf yellow violet); Viola sagittata (arrowleaf violet); Viola selkirkii (Selkirk's
violet); Viola septentrionalis (northern woodland violet); Viola sororia (common blue violet); Viola
striata (striped cream violet); Viola tricolor (johnny jumpup); Viola triloba (three-lobe violet)
25) Vitis palmata (catbird grape)
!""#$%&'()(
(
#*+$,-.!"+&)(/#%&)&$!0()!*#-,.&1!*&,$(,2("0!$*(*3"#4(
!
239
!
Common
Name
cooperfleaf
milkweed
Taxonomic
Identification
Acalypha sp.
Asclepias sp.
Asclepias exaltata
(poke milkweed);
Asclepias incarnata
(swamp milkweed);
Asclepias quadrifolia
(fourleaf milkweed);
Asclepias syriaca
(common milkweed);
Asclepias tuberosa
(butterfly milkweed);
Asclepias verticillata
(whorled milkweed);
Asclepias viridiflora
(green comet
mildweed)
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Acalypha virginica
(Virginia three seed
mercury)
Mashantucket
Pequot
Asclepias sp.Mohegan:
Dried root used
for pleurisy
(Tantaquidgeon
1972:70,128)
New England
Asclepias incarnataIroquois: Cold
infusion of roots
applied to heal a
baby's navel.
Decoction of plants
taken for too little
urine. Decoction of
plants taken for the
kidneys. Decoction of
plants taken for lame
backs (Herrick
1977:418). Compound
decoction of roots
taken as a wash for
stricture (Herrick
1977:417). Infusion of
roots taken and used
as a wash to give
strength. Dried stems
made into cord and
used for tooth
extraction. Decoction
of plants taken for too
much urine.
Decoction of plants
used to increase one's
strength to be able to
Northeast
Acalphya virginicaCherokee: root used for
kidney aid or "dropsy"
(Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:61)
Asclepias sp. Delaware: Infusion of
pounded roots used for
epilepsy in those born
during certain phases of
the moon (Tantaquidgeon
1972:39); Natchez:
Infusion of root taken for
"kidney trouble and
Bright's disease"
(Swanton 1928: 667).
Infusion of roots taken
for kidney troubles and
nephritis (Taylor
1940:52). Plant used for
syphilis (Swanton
1928:668, 177:52);
Asclepias quadrifoliaCherokee: Infusion of
root taken with root of
"virgin's bower" for
headache. Rubbed on
warts to remove them.
Plant taken for "dropsy."
Plant taken for a laxative.
Plant taken for "gravel."
Infusion of root taken for
venereal diseases (Hamel
Southeast
Asclepias sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Southeast
and Chiltoskey 1975:44).
Asclepias syriacaCherokee: Infusion of
root taken with root of
"virgin's bower" for
backache. Rubbed on
warts to remove them.
Plant taken for "dropsy."
Plant taken as a laxative.
plant taken for "gravel."
infusion of root taken for
venereal diseases.
Infusion given for
"milksick" (mastitis)
(Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:40). Asclepias
tuberosa- Cherokee:
Used for breast, stomach,
and intestinal pains.
Seeds boiled in "new
milk" and used for
diarrhea. Used as an
expectorant and taken for
pleurisy. Infusion used
for "bloody flux."
Infusion of root used for
heart trouble. Seeds or
root used as a gentle
laxative. Used as an
expectorant and taken for
pleurisy and lung
inflammations (Hamel
and Chiltoskey
Northeast
physically punish a
witch (Herrick
1977:418). Asclepias
syriaca- Iroquois:
Stalks cooked as
greens and used for
rheumatism (Parker
1910:93). Infusion of
dried, pulverized roots
and rhizomes taken by
women for temporary
sterility (Rousseau
1945:59). Used for
warts, bee stings, and
cuts. Infusion of
leaves taken as a
stomach medicine.
Compound decoction
of plants taken to
prevent hemorrhage
after childbirth.
Compound used for
dropsy (Herrick
1977:417). Compound
decoction of roots
taken for stricture
(Herrick 1977:416).
Poultice of cotton
applied to sick parts
(Rousseau 1945:15).
Asclepias tuberosaIroquois: Infusion of
roots used as a wash
Carex sp.
Asclepias sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
sedge
Common
Name
Carex brevior
(shortbeak
sedge);Carex
plantaginea
(plantainleaf sedge);
Carex platyphylla
(broadleaf sedge);
Carex prasina
(drooping sedge);
Carex utriculata
(Northwest Territory
sedge); Carex
vulpinoidea (fox
sedge);
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Southeast
1975:27).Delaware:
Roots used for
rheumatism. Roots
administered to women
following childbirth.
Roots used for pleurisy
(Tantaquidgeon
1972:37);
Carex sp. - Cherokee:
Leaves taken to "check
bowels" for antidiarrheal
infusion (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1972:54)
Delaware: Infusion of
pounded roots used for
epilepsy in those born
during certain phases of
the moon (Tantaquidgeon
1972:39).
Northeast
for arms, shoulders,
and body for lifting.
Poultice of smashed
roots applied to legs,
and running shoes
dampened or washed
for running strength
(Herrick 1977:416).
Carex brevior Iroquois: Compound
of infusion of plant
taken for evacuation
of the placenta
(Herrick 1977:275).
Carex oligosperma Iroquois: Compound
decoction taken as an
emetic before running
or playing lacrosse
(Herrick 1977:275).
Carex platyphylla Iroquois: Used
several ways to "wash
the snowsnake," a
snowsnake medicine
(Herrick 1977:274).
Carex prasina Iroquois: Decoction
taken as a emetic and
when "stomach is bad
from an unknown
cause." (Herrick
1977:275). Carex
SAME
Carya alba
(mockernut hickory);
hickory
Carya sp.
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
beech
Common
Name
Carpinus
caroliniana
Carex sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
vulpinoidea Iroquois: Other
compound decoction
of roots used as a
"rooster fighting
medicine" (Herrick
1977:265).
Delaware, Ontario:
Root or bark in a
compound infusion
taken for "diseases
particular to women".
Also taken as a tonic
for "general debility"
(Tantaquidgeon
1942:68) Iroquois Vine used in
decoction as a wash
for babies with
diarrhea and used as a
wash for affected
parts of "Italian itch";
Decoction used to
facilitate childbirth
and for parturition;
compound used for
"big injuries";
Compound decoction
of bark chips taken for
consumption (Herrick
1977:299).
Carya albaDelaware, Ontario:
Northeast
Carya alba- Cherokee:
Used for female
Cherokee: Compound
infusion taken for flux,
"navel yellowness",
cloudy urine and inner
bark taken for difficult
urination with discharge
(Hamel and Chiltoskey
1972:39).
Southeast
Carya sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Carya cordiformis
(bitternut hickory);
Carya ovata (shagbark
hickory)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Southeast
obstructions. Used for
poliomyelitis pain. Used
for colds. Bark used as a
dressing for cuts. Used as
a diaphoretic. Used as an
emetic. Used to
invigorate the stomach.
Used for bile. Used for
poliomyelitis pain. Bark
chewed for sore mouth
(as C. tomentosa, Hamel
and Chiltoskey 1975:38).
Chewed inner bark used
for sore mouth (as C.
tomentosa, Taylor
1940:14). Infusion of
bark taken by ballplayers
to make limbs supple (as
C. tomentosa, Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:38).
Northeast
Compound infusion of
bark taken for "female
disorder." Compound
infusion of bark taken
as a tonic for general
disability
(Tantaquidgeon
1942:82). Carya
cordiformisIroquois: Nutmeat oil
formerly used for the
hair, either alone or
mixed with bear
grease (Waugh
1916:123). Carya
ovata- Delaware,
Ontario: Compound
infusion of bark taken
for "diseases peculiar
to women."
Compound infusion of
bark taken for
"general debility"
(Tantaquidgeon
1942:68); Iroquois:
Compound decoction
with white from inside
bark taken by adults
for worms. Decoction
of bark taken for
arthritis (Herrick
1977:297). Nutmeat
oil formerly used for
Chenopodium
- Amaranthus
sp.
Carya sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
goosefoot
Common
Name
Amaranthus
hybridus (slim
amaranth);
Amaranthus
retroflexus (redroot
amaranth);
Amaranthus spinosus
(spiny amaranth);
Chenopodium album
(lambsquarter);
Chenopodium
ambrosiodes (Mexican
tea); Chenopodium
botrys (Jerusalem oak
goosefoot);
Chenopodium
capitatum (blite
goosefoot);
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
Chenopodium
album Mohegan:
Infusion of
leaves taken for
hoarseness
(Tantaquidgeon
1972:70,128).
New England
the hair, either alone
or mixed with bear
grease (Waugh
1916:123).
Amaranthus
retroflexus- Iroquois:
Decoction and doll
used to "Make a
person break out like
canser" (Herrick
1977:316).
Chenopodium albumIroquois: Cold
infusion of whole
plant taken for
diarrhea (Herrick
1977:315). Compound
used as salve on burns
(Herrick 1977:316).
Compound decoction
used as wash and
applied as poultice
when bothered by
milk flow (Herrick
1977:315).
Northeast
Amaranthus hybridus Cherokee: Used as an
ingredient in a green corn
medicine. Astringent
leaves used for profuse
menstruation (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:23).
Amaranthus retroflexusCherokee: Used as an
ingredient in a green corn
medicine. Leaves used to
"relieve profuse
menstration" (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:23).
Amaranthus spinosus Cherokee: Used as an
ingredient in a green corn
medicine. Astringent
leaves used for profuse
menstration (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:23).
Chenopodium albumCherokee: Cooked salad
greens eaten to "keep
healthy" (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:42).
Chenopodium botrysCherokee: Cold infusion
taken orally and used to
Southeast
Chenopodium
- Amaranthus
sp. (continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Northeast
moisten head for
headache. Decoction of
any part of plant in sweet
milk given for worms.
Cold infusion taken
orally to moisten head for
colds. Warm infusion of
root taken in winter for
"feaver diseased" (Hamel
and Chiltoskey 1975:41).
Chenopodium
ambrosiodes- Creek:
Unspecified plant part
used "in cases of feaver"
(Swanton 1928:657).
Plant used as a feaver
medicine (Taylor
1940:22). plant used for a
"great any ailments."
Plant used as a "sort of
spring tonic" (Swanton
1928:657; Taylor
1940:22); Natchez: Plant
given to children for
worms. Plant used as a
feaver medicine (Taylor
1940:22);
Rappahannock: Stewed
seeds taken for worms.
Stewed seeds taken as a
tonic (Speck et al.
1942:30); Seminole:
Decoction of whole plant
Southeast
Comptonia
peregrina
Chenopodium
- Amaranthus
sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
sweet fern
Common
Name
SAME
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Take along
with Weecup,
Sage or Hysop
with burned
powdered
bone before or
after meal
(Occum 1754
in Brooks
2006:45) Put
on hair to
darken it and
good for
poison ivy
(Butler 1939 in
Simmons
1990:157).
Mashantucket
Pequot
Mohegan:
Infusion of
leaves used as a
poison ivy
lotion (as M.
asplenifolia
Tantaquidgeon
1972:74, 30);
Penobscot:
Infusion of
leaves rubbed
on skin fro
poison ivy (as
M. asplenifolia
Speck
1917:309).
New England
Algonquin, Quebec:
Infusion of leaves
taken or crushed leaf
perfume inhaled for
headaches (Black
1980:149);
Shinnecock: Infusion
of leaves rubbed on
the skin for itch (Carr
and Westey 1945:
119). Shinnecock:
Infusion of leaves
rubbed on the skin for
itch (Carr and Westey
1945: 119).
Northeast
taken for worm sickness:
pale skin and laziness
(Sturtevant 1955:241).
Infusion of root bark
taken for stomach
troubles (Sturtevant
1955:276). Plant taken
and rubbed on the body
for lion disease: chest
cramps, nervousness, and
walking continually
(Sturtevant 1955:233).
Decoction of whole plant
taken for worm sickness:
pale skin and laziness
(Sturtevant 1955:241).
Delaware: Infusion of
plant, mallow root, elder
flowers, and dwarf elder
used as a blood purifier.
Infusion of plant used for
blisters. Infusion of plant,
mallow root, elder
flowers, and dwarf elder
used to remove mucus
from the lungs and forr
bladder inflammation.
Infusion of plant, mallow
root, elder flowers, and
dwarf elder used for
scrofula (as Myrica
asplenifolia
Tantaquidgeon 1972:35)
Southeast
Common
Name
dogwood
Taxonomic
Identification
Cornus sp.
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Cornus alternifolia
(alternate leaf
dogwood); Cornus
amomum (silky
dogwood); Cornus
canadensis
(bunchberry
dogwood); Cornus
florida (flowering
dogwood); Cornus
racemosa (gray
dogwood); Cornus
rugosa (roundleaf
dogwood); Cornus
sericea (redosier
dogwood)
Mashantucket
Pequot
Cornus
canadensis Abenaki: Used
for side pains
(144:170).
New England
Cornus alternifoliaIroquois: Compound
decoction of bark
taken for colds and
coughing (Herrick
1977:407). Poultice of
powdered bark
applied to heal the
navel and blisters
(Herrick 1977:407).
Infusion of bark
applied as poultice to
swollen areas.
Compound decoction
of bark taken as an
emetic, especially for
coughs (Herrick
1977:407). Plant used
in wash for eyes.
Compound decoction
of bark taken by
pregnant women who
have had gonorrhea.
Poultice of powdered
bark applied to heal
navel. Decoction of
bark taken to vomit
for coughs or
bronchial coughs
(Herrick 1977:406).
Compound decoction
of bark taken for
tuberculosis (Herrick
Northeast
Cornus alternifoliaCherokee: Bark chewed
for headache. Compound
infusion of bark and root
used for childhood
diseases like worms and
measles. Compound
infusion taken for
diarrhea. Infusion of
beaten bark used for
bathing after "poisons of
any kind." Infusion
taken" for blood." Root
bark astringent and
compound infusion taken
for diarrhea. Root bark
used for unspecified
poultices and poultice of
bark ooze applied to
ulcers. Infusion of flower
taken to "sweat off flu."
Root bark used as an
antiseptic and astringent.
Root bark used as a
febrifuge. Infusion of
flower taken for colic.
Infusion of bark used by
women for backache.
Root bark used as a
stimulant. Infusion of
inner bark taken for "lost
voice." root bark used as
a tonic (Hamel and
Southeast
Cornus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Southeast
Chiltoskey 1975:32).
Potawatomi: Infusion of
bark used as a wash for
granulation of the eyelids
(Smith 1933:54). Cornus
canadensis - Delaware:
Bark used for body pains
(Tantaquidgeon
1972:31); Roots used as a
tonic (Tantaquidgeon
1972:31);
Rappahannock: Infusion
of root bark taken for
diarrhea. Decoction of
dried bark from roots
used to purify the blood.
Decoction of dried bark
from roots used as a tonic
(Speck et al. 1942:33).
Cornus floridaCherokee: Bark chewed
for headache. Compound
infusion of bark and root
used for childhood
diseases like worms and
measles (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:32).
Infusion of bark used as a
bath and given to
children with worms
(Taylor 1940:46).
Compound infusion
taken "for blood." Root
Northeast
1977:407). Compound
infusion used as wash
on parts affected by
venereal disease
(Herrick 1977:406).
Cornus amomumIroquois: Compound
decoction of roots
taken for urinating
pain. Infusion of bark
used as wash or
powdered bark
applied to gonorrhea
sores (Herrick
1977:402). Complex
compound decoction
used as wash for
affected parts of
"italian itch."
Decoction of bark
taken as an emetic
(Herrick 1977:403).
Compound decoction
of roots taken as a
laxative. Infusion of
bark used as wash to
make babies sleep
(Herrick 1977:402).
Poultice of smashed
bark applied for
goiter. Infusion of
bark taken for chest
congestion (Herrick
Cornus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Southeast
bark astringent and
compound infusion taken
for diarrhea. Root bark
used for unspecified
poultices and poultice of
bark ooze applied to
ulcers (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:32).
Root bark used for
wounds (Whitthoft
1947:74). Infusion of
flower taken "to sweat
off flu." Root bark used
as an antiseptic and
astringent. Root bark
used as a febrifuge.
Infusion of flower taken
for colic. Infusion of bark
used by women for
backache (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:32).
Infusion of bark used as a
bath and given to
children with worms
(Taylor 1940:46). Root
bark used in poultices
(Whitthoft 1947:74).
Root bark used as a
stimulant. Infusion of
inner bark taken for "lost
voice" (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:32).
Decoction of inner bark
Northeast
1977:403). Compound
decoction of roots
taken for urinating
pain (Herrick
1977:402). Cornus
canadensis Algonquin, Quebec:
Infusion of leaves
used as a cathartic tea
(Black 1980:122);
Algonquin, Tete-deBoule: Decoction of
plant and other plants
used for colds. Plant
mixed with other
plants and used by
women for
stomachaches
(Raymound
1945:128); Iroquois:
Decoction of whole
plant taken for
coughs, fevers, and
tuberculosis (Herrick
1977:402). Cornus
florida- Iroquois:
Compound decoction
of stems and roots
taken for blood chills
(Herrick 1977:402).
Cornus racemosaIroquois: Decoction
of bark applied as a
Cornus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Southeast
taken to loosen phlegm
for hoarseness (Taylor
1940:46). Root bark used
as a tonic (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:32).
Northeast
poultice to cuts (as C.
paniculata, Herrick
1977:405). Compound
decoction taken, used
as a wash, and
poultice applied to
swollen abdomen.
Compound poultice of
bark applied to
swollen legs after the
birth of a baby.
Compound powder
poultice "put in bag,
place penis in bag and
tie around waist"
(Herrick 1977:406).
Decoction of bark
applied as a poultice
to cuts on horses
(Herrick 1977:405).
Cornus rugosa Iroquois: Bark taken
as a general cathartic
or emetic. Decoction
of bark taken as an
emetic. Compound
decoction of roots
taken for kidneys.
Compound infusion of
smashed roots taken
for tuberculosis
(Herrick 1977:405).
Common
Name
hazelnut
Taxonomic
Identification
Corylus sp.
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Corylus americana
(American hazelnut);
Corylus cornuta
(beaked hazelnut);
Corylus heterophylla
(Siberian hazelnut)
Mashantucket
Pequot
Corylus
cornutaAbenaki: Used
for sore eyes
(144:155).
Decoction of
bark and bark
from two other
plants used for
eye pain
(144:165).
New England
Corylus americana Iroquois: Compound
decoction taken for
"summer disease -vomiting, diarrhea and
cramps." Raw nuts
taken for hay fever,
childbirth
hemorrhage, and
prenatal strength
(Herrick 1977:297).
Compound infusion
taken as a blood
purifier and prenatal
strength (Herrick
1977:298). Nutmeat
oil formerly used for
the hair, either alone
or mixed with bear
grease (Waugh
1916:123). Compound
decoction of roots
given when "baby's
teeth are coming in"
(Herrick 1977:297).
Compound decoction
of buds taken for hay
fever (Herrick
1977:298). Corylus
cornuta- Algonquin,
Quebec: Infusion of
branches and leaves
used for intestinal
Northeast
Corylus americana Cherokee: Infusion of
scraped bark taken for
hives. Compound of
inner bark taken "to
vomit bile" (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:37).
Decoction of inner bark
taken to induce vomiting
when unable to retain
food (Taylor 1940:16).
Southeast
Crataegus sp.
Corylus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
hawthorne
Common
Name
Crataegus
chrysocarpa (fireberry
hawthorn);
Crataegus punctata
(dotted hawthorn);
Crataegus submollis
(Quebec hawthorn);
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
disorders. Infusion of
branches and leaves
used for heart troubles
(Black 1980:151);
Algonquin, Tete-deBoule: In fusion of
branch tips taken for
heart problems
(Raymound
1945:128);
Thompson: Buds
chewed to a become
good singer (Turner et
al. 1990:190).
Crataegus punctata Iroquois: Infusion of
little branches without
leaves and other
plants taken for large
stomachs (Rousseau
1945:46). Compound
of decoction of shoots
and bark taken to stop
menstrual flow and
taken to prevent
"breaking out like
cancer" caused by
witchcraft (Herrick
1977:351). Crataegus
submollis - Iroquois:
Decoction and doll
used to "make a
person break out like
Northeast
Southeast
Cucurbita pepo (field
pumpkin)
Cyperus esculentus
(yellow nutsedge)
Galium aparine
(stickywilly); Galium
asprellum (rough
bedstraw); Galium
boreale (northern
bedstraw); Galium
circaezans (licorice
bedstraw);Galium
tinctorium (stiff marsh
bedstraw); Galium
trifidum (threepetal
bedstraw); Galium
triflorum (fragrant
bedstraw);
gourd
flatsedge
bedstraw
Crataegus sp.
(continued)
Cucurbita sp.
Cyperus sp.
Galium sp.
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Common
Name
Taxonomic
Identification
Mashantucket
Pequot
Galium aparine
- Penobscot:
Compound
infusion of plant
taken for
"spitting up
blood."
Compound
infusion of plant
taken for kidney
trouble.
Compound
infusion of plant
taken as a tonic.
Compound
infusion of plant
New England
Galium sp.- Iroquois:
Cold infusion of
smashed roots used as
a "basket or beddler's
medicine." Compound
of plants used for
blindness. Compound
decoction of roots and
seeds taken for urine
stoppage. Infusion of
plants used as wash
for parts affected by
venereal disease
(Herrick 1977:439).
Galium aparineIroquois: Compound
cancer" (Herrick
1977:351).
Cucurbita pepo Iroquois: Infusion of
seeds given to
children with reduced
urination (Rousseau
1945:61).
Northeast
Galium aparineCherokee: Infusion
taken to "move bowles"
(Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:36). Galium
circaezans - Cherokee:
Taken for coughs. Used
as an expectorant. Taken
for asthma. Taken for
hoarseness (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:43).
Galium triflorumCherokee: Infusion
taken for gallstones
(Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:25).
Cucurbita pepo Cherokee: Seeds eaten
for worms. Used as an
ingredient in green corn
medicine. Taken as a
diuretic. Taken for
"dropsy." Browned seeds
eaten for bed-wetting.
Taken for "gravel,"
"scalding of the urine,"
and spasms of the urinary
passage (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:51).
Southeast
Gaylussacia baccata
(black huckleberry)
Ilex opaca (American
holly); Ilex verticillata
(common winterberry)
holly
Ilex sp.
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
huckleberry
Common
Name
Gaylussacia
sp.
Galium sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Mashantucket
Pequot
infusion of plants used
as a wash for poison
ivy and itch (Herrick
1977:439). Galium
triflorum - Iroquois:
Compound used as a
love medicine.
Poultice of whole
plant applied to babies
for backaches.
Compound decoction
taken and poultice
applied to swollen
testicles or ruptures
(Herrick 1977:440).
Galyussacia baccata Iroquois: Berries
considered "good" for
the blood (Parker
1910:96). Berries used
ceremonially by those
desiring health and
prosperity for the
coming season
(Waugh 1916:142).
Berries considered
"good" for the liver
(Parker 1910:96).
Ilex verticillata Iroquois: Decoction
of bark taken as a
physic and emetic.
Plant taken for
taken for
gonorrhea
(Speck
1917:311).
Gaylussacia
baccata Mohegan:
Used as food
(Tantaquidgeon
1972:131)
Northeast
New England
Illex sp. - Alabama:
Inner bark used as an
eyewash (Swanton
1928:665). Illex opaca Alabama: Decoction of
Galyussacia sp. Chickasaw: Roots used
for delirium (Taylor
1940:48). Galyussacia
baccata - Cherokee:
Infusion of leaves and
infusion of bark taken for
dysentery and Bright's
disease (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:39).
Southeast
Juglans
cinerea
Illex sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
butternut
Common
Name
SAME
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
bark used as a wash for
sore eyes (Taylor
1940:37); Catawba:
Infusion of leaves taken
for sores and measles
(Speck 1937:188).
Decoction of leaves taken
for measles (Taylor
1940:37). Cherokee:
Berries chewed for
"colics" and "dyspepsia"
(Leaves used for cramped
muscles (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:38).
Cherokee: Infusion of
bark taken to check
bowels. Pills from inner
bark used as a cathartic
and compound ). Pills
prepared from inner bark
and used as a cathartic
(Whitthoft 1947:75).
biliousness, to retain
vigor and emetic for
craziness (Herrick
1977:373). Compound
decoction of roots
taken for hay fever
(Herrick 1977:374).
Iroquois: Compound
decoction of plants
taken for urinating
pain. Compound
decoction with bark
taken to kill worms in
adults. Compound
decoction taken as a
blood purifier for
venereal disease
(Herrick 1977:295).
Decoction of bark
taken as a physic and
cathartic (Herrick
1977:296). Compound
decoction with bark
taken to induce
pregnancy (Herrick
1977:294). Infusion or
Southeast
Northeast
Juglans nigra
Juglans
cinerea
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
black walnut
Common
Name
SAME
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Southeast
Cherokee: Infusion used
as a wash for sores.
Infusion of inner bark
taken for smallpox and
infusion of leaves used
Northeast
chewed bark applied
to bleeding wounds.
Compound decoction
of bark or shoots
taken as a laxative.
Compound decoction
taken for yellow skin
and too much gall.
Compound infusion of
buds used as
mouthwash for mouth
ulcers. Compound
decoction with plant
taken for "loss of
senses during
menses." Juice used
for toothache.
Compound decoction
used as poultice for
infected and swollen
tubercular glands.
Compound decoction
of plants taken for
urinating pain.
Decoction of shoots
taken as a laxative and
for venereal disease
(Herrick 1977:295).
Iroquois: Poultice of
bark applied fro
headache. Compound
decoction with brandy
taken as a blood
Juglans sp.
Juglans nigra
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
butternut/
black walnut
Common
Name
Juglans cinerea
(butternut); Juglans
nigra (black walnut)
(See Types Above)
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Southeast
for goiter. "Bark used
cautiously in medicine
because it is poisonous."
Bark chewed for
toothache (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:61).
Delaware: Juice from
green hulls of fruits
rubbed over areas
infected by ringworm.
Sap used in applications
for inflammations. Three
bundles of bark boiled to
make a strong tea and
used for 2 days to remove
intestinal bile
(Tantaquidgeon
1972:29).
Rappahannock: Root
bark taken to prevent
dysentery (Speck et al.
1942:32). Compound
with northside bark used
as a poultice for chills
(Speck et al. 1942:31).
Infusion of root bark
taken to "roughen the
intestines" (Speck et al.
1942:32).
Northeast
purifier (Herrick
1977:296). Nutmeat
oil formerly used for
the hair, either alone
or mixed with bear
grease (Waugh
1916:123). Decoction
of bark taken a
laxative. Poultice of
bark applied for
"craziness." and
infusion used as a
medicine for rain
(Herrick 1977:296).
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Juncus bufonius (toad
rush);; Juncus effusus
(common rush);
Juncus tenuis
(poverty rush);
Latuca biennis (tall
blue lettuce); Lactuca
canadensis (Canada
lettuce); Lactuca
serriola (prickly
lettuce)
SAME SPECIES
Common
Name
rush
lettuce
bayberry
Taxonomic
Identification
Juncus sp.
Lactuca sp.
Myrica
pensylvanica
Mashantucket
Pequot
Myrica sp. Mohegan: Bark
used as a blood
purifier and for
kidney trouble.
(Tantaquidgeon
New England
Juncus bufonius Iroquois: Compound
decoctions used as a
wash for entire body;
Compound decoction
taken as an emetic;
Compound decoction
taken to "give strength
to runners and other
athletes" (Herrick
1977:279).
Lactuca canadensisIroquois: Compound
infusion of roots and
bark taken for back
pain. Compound
infusion of roots and
bark taken for dark
circles and buffy eyes.
Poultice of smashed
roots applied to severe
bleeding from a cut.
Compound infusion of
roots and bark taken
for kidney trouble
(Herrick 1977:478).
Northeast
Lactuca canadensisCherokee: Used for pain
and infusion given "for
calming nerves." Used as
an ingredient in a green
corn medicine. Infusion
used as a stimulant.
Infusion given
for"milksick" (Hamel
and Chiltoskey 1975:42).
Lactuca serriola Cherokee: Poultice of
soaked seeds used for
boils (as L. vulgaris
Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:20).
Myrica sp. - Creek:
Compound decoction of
leaves taken after a burial
as an emetic before
eating (Swanton
1928:664). Delaware:
Juncus effusus Cherokee: Decoction
used "to dislodge spoiled
saliva." Infusion given to
babies to prevent
lameness (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:53).
Southeast
Nyssa
sylvatica
Myrica
pensylvanica
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
tupelo
Common
Name
SAME SPECIES
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
1972:130-131).
New England
Northeast
Bark used as a purifier
and kidney purifier
(Tantaquidgeon
1972:35).
Cherokee: Compound
given for worms (Hamel
and Chiltoskey 1975:26).
Infusion of bark used as a
bath and given to
children with worms
(Taylor 1940:47).
Compound decoction
given for diarrhea and
inner bark used as part of
"drink to vomit bile"
(Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:26). Decoction of
inner bark taken to cause
vomiting when unable to
retain food (Taylor
1940::47). Strong ooze
from root dripped into
eyes (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:26).
Infusion given for
childbirth and infusion of
bark given for
"flooding." and
compound infusion of
bark used for "bad
disease" (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:26).
Used as a ingredient in
Southeast
Phytolacca
americana
Nyssa
sylvatica
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
pokeweed
Common
Name
SAME SPECIES
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
Mohegan:
Poultice of
mashed berries
applied to sore
breasts
(Tantaquidgeon
1972:74, 130)
New England
Iroquois: Stalks
cooked as greens and
used for rheumatism
(Parker 1910:93).
Plant used as a
cathartic (Herrick
1977:316). Decoction
of stems taken for
chest colds (Herrick
1977:317). Compound
with undried roots
applied as a salve on
bunions. Poultice of
crushed roots applied
to bruises. Raw
berries rubbed on skin
lumps. Plant used as a
emetic and
expectorant (Herrick
1977:316). Compound
infusion of whole
roots used for liver
sickness (Herrick
1977:317). "Tie in a
popular tree, then
place amoung roots,"
Northeast
drink for "milky urine"
(Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:26). Creek:
Decoction of bark used a
bath and taken for
pulmonary tuberculois
(Taylor 1940:47).
Cherokee: Infusion of
berry taken for arthritis.
Roots and berries or
berry wine used for
rheumatism. Cooked
greens eaten or infusion
of root taken to build the
blood. Poultice used for
ulcers and swellings and
infusion of root used for
eczema. Salve used on
"uclerours sores" and
dried, crushed roots
prinked on old sores.
Cold infusion of powered
root taken for kidneys
(Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:50). Plant used in a
side dish with laxative
properties (Whitthoft
1977:251). Compound
used for "white swelling"
(Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:50). Berries used
for medicine (Perry
1975:51); Delaware:
Southeast
Polygonum
hydropiper
Phytolacca
americana
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
water pepper
Common
Name
SAME SPECIES
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Roasted, crushed roots
used with sarsaparilla and
mountain grape barks for
rheumatism, as a blood
purifier and stimulant.
Roots roasted and the
salve used for chronic
sores and glandular
swellings (Tantaquidgeon
1972:32).
Rappahannock:
Infusion of berries taken
for dysentery. Fermented
infusion of leaves taken
for rheumatism.
Compound infusion with
roots applied to ivy
poison and poultice of
mashed root applied to
wart until it bleeds.
Steam from decoction of
roots used for piles
(Speck et al. 1942:29).
Seminole: Berries eaten
as an analgesic
(Sturtevant 1955:167).
Berries eaten pains and
rheumatism (Sturtevant
1955:285).
Cherokee: Taken for
painful urination and
infusion mixed with meal
used for pain. Infusion of
as a love medicine.
Decoction of roots
applied as a poultice
to sprains, bruises,
and swollen joints.
Plant used for
bewitchment (Herrick
1977:316).
Iroquois: Poultice of
wetted plant applied
to the forehead for
headaches (Rousseau
Southeast
Northeast
Polygonum sp.
Polygonum
hydropiper
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
knotweed
Common
Name
Fagopyrum
esculentum
(buckwheat);
Polygonum
amphibium (water
knotweed);
Polygonum
arenastrum (oval-leaf
knotweed);;
Polygonum aviculare
(prostrate knotweed);
Polygonum careyi
(Carey's smartweed); ;
Polygonum
hydropiper
(marshpepper
knotweed);
Polygonum
lapathifolium (curly
knotweed);
Polygonum
pensylvanicum
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
root given to children for
diarrhea and leaves
rubbed on thumb to
prevent thumb sucking.
Used for "scaldhead" and
to poison fish. Infusion
mixed with meal for pain.
Taken for "gravel",
painful urination and
bloody urine (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:55).
Polygonum aviculareCherokee: Tannin for
painful urination.
Infusion mixed with meal
used as poultice for pain.
Infusion of root given to
children with diarrhea.
Used for "scaldhead."
Leaves rubbed on the
children's thumb to
prevent thumb sucking.
Used to poison fish and
infusion mixed with meal
and used as poultice for
pain. Used as poultice for
"swelled and inflamed
parts." Taken for
"gravel," painful
urination, and bloody
urine. Polygonum
hydropiper - Cherokee:
Taken for painful
1945:140). Decoction
of plant taken for
fever, chills and
"when cold".
Decoction of small
piece of plant taken
for indigestion. Whole
plant used for children
with swollen glands
(Herrick 1977:314).
Fagopyrum
esculentumIroquois: Decoction
of plant given when
"baby is sick because
of mother's adultery."
Decoction taken by
mother "who is
running around,
making baby sick
(Herrick 1977:313).
Polygonum sp. Algonquin, Quebec:
Leaves used for
bleeding (Black
1980:161).
Polygonum
arenastrumIroquois: Decoction
of whole plant used
for miscarriage
injuries. Powdered,
Southeast
Northeast
Polygonum sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
(Pennsylvania
smartweed);
Polygonum persicaria
(spotted ladysthumb);
Polygonum
punctatum (dotted
smartweed);
Polygonum
ramosissimum (bushy
knotweed);
Polygonum
virginianum
(jumpseed)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Southeast
urination. Infusion mixed
with meal used as a
poultice for pain.
Infusion of root given to
children for diarrhea.
Used for "scaldhead."
Leaves rubbed on
children's thumbs to
prevent thumb sucking.
Used to poison fish and
infusion mixed with meal
used as a poultice for
pain. Used as a poultice
for "swelled and
inflamed parts." Taken
for "gravel," painful
urination, and bloody
urine (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:55).
Polygonum persicariaCherokee: Decoction
mixed with meal and
used as a poultice for
pain. Crushed leaves
rubbed on poison ivy.
Infusion taken for
“gravel" (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:26).
Polygonum virginianum Cherokee: Hot infusion
of leaves with bark of
honey locust given for
whooping cough (as
Northeast
dry root placed in
other person's tea as a
love medicine.
Decoction of whole
plant used for lame
back. Decoction of
plant mixed with feed
and given to heifers to
restore their milk
(Herrick 1977:314).
Polygonum
aviculare- Iroquois:
Infusion of plant and
another plant given to
children for diarrhea
(Rousseau 1945:40).
Compound poultice of
raw plants applied to
cuts and wounds.
Compound decoction
taken and poultice
used for baby's broken
coccyx (Herrick
1977:313). Infusion of
plant and another
plant given to children
for diarrhea
(Rousseau 1945:40).
Polygonum
hydropiper Iroquois: Poultice of
wetted plant applied
to the forehead for
Polygonum sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Southeast
Tovara virginiana Hamel
and Chiltoskey 1975:42)
Northeast
headaches (Rousseau
1945:40). Decoction
of plant taken for
feaver, chills, and
"when cold."
Decoction of small
piece of plant taken
for indigestion. Whole
plant used for children
with swollen
stomachs (Herrick
1977:314).
Polygonum
pensylvanicumIroquois: Decoction
of plant given to
horses for colic and
"when urine is bound
up" (Herrick
1977:314).
Polygonum
persicaria- Iroquois:
Decoction of plant
used as a foot and leg
soak in rheumatism.
Plant used for heart
trouble. Plant rubbed
over horses to keep
flies away (Herrick
1977:315).
Polygonum
punctatum- Iroquois:
Compound decoction
Portulaca oleracea
(little hogweed)
Potamogeton natans
(floating pondweed);
SAME SPECIES
pondweed
peach
Potamogeton
sp.
Prunus
persica
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
purslane
Common
Name
Portulaca sp.
Polygonum sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Prunus
serotina cold remedy
(Simmons
1990:157);
Cherry along
with pitch pine
buds good for
young women
with menstrual
problems
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Potamogeton sp. Iroquois: Compound
of poultice bound to
"soreness all over in
men from being
witched" (Herrick
1977:272).
taken for "loss of
senses during menses"
(Herrick 1977:315).
Portulaca oleracea Iroquois: Good
Medicine to cure you
if someone has given
you some bad
medicine. Poultice of
mashed plant used on
burns and poultice of
entire plant used on
bruises (Herrick
1977:318).
Northeast
Cherokee: Decoction or
teaspoon of parched seed
kernels taken for worms
and infusion of scraped
bark taken for vomiting.
Infusion of any part taken
as a purgative. Used for
skin disease and leaves
wrung in cold water used
to bathe swelling. Strong
infusion taken for fever.
Portulaca oleracea Cherokee: Compound
decoction taken for
worms and juice used for
earache (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:51).
Rappahannock:
Compound decoction of
bruised leaves applied as
salve for "footage"
trouble (Speck et al.
1942:28).
Southeast
Prunus sp.
Prunus
persica
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
plum
Common
Name
Prunus americana
(American plum); ;
Prunus cerasus (sour
cherry); Prunus nigra
(Canadian plum);
Prunus pensylvanaica
(pin cherry); Prunus
persica (peach);
Prunus serotina (black
cherry); Prunus
viginiana
(chokecherry)
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
(Occum 1754
in Brooks
2006:47)
Mashantucket
Pequot
Prunus
americanaMohegan:
Infusion of
twigs taken for
asthma
(Tantaquidgeon
1928:270).
Infusion of
twigs taken for
asthma
(Tantaquidgeon
1972:74, 130);
Prunus
serotinaPenobscot:
Infusion of bark
taken for
New England
Prunus
pensylvanaica Algonquin, Quebec:
Infusion of bark taken
for coughs. Infusion
of bark taken for
infections. Infusion of
bark taken for
bronchitis (Black
1980:184);
Algonquin, Tete-deBoule: Poultice of
boiled, shredded
innerbark applied to
bleeding umbilical
cord (Raymound
1945:130);Prunus
persica- Iroquois:
Northeast
Infusion of leaves taken
for sick stomach (Hamel
and Chiltoskey 1975:47,
48); Delaware: Infusion
of leaves used to expel
pinworms. Infusion of
leaves used by children
for vomiting
(Tantaquidgeon
1972:31).
Rappahannock:
Infusion of fresh or dried
leaves taken for kidney
trouble (Speck et al.
1942:33).
Prunus americanaCherokee: Bark used to
make cough syrup.
Infusion of bark taken for
the kidneys. Infusion of
bark taken for the bladder
(Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:50).
Rappahannock: "An
ingredient of a medicine
made after diagnosis"
(Speck et al.
1942:31).Prunus nigraAlgonquin, Quebec:
Infusion of roots used as
a medicinal tea (Black
1980: 184); Prunus
cerasus - Cherokee:
Southeast
Prunus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
Northeast
Compound of roots
applied as a salve to
burns (Herrick
1977:359). Bark and
another bark used to
make cough syrup
(Rousseau 1945:91).
Prunus serotinaDelaware, Ontario:
Compound infusion of
bark taken for
"diseases particular to
women." Compound
infusion of bark taken
as a tonic for general
debility
(Tantaquidgeon
1942:68, 82);
Mohegan: Ripe fruit
fermented 1 year and
used for dysentery
(Tantaquidgeon
1928:264). Liquid
from fermented fruit
taken for dysentery
(Tantaquidgeon
1972:74, 130).
Compound infusion of
leaves and bones
taken with molasses
for colds. Infusion of
buds, leaves or bark
taken with sugar for
New England
coughs. Infusion
of berries taken
as a "fine bitter
tonic" (Speck
1917:310);
Compound used as a
blood tonic. Infusion of
bark taken for colds.
Infusion of bark used to
wash sores and ulcers.
Infusion or decoction of
bark used for fevers,
including the " Great
chill" Boiled fruit used
for "blood discharged
from bowels." Used in
steam bath for
indigestion, biliousness,
and jaundice. Warm
infusion given when
labor pains begin.
Compound of barks
added to corn whisky and
used to break out
measles. Infusion of bark
used for "thrash."
Decoction of inner bark
used for laryngitis
(Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:28,29). Prunus
pensylvanaica Cherokee: Compound
used as a blood tonic.
Infusion of bark taken for
colds. Infusion of bark
taken for coughs.
Astringent root bark used
in a wash for old sores
Southeast
Prunus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Southeast
and ulcers. Infusion or
decoction of bark used
for fevers, including the
"great chill." Boiled fruit
used for "blood
discharged from bowels."
Used in steam bath for
indigestion, biliousness,
and jaundice. Warm
infusion given when
labor pains begin.
Compound of barks
added to corn whisky and
used to break out
measles. Infusion of bark
used to "thrash."
Decoction of inner bark
used for laryngitis
(Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:28,29). Prunus
persica- Cherokee:
Decoction or teaspoon of
parched seed kernels
taken for worms.
Infusion of scraped bar
eaten for vomiting.
Infusion of any part taken
as a purgative. Used for
skin diseases and leaves
wring in gold water and
used to bathe selling.
Strong infusion taken for
fever. Infusion of leaves
Northeast
colds (Carr and
Westey 1945:118).
Compound infusion
taken, hot at night and
cold in the morning,
for colds
(Tantaquidgeon
1928:264). Fruit put
in bottle and allowed
to stand, taken for
stomach trouble (Carr
and Westey
1945:118). Complex
compound infusion
including wild cherry
bark taken as a spring
tonic (Tantaquidgeon
1928:266); Iroquois:
Decoction of bark
taken or poultice
applied to forehead
and neck for
headaches (Herrick
1977:362). Compound
infusion of bark and
roots taken as a blood
purifier (Herrick
1977:361). Infusion of
roots and other roots
taken by young
mothers for thick
blood (Rousseau
1945:46). Compound
Prunus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Southeast
taken for sick stomach
(Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:47, 48); Delaware:
Infusion of leaves used to
expel pinworms. Infusion
of leaves used by
children for vomiting
(Tantaquidgeon
1972:31). Prunus
serotina- Cherokee:
Compound used as a
blood tonic. Infusion of
bark taken for coughs.
Astringent root bark used
to wash old sores and
ulcers. Infusion or
decoction of bark used
for fevers, including the
"great chill" (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:28,29).
Decoction of bark used
as a wash for chills and
fevers (Taylor 1940:28).
Infusion of bark taken for
fevers (Whitthoft
1947:74). Boiled fruit
used for "blood
discharged from bowels."
Used in steam bath for
indigestion, biliousness,
and jaundice. Warm
infusion given when
labor pains begin (Hamel
Northeast
of roots applied as a
salve to burns
(Herrick 1977:362).
Infusion or decoction
of bark taken or
inhaled for colds or
sore throats (Herrick
1977:361). Decoction
of bark taken for
consumption or an
"old cough" (Herrick
1977:360). Compound
decoction taken for
"sores all over the
body caused by bad
blood." Compound
poultice of bark
applied to chancres
caused by syphilis or
cuts (Herrick
1977:361). Compound
decoction used as
wash for parts
affected by "Italian
itch" (Herrick
1977:362). Compound
decoction of plants
taken to vomit for
sleepiness and
weakness (Herrick
1977:361). Decoction
of bark taken for colds
and fever (Herrick
Prunus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Southeast
and Chiltoskey 1975:28,
29). Decoction of bark
used as a wash for ague
(Taylor 1940:28).
Infusion of bark used for
"trash." Decoction of
inner bark used for
laryngitis (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:28, 29).
Delaware: Bark used for
diarrhea. Fruits used to
make cough syrup.
Combined with other
roots and used as a tonic
(Tantaquidgeon
1972:32).
Rappahannock:
Infusion of buds, leaves,
or bark taken with sugar
for colds (Carr and
Westey 1945:118).
Infusion of bark or
berries with honey used
for coughs, if stale it is
poisonous. Infusion of
fresh or dried bark taken
as an appetizer. Infusion
of fresh or dried bark
taken as a tonic (Speck et
al. 1942:26); Prunus
viginiana- Cherokee:
Compound used as a
blood tonic. Infusion of
Northeast
1977:360). Compound
decoction taken when
a woman has a
miscarriage (Herrick
1977:361). Decoction
of bark taken for too
much gall. Decoction
of bark used as a
steam bath for babies
with bronchitis.
Decoction of bark
taken for soreness and
lung inflammation.
Infusion of bark taken
for colds and sore
throats (Herrick
1977:361);
Narraganset:
Infusion of buds,
leaves, or bark taken
with sugar for colds
(Carr and Westey
1945:118);
Shinnecock:
Compound infusion of
leaves and boneset
taken with molasses
for colds. Infusion of
buds, leaves, or bottle
and allowed to stand,
Then taken for
stomach trouble (Carr
and Westey
Prunus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Southeast
bark taken for colds.
Infusion of bark taken for
coughs. Astringent root
bark used in a wash for
old sores and ulcers.
Infusion or decoction of
bark used for fevers,
including the "great chill"
(Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:28,29). Decoction
of bark used as a wash
for chills and fevers
(Taylor 1940:28). Boiled
fruit used for biliousness,
and jaundice. Warm
infusion given when
labor pains begin.
Compound of barks
added to corn whisky and
used to break out measles
(Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:28,29). Decoction
of bark used as a wash
for ague (Taylor
1940:28). Infusion of
bark used for "thrash."
Decoction of inner bark
used for laryngitis
(Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:28,29). Decoction
of inner bark used for
hoarseness (Taylor
1940:28).
Northeast
1945:118). Prunus
viginianaAlgonquin, Quebec:
Infusion of bark and
sweet flag taken for
coughs (Black
1980:185). Blackfoot:
Berry juice used for
diarrhea. Infusion of
cambium and
saskatoon taken as a
purge, and by nursing
mothers to pass
medicinal qualities to
baby. Berry juice used
for sore throats
(Hellson 1974:68);
Prunus viginianaIroquois: Bark used
for diarrhea. Stalk
used for hemorrhages.
Stalk used as a blood
purifier (Herrick
1977:359). Decoction
of plant taken as a
cough syrup (Herrick
1977:360). Inner bark
used for wounds
(Herrick 1977:359).
Compound decoction
of stalks taken to
prevent hemorrhage
after childbirth.
Quercus sp.
Prunus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
oak
Common
Name
Quercus alba (white
oak); Quercus bicolor
(swamp white oak);
Quercus coccinea
(scarlet oak); Quercus
ilicifolia (bear oak);
Quercus macrocarpa
(bur oak); Quercus
muehlenbergii
(chinkapin oak);
Quercus palustris (pin
oak); Quercus phellos
(willow oak); Quercus
rubra (northern red
oak); Quercus stellata
(post oak); Quercus
velutina (black oak)
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Quercus alba
- Cook and
steep and drink
for dysentery
as a last
emergency.
Used just once
(Bultler 1939
in Simmons
1990:156)
Mashantucket
Pequot
Quercus sp.Mohegan:
Infusion of bark
used as liniment
for muscular
pains (Carr and
Westey
1945:121).
Infusion of inner
bark used as
liniment for
humans and
horses with pain
(Tantaquidgeon
1972:75).
Infusion of bark
used as a
liniment for
horses with pain
New England
Southeast
Quercus sp.- Alabama:
Decoction of bark used
as a wash for bad
smelling sores on the
head or feet. Decoction
of bark taken as emetic
for lung troubles. Boiled
bark used for sore throat
(Swanton 1928:665).
Quercus albaCherokee: Bark used for
chronic dysentery.
Astringent bark chewed
for mouth sores. Infusion
of bark applied to soar,
chapped skin. Used as a
antiseptic. Bark used as
an emetic (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:46,
Northeast
Compound decoction
of plants and bark
taken for cholera
(Herrick 1977:360).
Stalk used for prenatal
care. Compound
decoction of roots
taken for
consumption.
Decoction of
branches, leaves, and
berries given to horses
for diarrhea (Herrick
1977:359).
Quercus sp. Delaware, Ontario:
Compound infusion of
bark taken fry
"diseases particular to
women." Compound
infusion of bark taken
as a tonic
(Tantaquidgeon
1942:68,82);
Shinnecock: Infusion
of bark used as
liniment for muscular
pains. Infusion of bark
used as liniment for
muscular pains.
Infusion of bark used
as liniment for
muscular pains (Carr
Quercus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
Northeast
and Westey
1945:121).
Quercus albaDelaware, Ontario:
Compound infusion of
bark taken fry
"diseases particular to
women." Compound
infusion of bark taken
as a tonic
(Tantaquidgeon
1942:68,82); Houma:
Crushed root mixed
with whisky and used
as liniment on
rheumatic parts
(Speck 1941:56);
Quercus
muehlenbergii Delaware, Ontario:
Infusion of bark taken
for vomiting
(Tantaquidgeon
1942:68, 82).
New England
(Tantaquidgeon
1972:75,132);
Penobscot:
Acorns eaten to
induce thirst and
plenty of water
thought to be
beneficial
(Speck
1917:309).
Infusion of bark
taken for
bleeding piles
(Speck
1917:310);
203:74). Bark used after
long, intermittent fevers
and as a wash for chills
and fevers. Bark used for
indigestion and "any
debility of the system."
Bark chewed for mouth
sores. Infusion of bark
taken for asthma.
Decoction of inner bark
used for "lost voice."
Bark used as a tonic.
Unspecified liquid
preparation taken for
"milky urine" (Hamel
and Chiltoskey 1975:46);
Delaware: Infusion of
bark used for severe
coughs. Infusion of bark
used as a disinfectant.
Infusion of bark used as a
douche. Infusion of bark
used for sore throats
(Tantaquidgeon
1972:30). Quercus
palustris- Delaware:
Infusion of inner bark
taken for intestinal pains
(Tantaquidgeon
1942:25,78). Quercus
phellos- Seminole:
Decoction of wood bits
or bark applied externally
Southeast
Quercus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Northeast
as an analgesic
(Sturtevant 1955:167).
Decoction of wood or
bark used as a bath for
aches and pains
(Sturtevant 1955:286).
Decoction of bark used
for ballgame sickness:
sores, back or limb pains,
and hemorrhoids.
Decoction of wood or
bark used as a bath for
sores and cuts (Sturtevant
1955:269,286).
Decoction of wood ashes
placed on the tongue to
cleanse the body
(Sturtevant 1955:250).
Quercus rubraCherokee: Bark used for
chronic dysentery.
Astringent bark chewed
for mouth sores. Infusion
of bark applied to sore,
chapped skin. Bark used
as an antiseptic. Bark
used as an emetic. Bark
used after long,
intermittent fevers and as
a wash for chills and
fevers. Bark used for
indigestion and "any
debility of the system."
Southeast
Quercus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Northeast
Bark chewed for mouth
sores. Infusion used for
"lost voice" (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:46).
Decoction of inner bark
used for hoarseness
(Taylor 1940:17). Bark
used as a tonic.
Unspecified liquid
preparation taken for
"milky urine" (Hamel
and Chiltoskey 1975:46);
Delaware: Infusion of
bark used for severe
coughs. Infusion of bark
used for hoarseness
(Tantaquidgeon
1972:30).
Rappahannock:
Infusion of north side
bark taken as an
appetizer. Decoction of
bark and leaves taken as
a beneficial beverage
(bitters) (Speck err al.
1942:26).Quercus
stellata- Cherokee:
Bark used for chronic
dysentery (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:46).
Infusion of twig juice
taken for dysentery
(Taylor 1940:18).
Southeast
Quercus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Northeast
Astringent bark chewed
for mouth sores. Infusion
of bark applied to sore,
chapped skin. Bark used
as an antiseptic. Bark
used as an emetic. Bark
used after long,
intermittent fevers, and
as a wash for chills and
fevers. Bark used for
indigestion and "any
debility of the system."
Bark chewed for mouth
sores. Infusion of bark
taken for asthma.
Decoction of inner bark
used for “lost voice."
Bark used as a tonic.
Unspecified liquid
preparation taken for
"milky urine" (Hamel
and Chiltoskey 1975:46).
Infusion of inner bark
taken for difficult
urination with discharge.
Quercus velutinaCherokee: Bark used
for chronic dysentery.
Astringent bark chew for
mouth sores. Infusion of
bark applied to sore,
chapped skin. Used as a
antiseptic. Bark used as
Southeast
Rhus sp.
Quercus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
sumac
Common
Name
Rhus aromatic
(fragrant sumac);
Rhus copallinum
(winged sumac); Rhus
glabra (smooth
sumac);
Toxicodendron
radicans (eastern
poison ivy);
Toxicodendron
rydbergii (western
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Rhus hirta Berries used to
make a tea for
throat aid
(Bulter 1939 in
Simmons
1990:157).
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Rhus copallinumIroquois: Sprouts
used as an alternative
(Parker 1910:93).
Toxicodendron
radicans- Algonquin,
Quebec: Leaves
rubbed on the skin
affected by a poison
ivy reaction (as Rhus
radicans 18:194).
Northeast
an emetic. Bark used
after long, intermittent
fevers and as a wash for
chills and fevers. Bark
used for indigestion and
"any debility of the
system." Bark chewed for
mouth sores. Infusion of
bark taken for asthma.
Decoction of inner bark
used for "lost voice."
Bark used as a tonic.
Unspecified liquid
preparation taken for
"milky urine" (Hamel
and Chiltoskey 1975:46);
Delaware: Infusion of
inner bark used as a
gargle for colds and
hoarseness
(Tantaquidgeon
1972:30).
Rhus aromaticaDelaware: Poultice of
roots applied to sores and
skin eruptions. Infusion
of leaves used to cleanse
and purify skin eruptions.
Berries used to make
mouthwash. Infusion of
roots used for venereal
disease (Tantaquidgeon
1972:32). Rhus glabra-
Southeast
Rhus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
poision ivy);
Toxicodendron vernix
(poison sumac)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Toxicodendron
rydbergii- Iroquois:
Poultice of plant
applied to the skin as
a vesicant for water in
the blood (as Rhus
radicans var.
rydbergii Rogers
1980:33).
Northeast
Cherokee: Red berries
eaten for vomiting.
Infusion poured over
sunburn blisters (Hamel
and Chiltoskey 1975:57).
Decoction of bark used
as a wash for blisters
(Taylor 1940:36).
Infusion of bark taken "to
make human milk flow
abundantly." Red berries
chewed for bed-wetting
(Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:57).
Toxicodendron
radicans- Cherokee:
Decoction given as an
emetic (as Rhus radicans
80:41). Toxicodendron
vernix- Cherokee: Plant
considered poison and
used in some form as a
wash for foul ulcers.
Plant considered poison
and taken in some form
for fever. Plant
considered poison and
taken in some form for
ague. Plant considered
poison and taken in some
form for clap and "gleet"
or ulcerated bladder.
Plant considered poison
Southeast
Rubus sp.
Rhus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
berry
Common
Name
Rubus allegheniensis
(Allegheny
blackberry); Rubus
aptatus (drybank
dewberry); Rubus
argutus (sawtooth
blackberry); Rubus
canadensis (smooth
blackberry); Rubus
cuneifolius (sand
blackberry); Rubus
flagellaris (northern
dewberry); Rubus
frondosus (yankee
blackberry); Rubus
idaeus (American red
raspberry); Rubus
laciniatus (cutleaf
blackberry); Rubus
occidentalis (black
raspberry); Rubus
odoratus
(purpleflowering
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Rubus
hispidus Cooked and
drank for
dysentery
(Bulter 1939 in
Simmons
1990:155)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Rubus sp.Algonquin, Tete-deBoule: Infusion of
shredded branches
taken for bronchial
trouble (Raymound
1945:130); Iroquois:
Tender, new shoots
used as a blood
remedy (Parker
1910:95). Infusion of
roots and other roots
taken by young
mothers for thick
blood (Rousseau
1945:48). Roots used
as an effectual
astringent (Parker
1910:95). Rubus
allegheniensisIroquois: Compound
of plant used as snuff
for headaches
Northeast
and taken in some form
for asthma and phthisic.
Plant considered poison
and taken in some form
for ulcerated bladder.
Plant considered poison
and taken in some form
for clap and "gleet" (as
Rhus vernix Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:57).
Rubus sp.- Cherokee:
Root chewed for coughs
(Whitthoft 1947:74).
Rubus allegheniensisCherokee: Infusion of
root or leaf used for
diarrhea. Infusion given
for rheumatism (Hamel
and Chiltoskey 1975:26).
Compound, astringent,
and tonic infusion of root
used as a wash for piles
(Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:25,26). Washed
root chewed for coated
tongue. Used as a
stimulant. Used with
honey as a wash for sore
throat. Used as a tonic.
Compound decoction
taken to regulate
urination (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:26).
Southeast
Rubus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
raspberry); Rubus
pubescens (dwarf red
blackberry);
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Southeast
Infusion of bark taken for
urinary troubles (Taylor
1940:29). Used for
venereal disease (Hamel
and Chiltoskey 1975:26).
Rappahannock: Root or
berry infusion taken for
diarrhea, an overdose
would cause numbness.
Infusion of dried, brown
runners taken for
dyspepsia (Speck et al.
1942:29). Rubus
argutus -Cherokee:
Infusion of root or leaf
used for diarrhea.
Infusion given for
rheumatism (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:26).
Compound, astringent,
and tonic infusion of root
used as a wash for piles
(Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:25, 26). Compound
infusion of root used for
piles. Washed root
chewed for coated
tongue. Used as a
stimulant. Used with
honey as a wash for sore
throat. Used as a tonic.
Compound decoction of
taken to regulate
Northeast
(Herrick 1977:357).
Plant used as a
diarrhea medicine.
Compound decoction
of roots taken by all
ages as a blood
remedy (Herrick
1977:356). Compound
decoction of roots
taken for coughs and
colds. Poultice of
smashed roots applied
to a baby's sore navel
after birth. Compound
of plant used as a
snuff for catarrh
(Herrick 1977:357).
Compound decoction
of roots taken for
tuberculosis. Infusion
of roots used to make
dogs good hunters and
ensure them from
theft (Herrick
1977:356). Rubus
canadensis- Iroquois:
Berries, maple sap,
and water used to
make a medicine
(Waugh 1916:142).
Rubus idaeus Algonquin, Quebec:
Root used for
Rubus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Southeast
urination. Used for
venereal disease (Hamel
and Chiltoskey 1975:26).
Rubus canadensisSeminole: Infusion of
roots taken for chronic
conditions (Sturtevant
1955:272). Rubus
flagellaris - Cherokee:
Infusion of root or leaf
used for diarrhea.
Infusion given for
rheumatism (Hamel and
Chiltoskey
1975:26).Compound,
astringent, and tonic
infusion of root used as a
wash for piles (Hamel
and Chiltoskey
1975:25,26). Compound
infusion of root used for
piles. Washed root
chewed for coated
tongue. Used as a
stimulant. Used with
honey as a wash for sore
throat. Used as a tonic.
Compound decoction
taken to regulate
urination. Used for
venereal disease (Hamel
and Chiltoskey 1975:26).
Rubus idaeus -
Northeast
diarrhea. Root had
medicinal value
(Black 1980:180).
Algonquin, Tete-deBoule: Decoction of
roots used for bloody
urine (Raymound
1945:130); Iroquois:
Decoction of leaves
taken for "burning and
pain when passing
water." Compound
used when the "blood
is bad and sores break
out on the neck."
Decoction of roots
taken as a blood
purifier. Decoction of
leaves taken as a
physic. Compound
used for boils.
Decoction of leaves
taken as an emetic.
Compound decoction
taken by "ladies who
are run down from
period sickness."
decoction of roots
taken for low or high
blood pressure.
Decoction of leaves
taken for the kidneys.
Decoction of leaves
Rubus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Southeast
Cherokee: Strong
infusion of red raspberry
leaves used for childbirth
pains. Thorny branch
used to scratch
rheumatism. Taken as a
purgative. Root chewed
for cough. Infusion taken
as a tonic for boils.
Leaves highly astringent
and decoction taken for
bowel complaint. Used as
wash for old and foul
sores and infusion taken
as tonic for boils. Taken
as an emetic. Roots used
for toothache (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:52).
Rubus occidentalisCherokee: Strong
infusion of red raspberry
leaves used for childbirth
pains. Thorny branch
used to scratch
rheumatism. Taken as a
purgative (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:52).
Infusion of roots taken as
a cathartic by women
during menses (Taylor
1940:30). Chewed for
cough. Infusion taken as
a tonic for boils. Leaves
Northeast
taken for bile.
Compound used for
laziness. Plant used as
a tonic. Compound
decoction of roots
taken for gonorrhea
(Herrick 1977:355).
Leaves, rhizomes
from another plant,
and wheat flour given
to cows at birthing
(Rousseau 1945:48).
Rubus occidentalisIroquois: Compound
decoction of roots
taken for diarrhea
with blood. Leaves
used as a physic.
Leaves used as an
emetic. Leaves used
for removing bile.
Decoction of roots,
stalks, and leaves
given to children with
whooping cough.
Compound decoction
of roots taken for
gonorrhea. Decoction
taken by a hunter and
his wife to prevent her
from fooling around
(Herrick 1977:356).
Rubus odoratus-
Rubus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Southeast
highly astringent and
decoction taken for
bowel complaint. Used as
wash for old and foul
sours and infusion taken
as an emetic by women
during menses (Taylor
1940:30). Decoction
taken for bowel
complaint. Strong
infusion used for
childbirth pains and
decoction used for
menstrual period (Hamel
and Chiltoskey 1975:52).
Infusion of roots taken as
an emetic and cathartic
by women during menses
(Taylor 1940:30).
Infusion taken as a tonic
for boils. Roots used for
toothache (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:52).
Rubus odoratus Cherokee: Strong
infusion of red raspberry
leaves used for childbirth
pains. Thorny branch
used to scratch
rheumatism. Taken as a
purgative. Root chewed
for cough. Infusion taken
as a tonic for boils.
Northeast
Iroquois: Decoction
of scraped bark or
roots taken for
diarrhea. Decoction
taken as a blood
medicine and blood
purifier (Herrick
1977:354). Roots used
for colds (Herrick
1977:355). Compound
decoction taken and
used as a wash for
venereal disease
chancres and sores
(Herrick 1977:354).
Berries eaten in late
summer or dried in
winter and used as a
diuretic (Parker
1910:96). Decoction
or infusion of
branches used to settle
the stomach (Herrick
1977:355). Compound
infusion of plants
taken by women who
have a miscarriage’s
Compound decoction
of stalks and leaves
taken as a kidney
medicine. Decoction
given as a blood
medicine and for
sedge
wheat
blueberry
Vaccinium sp.
Common
Name
Scrupis sp.
Triticum sp.
Rubus sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Vaccinium
angustifolium
(lowbush blueberry);
Vaccinium
macrocarpon
(cranberry);
Vaccinium
myrtilloides
(velvetleaf
huckleberry);
Vaccinium oxycoccos
(small cranberry);
Vaccinium vitis-idaea
(lingonberry);
Triticum aestivum
(common wheat)
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
Vaccinium
oxycoccosMohegan: Plant
used
medicinally for
unspecified
purpose (as
Oxycocus
microcarpus
176:130);
New England
Vaccinum sp.Alabama: Plant used for
many unspecified
ailments (Swanton
1928:664).
Leaves highly astringent
and decoction taken for
bowel complaint. Used as
wash for old and foul
sores and infusion taken
as tonic for boils. Taken
as an emetic. Roots used
for toothache (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:52).
bowels of newborn
babies. Compound
decoction taken and
used as wash for
venereal disease
chancres and sores
(Herrick 1977:354).
Triticum aestivum Iroquois: Wheat
flour, rhizomes from
another plant and
raspberry leaves given
to cows at birthing
(Rousseau 1945).
Vaccinium sp.Iroquois: Compound
decoction used as
wash for parts
affected by "Italian
Itch ." Compound
decoction of plants
taken for stricture
(Herrick 1977:411).
Vaccinium
angustifolium Algonquin, Quebec:
Infusion of leaves
given to infants for
colic. Infusion of
leaves used by women
Southeast
Northeast
Viburnum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
viburnum
Common
Name
Viburnum
acerifolium
(maplefeaf viburnum);
Viburnum
lantanoides
(hobblebush);
Viburnum lentago
(nannyberry);
Viburnum nudum
(possumhaw);
Viburnum opulus
(European
cranberrybush);
Viburnum
prunifolium
(blackhaw)
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
Viburnum
opulusPenobscot:
Infusion of
berries taken for
swollen glands
and mumps
(Speck
1917:310).
New England
Southeast
Viburnum acerifoliumCherokee: Infusion taken
to prevent recurrent
spasms. Root bark taken
as a diaphoretic.
Compound infusion
taken for fever.
Compound infusion
taken for smallpox and
ague. Infusion of bark
used as a wash for sore
tongue. Bark taken as a
tonic (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:62).
Viburnum nudumCherokee: Infusion
taken to prevent recurrent
spasms. Root bark used
as a diaphoretic.
Compound infusion
taken for fever.
Compound infusion
taken for smallpox and
ague. Infusion of bark
Northeast
after miscarriage
(Black 1980:217);
Iroquois: Berries
used ceremonially by
those desiring health
and prosperity for the
coming season (as
V.pennsylvanicum
Waugh 1916:42).
Viburnum sp.Iroquois: Infusion of
plant taken as a
contraceptive (Herrick
1977:445). Viburnum
acerifolium Iroquois: Infusion of
bark taken and applied
as poultice for pain
caused by witchcraft.
Infusion of plants
taken to suppress
excessive menses.
Infusion of plants
taken by men for
stricture and painful
urination. Infusion of
bark taken and applied
as a poultice for pain
caused by witchcraft
(Herrick 1977:447).
Viburnum
lantanoidesAlgonquin, Tete-de-
Viburnum sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Southeast
used as a wash for sore
tongue. Root bark used as
a tonic (as V. cassinoides
Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:62). Viburnum
prunifolium- Cherokee:
Infusion taken to prevent
recurrent spasms. Root
bark taken as a
diaphoretic. Compound
infusion taken for fever.
Compound infusion
taken for smallpox and
ague. Infusion of bark
used as a wash for sore
tongue. Root bark taken
as a tonic. (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:62);
Delaware: Root bark
combined with leaves of
other plants and used to
strengthen female
generative organs
(Tantaquidgeon
1972:31).
Northeast
Boule: Leaves
mashed and rubbed on
the head for migraines
(Raymound
1945:134).Iroquois:
Compound decoction
of plants taken for
worms caused by
venereal disease.
Decoction of roots
taken as a blood
medicine. Decoction
of plants taken for a
score chest and loss of
breath. Compound
decoction of plants
taken for worms
caused by venereal
disease (Herrick
1977:446). Viburnum
lentago- Delaware,
Ontario: compound
infusion of leaves
taken for measles
(Tantaquidgeon
1942:66, 82);
Iroquois: Decoction
of roots taken for
spitting blood.
Compound decoction
taken to vomit during
initial stages of
consumption (Herrick
Vicia faba (fava
bean); Vicia sativa
(garden vetch) Vicia
villosa (winter vetch)
Viola canadensis
(Canadian white
violet); Viola
cucullata (marsh blue
violet); Viola
nephrophylla
(northern bog violet);
Viola odorata (sweet
violet); Viola pedata
(birdfoot violet); Viola
pubesens (downy
yellow violet); Viola
rotundifolia
(roundleaf yellow
violet
Viola sp.
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
vetch
Common
Name
Vicia sp.
Viburnum sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
1977:448). Viburnum
opulus- Iroquois:
Berries considered
"good" for the blood
and liver (Parker
1910:96).
Vicia sativaIroquois: Decoction
of plant taken by
women with
suppressed menses.
Decoction of plant
taken by women with
swollen external
organs. Cold infusion
of plant used as a love
medicine (as
V.angustifolia
87:365).
Viola sp.- Iroquois:
Poultice of smashed
plants applied to
wounds. Infusion of
roots used as a wash
for eyes. Compound
decoction of roots
taken as a panacea.
Infusion of roots taken
by mother and baby
when baby gets sick.
Poultice of smashed
roots applied to boils
on horse's head
Northeast
Viola cucullataCherokee: Poultice of
leaves used for headache.
Infusion taken for
dysentery. Infusion taken
for blood. Infusion taken
for colds. Infusion with
sugar taken for cough.
Poultice of crushed root
applied to boils. Infusion
sprayed up the nose of
the catarrh. Infusion
taken as spring tonic
(Hamel and Chiltoskey
Vicia villosaRappahannock:
Compound infusion with
dried leaves taken for
sores. Compound
infusion with dried leaves
taken for stomach pain
(Speck et al. 1942:35).
Southeast
Viola sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
violet); Viola sagittata
(arrowleaf violet);
Viola sororia
(common blue violet);
Viola striata (striped
cream violet);
Mashantucket
Pequot
New England
Southeast
1975:60). Viola pedataCherokee: Poultice of
leaves used for headache.
Infusion taken for
dysentery. Infusion taken
for blood. Infusion taken
for colds. Infusion with
sugar taken for cough.
Poultice of crushed root
applied to boils. Infusion
sprayed up nose for
catarrh. Infusion of root
used to soak corn before
planting to keep off
insects (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:60).
Viola pubesens Cherokee: Poultice of
leaves used for headache.
Infusion taken for
dysentery. Infusion taken
for blood. Infusion taken
for colds. Infusion with
sugar taken for cough.
Poultice of crushed root
applied to boils. Infusion
sprayed up nose for
catarrh. Infusion taken as
spring tonic (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:60).
Viola rotundifolia Cherokee: Poultice of
leaves used for headache.
Northeast
(Herrick 1977:386).
Viola pubesens Iroquois: Decoction
of plant taken and
used as wash for
facial eruptions
(Herrick 1977:387).
Viola sagittataIroquois: compound
used to detect
bewitchment (Herrick
1977:386). Viola
striata- Iroquois:
Plant used to make a
girl sick and crazy by
her rejected suitor
after he has been
refused by her parents
(Herrick 1977:387)
Vitis sp.
Viola sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
grape
Common
Name
Vitis aestivalis
(summer grape); Vitis
labrusca (fox grape);
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
Vitis labruscaMohegan:
Poultice of
leaves bound to
the head for
headache
(Tantaquidgeon
1928:264).
New England
Vitis labruscaIroquois: Decoction
of roots mixed with
feed to assist horse
conception (Herrick
1977:383).
Northeast
Infusion taken for
dysentery. Infusion taken
for blood. Infusion taken
for colds. Infusion with
sugar taken for cough.
Poultice of crushed root
applied to boils. Infusion
sprayed up nose for
catarrh. Infusion taken as
spring tonic (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:60).
Viola sororia-Cherokee:
Poultice of leaves used
for headache. Infusion
taken for dysentery.
Infusion taken for blood.
Infusion taken for colds.
Infusion with sugar taken
for cough. Poultice of
crushed root applied to
boils. Infusion sprayed
up nose for catarrh.
Infusion taken as spring
tonic (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975:60).
Vitis aestivalisCherokee: Compound
taken for diarrhea.
Infusion of leaf taken
"for blood." Taken as a
"fall tonic" and infusion
taken "for stomach."
Wilted leaves used to
Southeast
Vitis sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
Common
Name
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
Poultice of
leaves applied to
painful area
(Tantaquidgeon
1972:77, 132).
Poultice of
leaves bound to
the head for
fever
(Tantaquidgeon
1928:264).
New England
Northeast
draw soreness from
breast after birth of a
child. Infusion of leaf
taken for liver.
Compound decoction
used to wash child's
mouth for thrush.
Compound infusion of
bark taken for "bad
disease." Compound take
for "irregular urination"
(Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:37). Infusion of
bark taken for urinary
troubles (Taylor
1940:41); Seminole:
Decoction of leaves and
stems taken for
headaches (as V.
rufotomenstosa 169:282).
Infusion of plant added to
food after a recent death
(Sturtevant 1955:342).
Plant used as an emetic
during religious
ceremonies. (Sturtevant
1955:409). Decoction of
leaves and stems taken
for stomachaches
(Sturtevant 1955:282).
Plant used for chronically
ill babies (Sturtevant
1955:328). Vitis
Southeast
!
!
Zea mays
Vitis sp.
(continued)
Taxonomic
Identification
corn
Common
Name
SAME SPECIES
Medical Plant Types
in CT (Based Upon
USDA Plant
Database 2010)
Mashantucket
Pequot
Mohegan:
Decoction of
dried cobs used
as a wash for
poison ivy rash
(Tantaquidgeon
1972:77);
New England
Northeast
labrusca- Cherokee:
Compound take for
diarrhea. Infusion of leaf
taken "for blood." Taken
as a "fall tonic" an
infusion taken "for
stomach." Wilted leaves
used to draw soreness
from breast after birth of
a child. Infusion of leaf
taken for liver.
Compound decoction
used to wash child's
mouth for thrush.
Compound infusion of
bark taken for "bad
disease." Compound take
for "irregular urination"
(Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:37). Infusion of
bark taken for urinary
troubles (Taylor
1940:41).
Cherokee: "Smut" from
plant used as salve.
Infusion taken for
"gravel." Parched grains
eaten for "long wind"
(Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:30).
Southeast
Common
Name
copperfleaf
milkweed
sedge
Beech
Taxonomic
Identification
Acalypha sp.
Asclepias sp.
Carex sp.
Carpinus
caroliniana
Asclepias sp.- Cahuilla: Gum applied to insect sting pain (Bean Saubel 1972:43); Delaware, Oklahoma: Infusion of
pounded roots of five species taken for epileptic fits (Tantaquidgeon 1942:32, 74); Navajo: Infusion of crushed, dried
leaves taken for stomach troubles (Elmore 1955:69); Tewa: Plant used for sore breasts (Robbins et al. 1916:54). Asclepias
exaltata- Omaha, Ponca: Raw root eaten for stomach trouble (Gilmore 1919:110). Asclepias incarnata-Chippewa:
Infusion of root used as a strengthening bath for children. Infusion of root used as a strengthening bath for children and
adults (Densmore 1928:364). Meskwaki: Infusion of root used to drive the tapeworms from a person in 1 hour. Root used
as a diuretic. Root used as an emetic (Smith 1928:205). Asclepias syriaca- Chippewa: Cold decoction of root added to
food to produce postpartum milk flow (Densmore 1928:360); Menominee: Buds eaten or decoction of root used for chest
discomfort (Densmore 1932:130); Ojibwa: Root used as a female remedy for unspecified ailment (Smith 1932:357);
Potawatomi: Root used for unspecified ailments (Smith 1933:42); Rapahannock: Milk of fresh plant applied to warts and
ringworm (Speck et al. 1942:32); Delaware, Oklahoma: Root used for rheumatism. Root used to make a drink taken by
women after childbirth. Root used for pleurisy (Tantaquidgeon 1942:31,74); Menominee: Poultice of root used for
decoction taken for bruises and swellings (Densmore 1932:132). Simple or compound poultice of pulverized root used on
cuts, wounds, and bruises (Smith 1923:25). Poultice of root used or decoction taken for lameness. Decoction of pounded
root taken as a tonic (Densmore 1932:132); Navajo, Ramah: Plant used in ceremonial chanting. Decoction or infusion of
various plant parts used for dog or coyote bites. Plant used for influenza (Vestal 1952:39); Omaha: Ceremony connected
with the obtaining and distribution of this prized root. Fresh and dried root used in several ways on wounds and sores. Root
eaten raw for bronchial and pulmonary trouble. Root eaten raw for bronchial trouble (Gilmore 1919:109); Rappahannock:
Poultice of bruised leaves bound to snake bites (Speck et al. 1942:30). Asclepias verticillata- Choctaw: Root used as a
sudorific. Root chewed, saliva swallowed, and strong decoction taken for snakebite. Root used as a stimulant (Campbell
1951:287); Hopi: Infusion of entire plant taken by nursing mother with scanty flow of milk (56:18); Lakota: Used by
mothers to increase their milk (Rogers 1980:34); Navajo: Plant used for nose troubles. Plant used for throat troubles
(Elmore 1955:96). Asclepias viridiflora- Blackfoot: Poultice of chewed roots applied to swellings. Poultice of chewed
roots applied to rashes. Poultice of chewed roots applied to diarrhea rash (Hellson 1974:75). Poultice of chewed roots
applied to sore eyes (Hellson 1974:80). Poultice of chewed roots applied to diarrhea rash and nursing baby's sore gums
(Hellson 1974:75). Root chewed for sore throats (Hellson 1974:71); Lakota: Pulverized roots given to children with
diarrhea; Infusion of whole plant taken by mothers to increase their milk. Pulverized roots given to children with diarrhea
(Rogers 1980:34).
Carex plantaginea - Menominee: Root used as a charm to prevent snakebite and spittle from chewed root used on
snakebite (Smith 1923:34). Carex utriculata - Gosiute: Lower, tender stems and root parts eaten by children (Chamberlin
1911:365). Carex sp. - Gosiute: Root used as medicine (Chamberlin 1911:365); Songish: Leaves eaten to induce abortions
(Turner et al. 1971:73).
Other Regions (Moreman 1995)
Common
Name
hickory
goosefoot
sweet fern
Taxonomic
Identification
Carya sp.
Chenopodium
- Amaranthus
sp.
Comptonia
peregrina
Carya cordiformis- Meskwaki: Infusion of bark taken "to make the urine free." Infusion of bark taken "to make the bowels
loose." Infusion of bark taken for "simple sicknesses" (Smith 1928:224). Carya ovata- Chippewa: Fresh, small shoots
steamed as inhalant for headache. Fresh small shoots placed on hot stones as herbal steam for headache (as Hicoria alba
Densmore 1928:338).
Amaranthus hybridus -Keres, Western: Infusion of plant used for the stomach (Swank 1932:26). Amaranthus
retroflexus- Keres, Western: Infusion of plant used for the stomach (Swank 1932:26); Navajo, Ramah: Stem, 3 inches
long, made into snake figurine for snake infection (Vestal 1952:26). Chenopodium album- Carrier: Decoction of plant
taken to improve the blood (31:86). Cree, Woodlands: Decoction of plant taken for painful limbs (Leighton 1985:35);
Eskimo, Inupiat: Leaves and stems cooked with beans to reduce the intestinal gas from eating the beans (98:64);
Mendocino Indian: Leaves used for stomachaches (Chesnut 1902:346); Meskwaki: Infusion of root used for urethral
itching (Smith 1928:209); Navajo: Plant used as a nutrient (Hocking 1956:149); Navajo, Kayenta: Poultice of plant
applied to buns (Wyman and Harris 1951:20); Navajo, Ramah: Seem, 3 inches long, made into snake figurine for snake
infection (Vestal 1952:24); Paiute: Leaf chewed as an emetic (as C. alba, Steward 1933:317); Potawatomi: Plant
considered: a medical food used to prevent or cure scurvy (Smith 1933:47). Leaves included in a diet for scurvy or to
prevent it (Smith 1933:98). Chenopodium ambrosiodes- Houma: Poultice of crushed leaves applied for headaches.
Decoction of leaves in milk given to children for worms (Speck 1941:63); Koasati: Decoction of leaves taken for worms
(Taylor 1940:22); Mahuna: Roots used for delayed menstrual period (Romero 1954:14); Miwok: Plant used as a wash for
rheumatic parts. Poultice of boiled or raw plant applied to swellings. Plant used for toothache or an ulcerated tooth. Plant
used as wash for gonorrhea and injected into affected parts( (Barrett and Gifford 1933:168); Chenopodium capitatumCahuilla: Decoction of entire plant used for stomach disorders (Bean Saubel 1972:52); Costanoan: Decoction of root
applied as a poultice for numb or paralyzed limbs (Bocek 1984:11); Kawaiisu: Plant used as a hair wash. Decoction of
leaves and stems taken as an emetic. Plant considered poisonous (Zigmond 1981:19).
Chippewa: Burned, dried leaves used as incense in religious ceremonies. Infusion of leaves taken for fevers. Leaves used
for medicine (as Myrica asplenifolia, Gilmore 1933:127); Delaware, Oklahoma: Infusion of plant taken as blood purifier.
Infusion of plant applied to blisters and leaves used for poison ivy rash. Infusion of plant taken to help remove mucus from
the lungs. Plants used for scrofula; Complex compound containing plant used for bladder inflammation (as Myrica
asplenifolia, Tantaquidgeon 1942:29, 76); Malecite: Infusion of plant and yarrow used as a liniment for swelling
(Mechling 1959:245). Plants smoked and used for catarrh (Mechling 1959:248); Menominee: Plant used as a seasoned and
potent medicine in childbirth. Compound containing leaves sprinkled on medicine to kill a hated person (Smith 1923:42).
Compound decoction of root taken as a mild tonic (Densmore 1932:133); Micmac: Root used for headache and
inflammation. Leaves used for sprains, swellings, poison ivy, and inflammation (Chandler et al. 1979: 56). Leaves used for
swellings and poison ivy (as Myrica asplenifolia Chandler et al. 1979:56). Leaves used for sprains (Chandler et al. 1979:
56). Leaves used for catarrh (Chandler et al. 1979: 56). Berries, bark, and leaves used as an "exhilarant" and beverage
(Chandler et al. 1979: 56); Ojibwa: Infusion or decoction of leaves taken for flux and stomach cramps (as M. asplenifolia
Smith 1932:375); Potawatomi: Infusion of leaves used for itch (as M. asplenifolia. Smith 1933:65);
Other Regions (Moreman 1995)
Common
Name
dogwood
hazelnut
hawthorne
gourd
Taxonomic
Identification
Cornus sp.
Corylus sp.
Crataegus sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Cornus alternifolia- Chippewa: Inner bark used as a cough remedy (Gilmore 1919: 138). Compound decoction of root
used as a wash or compress for sore eyes. Infusion of scraped root used as a wash or on a compress for sore eyes
(Densmore 1928:360). Roots used as a charm on muskrat traps (Densmore 1928:376); Menominee: Bark liquid injected
rectaly and poultice of bark applied to anus for diarrhea. One reported case: Poultice of bark plus something else cured
facial cancer. Bark used to make a liquid and injected rectally for piles (Smith 1923:32:33); Ojibwa: Inner bark used as an
emetic (Smith 1932:366). Menominee: Plant known as maimakwukwa and infusion of bark injected rectally for diarrhea.
Plant known as kinnikinnick and bark smoked ceremonially (Smith 1923:32). Cornus canadensis - Carrier, Northern:
Used as a medicine for unspecified malady; Carrier, Southern: Strong decoction of plan, without berries, used as an
eyewash (150:62); Delaware, Oklahoma: Compound containing bark used for body pain (Tantaquidgeon 1942:26, 74) and
compound containing root used as a tonic (Tantaquidgeon 1942:26,74);; Hoh: Infusion of bitter bark used as a tonic
(137:66); Malecite, Micmac: Infusion of roots, leaves, and berries used for fits (Mechling 1959:256); Montagnais: Infusion
of plant used as a medicine for paralysis (Smith 1933:315:); Ojibwa: Infusion of root used for infant colic (Smith
1933:366, 367); Paiute: Mashed roots strained through a clean cloth and used as an eyewash for eye soreness, and the
removal of foreign objects (Mahar 1953:98); Quileute: Infusion of bitter bark used as a tonic (137:66); Thompson: Leaf
ash or powdered, toasted leaves sprinkled on sores (Steedman 1928:458). Houma: Decoction of root or bark scrapings
taken for feaver. Decoction of root or bark scrapings taken for malaria (Speck 1941:55). Cornus racemosa- Meskwaki:
Infusion of bark held in mouth for neuralgia. Infusion of bark used, especially for children, as an enema for flux. Infusion
of bark held in mouth for toothache. Smudged bark used to revive an unconscious patient. Infusion of root used for
consumption (as C. paniculata 152:218,219); Ojibwa: Infusion of bark used for flux. Bark forced into the anus for pile (as
C. paniculata 153:364). Cornus sericea- Cree, Hudson Bay: Decoction of bark taken as an emetic for colds coughs, and
fevers (Holmes 1884:303); Ojibwa: Bark smoked for various ceremonies. Bark used for medicinal purposes (Reagan
1928:237); Thompson: Fruit considered a good "tonic," especially for intestinal worms. Decoction of branches, wild rose,
and chokecherry branches taken for diarrhea and vomiting. Decoction of branches taken for colds. Plant used as a medicine
for anything by the elderly. Decoction of plant, squaw currant, branches, and fir or tamarack used as a baby bath. Sap used
on arrowheads for the poisonous effect upon animals. Decoction of plant, squaw current branches, and fir or tamarack used
as a baby bath (Turner et al. 1990:204).
Corylus americana - Chippewa: Compound containing charcoal pricked into temples with needles for headache
(Densmore 1933:338). Menominee: Inner bark used "with other herbs as a binder to cement the virtues of all" (Smith
1923:26); Ojibwa: Poultice of boiled bark applied to help close and heal cuts (Smith 1932:359).
Crataegus chrysocarpa - Blackfoot: Decoction of dried berries taken during the winter as a mild laxative (Hellson
1974:66). Objibwa, South: Compound decoction of root taken for diarrhea (Hoffman 1891:200); Potawatomi: Fruit used
for stomach complaints (Smith 1933:76). Crataegus sp. - Chippewa: Compound decoction of root taken for back pain and
for "female" weakness (Densmore 1933:356). Roots used for consumption (Gilmore 1919:132); Ojibwa: Fruit and bark
used to make a medicine for women only (Smith 1932:384).
Menominee: Pulverized seeds taken in water "to facilitate the passage of urine" (Smith 1923:33); Meskwaki: Decoction of
Other Regions (Moreman 1995)
bedstraw
huckleberry
Galium sp.
Gaylussacia
sp.
Ilex sp.
Juglans
cinerea
flatsedge
Cyperus sp.
butternut
holly
Common
Name
Taxonomic
Identification
Cucurbita sp.
(continued)
Illex opaca - Choctaw: Decoction of leaves used as drops for sore eyes (Taylor 1940:37); Koasati: Infusion of bark
rubbed on areas affected by itching (Taylor 1940:37). Ilex verticillata - Delaware, Oklahoma: Believed that holly grows
where a person was frightened (Tantaquidgeon 1972:31); Ojibwa: Bark used for diarrhea (Smith 1932:355).
Chippewa: Decoction of plant sap taken as a cathartic (Gilmore 1919:127); Malecite: Infusion of bark used as a purgative
(Mechling 1959:245); Menominee: Syrup from sap used as a standard "physic"(Smith 1923:38,39); Meskwaki: Decoction
stem used for "female ills" (Smith 1928:220); Navajo: Leaves used for upset stomachs (Hocking 1956:150); Pima: Ground
seed paste used to cleanse and soften the skin (Curtin 1949:72); Zuni: Ingredient of "schumakwe cakes" and used
externally for rheumatism and swelling. Poultice of seeds and blossoms applied to cactus scratches (Stevenson 1915:45,46).
Cyperus esculentus - Navaji, Ramah: Plant used as a ceremonial emetic (Blankinship 1905:19); Pima: Roots chewed for
colds and coughs. Poultice of chewed roots applied to snakebites (Curtin 1949:98). Cyperus sp. -Hawaiian: Buds, leaves,
roots, and other plants pounded and resulting liquid used a bath for body aches (Akana 1922:45); Tanana, Upper: Infusion
of underground stems taken for colds (Kari 1985:9); Yavapai: Decoction of dried, pulverized root taken for colds, dusted
on sores and taken for stomachaches (Gifford 1936:261).
Galium sp.- Costanoan: Decoction of plant taken for dysentery. Decoction of plant used externally for rheumatism.
Decoction of plant used externally for wounds (Bocek 1984:24). Neeshenam: Poultice of heated leaves and stems applied
for rheumatism (Powers 1874:376); Galium aparine- Chippewa: Cold infusion of stems rubbed on skin troubles (Gilmore
1919:141); Cowlitz: Infusion of plant used as a bath for women to be successful in love. Plant considered poisonous
(Gunther 1973:46); Gosiute: Plant used as a horse medicine (Chamberlin 1911:370); Meskwaki: Decoction of whole plant
taken as an emetic (Smith 1928:243); Micmac: Parts of plant used for persons spitting blood and gonorrhea. Parts of plant
used for kidney trouble. Parts of plant used for gonorrhea. (Chandler et al. 1979:56); Nitinaht: Plant good for the hair,
making it grow long (Gill 1983:316); Ojibwa: Infusion of whole plant used as a diuretic. Infusion of whole plant used for
kidney trouble, Gravel, urine stoppage, and allied ailments (Smith 1932:386); Galium boreale- Choctaw: Decoction of
whole plant used as a "deobstruent." Decoction of whole plant used to prevent pregnancy. Whole plant used as a
diaphoretic. Whole plant used as a diuretic (Campbell 1951:287); Cree, Hudson Bay: Leaves used as a diuretic (Holmes
1884:303); Shuswap: Plant considered poisonous (Palmer 1975:68). Galium tinctorium - Ojibwa: Infusion of whole plant
used for "beneficial effect upon the respiratory organs" (Smith 1932:286,387). Galium trifidum- Ojibwa: Infusion of plant
used for skin diseases like eczema and ringworm. Infusion of plant used for skin diseases like scrofula (Smith 1932:387).
Galium triflorum- Karok: Plant placed in women's bed as a love medicine (Scheneck and Gifford 1952:389); Klallam:
Poultice of smashed plants applied to the hair to make it grow (Gunther 1973:46); Kwakiutl: Nettles or vines and then
hellebore used to rub the chest for chest pain (Boaz 1966:379, 183:291); Makah: Poultice of smashed plants applied to hair
to make it grow (Gunther 1973:46); Menominee: Infusion of herb used "to clear up kidney troubles" (Smith 1923:51);
Miwok: Decoction of plant taken as a tea for dropsy (Barrett and Gifford 1933:170); Quinault: Poultice of smashed plants
applied to the hair to make it grow (Gunther 1973:46).
Galyussacia sp. - Rappahannock: Infusion of dried fresh roots taken for stomach (Speck et al. 1942:34)
Other Regions (Moreman 1995)
Polygonum
hydropiper
Polygonum sp.
Myrica
pensylvanica
Nyssa
sylvatica
Phytolacca
americana
Juncus sp.
Lactuca sp.
Juglans sp.
Taxonomic
Identification
Juglans
cinerea
(continued)
Juglans nigra
knotweed
water pepper
pokeweed
tupelo
bayberry
butternut/black
walnut
rush
lettuce
black walnut
Common
Name
Polygonum amphibium- Cree, Woodlands: Poultice of fresh roots applied directly to blisters in the mouth. Powdered
roots added to a many herb remedy and used for various ailments (Leighton 1985:51). Okanagan-Colville: Infusion of
Juncus effusus - Karok: Stems and leaves placed in the fire and the medicine man prayed over it (Baker 1986:33).
Latuca biennis - Bella Coola: Decoction of root taken for body pain, but not pain in the limbs. Decoction of root taken for
diarrhea. Decoction of root taken for vomiting. Decoction of root taken for hemorrhage, body pain, and heart trouble.
Decoction of root taken for heart trouble, hemorrhage, and pain (as L. spicata Smith 1929:65); Ojibwa: Infusion of plant
used for caked breast and to ease lactation. (as L. spicata Smith 1929:364,365); Potawatomi: Plant used as a medicine for
unspecified illness (as L. spicata154:52). Lactuca canadensis- Chippewa: Milky sap from fresh plant rubbed on warts
(Densmore 1928:350); Menominee: Milky juice of plant rubbed on poison ivy eruptions (Smith 1923:31). Lactuca
serriola - Houma: Poultice of crushed leaves applied to forehead for headaches (Smith 1928:68); Seminole: Seeds used for
adult's sickness caused by adultery: headache, body pains, and crossed fingers (Sturtevant 1955:256). Seeds burned to
smoke the body for insanity (Sturtevant 1955:293).
Myrica sp. - Delaware, Oklahoma: Bark used as blood purifier. Compound containing root taken for "female generative
organs" and kidney trouble (Tantaquidgeon 1942:29,76).
Houma: Decoction of root or bark taken for worms (158:55); Koasati: Decoction of bark taken and applied to gun wounds
(Taylor 1940:47).
Delaware, Oklahoma: Strong infusion of roots and twigs used as herbal steam for rheumatism and compound containing
roots used as a blood purifier and stimulant (Tantaquidgeon 1942:27,78). Mahuna: Roots used for severe, neuralgic pains.
Leaves used for skin diseases and to remove pimples and blackheads (Romero 1954:65). Micmac: Leaves used for
bleeding wounds (Chandler et al. 1979:59).
Malecite: Infusion of dried leaves used for dropsy (Mechling 1959:244).
of twig bark or decoction of wood and bark taken as a cathartic (Smith 1928:244); Micmac: Bark used as a purgative
(Chandler et al. 1979:57); Potawatomi: Bark used as a physic and infusion of inner bark taken as a tonic (Smith
1933:60,61).
Comanche: Pulverized leaves rubbed on affected part for ringworm (Carlson 1940:522). Delaware, Oklahoma: Strong
decoction of bark taken as a cathartic. Juice from green hull of fruit taken as a cathartic. Juice from green hull of fruit
rubbed on skin for ringworm. Sap applied to any inflammation. Strong decoction of bark taken as an emetic
(Tantaquidgeon 1942:24, 76). Decoction of bark taken "to remove bile form the intestines" (Tantaquidgeon 1942:24).
Houma: Infusion of nutshells used as a wash for "the itch." Decoction of mashed leaves taken for relief from "blood
pressure" (Speck 1941:66); Kiowa: Decoction of root bark taken to kill "worms" (Vestal and Schultes 1939:21);
Meskwaki: Inner bark used as a very strong physic. Coiled and charred twig bark and old bark applied in water for
snakebite (Smith 1928:224,225);
Juglans sp. - Apache, Western: Juice used to clear maggots from wounds. (Buskirk 1986:187)
Other Regions (Moreman 1995)
Common
Name
purslane
pondweed
peach
plum
Taxonomic
Identification
Polygonum sp.
(continued)
Portulaca sp.
Potamogeton
sp.
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
Koasati: Leaves rubbed on the scratches of tired legs (Taylor 1940:27). Navajo: Plant and dried fruit used as a purgative
(Elmore 1955:96);
Prunus sp.- Apache, Mescalero: Berries used for diarrhea. Ripe mashed and used for burns (Basehart 1974:48).
Chippewa: Poultice of fresh root or decoction of dried root applied to ulcers (Densmore 1928:354). Poultice of fresh root or
decoction of dried root applied to "broken breast" (Densmore 1928:360); Creek: Decoction of root taken for dysentery
(Swanton 1928:659); Koasati: Infusion of inner bark taken for dyspepsia (Taylor 1940:27); Malecite: Used to make
medicines (Speck and Dexter 1952:6). Prunus americana- Cheyenne: Branches used for the Sun Dance ceremony.
Smashed fruits used for mouth disease (Hart 1981:35); Chippewa: Compound decoction of root taken for worms
(Densmore 1928:346).Compound poultice of inner bark applied to cuts and wounds (Densmore 1928:352). Compound
decoction of inner bark used as a disinfectant wash (Densmore 1928:376); Meskwaki: Root bark used as an astringent
medicine for mouth cankers (Smith 1928: 242); Ojibwa, South: Compound decoction of small rootlets taken for diarrhea
(Hoffman 1891:200). Omaha: Poultice of boiled root bark applied to skin abrasions (Gilmore 1919:87). Meskwaki:
dried, pounded roots taken or raw root eaten for chest colds (Turner et al. 1980:113). Polygonum aviculare- Choctaw:
Strong infusion of whole plant taken to prevent abortion (Campbell 1951:286); Mendocino Indian: Decoction of whole
plant used as an astringent (Chesnut 1902:345); Navajo, Ramah: Warm infusion of plant taken for stomachache. (Vestal
1952:23); Thompson: Decoction of whole plant taken, especially by children, for diarrhea (Turner et al. 1990:238).
Polygonum careyi- Potawatomi: Infusion of entire plant taken for cold accompanied by fever (Smith 1933:72).
Polygonum hydropiper - Malecite: Infusion of dried leaves used for dropsy (Mechling 1959:244). Polygonum
lapathifolium- Apache, White Mountain: Plant used for medicinal purposes (136:159); Kres, Western: Infusion of plant
taken for stomach trouble (Swank 1932:62); Navajo, Ramah: Cold infusion of plant used as ceremonial chant lotion
(Vestal 1952:23,24); Potawatomi: Infusion of whole plant used for fever (Smith 1933:72); Zuni: Decoction of plant taken
as an emetic and a purgative (Stevenson 1915:58). Polygonum pensylvanicum- Chippewa: Infusion of plant tops taken for
epilepsy (Gilmore 1919:129); Menominee: Infusion of leaf taken for "hemorrhage of blood from the mouth." Compound
infusion of leaf taken to aid postpartum healing (Smith 1923:47); Meskwaki: Used to wipe anus for bloody flux. Used for
piles (Smith 1928:236,237). Polygonum persicaria- Chippewa: Decoction of leaves and flowers taken for stomach pain.
Simple or compound decoction of flowers and leaves taken for stomach pain (Densmore 1928:344). Polygonum
punctatum- Chippewa: Compound decoction of leaves and flowers taken for stomach pain (Densmore 1928:344); Houma:
Decoction of root taken for pains and swellings in the legs and joints (Speck 1941:58). Polygonum ramosissimum Navajo, Ramah: Infusion of plant taken for stomachache. Plant used as a "life medicine" (Vestal 1952:24).
Portulaca oleracea - Hawaiian: Plant and other plants pounded, squeezed and resulting liquid taken to check run-down
conditions (Akana 1922:24). Keres, Western: Infusion of leaf stems used for diarrhea. Infusion of leaf stems used as an
antiseptic wash for blood clots. Raw leaves rubbed in mouth for difficulty in opening the mouth (Swank 1932:62); Navajo:
Plant used for pain and taken for stomachaches and used to "cure sick people". (Elmore 1955:47);
Potamogeton natans - Navajo, Ramah: Decoction of plant taken as ceremonial emetic (Vestal 1952:15).
Other Regions (Moreman 1995)
Taxonomic
Identification
Prunus sp.
(continued)
Common
Name
Infusion of bark used to settle stomach when it will not retain food (Smith 1928:242). Prunus pensylvanaica - Cree,
Woodlands: Infusion of inner bark used for sore eyes (Leighton 1985:53); Gitksan: Bark used for medicine (Gottesfeld
1992:152); Malecite: Outer layer of dried leaves used as a powder for prickly heat (Mechling 1959:250). Infusion of bark
used for erysipelas (Mechling 1959:250). Outer layer of dried leaves used for chafed babies (Mechling 1959:250);
Micmac: Wood used for chafed skin and prickly heat. Bark used for erysipelas (Chandler et al. 1979:59). Ojibwa: Inner
bark used as a cough remedy (Smith 1932:385). Ojibwa, South: Decoction of crushed root taken for stomach pains.
Decoction of crushed root taken for stomach disorders (Hoffman 1891:199); Potawatomi: Infusion of inner bark taken
internal pain and cough (Smith 1933:77). Wet'suwet'en: Bark used for coughs (Gottesfeld 1992:152). Prunus persicaKoasati: Leaves rubbed on scratches of tired legs (Taylor 1940:27); Navajo: Plant used as a purgative (Elmore 1955:96).
Dried fruit used as a purgative (Elmore 1955:54); Rappahannock: Infusion of fresh or dried leaves taken for kidney trouble
(Speck et al. 1942:33). Prunus serotina- Chippewa: Compound decoction of root taken for worms (Densmore 1928:346).
Powder containing powdered root applied to burns (Densmore 1928:354). Compound poultice of inner bark applied to cuts
and wounds (Densmore 1928:352). Poultice of fresh roots or decoction of bark used as a wash for "scrofulous neck."
Powder containing powdered root applied to ulcers (Densmore 1928:354). Compound decoction of inner bark used as a
disinfectant wash (Densmore 1928:366). Decoction of root given for "cholera infantum" (Densmore 1928:346). Delaware,
Oklahoma: Bark used as a diarrhea remedy. Fruit used to make cough syrup. Compound containing bark taken as a tonic
(Tantaquidgeon 1942:27,28); Mahuna: Infusion of bark or roots taken for coughs (Romero 1954:18); Malecite: Infusion
of bark,"beaver castor," and gin used for colds. Castor or castorecum is a strong smelling, brown, concrete substance from
the perpetual follicles of the beaver. It has long been used in medicine as a stimulant and antispasmodic, and also in the
manufacture of perfume. Infusion of bark, beaver castor, and gin used for coughs. Infusion of bark, beaver castor, and gin
used by men for consumption (Mechling 1959:249); Micmac: Bark used for colds. Bark used for coughs. Bark used for
smallpox. Fruit used as a tonic. Bark used for consumption (Chandler et al. 1979:60). Compound infusion of leaves and
bones taken with molasses for colds. Infusion of buds, leaves or bark taken with sugar for colds (Carr and Westey
1945:118). Compound infusion taken, hot at night and cold in the morning, for colds (Tantaquidgeon 1928:264). Fruit put
in bottle and allowed to stand, taken for stomach trouble (Carr and Westey 1945:118). Complex compound infusion
including wild cherry bark taken as a spring tonic (Tantaquidgeon 1928:266); Ojibwa, South: Infusion of inner bark taken
for chest pain and soreness. Poultice of bruised, or chewed inner bark applied to sores (Hoffman 1891:199); Penobscot:
Infusion of bark taken for coughs. Infusion of berries taken as a "fine bitter tonic" (Speck 1917:310); Potawatomi: Inner
bark used as seasoner for medicines (Sparkman 1908:77); Prunus viginiana- Algonquin, Quebec: Infusion of bark and
sweet flag taken for coughs (Black 1980:185). Blackfoot: Berry juice used for diarrhea. Infusion of cambium and
saskatoon taken as a purge, and by nursing mothers to pass medicinal qualities to baby. Berry juice used for sore throats
(Hellson 1974:68); Chippewa: Decoction of inner bark taken for cramps (Densmore 1928:344). Compound infusion of
inner bark taken for hemorrhages from the lungs (Densmore 1928:340). Compound decoction of inner bark used as a
cathartic blood cleanser for scrofula (Densmore 1928:354). Decoction of bark used as a wash to strengthen the hair and
make it grow (Densmore 1928:350). Compound decoction of inner bark used as a disinfectant wash (Densmore 1928:366).
Other Regions (Moreman 1995)
Common
Name
oak
Taxonomic
Identification
Prunus sp.
(continued)
Quercus sp.
Decoction of inner bark taken for stomach cramps (Densmore 1928:344). Decoction of inner bark gargled for sore throat
(Densmore 1928:342); Cree, Hudson Bay: Decoction of fresh bark taken for diarrhea (Holmes 1884:303); Cree,
Woodlands: Decoction of roots taken for diarrhea (Leighton 1985:53); Crow: Infusion of bark used for diarrhea and
dysentery. Infusion of bark used for cleansing burns. Infusion of bark used for cleansing sores; Flathead: Infusion used for
intestinal worms. Infusion of bark used for diarrhea and dysentery. Bark resin warmed, strained, cooled, and used for sore
eyes; Gros Ventre: Infusion of bark used for diarrhea and dysentery (Hart 1942:42); Kutenai: Infusion of bark used for
diarrhea and dysentery (82:42); Menominee: Infusion of inner bark or decoction of inner bark applied to man or beast for
wounds or galls. Sweetened infusion of bark given to children for diarrhea. Poultice of inner bark applied to heal wound or
gall on humans or beasts (Smith 1923:49,50); Meskwaki: Decoction of bark used as an astringent, and spoken of as "a
puckering." Infusion of root bark used for stomach troubles and as a sedative. Decoction of root bark used as an astringent,
rectal douche for piles (Smith 1928:242); Micmac: Bark used for diarrhea (Chandler et al. 1979:60); Navajo, Ramah: Cold
infusion of dried fruit taken for stomachache. Leaves used as an emetic in various ceremonies. Cold infusion of dried fruit
taken for stomachache. Dried fruit used as a "life medicine" (Vestal 1952:31); Ojibwa: Infusion of inner bark taken for
lung trouble (Smith 1932:358). Ojibwa, South: "Branchlets" used in unspecified manner during gestation (Hoffman
1891:199); Okanagan-Colville: Decoction of wood, branches and bark taken for diarrhea, colds, and coughs. Poultice of
wood scraped until pasty and applied to woman's stomach to eliminate the "stretch marks." Mashed seeds taken as a
stomach medicine. Decoction of branches and red willow roots used as a general tonic for any type of sickness (188:127);
Penobscot: Infusion of bark taken for diarrhea (Speck 1917:310); Potawatomi: Bark used in an eyewash and berries used
to make tonic drink (Smith 1933:77,78); Sanpoil: Decoction of bark taken for diarrhea (131:221); Thompson: Decoction
of twigs taken for diarrhea. Decoction of broken sticks taken for colds. Decoction of branches, sometimes with red willow
branches and wild rose roots, taken for colds, coughs, and influenza. Decoction of branches, sometimes with red willow
branches and wild rose roots, taken as a laxative. Decoction of broken sticks taken for a sick feeling (Turner 1990:264).
Quercus sp.- Atsugewi: Decoction taken by women to prevent blood poising. Decoction taken by women to prevent
catching cold during the birth ordeal (as Q. cambrium Garth 1953:140); Chippewa: Poultice of chewed, fresh or dry root
applied to wounds as a styptic (Densmore 1928:356); Costanoan: Infusion of acorns used for diarrhea. Decoction of bark
used for toothaches and to tighten loose teeth (Bocek 1984:20); Creek: Compound decoction of bark used as a wash to
strengthen children unable to walk (Swanton 1928:665); Dakota: Decoction of root bark given for bowel trouble,
especially in children (Gilmore 1919:75); Malecite: Used to make medicines (Speck and Dexter 1952:6); Mendocino
Indian: Plant used for fattening (Chesnut 1902:26); Neeshenam: Burning pitch smoke inhaled for rheumatism. Poultice of
powdered acorns applied to burns or scalds. Burning pitch smoke inhaled for colds and coughs (Powers 1874: 374). Pitch
rubbed on wounds, sores, or arrow wounds. Poultice of hot pitch and powdered, burned acorns applied to mourning widows
(Powers 1874:375); Omaha, Pawnee, Ponca, Winnebago: Decoction of root bark given for bowel trouble, especially in
children (Gilmore 1919:75). Quercus alba- Delaware, Oklahoma: Infusion of bark taken for severe cough
(Tantaquidgeon 1942:25, 78). Strong infusion of bark used to cleanse bruises and ulcers (Tantaquidgeon 1942:25).
Compound containing bark used as an antiseptic (Tantaquidgeon 1942:78). Infusion of bark used as an excellent douche.
Other Regions (Moreman 1995)
Common
Name
sumac
Taxonomic
Identification
Quercus sp.
(continued)
Rhus sp.
Bark used in many medical compounds (Tantaquidgeon 1942:25, 78). Strong infusion of bark gargled for sore throat
(Tantaquidgeon 1942:25); Houma: Crushed root mixed with whisky and used as liniment on rheumatic parts (Speck
1941:56); Menominee: Inner bark used in compounds (Smith 1923:36). Meskwaki: Compound containing bark used for
diarrhea. Decoction of inner bark taken to "throw up phlegm from the lungs" (Smith 1928:221); Quercus macrocarpaChippewa: Decoction of root or inner bark taken for cramps. Decoction of inner b ark used for cramps (Densmore
1928:340). Compound decoction of inner bark prepared ceremonially for heart trouble (Densmore 1928:338). Compound
decoction of inner bark taken for lung trouble (Densmore 1928:340); Menominee: compound decoction of inner bark taken
for suppressed menses caused by cold (Densmore 1932:133); Meskwaki: Compound containing wood and inner bark used
to expel pinworms (Smith 1928:221,222); Ojibwa: Bark used to bandage a broken foot or leg (Smith 1932:369). Quercus
muehlenbergii - Quercus palustris- Delaware, Oklahoma: Infusion of bark taken for intestinal pains (Tantaquidgeon
1942:25,78). Quercus rubra- Chippewa: Compound decoction of inner bark used for severe coughs. Infusion of bark
prepared ceremonially for heart trouble (Densmore 1928:338); Delaware, Oklahoma: Infusion of bark taken for severe
cough. Infusion of bark taken for hoarseness (Tantaquidgeon 1942: 25,78); Mahuna: Plant juice used for straightening and
setting loose teeth (Romero 1954:25); Malecite: Infusion of plant and fir buds or cones used for diarrhea (Mechling 1959:
224); Infusion of bark or roots used for diarrhea (Mechling 1959:225); Micmac: Roots and bark used for diarrhea (Chandler
et al. 1979:60); Ojibwa: Decoction of bark taken for internal blood diseases (Reagan 1928:231). Bark used for "heart
troubles and bronchial affections" (Smith 1932:369,370). Plant used for medicinal purposes (Smith 1932:242). Infusion of
root bark taken for gonorrhea (Smith 1932:231); Ojibwa, South: Decoction of root bark and inner bark taken for diarrhea
(Hoffman 1891:198); Potawatomi: Inner bark used for flux (Smith 1933:58); Quercus stellata- Choctaw: Decoction of
bark taken for stomachaches (Taylor 1940:18); Creek: Bark used to make a drink taken for dysentery (Swanton
1928:659). Infusion of bark taken for dysentery (Taylor 1940:18). Quercus velutina- Delaware, Oklahoma: Infusion of
inner bark taken and used as a gargle for colds and hoarseness (Tantaquidgeon 1942:25, 78); Menominee: Decoction of
crushed bark used as a wash for sore eyes (Smith 1923:36); Meskwaki: Compound containing inner bark used for lung
troubles (Smith 1928:222).
Rhus aromatica- Natchez: Red berries eaten for vomiting. Infusion poured over sunburn blisters (Hamel and Chiltoskey
1975:57). Decoction of bark used as a wash for blisters (Taylor 1940:36). Infusion of bark taken "to make human milk flow
abundantly." Red berries chewed for bed-wetting (Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975:57); Ojibwa: Bark and berries used in
medicine ceremonies. Bark and berries used for medicinal purposes (Reagan 1928:234); Ojibwa, South: Compound
decoction of root taken for diarrhea (Hoffman 1891:201). Rhus copallinum- Creek: Decoction of root taken for dysentery
(Swanton 1928:659, 177:36); Delaware, Oklahoma: Leaves and root used in "ceremonial tobacco mixture." Poultice of
roots or infusion of leaves used for sores and skin eruptions. Berries used to make mouthwash. Infusion of root taken for
venereal disease (Tantaquidgeon 1942:26,78); Koasati: Decoction of leaves used as a bath and given to babies to make
them walk (Taylor 1940:36); Ojibwa: Bark and berries used in medicine ceremonies. Bark and berries used for medicinal
purposes (Reagan 1928:234). Rhus copallinum- Chippewa: Decoction of "growth, which sometimes appears on the tree"
used for dysentery (Densmore 1928:344). Infusion of roots taken for colds. Infusion of roots taken as an emetic (Gilmore
Other Regions (Moreman 1995)
Taxonomic
Identification
Rhus sp.
(continued)
Common
Name
1919:135). Compound decoction of blossoms used as mouthwash for teething children (Densmore 1928:342). Blossoms
chewed for sore mouth (Gilmore 1919:135). Compound decoction of flower used as a mouthwash for teething child
(Densmore 1928:342). Infusion of plants taken for asthma (Gilmore 1919:135); Creek: Decoction of root taken for
dysentery (Swanton 1928:659, 177:36). Leaves mixed with tobacco and smoked for "all cephalitic and pectoral complaints"
(Swanton 1928:659); Flathead: Fruits used as purgative. Infusion of green or dried branches taken for tuberculosis (82:55);
Kiowa: Plant used for tuberculosis (Vestal and Schultes 1939:37); Kutenai: Roots squeezed and juice swallowed for sore
throat (82:55); Meskwaki: Root bark used as a rubefacient, to raise a blister on the patient. Decoction of root taken as an
appetizer by invalids (Smith 1928:200); Micmac: Parts of plant used for earaches (Chandler et al. 1979:60); Nez Perce:
Leaves moistened and used for skin rashes (82:55). Ojibwa: Bark and berries used in medicine ceremonies (Reagan
1928:234). Inner bark of trunk or twig used in compounds as astringents. Infusion of blossoms used as a wash for sore
eyes. Infusion of root bark used as a "hemostatic" (Smith 1932:354). Bark and berries used for medicinal purposes (Reagan
1928:234). Poultice of leaves used for unspecified conditions (Smith 1932:354); Okanagan-Colville: Decoction of
branches with seed heads used for an itchy scalp condition. Milky latex used as a salve on sores. Decoction of seed heads
taken by women during childbirth. Infusion of bark and/or roots taken and applied externally to the chest for a ""tight
chest." Decoction of branches with seed heads used as bathing water for frost-bitten limbs. Decoction of seed heads used as
bathing water for gonorrhea (Turner et al. 1980:59); Okanagon: Root chewed for sore mouth or tongue (Perry 1952:41);
Omaha: Decoction of root taken for painful urination and retention of urine (Gilmore 1919:99,100). Poultice of plants
applied for poisoning (Gilmore 1913:335). Infusion used as wash for sores and powdered plants applied to wounds and
open sores (Gilmore 1913:334). Poultice of leaves or fruits applied "in case of poising of the skin." Decoction of root taken
"in case of retention of urine." Decoction of root used as a postpartum styptic wash. Decoction of fruits used as a
postpartum styptic wash. Decoction of root taken for painful urination and retention of urine; Pawnee: Decoction of fruit
used for "bloody flux." Decoction of fruit used for dysmenorrhea (Guedon 1974:99, 100); Sanpoil: Mashed leaves rubbed
on sore lips. Leaves chewed and held in the mouth for sore gums (Ray 1932:219); Sioux: Decoction of fruits used by
women for hemorrhaging after parturition. Poultice of bruised and wetted leaves or fruits used for poisoned skin. Infusion
of roots used for urine retention and painful urination (82:55); Thompson: Decoction of shredded bark with another plant
taken for ulcers. Infusion of plant used after internal surgery, to make the wounds heal faster (Turner et al. 1990:149). Root
chewed for sore mouth or tongue (Perry 1952:41, 164:466). Decoction of plant considered poisonous if too strong or taken
in large dose (Steedman 1928:512). Decoction of stems and roots taken for syphilis (Steedman 1928:466). Houma:
Decoction of leaves taken as a tonic and "rejuvenator" (Speck 1941:59); Kiowa: Plant used for running or nonhealing
sores. Whole or broken leaves rubbed over boils or skin eruptions (as Vestal 1932:38); Navajo, Ramah: Compound
containing plant used to poison arrows (Vestal 1952:35); Thompson: Plant considered poisonous because it caused skin
irritations. One informant said that it affected her eyes, causing temporary blindness (as R.r.187:149). Toxicodendron
rydbergii- Lakota: poisonous plant caused a rash resembling venereal disease (Rogers 1980:33). Toxicodendron vernixChippewa: Plant considered poisonous ( as R. v. 71:135).
Other Regions (Moreman 1995)
Common
Name
berry
rush
wheat
blueberry
Taxonomic
Identification
Rubus sp.
Scirpus sp.
Triticum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Rubus sp.- Carrier: Decoction of stems taken by women with sickness in their womb (Carrier 1973:79); Carrier,
Northern: Compound decoction of inner bark taken for body sores. Compound decoction of inner bark taken for paralysis.
Compound decoction of inner bark taken for constitutional weakness (150:58); Choctaw: Infusion of roots taken for
dysentery. Decoction of roots taken as a tonic to improve circulation (Taylor 1940:29); Eskimo, Western: Berries eaten
for diarrhea (Lantis 1959:15); Klallam: Roots used for colds (Gunther 1973:36); Malecite: Infusion of 1 -foot section of
tree used by children with diarrhea (Mechling 1959:255); Rubus allegheniensis- Chippewa: Infusion of roots taken for
diarrhea. Infusion of roots taken by pregnant women threatened with miscarriage (Guedon 1974:133); Menominee:
Infusion of root used as a wash for sore eyes. Poultice of infusion of root used for unspecified ailments (Smith 1923:50);
Meskwaki: Decoction of root used as an antidote for poison. Root extract used for sore eyes and stomach trouble (Smith
1928:243); Ojibwa: Infusion of root used to "arrest flux." Decoction of canes taken as a diuretic (Smith 1932:385, 386).
Potawatomi: Root bark used by the Prairie Potawatomi for sore eyes (Smith 1933:79). Rubus canadensis- Delaware,
Oklahoma: Vine and berries used for dysentery (Tantaquidgeon 1942:78); Menominee: Simple or compound decoction
of root used for dysentery (Densmore 1932:131). Rubus frondosus- Chippewa: Decoction of root taken for "stoppage of
periods" (Densmore 1928:358). Compound decoction of root taken for lung trouble (Densmore 1928:340). Cree,
Woodlands: Decoction of stem and upper part of the roots used to help a woman recover after childbirth, and to slow
menstrual bleeding. Fruit used as a heart medicine. Decoction of stem and upper part of the roots used for teething sickness
(Leighton 1985:57); Menominee: Root used as a seasoner for medicines (Smith 1923:50); Okanagan- Colville:
Decoction of branches taken for diarrhea. Decoction of branches taken as a physic. Decoction of branches taken for
heartburn. Decoction of roots taken for constipation (188131). Rubus occidentalis- Chippewa: Compound decoction of
root taken for back pain (Densmore 1928:356); Menominee: Root used with Hypericum sp. for consumption in the first
stages (Smith 1923:50); Ojibwa, South: Decoction of scraped root given to children for bowel trouble (Gilmore
1919:84,85). Rubus pubescens - Okanagon: Decoction of leaves taken for vomiting of blood and blood-spitting.
Decoction of leaves taken as a stomach tonic; Thompson: Decoction of leaves taken for vomiting of blood and bloodspitting. Decoction of leaves taken as a stomach tonic. (Perry 1952:41,164:466). Decoction of root taken as tonic for
stomach (Steedman 1928:466).
Scirpus sp. - Houma: Decoction of plant used as a wash for weak legs and given to nervous, fretful, crying children (Speck
1941:60).
Elymus sp. - Comanche: Single looped blades used as eye scrapers for removing cataracts (Jones 1986:5).
Vaccinium sp.- Eskimo, Western: Decoction of berries taken for diarrhea (Lantis 1959:15). Makah: Infusion of leaves
used for kidney disorders (Gill 1983:310). Chippewa: Dried flowers placed on hot stones as inhalant for "craziness"
(Densmore 1928:338); Ojibwa: Infusion of leaves taken as a blood purifier (as V. pennsylvanicum153:369). Vaccinium
macrocarpon- Montagnais: Infusion of branches used as a medicine for pleurisy (as Oxycoccus macrocarpus Speck
1917:316). Vaccinium myrtilloides - Cree, Woodlands: Decoction of leafy stems, or of plant, used to bring menstruation.
Decoction of stems used to prevent pregnancy. Decoction of stems used to prevent pregnancy. Decoction of leafy stem, or
of plant used to make a person sweat. Decoction of leafy stems, or of plant, used as a "woman's medicine," used to bring
Other Regions (Moreman 1995)
Common
Name
viburnum
vetch
violet
grape
corn
Taxonomic
Identification
Vaccinium sp.
(continued)
Viburnum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Zea mays
blood after childbirth, and used to slow excessive menstrual bleeding. Decoction of leafy stems taken to prevent
miscarriage. Decoction of plant taken to prevent miscarriage (Leighton 1985:63); Potawatomi: Root bark used for
unspecified ailment (as V.canadense Smith 1933:57). Ojibwa: Infusion of plant taken by person with slight nausea (Smith
1932:369). Vaccinium vitis-idaea- Tanna, Upper: Berries eaten raw or juice used for colds and coughs. Berries chewed
or juice gargled for sore throat (Kari 1985:9).
Viburnum acerifolium - Chippewa: Decoction of inner bark taken for cramps (Densmore 1928:344). Compound
decoction of scraped inner bark taken as an emetic. Cool infusion of bark taken as an emetic (Densmore 1928:346).
Decoction of inner bark taken for stomach cramps (Densmore 1928:344); Menominee: Infusion of inner bark taken for
cramps (Smith 1923:29). Infusion of inner bark taken for colic (Smith 1923:28). Viburnum lentago- Chippewa: Infusion
of leaves taken or poultice leaves applied for dysuria (Gilmore 1919:142); Malecite: Infusion of roots used for irregular
menstruation (Mechling 1959:258); Micmac: Roots used for irregular menstruation (Chandler et al. 1979:63); Ojibwa:
Infusion of inner bark used as a diuretic (Smith 1932:361). Viburnum opulus- Meskwaki: Decoction of root taken by
"one who feels pain over his entire body" (Smith 1928:208); Micmac: Bark used for swollen glands and mumps (Chandler
et al. 1979:63); Montagnais: Decoction of plant used as a salve for sore eyes (Speck 1917:316); Viburnum prunifoliumDelaware, Oklahoma: Compound containing root bark used as a tonic for the "female generative organs" (Tantaquidgeon
1942:26, 80); Micmac: Infusion of plant taken before and during parturition (194:28).
Vicia faba- Navajo: Plant used in the coyote Chant for medicine. Plant considered poisonous (Elmore 1955:59). Vicia
sativa- Snohomish: Infusion of plant used on the hair for headaches (as V.ngustifolia 79:39).
Viola sp.- Costanoan: Plant used as a salve and poultice of boiled plant applied to sores (Bocek 1984:9); Thompson:
Infusion of mashed leaves and stalks used as a medicine for dogs. Juice used in dogs' noses to clear out the nostrils and
enable them to track deer better (Turner et al. 1990:291). Viola canadensis- Ojibwa, South: Decoction of root used for
pains near the bladder (Hoffman 1891:201). Viola cucullata- Ute: Roots used as a medicine (Chamberlin 1909:37). Viola
nephrophylla- Navajo, Ramah: Plant seed as a ceremonial emetic (Vestal 1952:36). Viola pubesens - Ojibwa, South:
Decoction of root taken in small doses for sore throat (Hoffman 1891:201); Potawatomi: Root used for various hear
diseases (Smith 1933:87,88).
Vitis aestivalis-Choctaw: Used as a "refrigerant." "Water of the grape vine" taken and used as a wash to induce lactation.
Used as a tonic (Campbell 1951:287).
Kres, Western: Pollen eaten for almost any kind of medicine (Swank 1932:77); Navajo: Poultice of plant applied as
ceremonial medicine for sore throats. Leaves used in mixture for the Night Chant medicine. One part of the Night Chant
medicine consists of "blue pollen," wild plants, and tobacco to which was added the leaves from the southwest, watermelon
leaves from the northwest, and muskmelon leaves from the northeast. Poultice of plant applied as ceremonial medicine for
sore throats (Elmore 1955:27); Tewa: Blue cornmeal and water used for "palpitations for pains." Warm ear of corn rubbed
with foot for child's glandular swelling in neck. Black corn with red streaks good for menstruating women. Blue cornmeal
and water used for "heart-sickness," "palpitations or pains" (Robbins et al. 1916:97).
Other Regions (Moreman 1995)
Plant Taxa listed in the USDA Plant Database in Connecticut Not Recorded in Native American
Medicinal Practices
1) Acalypha gracilens (slender threeseed mercury); Acalypha rhomboidea (common threeseed mercury)
2)
Asclepias amplexicaulis (clasping milkweed); Asclepias purpurascens (purple milkweed)
3) Carex abscondita (thicket sedge); Carex acutiformis (lesser pond sedge); Carex aestivalis (summer
sedge); Carex alata (broadwing sedge); Carex albicans (whitetinge sedge); Carex albolutescens
(greenwhite sedge); Carex albursina (white bear sedge); Carex alopecoidea (foxtail sedge); Carex
amphibola (eastern narrowleaf sedge); Carex annectens (yellowfruit sedge); Carex appalachica
(Appalachian sedge); Carex aquatilis (water sedge); Carex arctata (dropping woodland sedge); Carex
argyrantha (hay sedge); Carex atlantica (prickly bog sedge); Carex aurea (golden sedge); Carex
backii (Back's sedge); Carex baileyi (Bailey's sedge); Carex barrattii (Barratt's sedge); Carex bebbii
(Bebb's sedge); Carex bicknellii (Bicknell's sedge); Carex blanda (eastern woodland sedge); Carex
bromoides (brome-like sedge); Carex brunnescens (brownish sedge); Carex bullata (button sedge);
Carex bushii (Bush's sedge); Carex buxbaumii (Buxbaum's sedge); Carex canescens (silvery sedge);
Carex castanea (chestnut sedge); Carex cephaloidea (thinleaf sedge); Carex cephalophora (oval-leaf
sedge); Carex collinsii (Collins' sedge); Carex communis (fibrousroot sedge); Carex comosa (longhair
sedge); Carex conoidea (openfield sedge); Carex crawei (Crawe's sedge); Carex crawfordii
(Crawford's sedge); Carex crinita (frindged sedge); Carex cristatella (crested sedge); Carex
cryptolepis (northeastern sedge); Carex cumulata (clustered sedge); Carex davisii (Davis' sedge);
Carex debilis (white edge sedge); Carex deweyana (Dewy sedge); Carex diandra (lesser panicled
sedge); Carex digitalis (slender woodland sedge); Carex disperma (softleaf sedge); Carex eburnea
(bristleleaf sedge); Carex echinata (star sedge); Carex emoryi (Emory's sedge); Carex exilis (coastal
sedge); Carex festucacea (fescue sedge); Carex flava (yellow sedge); Carex folliculata (northern long
sedge); Carex formosa (handsome sedge); Carex glaucodea (blue sedge); Carex gracilescens (slender
looseflower sedge); Carex gracillimia (graceful sedge); Carex granularis (limestone meadow sedge);
Carex grayi (Gray's sedge); Carex grisea (inflated narrow-leaf sedge); Carex gynandra (nodding
sedge); Carex haydenii (Hayden's sedge); Carex hirsutella (fuzzy wuzzy sedge); Carex hirta (hammer
sedge); Carex hirtifolia (pubescent sedge); Carex hitchcockiana (Hitchcock's sedge); Carex
hormathodes (marsh straw sedge); Carex hystericina (bottlebrush sedge); Carex interior (inland
sedge); Carex intumescens (greater bladder sedge); Carex lacustris (hairy sedge); Carex laevivaginata
(smoothshearth sedge); Carex lapponica (Lapland sedge); Carex lasiocarpa (woollyfruit sedge); Carex
laxiculmis (spreading sedge); Carex laxiflora (broad looseflower sedge); Carex leptalea (bristlystalked
sedge); Carex leptonervia (nerveless woodland sedge); Carex limosa (mud sedge); Carex livida (livid
sedge); Carex longii (Long's sedge); Carex lucorum (Blue Ridge sedge); Carex lupuliformis (false hop
sedge); Carex lupulina (hop sedge); Carex lurida (shallow sedge); Carex magellanica (boreal bog
sedge); Carex merritt-fernaldii (Fernald'a sedge); Carex mesochorea (midland sedge); Carex molesta
(troublesome sedge); Carex muehlenbergii (Muhlenberg's sedge); Carex nigra (smooth black sedge);
Carex nigromarginata (black edge sedge); Carex normalis (greater straw sedge); Carex novae-angliae
(New England sedge); Carex oligocarpa (richwoods sedge); Carex ormostachya (necklace spike
sedge); Carex pallescens (pale sedge); carex panicea (grass-like sedge); Carex pauciflora (fewflower
sedge); Carex pedunculata (longstalk sedge); Carex pellita (woolly sedge); Carex pensylvanica
(Pennsylvania sedge); Carex polymorpha (variable sedge); Carex prairea (prairie sedge); Carex
projecta (necklace sedge); Carex pseudocyperus (cypress-like sedge); Carex radiata (eastern star
sedge); Carex retroflexa (reflexed sedge); Carex retrorsa (knotsheath sedge); Carex rosea (rosy
sedge); Carex scabrata (eastern rough sedge); Carex schweinitzii (Schweinitz's sedge); Carex scoparia
(broom sedge); Carex seorsa (weak stellate sedge); Carex siccata (dryspike sedge); Carex silicea
(beach sedge); Carex sparganioides (bur-reed sedge); Carex spicata (prickly sedge); Carex sprengelii
(Sprengel's sedge); Carex squarrosa (squarrose sedge); Carex sterilis (dioecious sedge); Carex stipata
(awlfruit sedge); Carex straminea (eastern straw sedge); Carex striatula (lined sedge); Carex stricta
(upright sedge); Carex styloflexa (bent sedge); Carex swanii (Swan's sedge); Carex tenera (quill
sedge); Carex tetanica (rigid sedge); Carex tincta (tinged sedge); Carex tonsa (shaved sedge); Carex
torta (twisted sedge); Carex tribuloides (blunt broom sedge); Carex trichocarpa (hairyfuirt sedge);
Carex trisperma (threeseeded sedge); Carex tuckermanii (Tukerman's sedge); Carex typhina (cattail
sedge); Carex umbellata (parasol sedge); Carex vesicaria (blister sedge); Carex vestita (velvet sedge);
Carex virescens (ribbed sedge); Carex viridula (little green sedge); Carex willdenowii (Willdenow's
sedge); Carex woodii (pretty sedge)
4) Carya glabra (pignut hickory); Carya ovalis (red hickory)
5) Amaranthus albus (prostrate pigweed); Amaranthus blitoides (mat amaranth); Amaranthus blitum
(purple amaranth); Amaranthus cannabinus (tidalmarsh amaranth); Amaranthus caudatus (love-lies
bleeding); Amaranthus cruentus (red amaranth); Amaranthus powellii (Powell's amaranth);
Amaranthus pumilus (seaside amaranth); Amaranthus tuberculatus (roughfruit amaranth);
Chenopodium berlandieri (pitseed goosefoot); Chenopodium bonus-henricus (good King Henry);
Chenopodium glaucum (oakleaf goosefoot);
Chenopodium murale (nettleleaf goosefoot);
Chenopodium pratericola (desert goosefoot); Chenopodium rubrum (red goosefoot); Chenopodium
simplex (mapleleaf goosefoot); Chenopodium standleyanum (Standley's goosefoot); Chenopodium
urbicum (city goosefoot)
6) Cornus obliqua (silky dogwood)
7) Crataegus anomala (Arnold hawthorne); Crataegus brainerdii (Brainerd's hawthorne); Crataegus
compta (adorned hawthorn); Crataegus crus-galli (cockspur hawthorn); Crataegus dilatata (broadleaf
hawthorn); Crataegus dissona (northern hawthorn); Crataegus dodgei (Dodge's hawthorn); Crataegus
flabellata (fanleaf hawthorn); Crataegus holmesiana (Holmes' hawthorne); Crataegus intricata
(Copenhagen hawthorne); Crrataegus iracunda (stolonbearing hawthorn); Crataegus jesupii (Jesup's
hawthorn); Crategus lucorum (grove hawthorn); Crataegus lumaria (roundleaf hawthorn); Crataegus
macrosperma (bigfruit hawthorn); Crataegus membranacea (tissueleaf hawthorn); Crataegus mollis
(downy hawthorn); Crataegus monogyna (oneseed hawthorn); Crataegus pedicellata (scarlet
hawthorn); Crataegus pequotorum (Connecticut hawthorn); Crataegus pringlei (Pringle's hawthorn);
Crataegus pruinosa (waxyfruit hawthorn); Crataegus scabrida (rough hawthorn); Crataegus schuettei
(Schuette's hawthorn); Crataegus spatiosa (New London hawthorn); Crataegus suborbiculata
(Caughuawaga hawthorn); Crataegus succulenta (fleshy hawthorn)
8) Cyperus amuricus (Asian flatsedge); Cyperus bipartitus (slender flatsedge); Cyperus dentatus (toothed
flatsedge); Cyperus diandrus (umbrella flatsedge); Cyperus echinatus (globe flatsedge); Cyperus
erythrorhizos (redroot flatsedge); Cyperus filicinus (fern flatsedge); Cyperus fuscus (brown flatsedge);
Cyperus grayi (Gray's flatsedge); Cyperus lupulinus (Great Plains flatsedge); Cyperus odoratus
(fragrant flatsedge); Cyperus squarrosus (bearded flatsedge); Cyperus strigosus (strawcolored
flatsedge); Kyllinga gracillima (pasture spikesedge)
9) Galium album (white bedstraw); Galium glaucum (waxy bedstraw); Galium labradoricum (northern
bog bedstraw); Galium lanceolatum (lanceleaf wild licorice); Galium mollugo (false baby's breath);
Galium obtusum (bluntleaf bedstraw); Galium palustre (common marsh bedstraw); Galium pilosum
(hairy bedstraw); Galium sylvaticum (Scotch mist); Galium verum (Yellow Spring bedstraw)
10) Gaylussacia dumosa (dwarf huckleberry); Gaylussacia frondosa (blue huckleberry)
11) Ilex glabra (inkberry); Ilex laevigata (smooth winterberry); Ilex montana (mountain holly); Ilex
mucronata (catberry);
12) Juncus acuminatus (tapertip rush); Juncus ambiguus (seasice rush); Juncus anthelatus (greater poverty
rush); Juncus articulatus (jointleaf rush); Juncus brachycarpus (whiteroot rush); Juncus
brachycephalus (smallhead rush); Juncus brevicaudatus (narrowpanicle rush); Juncus canadensis
(Canadian rush); Juncus debilis (weak rush); Juncus dichotomus (forked rush); Juncus diffusissimus
(simpod rush); Juncus dudleyi (Dudley's rush; Juncus gerardii (saltmeadow rush); Juncus greenei
(Greene's rush); Juncus marginatus (grassleaf rush); Juncus militaris (bayonet rush); Juncus nodosus
(knotted rush); Juncus pelocarpus (brownfruit rush); Juncus secundus (lopsided rush); Juncus
subcaudatus (woodland rush); Luzula multiflora (common woodrush)
13) Lactuca hirsuta (hairy lettuce)
14) Polygonella articulata (coastal jointweed); Polygonum achoreum (leathery knotweed); Polygonum
arifolium (halberdleaf tearthumb); Polygonum bellardii (narrowleaf knotweed); Polygonum buxiforme
(box knotweed); Polygonum cespitosum (Oriental lady's thumb); Polygonum cilinode (fringed black
bindweed); Polygonum convolvulus (black bindweed); Polygonum cuspidatum (Japanese knotweed);
Polygonum erectum (erect knotweed); Polygonum glaucum (seaside knotweed); Polygonum
hydropiperoides (swamp smartweed); Polygonum minus (pgymy smartweed); Polygonum nepalense
(Nepalese smartweed); Polygonum orientale (kiss me over the garden gate); Polygonum robustius
(stout smartweed); Polygonum sachalinense (giant knotweed); Polygonum sagittatum (arrowleaf
tearthumb); Polygonum scandens (climbing false buckwheat); Polygonum tenue (pleatleaf knotweed)
15) Portulaca gradiflora (rose moss);
16) Myriophyllum pinnatum (cutleaf watermilfoil); Potamogeton alpinus (alpine pondweed); Potamogeton
amplifolius (largeleaf pondweed); Potamogeton bicupulatus (snailseed pondweed); Pontamogeton
confervoides (Tuckerman's pondweed); Potamogeton crispus (curly pondweed); Potamogeton
diversifolius (waterthread pondweed); Potamogeton epihydrus (ribbonleaf pondweed); Potamogeton
foliosus (leafy pondweed); Potamogeton friesii (Fries' pondweed); Potamogeton gramineus
(variableleaf pondweed); Potamogeton hillii (Hill's pondweed); Potamogeton illinoensis (Illinois
pondweedPotamogeton nodosus (longleaf pondweed); Potamogeton oakesianus (Oakes' pondweed);
Potamogeton obtusifolius (bluntleaf pondweed); Potamogeton ogdenii (Ogden's pondweed);
Potamogeton perfoliatus (claspingleaf pondweed); Potamogeton praelongus (whitesterm pondweed);
Pontamogeton pulcher (spotted pondweed); Potamogeton pusillus (small pondweed); Pontamogeton
richardsonii (Richardson's pondweed); Potamogeton robbinsii (Robbins' pondweed); Potamogeton
spirillus (spiral pondweed); Potamogeton strictifolius (narrowleaf pondweed); Potamogeton vaseyi
(vasey's); Potamogeton zosteriformis (flatsterm pondweed); Stuckenia pectinata (sago pondweed)
17) Prunus alleghaniensis (Allegheny plum); Prunus domestica (European plum); Prunus mahaleb
(Mahaleb cherry); Prunus maritima (beach plum); Prunus spinosa (blackthorn); Prunus susquehanae
(Sesquehana sandcherry);
18) Quercus prinoides (dwarf chinkapin oak); Quercus prinus (chestnut oak);
19) Cotinus coggygria (European smoketree); Rhus typhina (staghorn sumac);
20) Dalibarda repens (robin runaway); Rubus alumnus (oldfield blackberry); Rubus andrewsianus
(Andrews' blackberry); Rubus arenicola (sanddwelling dewberry); Rubus baileyanus (Bailey's
dewberry); Rubus bigelovianus (lowland blackberry); Rubus dissimilis (bristly Oswego blackberry);
Rubus elegantulus (showy blackberry); Rubus floricomus (manyflower blackberrry); Rubus fraternalis
(northeastern dewberry); Rubus gnarus (Pollock's Mill blackberry); Rubus hispidus (bristly dewberry);
Rubus illecebrosus (strawberry raspberry); Rubus insons (New England blackberry); Rubus insulanus
(island blackberry); Rubus multifer (kinnickinnick dewberry); Rubus multispinus (devil's blackberry);
Rubus notatus (bristle berry); Rubus novanglicus (New England dewberry); Rubus obsessus (New
York dewberry); Rubus parlinii (Parlin's dewberry); Rubus particeps (Kingston dewberry); Rubus
pensilvanicus (Pennsylvania blackberry); Rubus pergratus (upland blackberry); Rubus philadelphicus
(Philadelphia blackberry); Rubus phoenicolasius (wine raspberry); Rubus plicatifolius (plaitleaf
dewberry); Rubus positivus (New London dewberry); Rubus pugnax (pugnancious blackberry); Rubus
recurvans (recurved blackberry); Rubus recurvicaulis (arching dewberry); Rubus rosa (rose
blackberry); Rubus rossbergianus (Connecticut blackberry); Rubus saltuensis (Tolland County
blackberry); Rubus semisetosus (swamp blackberry); Rubus setosus (setose blackberry); Rubus
vermontanus (Vermont blackberry)
21) Bulbostylis capillaris (densetuft hairsedge); Eleocharis equisetoides (jointed spikesedge); Eleocharis
erythropoda (bald spikerush); Eleocharis obtusa (blunt spikerush); Eleocharis ovata (ovate spikerush);
Eleocharis palustris (common spikerush); Eleocharis parvula (dwarf spikerush); Eleocharis
quadrangulata (squarestem spikerush); Eleocharis rostellata (beaked spikerush); Eleocharis tenuis
(slender spikerush); Eleocharis tuberculosa (cone-cup spikerush); Fimbristylis autumnalis (slender
fimbry); Lipocarpha micrantha (smallflower halfchaff sedge); Schoenoplectus acutus (hardstem
bulrush); Schoenoplectus americanus (chairmaker's bulrush); Schoenoplectus fluviatilis (river bulrush);
Schoenoplectus maritimus (cosmopolitan bulrush); Schoenoplectus novae-angliae (New England
bulrush); Schoenoplectus pungens (common threesquare); Schoenoplectus purshianus (weakstalk
bulrush); Schoenoplectus robustus (sturdy bulrush); Schoenoplectus smithii (Smith's bulrush);
Schoenoplectus subterminalis (swaying bulrush); Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani (softstem bulrush);
Schoenoplectus torreyi (Torrey's bulrush); Scirpus atrocinctus (blackgirdle bulrush); Scirpus
atrovirens (green bulrush); Scirpus cyperinus (woolgrass); Scirpus expansus (woodland bulrush);
Scirpus georgianus (Georgia bulrush); Scirpus hattorianus (mosquito bulrush); Scirpus longii (Long's
bulrush); Scirpus microcarpus (panicled bulrush); Scirpus pedicellatus (stalked bulrush); Scirpus
pendulus (rufous bulrush); Scirpus polyphyllus (leafy bulrush); Trichophorum alpinu (alpine bulrush);
Trichophorum planifolium (bashful bulrush)
22) Elymus repens (quackgrass); Elymus trachycaulus (slender wheatgrass); Secale cereale (cereal rye)
23) Ilex mucronata (catberry); Vaccinium corymbosum (highbush blueberry); Vaccinium fuscatum (black
highbush blueberry); Vaccinium pallidum (Blue Ridge blueberry); Vaccinium stamineum (deerberry)
24) Viburnum dentatum (sounther arrowwood); Viburnum lantana (wayfaringtree); Viburnum plicatum
(Japanese snowball); Viburnum rafinesqueanum (downy arrowwood); Viburnum recognitum (southern
arrrowwood); Viburnum setigerum (tea viburnum); Viburnum sieboldii (Siebold's arrowwood)
25) Vicia cracca (bird vetch); Vicia hirsuta (tiny vetch); Vicia pannonica (Hungarian vetch); Vicia
tetrasperma (lentil vetch);
26) Hybanthus concolor (eastern greenviolet); Viola affinis (sand violent); Viola arvensis (European field
pansy); Viola blanda (sweet white violet); Viola brittoniana (northern coastal violet); Viola hirsutula
(southern woodland violet); Viola labradorica (alpine violet); Viola lanceolata (bog white violet);
Viola macloskeyi (small white violet); Viola odorata (sweet violet); Viola renifolia (white violet);
Viola rostrata (longspur violet); Viola selkirkii (Selkirk's violet); Viola septentrionalis (northern
woodland violet); Viola tricolor (johnny jumpup); Viola triloba (three-lobe violet)
27) Parthenocissus quinquefolia (Virginia creeper); Vitis palmata (catbird grape); Vitis riparia (riverbank
grape)
!""#$%&'(%(
(
)!*&+!+(,!+#-./&0!+&.$(.1("2!$+(+3"#4!
309
!
Acalypha sp.
Contemporary Species Identified in CT (Based Upon USDA Plants
Database) Used for Habitat Categorization (Information Not Present in
Individual Charts for Each Habitat)
3 SPECIES: Acalypha gracilens (slender threeseed mercury); Acalypha
rhomboidea (common threeseed mercury); Acalypha virginica (Virginia
threeseed mercury)
Asclepias sp.
9 SPECIES: Asclepias amplexicaulis (clasping milkweed); Asclepias exaltata
(poke milkweed); Asclepias incarnata (swamp milkweed); Asclepias
purpurascens (purple milkweed); Asclepias quadrifolia (fourleaf milkweed);
Asclepias syriaca (common milkweed); Asclepias tuberosa (butterfly
milkweed); Asclepias verticillata (whorled milkweed); Asclepias viridiflora
(green comet mildweed)
Carex sp.
151 SPECIES: Carex abscondita (thicket sedge); Carex acutiformis (lesser
pond sedge); Carex aestivalis (summer sedge); Carex alata (broadwing
sedge); Carex albicans (whitetinge sedge); Carex albolutescens (greenwhite
sedge); Carex albursina (white bear sedge); Carex alopecoidea (foxtail sedge);
Carex amphibola (eastern narrowleaf sedge); Carex annectens (yellowfruit
sedge); Carex appalachica (Appalachian sedge); Carex aquatilis (water
sedge); Carex arctata (dropping woodland sedge); Carex argyrantha (hay
sedge); Carex atlantica (prickly bog sedge); Carex aurea (golden sedge);
Carex backii (Back's sedge); Carex baileyi (Bailey's sedge); Carex barrattii
(Barratt's sedge); Carex bebbii (Bebb's sedge); Carex bicknellii (Bicknell's
sedge); Carex blanda (eastern woodland sedge); Carex brevior (shortbeak
sedge); Carex bromoides (brome-like sedge); Carex brunnescens (brownish
sedge); Carex bullata (button sedge); Carex bushii (Bush's sedge); Carex
buxbaumii (Buxbaum's sedge); Carex canescens (silvery sedge); Carex
castanea (chestnut sedge); Carex cephaloidea (thinleaf sedge); Carex
cephalophora (oval-leaf sedge); Carex collinsii (Collins' sedge); Carex
communis (fibrousroot sedge); Carex comosa (longhair sedge); Carex
conoidea (openfield sedge); Carex crawei (Crawe's sedge); Carex crawfordii
(Crawford's sedge); Carex crinita (frindged sedge); Carex cristatella (crested
sedge); Carex cryptolepis (northeastern sedge); Carex cumulata (clustered
sedge); Carex davisii (Davis' sedge); Carex debilis (white edge sedge); Carex
deweyana (Dewy sedge); Carex diandra (lesser panicled sedge); Carex
digitalis (slender woodland sedge); Carex Disperma (softleaf sedge); Carex
eburnea (bristleleaf sedge); Carex echinata (star sedge); Carex emoryi
(Emory's sedge); Carex exilis (coastal sedge); Carex festucacea (fescue
sedge); Carex flava (yellow sedge); Carex folliculata (northern long sedge);
Carex formosa (handsome sedge); Carex glaucodea (blue sedge); Carex
gracilescens (slender looseflower sedge); Carex gracillimia (graceful sedge);
Carex granularis (limestone meadow sedge); Carex grayi (Gray's sedge);
Carex grisea (inflated narrow-leaf sedge); Carex gynandra (nodding sedge);
Carex haydenii (Hayden's sedge); Carex hirsutella (fuzzy wuzzy sedge);
Carex hirta (hammer sedge); Carex hirtifolia (pubescent sedge); Carex
hitchcockiana (Hitchcock's sedge); Carex hormathodes (marsh straw sedge);
Carex hystericina (bottlebrush sedge); Carex interior (inland sedge); Carex
intumescens (greater bladder sedge); Carex lacustris (hairy sedge); Carex
laevivaginata (smoothshearth sedge); Carex lapponica (Lapland sedge); Carex
lasiocarpa (woollyfruit sedge); Carex laxiculmis (spreading sedge); Carex
Carpinus
caroliniana
Carya sp.
Chenopodium
- Amaranthus
sp.
laxiflora (broad looseflower sedge); Carex leptalea (bristlystalked sedge);
Carex leptonervia (nerveless woodland sedge); Carex limosa (mud sedge);
Carex livida (livid sedge); Carex longii (Long's sedge); Carex lucorum (Blue
Ridge sedge); Carex lupuliformis (false hop sedge); Carex lupulina (hop
sedge); Carex lurida (shallow sedge); Carex magellanica (boreal bog sedge);
Carex merritt-fernaldii (Fernald'a sedge); Carex mesochorea (midland sedge);
Carex molesta (troublesome sedge); Carex muehlenbergii (Muhlenberg's
sedge); Carex nigra (smooth black sedge); Carex nigromarginata (black edge
sedge); Carex normalis (greater straw sedge); Carex novae-angliae (New
England sedge); Carex oligocarpa (richwoods sedge); Carex oligosperma
(fewseed sedge); Carex ormostachya (necklace spike sedge); Carex pallescens
(pale sedge); carex panicea (grass-like sedge); Carex pauciflora (fewflower
sedge); Carex pedunculata (longstalk sedge); Carex pellita (woolly sedge);
Carex pensylvanica (Pennsylvania sedge); Carex plantaginea (plantainleaf
sedge); Carex platyphylla (broadleaf sedge); Carex polymorpha (variable
sedge); Carex prairea (prairie sedge); Carex prasina (drooping sedge); Carex
projecta (necklace sedge); Carex pseudocyperus (cypress-like sedge); Carex
radiata (eastern star sedge); Carex retroflexa (reflexed sedge); Carex retrorsa
(knotsheath sedge); Carex rosea (rosy sedge); Carex scabrata (eastern rough
sedge); Carex schweinitzii (Schweinitz's sedge); Carex scoparia (broom
sedge); Carex seorsa (weak stellate sedge); Carex siccata (dryspike sedge);
Carex silicea (beach sedge); Carex sparganioides (bur-reed sedge); Carex
spicata (prickly sedge); Carex sprengelii (Sprengel's sedge); Carex squarrosa
(squarrose sedge); Carex sterilis (dioecious sedge); Carex stipata (awlfruit
sedge); Carex straminea (eastern straw sedge); Carex striatula (lined sedge);
Carex stricta (upright sedge); Carex styloflexa (bent sedge); Carex swanii
(Swan's sedge); Carex tenera (quill sedge); Carex tetanica (rigid sedge);
Carex tincta (tinged sedge); Carex tonsa (shaved sedge); Carex torta (twisted
sedge); Carex tribuloides (blunt broom sedge); Carex trichocarpa (hairyfuirt
sedge); Carex trisperma (threeseeded sedge); Carex tuckermanii (Tukerman's
sedge); Carex typhina (cattail sedge); Carex umbellata (parasol sedge); Carex
utriculata (Northwest Territory sedge); Carex vesicaria (blister sedge); Carex
vestita (velvet sedge); Carex virescens (ribbed sedge); Carex viridula (little
green sedge); Carex vulpinoidea (fox sedge); Carex willdenowii (Willdenow's
sedge); Carex woodii (pretty sedge)
SAME
5 SPECIES: Carya alba (mockernut hickory); Carya cordiformis (bitternut
hickory); Carya glabra (pignut hickory); Carya ovalis (red hickory); Carya
ovata (shagbark hickory)
25 SPECIES: Amaranthus albus (prostrate pigweed); Amaranthus blitoides
(mat amaranth); Amaranthus blitum (purple amaranth); Amaranthus
cannabinus (tidalmarsh amaranth); Amaranthus caudatus (love-lies bleeding);
Amaranthus cruentus (red amaranth); Amaranthus hybridus (slim amaranth);
Amaranthus powellii (Powell's amaranth); Amaranthus pumilus (seaside
Comptonia
peregrina
Cornus sp.
Corylus sp.
amaranth); Amaranthus retroflexus (redroot amaranth); Amaranthus spinosus
(spiny amaranth); Amaranthus tuberculatus (roughfruit amaranth);
Chenopodium album (lambsquarter); Chenopodium ambrosiodes (Mexican
tea); Chenopodium berlandieri (pitseed goosefoot); Chenopodium bonushenricus (good King Henry); Chenopodium botrys (Jerusalem oak goosefoot);
Chenopodium capitatum (blite goosefoot); Chenopodium glaucum (oakleaf
goosefoot); Chenopodium murale (nettleleaf goosefoot); Chenopodium
pratericola (desert goosefoot); Chenopodium rubrum (red goosefoot);
Chenopodium simplex (mapleleaf goosefoot); Chenopodium standleyanum
(Standley's goosefoot); Chenopodium urbicum (city goosefoot)
SAME
8 SPECIES: Cornus alternifolia (alternateleaf dogwood); Cornus amomum
(silky dogwood); Cornus canadensis (bunchberry dogwood); Cornus florida
(flowering dogwood); Cornus obliqua (silky dogwood); Cornus racemosa
(gray dogwood); Cornus rugosa (roundleaf dogwood); Cornus sericea
(redosier dogwood)
3 SPECIES: Corylus americana (American hazelnut); Corylus cornuta
(beaked hazelnut); Corylus heterophylla (Siberian hazelnut)
Crataegus sp. 30 SPECIES: Crataegus anomala (Arnold hawthorne); Crataegus brainerdii
Cucurbita sp.
Cyperus sp.
(Brainerd's hawthorne); Crataeus chrysocarpa (fireberry hawthorn);
Crataegus compta (adorned hawthorn); Crataegus crus-galli (cockspur
hawthorn); Crataegus dilatata (broadleaf hawthorn); Crataegus dissona
(northern hawthorn); Crataegus dodgei (Dodge's hawthorn); Crataegus
flabellata (fanleaf hawthorn); Crataegus holmesiana (Holmes' hawthorne);
Crataegus intricata (Copenhagen hawthorne); Crrataegus iracunda
(stolonbearing hawthorn); Crataegus jesupii (Jesup's hawthorn); Crategus
lucorum (grove hawthorn); Crataegus lumaria (roundleaf hawthorn);
Crataegus macrosperma (bigfruit hawthorn); Crataegus membranacea
(tissueleaf hawthorn); Crataegus mollis (downy hawthorn); Crataegus
monogyna (oneseed hawthorn); Crataegus pedicellata (scarlet hawthorn);
Crataegus pequotorum (Connecticut hawthorn); Crataegus pringlei (Pringle's
hawthorn); Crataegus pruinosa (waxyfruit hawthorn); Crataegus punctata
(dotted hawthorn); Crataegus scabrida (rough hawthorn); Crataegus schuettei
(Schuette's hawthorn); Crataegus spatiosa (New London hawthorn);
Crataegus submollis (Quebec hawthorn); Crataegus suborbiculata
(Caughuawaga hawthorn); Crataegus succulenta (fleshy hawthorn)
Cucurbita pepo (field pumpkin)
15 SPECIES: Cyperus amuricus (Asian flatsedge); Cyperus bipartitus (slender
flatsedge); Cyperus dentatus (toothed flatsedge); Cyperus diandrus (umbrella
flatsedge); Cyperus echinatus (globe flatsedge); Cyperus erythrorhizos
(redroot flatsedge); Cyperus esculentus (yellow nutsedge); Cyperus filicinus
(fern flatsedge); Cyperus fuscus (brown flatsedge); Cyperus grayi (Gray's
flatsedge); Cyperus lupulinus (Great Plains flatsedge); Cyperus odoratus
(fragrant flatsedge); Cyperus squarrosus (bearded flatsedge); Cyperus
strigosus (strawcolored flatsedge); Kyllinga gracillima (pasture spikesedge)
Galium sp.
Gaylussacia
sp.
Ilex sp.
Juglans
cinerea
17 SPECIES: Galium album (white bedstraw); Galium aparine (stickywilly);
Galium asprellum (rough bedstraw); Galium boreale (northern bedstraw);
Galium circaezans (licorice bedstraw); Galium glaucum (waxy bedstraw);
Galium labradoricum (northern bog bedstraw); Galium lanceolatum (lanceleaf
wild licorice); Galium mollugo (false baby's breath); Galium obtusum
(bluntleaf bedstraw); Galium palustre (common marsh bedstraw); Galium
pilosum (hairy bedstraw); Galium sylvaticum (Scotch mist); Galium
tinctorium (stiff marsh bedstraw); Galium trifidum (threepetal bedstraw);
Galium triflorum (fragrant bedstraw); Galium verum (Yellow Spring
bedstraw)
3 SPECIES: Gaylussacia baccata (black huckleberry); Gaylussacia dumosa
(dwarf huckleberry); Gaylussacia frondosa (blue huckleberry)
6 SPECIES: Ilex glabra (inkberry); Ilex laevigata (smooth winterberry); Ilex
montana (mountain holly); Ilex mucronata (catberry); Ilex opaca (American
holly); Ilex verticillata (common winterberry)
SAME
Juglans nigra SAME
Juglans sp.
3 SPECIES: Carya alba (mockernut hickory); Juglans cinera (butternut);
Juglans nigra (black walnut)
Juncus sp.
24 SPECIES: Juncus acuminatus (tapertip rush); Juncus ambiguus (seasice
rush); Juncus anthelatus (greater poverty rush); Juncus articulatus (jointleaf
rush); Juncus brachycarpus (whiteroot rush); Juncus brachycephalus
(smallhead rush); Juncus brevicaudatus (narrowpanicle rush); Juncus bufonius
(toad rush); Juncus canadensis (Canadian rush); Juncus debilis (weak rush);
Juncus dichotomus (forked rush); Juncus diffusissimus (simpod rush); Juncus
dudleyi (Dudley's rush); Juncus effusus (common rush); Juncus gerardii
(saltmeadow rush); Juncus greenei (Greene's rush); Juncus marginatus
(grassleaf rush); Juncus militaris (bayonet rush); Juncus nodosus (knotted
rush); Juncus pelocarpus (brownfruit rush); Juncus secundus (lopsided rush);
Juncus subcaudatus (woodland rush); Juncus tenuis (poverty rush); Luzula
multiflora (common woodrush)
4 SPECIES: Latuca biennis (tall blue lettuce); Lactuca canadensis (Canada
lettuce); Lactuca hirsuta (hairy lettuce); Lactuca serriola (prickly lettuce)
SAME SPECIES
Lactuca sp.
Myrica
pensylvanica
Nyssa
sylvatica
SAME SPECIES
Phaselous
vulgaris
SAME SPECIES
Phytolacca
americana
Polygonum
hydropiper
Polygonum
sp.
SAME SPECIES
Portulaca sp.
Potamogeton
sp.
SAME SPECIES
33 SPECIES: Fagopyrum esculentum (buckwheat); Polygonella articulata
(coastal jointweed); Polygonum achoreum (leathery knotweed); Polygonum
amphibium (water knotweed); Polygonum arenastrum (oval-leaf knotweed);
Polygonum arifolium (halberdleaf tearthumb); Polygonum aviculare (prostrate
knotweed); Polygonum bellardii (narrowleaf knotweed); Polygonum
buxiforme (box knotweed); Polygonum careyi (Carey's smartweed);
Polygonum cespitosum (Oriental lady's thumb); Polygonum cilinode (fringed
black bindweed); Polygonum convolvulus (black bindweed); Polygonum
cuspidatum (Japanese knotweed); Polygonum erectum (erect knotweed);
Polygonum glaucum (seaside knotweed); Polygonum hydropiper
(marshpepper knotweed); Polygonum hydropiperoides (swamp smartweed);
Polygonum lapathifolium (curly knotweed); Polygonum minus (pgymy
smartweed); Polygonum nepalense (Nepalese smartweed); Polygonum
orientale (kiss me over the garden gate); Polygonum pensylvanicum
(Pennsylvania smartweed); Polygonum persicaria (spotted ladysthumb);
Polygonum punctatum (dotted smartweed); Polygonum ramosissimum (bushy
knotweed); Polygonum robustius (stout smartweed); Polygonum sachalinense
(giant knotweed); Polygonum sagittatum (arrowleaf tearthumb); Polygonum
scandens (climbing false buckwheat); Polygonum tenue (pleatleaf knotweed);
Polygonum virginianum (jumpseed)
2 SPECIES: Portulaca gradiflora (rose moss); Portulaca oleracea (little
hogweed)
28 SPECIES: Myriophyllum pinnatum (cutleaf watermilfoil); Potamogeton
alpinus (alpine pondweed); Potamogeton amplifolius (largeleaf pondweed);
Potamogeton bicupulatus (snailseed pondweed); Pontamogeton confervoides
(Tuckerman's pondweed); Potamogeton crispus (curly pondweed);
Potamogeton diversifolius (waterthread pondweed); Potamogeton epihydrus
(ribbonleaf pondweed); Potamogeton foliosus (leafy pondweed); Potamogeton
friesii (Fries' pondweed); Potamogeton gramineus (variableleaf pondweed);
Potamogeton hillii (Hill's pondweed); Potamogeton illinoensis (Illinois
pondweed); Potamogeton natans (floating pondweed); Potamogeton nodosus
(longleaf pondweed); Potamogeton oakesianus (Oakes' pondweed);
Potamogeton obtusifolius (bluntleaf pondweed); Potamogeton ogdenii
(Ogden's pondweed); Potamogeton perfoliatus (claspingleaf pondweed);
Potamogeton praelongus (whitesterm pondweed); Pontamogeton pulcher
(spotted pondweed); Potamogeton pusillus (small pondweed); Pontamogeton
richardsonii (Richardson's pondweed); Potamogeton robbinsii (Robbins'
pondweed); Potamogeton spirillus (spiral pondweed); Potamogeton
strictifolius (narrowleaf pondweed); Potamogeton vaseyi (vasey's);
Potamogeton zosteriformis (flatsterm pondweed); Stuckenia pectinata (sago
pondweed)
Prunus
persica
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Rubus sp.
SAME SPECIES
14 SPECIES: Prunus alleghaniensis (Allegheny plum); Prunus americana
(American plum); Prunus avium (sweet cherry); Prunus cerasus (sour cherry);
Prunus domestica (European plum); Prunus mahaleb (Mahaleb cherry);
Prunus maritima (beach plum); Prunus nigra (Canadian plum); Prunus
pensylvanaica (pin cherry); Prunus persica (peach); Prunus serotina (black
cherry); Prunus spinosa (blackthorn); Prunus susquehanae (Sesquehana
sandcherry); Prunus viginiana (chokecherry)
12 SPECIES: Quercus alba (white oak); Quercus bicolor (swamp white oak);
Quercus coccinea (scarlet oak); Quercus ilicifolia (bear oak); Quercus
macrocarpa (bur oak); Quercus muehlenbergii (chinkapin oak); Quercus
palustris (pin oak); Quercus phellos (willow oak); Quercus prinoides (dwarf
chinkapin oak); Quercus prinus (chestnut oak); Quercus rubra (northern red
oak); Quercus stellata (post oak); Quercus velutina (black oak)
8 SPECIES: Cotinus coggygria (European smoketree); Rhus aromatica
(fragrant sumac); Rhus copallinum (winged sumac); Rhus glabra (smooth
sumac); Rhus typhina (staghorn sumac); Toxicodendron radicans (eastern
poison ivy); Toxicodendron rydbergii (western poision ivy); Toxicodendron
vernix (poison sumac)
47 SPECIES: Dalibarda repens (robin runaway); Rubus allegheniensis
(Allegheny blackberry); Rubus alumnus (oldfield blackberry); Rubus
andrewsianus (Andrews' blackberry); Rubus aptatus (drybank dewberry);
Rubus arenicola (sanddwelling dewberry); Rubus argutus (sawtooth
blackberry); Rubus baileyanus (Bailey's dewberry); Rubus bigelovianus
(lowland blackberry); Rubus canadensis (smooth blackberry); Rubus
cuneifolius (sand blackberry); Rubus dissimilis (bristly Oswego blackberry);
Rubus elegantulus (showy blackberry); Rubus flagellaris (northern dewberry);
Rubus floricomus (manyflower blackberrry); Rubus fraternalis (northeastern
dewberry); Rubus frondosus (yankee blackberry); Rubus gnarus (Pollock's
Mill blackberry); Rubus hispidus (bristly dewberry); Rubus idaeus (American
red raspberry); Rubus illecebrosus (strawberry raspberry); Rubus insons (New
England blackberry); Rubus insulanus (island blackberry); Rubus laciniatus
(cutleaf blackberry); Rubus multifer (kinnickinnick dewberry); Rubus
multispinus (devil's blackberry); Rubus notatus (bristle berry); Rubus
novanglicus (New England dewberry); Rubus obsessus (New York dewberry);
Rubus occidentalis (black raspberry); Rubus odoratus (purpleflowering
raspberry); Rubus parlinii (Parlin's dewberry); Rubus particeps (Kingston
dewberry); Rubus pensilvanicus (Pennsylvania blackberry); Rubus pergratus
(upland blackberry); Rubus philadelphicus (Philadelphia blackberry); Rubus
phoenicolasius (wine raspberry); Rubus plicatifolius (plaitleaf dewberry);
Rubus positivus (New London dewberry); Rubus pubescens (dwarf red
blackberry); Rubus pugnax (pugnancious blackberry); Rubus recurvans
(recurved blackberry); Rubus recurvicaulis (arching dewberry); Rubus rosa
(rose blackberry); Rubus rossbergianus (Connecticut blackberry); Rubus
saltuensis (Tolland County blackberry); Rubus semisetosus (swamp
blackberry); Rubus setosus (setose blackberry); Rubus vermontanus (Vermont
blackberry)
Scirpus sp.
37 SPECIES: Bulbostylis capillaris (densetuft hairsedge); Eleocharis
equisetoides (jointed spikesedge); Eleocharis erythropoda (bald spikerush);
Eleocharis obtusa (blunt spikerush); Eleocharis ovata (ovate spikerush);
Eleocharis palustris (common spikerush); Eleocharis parvula (dwarf
spikerush); Eleocharis quadrangulata (squarestem spikerush); Eleocharis
rostellata (beaked spikerush); Eleocharis tenuis (slender spikerush);
Eleocharis tuberculosa (cone-cup spikerush); Fimbristylis autumnalis (slender
fimbry); Lipocarpha micrantha (smallflower halfchaff sedge); Schoenoplectus
acutus (hardstem bulrush); Schoenoplectus americanus (chairmaker's bulrush);
Schoenoplectus fluviatilis (river bulrush); Schoenoplectus maritimus
(cosmopolitan bulrush); Schoenoplectus novae-angliae (New England
bulrush); Schoenoplectus pungens (common threesquare); Schoenoplectus
purshianus (weakstalk bulrush); Schoenoplectus robustus (sturdy bulrush);
Schoenoplectus smithii (Smith's bulrush); Schoenoplectus subterminalis
(swaying bulrush); Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani (softstem bulrush);
Schoenoplectus torreyi (Torrey's bulrush); Scirpus atrocinctus (blackgirdle
bulrush); Scirpus atrovirens (green bulrush); Scirpus cyperinus (woolgrass);
Scirpus expansus (woodland bulrush); Scirpus georgianus (Georgia bulrush);
Scirpus hattorianus (mosquito bulrush); Scirpus longii (Long's bulrush);
Scirpus microcarpus (panicled bulrush); Scirpus pedicellatus (stalked
bulrush); Scirpus pendulus (rufous bulrush); Scirpus polyphyllus (leafy
bulrush); Trichophorum alpinu (alpine bulrush); Trichophorum planifolium
(bashful bulrush)
Triticum sp.
4 SPECIES: Elymus repens (quackgrass); Elymus trachycaulus (slender
wheatgrass); Secale cereale (cereal rye); Triticum aestivum (common wheat)
Vaccinium
sp.
10 SPECIES: Ilex mucronata (catberry); Vaccinium angustifolium (lowbush
blueberry); Vaccinium corymbosum (highbush blueberry); Vaccinium fuscatum
(black highbush blueberry); Vaccinium macrocarpon (cranberry); Vaccinium
myrtilloides (velvetleaf huckleberry); Vaccinium oxycoccos (small cranberry);
Vaccinium pallidum (Blue Ridge blueberry); Vaccinium stamineum
(deerberry); Vaccinium vitis-idaea (lingonberry);
13 SPECIES: Viburnum acerifolium (maplefeaf viburnum); Viburnum
dentatum (sounther arrowwood); Viburnum lantana (wayfaringtree);
Viburnum lantanoides (hobblebush); Viburnum lentago (nannyberry);
Viburnum nudum (possumhaw); Viburnum opulus (European cranberrybush);
Viburnum plicatum (Japanese snowball); Viburnum prunifolium (blackhaw);
Viburnum rafinesqueanum (downy arrowwood); Viburnum recognitum
(southern arrrowwood); Viburnum setigerum (tea viburnum); Viburnum
sieboldii (Siebold's arrowwood)
7 SPECIES: Vicia cracca (bird vetch); Vicia faba (fava bean); Vicia hirsuta
(tiny vetch); Vicia pannonica (Hungarian vetch); Vicia sativa (garden vetch);
Vicia tetrasperma (lentil vetch); Vicia villosa (winter vetch)
Viburnum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
25 SPECIES: Hybanthus concolor (eastern greenviolet); Viola affinis (sand
violent); Viola arvensis (European field pansy); Viola blanda (sweet white
violet); Viola brittoniana (northern coastal violet); Viola canadensis (Canadian
white violet); Viola cucullata (marsh blue violet); Viola hirsutula (southern
woodland violet); Viola labradorica (alpine violet); Viola lanceolata (bog
Vitis sp.
Zea mays
white violet); Viola macloskeyi (small white violet);Viola nephrophylla
(northern bog violet); Viola odorata (sweet violet); Viola pedata (birdfoot
violet); Viola pubesens (downy yellow violet); Viola renifolia (white violet);
Viola rostrata (longspur violet); Viola rotundifolia (roundleaf yellow violet);
Viola sagittata (arrowleaf violet); Viola selkirkii (Selkirk's violet); Viola
septentrionalis (northern woodland violet); Viola sororia (common blue
violet); Viola striata (striped cream violet); Viola tricolor (johnny jumpup);
Viola triloba (three-lobe violet)
5 SPECIES: Parthenocissus quinquefolia (Virginia creeper); Vitis aestivalis
(summer grape); Vitis labrusca (fox grape); Vitis palmata (catbird grape); Vitis
riparia (riverbank grape)
SAME SPECIES
!
WOODLAND
CATEGORIZATION
Potamogeton sp.
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Rubus sp.
Scirpus sp.
Triticum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Viburnum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Zea mays
alluvial
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
coniferous
or
deciduous
cleared
woodlands woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
damp to
dry
woodland
paths
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
deciduous
mountain
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
dry
deciduous deciduous
woods
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
dry mixed
deciduous
woods and
clearings
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
WOODLAND
CATEGORIZATION
Acalypha sp.
Asclepias sp.
Carex sp.
Carpinus caroliniana
Carya sp.
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
Comptonia peregrina
Cornus sp.
Corylus sp.
Crataegus sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Cyperus sp.
Galium sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Ilex sp.
Juglans cinerea
Juglans nigra
Juglans sp.
Juncus sp.
Lactuca sp.
Myrica pensylvanica
Nyssa sylvatica
Phaselous vulgaris
Phytolacca americana
Polygonum hydropiper
Polygonum sp.
Portulaca sp.
dry open
deciduous
woods
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
dry rich
dry open deciduous
woods
woods
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
dry rocky
decidious
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
dry rocky or
sandy soil in
open woods
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
dry sandy
alluvial
woods
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
dry sandy
deciduous
woods and
clearings
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
dry to mesic
deciduous
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
WOODLAND
CATEGORIZATION
Potamogeton sp.
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Rubus sp.
Scirpus sp.
Triticum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Viburnum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Zea mays
dry open
deciduous
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
dry rich
dry open deciduous
woods
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
dry rocky
decidious
woods
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
dry rocky or
sandy soil in
open woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
dry sandy
alluvial
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
dry sandy
deciduous
woods and
clearings
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
dry to mesic
deciduous
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
WOODLAND
CATEGORIZATION
Acalypha sp.
Asclepias sp.
Carex sp.
Carpinus caroliniana
Carya sp.
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
Comptonia peregrina
Cornus sp.
Corylus sp.
Crataegus sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Cyperus sp.
Galium sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Ilex sp.
Juglans cinerea
Juglans nigra
Juglans sp.
Juncus sp.
Lactuca sp.
Myrica pensylvanica
Nyssa sylvatica
Phaselous vulgaris
Phytolacca americana
Polygonum hydropiper
Polygonum sp.
Portulaca sp.
dry upland
fields and
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
dry, often
rocky
dry woods woods
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
dry, often
sandy
woodlands
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
fertile
decidious or
dry, sandy or mixed
rocky woods woods
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
floodplain
forests
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
mixed
mesic
woods
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
mixed
woods
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
WOODLAND
CATEGORIZATION
Potamogeton sp.
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Rubus sp.
Scirpus sp.
Triticum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Viburnum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Zea mays
dry upland
fields and
woods
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
dry, often
rocky
dry woods woods
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
dry, often
sandy
woodlands
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
fertile
decidious or
dry, sandy or mixed
rocky woods woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
floodplain
forests
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
mixed
mesic
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
mixed
woods
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
WOODLAND
CATEGORIZATION
Acalypha sp.
Asclepias sp.
Carex sp.
Carpinus caroliniana
Carya sp.
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
Comptonia peregrina
Cornus sp.
Corylus sp.
Crataegus sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Cyperus sp.
Galium sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Ilex sp.
Juglans cinerea
Juglans nigra
Juglans sp.
Juncus sp.
Lactuca sp.
Myrica pensylvanica
Nyssa sylvatica
Phaselous vulgaris
Phytolacca americana
Polygonum hydropiper
Polygonum sp.
Portulaca sp.
moist low
woods and
thickets
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
moist often
coniferous
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
moist open
deciduous
woods
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
moist or wet
open or
woodland
soil
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
open
coniferous
moist woods woods
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
open
deciduous
woods
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
open often
moist woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
WOODLAND
CATEGORIZATION
Potamogeton sp.
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Rubus sp.
Scirpus sp.
Triticum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Viburnum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Zea mays
moist low
woods and
thickets
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
moist often
coniferous
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
moist open
deciduous
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
moist or wet
open or
woodland
soil
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
open
coniferous
moist woods woods
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
open
deciduous
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
open often
moist woods
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
WOODLAND
CATEGORIZATION
Acalypha sp.
Asclepias sp.
Carex sp.
Carpinus caroliniana
Carya sp.
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
Comptonia peregrina
Cornus sp.
Corylus sp.
Crataegus sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Cyperus sp.
Galium sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Ilex sp.
Juglans cinerea
Juglans nigra
Juglans sp.
Juncus sp.
Lactuca sp.
Myrica pensylvanica
Nyssa sylvatica
Phaselous vulgaris
Phytolacca americana
Polygonum hydropiper
Polygonum sp.
Portulaca sp.
open wet
woods
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rich
deciduous
pine woods woods
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rich dry
woods
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rich
hardwood
forests
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rich mixed
woods
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rich moist
deciduous
woods
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
rich moist
woods
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
WOODLAND
CATEGORIZATION
Potamogeton sp.
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Rubus sp.
Scirpus sp.
Triticum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Viburnum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Zea mays
open wet
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rich
deciduous
pine woods woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rich dry
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
rich
hardwood
forests
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rich mixed
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rich moist
deciduous
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rich moist
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
WOODLAND
CATEGORIZATION
Acalypha sp.
Asclepias sp.
Carex sp.
Carpinus caroliniana
Carya sp.
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
Comptonia peregrina
Cornus sp.
Corylus sp.
Crataegus sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Cyperus sp.
Galium sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Ilex sp.
Juglans cinerea
Juglans nigra
Juglans sp.
Juncus sp.
Lactuca sp.
Myrica pensylvanica
Nyssa sylvatica
Phaselous vulgaris
Phytolacca americana
Polygonum hydropiper
Polygonum sp.
Portulaca sp.
rich wet
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rich woods
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rich, low,
damp
deciduous
woods
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rich, often
calcareous
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rocky
wooded
slopes
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
upland
deciduous
rocky woods woods
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
wet
deciduous
woods
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
WOODLAND
CATEGORIZATION
Potamogeton sp.
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Rubus sp.
Scirpus sp.
Triticum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Viburnum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Zea mays
rich wet
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
rich woods
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
rich, low,
damp
deciduous
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rich, often
calcareous
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
rocky
wooded
slopes
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
upland
deciduous
rocky woods woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
wet
deciduous
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
WOODLAND
CATEGORIZATION
Acalypha sp.
Asclepias sp.
Carex sp.
Carpinus caroliniana
Carya sp.
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
Comptonia peregrina
Cornus sp.
Corylus sp.
Crataegus sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Cyperus sp.
Galium sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Ilex sp.
Juglans cinerea
Juglans nigra
Juglans sp.
Juncus sp.
Lactuca sp.
Myrica pensylvanica
Nyssa sylvatica
Phaselous vulgaris
Phytolacca americana
Polygonum hydropiper
Polygonum sp.
Portulaca sp.
wet mixed
woods
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
wet woods
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
wooded
swamps
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
woodland
borders
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
woodland
openings
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
woodlands
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
woods
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Total
Woodland
Spcecies
Represented
Per Plant
Type
0
5
35
1
4
1
1
5
2
1
0
3
4
1
4
1
1
3
3
0
0
3
0
0
0
5
0
WOODLAND
CATEGORIZATION
Potamogeton sp.
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Rubus sp.
Scirpus sp.
Triticum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Viburnum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Zea mays
wet mixed
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
wet woods
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
wooded
swamps
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
woodland
borders
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
woodland
openings
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
woodlands
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
woods
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
Total
Woodland
Spcecies
Represented
Per Plant
Type
0
0
4
20
3
6
4
0
5
6
0
10
1
0
FIELD CATEGORIZATION
Acalypha sp.
Asclepias sp.
Carex sp.
Carpinus caroliniana
Carya sp.
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
Comptonia peregrina
Cornus sp.
Corylus sp.
Crataegus sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Cyperus sp.
Galium sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Ilex sp.
Juglans cinerea
Juglans nigra
Juglans sp.
Juncus sp.
Lactuca sp.
Myrica pensylvanica
Nyssa sylvatica
Phaselous vulgaris
Phytolacca americana
Polygonum hydropiper
Polygonum sp.
!"!#$%#&$'
()&*$+
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
,*&!-)#.+
6
6
7
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
7
6
6
,/*0)1!0&$'
.-%/#$
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
7
$!23'0%'$-4'
2&$%5+
$-4'()&*$+
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
$-4'%3&#'
$-4'2&!$%5+ .-%/#$
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
$-4'%3&#'+%)*
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
FIELD CATEGORIZATION
Portulaca sp.
Potamogeton sp.
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Rubus sp.
Scirpus sp.
Triticum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Viburnum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Zea mays
!"!#$%#&$'
()&*$+
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
,*&!-)#.+
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
7
6
6
7
6
6
,/*0)1!0&$'
.-%/#$
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
7
7
7
6
7
$!23'0%'$-4'
2&$%5+
$-4'()&*$+
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
$-4'%3&#'
$-4'2&!$%5+ .-%/#$
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
$-4'%3&#'+%)*
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
FIELD CATEGORIZATION
Acalypha sp.
Asclepias sp.
Carex sp.
Carpinus caroliniana
Carya sp.
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
Comptonia peregrina
Cornus sp.
Corylus sp.
Crataegus sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Cyperus sp.
Galium sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Ilex sp.
Juglans cinerea
Juglans nigra
Juglans sp.
Juncus sp.
Lactuca sp.
Myrica pensylvanica
Nyssa sylvatica
Phaselous vulgaris
Phytolacca americana
Polygonum hydropiper
Polygonum sp.
$-48'+!#$4'
()&*$+
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
&$.&+'%('
()&*$+
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
()&*$'
(&#,&-%5+
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
()&*$+
7
7
7
6
7
7
6
6
6
7
6
7
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
7
6
7
.!-$&#+
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
2&!$%5+
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
2%)+0'()&*$+
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
2%)+0'
2&!$%5+
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
FIELD CATEGORIZATION
Portulaca sp.
Potamogeton sp.
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Rubus sp.
Scirpus sp.
Triticum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Viburnum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Zea mays
$-48'+!#$4'
()&*$+
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
&$.&+'%('
()&*$+
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
()&*$'
(&#,&-%5+
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
()&*$+
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
6
6
7
7
7
7
6
6
.!-$&#+
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
2&!$%5+
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
2%)+0'()&*$+
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
2%)+0'
2&!$%5+
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
FIELD CATEGORIZATION
Acalypha sp.
Asclepias sp.
Carex sp.
Carpinus caroliniana
Carya sp.
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
Comptonia peregrina
Cornus sp.
Corylus sp.
Crataegus sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Cyperus sp.
Galium sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Ilex sp.
Juglans cinerea
Juglans nigra
Juglans sp.
Juncus sp.
Lactuca sp.
Myrica pensylvanica
Nyssa sylvatica
Phaselous vulgaris
Phytolacca americana
Polygonum hydropiper
Polygonum sp.
2%)+0'%3&#'
+%)*
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
2%)+0'%3&#'
+%)*
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
%*$'()&*$+
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
%*$'3!+0/-&+ %3&#'!-&!+
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
%3&#'5%%$+ %3&#)#.+
7
7
7
6
6
7
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
3!+0/-&+
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
FIELD CATEGORIZATION
Portulaca sp.
Potamogeton sp.
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Rubus sp.
Scirpus sp.
Triticum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Viburnum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Zea mays
2%)+0'%3&#'
+%)*
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
2%)+0'%3&#'
+%)*
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
%*$'()&*$+
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
%*$'3!+0/-&+ %3&#'!-&!+
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
%3&#'5%%$+ %3&#)#.+
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
3!+0/-&+
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
FIELD CATEGORIZATION
Acalypha sp.
Asclepias sp.
Carex sp.
Carpinus caroliniana
Carya sp.
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
Comptonia peregrina
Cornus sp.
Corylus sp.
Crataegus sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Cyperus sp.
Galium sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Ilex sp.
Juglans cinerea
Juglans nigra
Juglans sp.
Juncus sp.
Lactuca sp.
Myrica pensylvanica
Nyssa sylvatica
Phaselous vulgaris
Phytolacca americana
Polygonum hydropiper
Polygonum sp.
5&&$')#'
,/*0)1!0&$'
.-%/#$
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
5&0'()&*$+
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
5&0'
2&!$%5+
9%0!*':)&*$'
;3,&,)&+'
<&3-&+&#0&$'
5&08'2/$$4' =&-'=*!#0'
%3&#'!-&!+ 943&
6
6
>
6
6
?
7
6
7?
6
6
6
6
6
@
6
6
A
6
6
7
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
@
6
6
6
6
6
A
7
6
>
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
6
@
6
6
?
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
>
7
6
>
7
6
B
FIELD CATEGORIZATION
Portulaca sp.
Potamogeton sp.
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Rubus sp.
Scirpus sp.
Triticum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Viburnum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Zea mays
5&&$')#'
,/*0)1!0&$'
.-%/#$
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
5&0'()&*$+
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
5&0'
2&!$%5+
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
5&08'2/$$4'
%3&#'!-&!+
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
9%0!*':)&*$'
;3,&,)&+'
<&3-&+&#0&$'
=&-'=*!#0'
943&
7
6
6
7
7
?
C
>
7
>
>
>
7A
7
7
along
WETLAND CATEGORIZATION streams
Acalypha sp.
Asclepias sp.
Carex sp.
Carpinus caroliniana
Carya sp.
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
Comptonia peregrina
Cornus sp.
Corylus sp.
Crataegus sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Cyperus sp.
Galium sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Ilex sp.
Juglans cinerea
Juglans nigra
Juglans sp.
Juncus sp.
Lactuca sp.
Myrica pensylvanica
Nyssa sylvatica
Phaselous vulgaris
Phytolacca americana
Polygonum hydropiper
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
alpine pools
and ponds
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
bog margins bogs
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
brackish or
borders of
saline
salt marshes bottomlands marshes
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
brackish river
shores
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
along
WETLAND CATEGORIZATION streams
Polygonum sp.
Portulaca sp.
Potamogeton sp.
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Rubus sp.
Scirpus sp.
Triticum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Viburnum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Zea mays
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
alpine pools
and ponds
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
bog margins bogs
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
brackish or
borders of
saline
salt marshes bottomlands marshes
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
brackish river
shores
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
brackish salt
and poluted
calcareous
lakes and
WETLAND CATEGORIZATION rivers
bogs
Acalypha sp.
0
Asclepias sp.
0
Carex sp.
0
Carpinus caroliniana
0
Carya sp.
0
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
0
Comptonia peregrina
0
Cornus sp.
0
Corylus sp.
0
Crataegus sp.
0
Cucurbita sp.
0
Cyperus sp.
0
Galium sp.
0
Gaylussacia sp.
0
Ilex sp.
0
Juglans cinerea
0
Juglans nigra
0
Juglans sp.
0
Juncus sp.
0
Lactuca sp.
0
Myrica pensylvanica
0
Nyssa sylvatica
0
Phaselous vulgaris
0
Phytolacca americana
0
Polygonum hydropiper
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
coniferous
chamaecypari wooded
swamps
s swamps
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
costal river
shores
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
deciduous
swamps
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
deep water
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
brackish salt
and poluted
calcareous
lakes and
WETLAND CATEGORIZATION rivers
bogs
Polygonum sp.
0
Portulaca sp.
0
Potamogeton sp.
1
Prunus persica
0
Prunus sp.
0
Quercus sp.
0
Rhus sp.
0
Rubus sp.
0
Scirpus sp.
0
Triticum sp.
0
Vaccinium sp.
0
Viburnum sp.
0
Vicia sp.
0
Viola sp.
0
Vitis sp.
0
Zea mays
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
coniferous
chamaecypari wooded
swamps
s swamps
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
costal river
shores
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
deciduous
swamps
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
deep water
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
fresh
deep to
calcareous
WETLAND CATEGORIZATION shallow water lakes
Acalypha sp.
0
Asclepias sp.
0
Carex sp.
0
Carpinus caroliniana
0
Carya sp.
0
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
0
Comptonia peregrina
0
Cornus sp.
0
Corylus sp.
0
Crataegus sp.
0
Cucurbita sp.
0
Cyperus sp.
0
Galium sp.
0
Gaylussacia sp.
0
Ilex sp.
0
Juglans cinerea
0
Juglans nigra
0
Juglans sp.
0
Juncus sp.
0
Lactuca sp.
0
Myrica pensylvanica
0
Nyssa sylvatica
0
Phaselous vulgaris
0
Phytolacca americana
0
Polygonum hydropiper
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
fresh to
brackish
medows and
fresh marshes marshes
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
fresh,
calcarious,
brackish or
salt water
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
lake and river
lake margins
margins
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
fresh
deep to
calcareous
WETLAND CATEGORIZATION shallow water lakes
Polygonum sp.
1
Portulaca sp.
0
Potamogeton sp.
0
Prunus persica
0
Prunus sp.
0
Quercus sp.
0
Rhus sp.
0
Rubus sp.
0
Scirpus sp.
0
Triticum sp.
0
Vaccinium sp.
0
Viburnum sp.
0
Vicia sp.
0
Viola sp.
0
Vitis sp.
0
Zea mays
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
fresh to
brackish
medows and
fresh marshes marshes
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
fresh,
calcarious,
brackish or
salt water
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
lake and river
lake margins
margins
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
WETLAND CATEGORIZATION lake shores
Acalypha sp.
Asclepias sp.
Carex sp.
Carpinus caroliniana
Carya sp.
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
Comptonia peregrina
Cornus sp.
Corylus sp.
Crataegus sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Cyperus sp.
Galium sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Ilex sp.
Juglans cinerea
Juglans nigra
Juglans sp.
Juncus sp.
Lactuca sp.
Myrica pensylvanica
Nyssa sylvatica
Phaselous vulgaris
Phytolacca americana
Polygonum hydropiper
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
lakes, ponds, lakes, ponds,
low, swampy
and quiet
rivers and
marshes
woods
rivers
streams
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
marshy
ditches
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
muddy and
sandy pond
and river
shores
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
WETLAND CATEGORIZATION lake shores
Polygonum sp.
Portulaca sp.
Potamogeton sp.
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Rubus sp.
Scirpus sp.
Triticum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Viburnum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Zea mays
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
lakes, ponds, lakes, ponds,
low, swampy
and quiet
rivers and
marshes
woods
rivers
streams
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
marshy
ditches
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
muddy and
sandy pond
and river
shores
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
muddy and
sandy river
WETLAND CATEGORIZATION margins
Acalypha sp.
Asclepias sp.
Carex sp.
Carpinus caroliniana
Carya sp.
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
Comptonia peregrina
Cornus sp.
Corylus sp.
Crataegus sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Cyperus sp.
Galium sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Ilex sp.
Juglans cinerea
Juglans nigra
Juglans sp.
Juncus sp.
Lactuca sp.
Myrica pensylvanica
Nyssa sylvatica
Phaselous vulgaris
Phytolacca americana
Polygonum hydropiper
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
northern
muddy pond cedar
and stream
swamps and often along
rivers
margins
bogs
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
open
deciduous
swamps
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
open shurb
swamps
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
pine barren
swamps
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
muddy and
sandy river
WETLAND CATEGORIZATION margins
Polygonum sp.
Portulaca sp.
Potamogeton sp.
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Rubus sp.
Scirpus sp.
Triticum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Viburnum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Zea mays
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
northern
muddy pond cedar
and stream
swamps and often along
rivers
margins
bogs
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
open
deciduous
swamps
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
open shurb
swamps
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
pine barren
swamps
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
pond and
pond and lake pond and
pond and
stream
WETLAND CATEGORIZATION margins
river margins river shores borders
Acalypha sp.
0
0
0
Asclepias sp.
0
0
1
Carex sp.
1
1
0
Carpinus caroliniana
0
0
0
Carya sp.
0
0
0
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
0
0
0
Comptonia peregrina
0
0
0
Cornus sp.
0
0
0
Corylus sp.
0
0
0
Crataegus sp.
0
0
0
Cucurbita sp.
0
0
0
Cyperus sp.
0
0
1
Galium sp.
0
0
0
Gaylussacia sp.
0
0
0
Ilex sp.
0
0
0
Juglans cinerea
0
0
0
Juglans nigra
0
0
0
Juglans sp.
0
0
0
Juncus sp.
1
0
1
Lactuca sp.
0
0
0
Myrica pensylvanica
0
0
0
Nyssa sylvatica
0
0
0
Phaselous vulgaris
0
0
0
Phytolacca americana
0
0
0
Polygonum hydropiper
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
pond and
stream
margins
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
ponds and
sluggish
pond margins streams
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
pond and
pond and lake pond and
pond and
stream
WETLAND CATEGORIZATION margins
river margins river shores borders
Polygonum sp.
0
1
0
Portulaca sp.
0
0
0
Potamogeton sp.
0
0
0
Prunus persica
0
0
0
Prunus sp.
0
0
0
Quercus sp.
0
0
0
Rhus sp.
0
0
0
Rubus sp.
0
0
0
Scirpus sp.
0
0
1
Triticum sp.
0
0
0
Vaccinium sp.
0
0
0
Viburnum sp.
0
0
0
Vicia sp.
0
0
0
Viola sp.
0
0
0
Vitis sp.
0
0
0
Zea mays
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
pond and
stream
margins
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
ponds and
sluggish
pond margins streams
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
ponds and
ponds, lakes
pools and
quiet acid
streams in
and slow
WETLAND CATEGORIZATION shallow water streams
muddy shores water
Acalypha sp.
0
0
0
Asclepias sp.
0
0
0
Carex sp.
0
0
0
Carpinus caroliniana
0
0
0
Carya sp.
0
0
0
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
0
0
0
Comptonia peregrina
0
0
0
Cornus sp.
0
0
0
Corylus sp.
0
0
0
Crataegus sp.
0
0
0
Cucurbita sp.
0
0
0
Cyperus sp.
0
0
0
Galium sp.
0
0
0
Gaylussacia sp.
0
0
0
Ilex sp.
0
0
0
Juglans cinerea
0
0
0
Juglans nigra
0
0
0
Juglans sp.
0
0
0
Juncus sp.
0
0
0
Lactuca sp.
0
0
0
Myrica pensylvanica
0
0
0
Nyssa sylvatica
0
0
0
Phaselous vulgaris
0
0
0
Phytolacca americana
0
0
0
Polygonum hydropiper
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
quiet water
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rich
bottomlands river borders
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
ponds and
ponds, lakes
pools and
quiet acid
streams in
and slow
WETLAND CATEGORIZATION shallow water streams
muddy shores water
Polygonum sp.
0
0
0
Portulaca sp.
0
0
0
Potamogeton sp.
0
1
1
Prunus persica
0
0
0
Prunus sp.
0
0
0
Quercus sp.
0
0
0
Rhus sp.
0
0
0
Rubus sp.
0
0
0
Scirpus sp.
1
0
0
Triticum sp.
0
0
0
Vaccinium sp.
0
0
0
Viburnum sp.
0
0
0
Vicia sp.
0
0
0
Viola sp.
0
0
0
Vitis sp.
0
0
0
Zea mays
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
quiet water
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rich
bottomlands river borders
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
WETLAND CATEGORIZATION river margins river shores
Acalypha sp.
0
Asclepias sp.
0
Carex sp.
1
Carpinus caroliniana
0
Carya sp.
0
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
0
Comptonia peregrina
0
Cornus sp.
0
Corylus sp.
0
Crataegus sp.
0
Cucurbita sp.
0
Cyperus sp.
0
Galium sp.
0
Gaylussacia sp.
0
Ilex sp.
0
Juglans cinerea
0
Juglans nigra
0
Juglans sp.
0
Juncus sp.
0
Lactuca sp.
0
Myrica pensylvanica
0
Nyssa sylvatica
0
Phaselous vulgaris
0
Phytolacca americana
0
Polygonum hydropiper
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
river thickets riverbanks
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rocky or
sandy
streambeds salt and
brackish
and
streambanks marshes
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
sandy or
gravelly lake
sores
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
WETLAND CATEGORIZATION river margins river shores
Polygonum sp.
0
Portulaca sp.
0
Potamogeton sp.
0
Prunus persica
0
Prunus sp.
0
Quercus sp.
0
Rhus sp.
0
Rubus sp.
0
Scirpus sp.
0
Triticum sp.
0
Vaccinium sp.
0
Viburnum sp.
0
Vicia sp.
0
Viola sp.
0
Vitis sp.
0
Zea mays
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
river thickets riverbanks
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
rocky or
sandy
streambeds salt and
brackish
and
streambanks marshes
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
sandy or
gravelly lake
sores
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
shallow acid shallow quiet
WETLAND CATEGORIZATION water
shallow water
water
Acalypha sp.
0
0
0
Asclepias sp.
0
0
0
Carex sp.
0
0
0
Carpinus caroliniana
0
0
0
Carya sp.
0
0
0
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
0
0
0
Comptonia peregrina
0
0
0
Cornus sp.
0
0
0
Corylus sp.
0
0
0
Crataegus sp.
0
0
0
Cucurbita sp.
0
0
0
Cyperus sp.
0
0
0
Galium sp.
0
0
0
Gaylussacia sp.
0
0
0
Ilex sp.
0
0
0
Juglans cinerea
0
0
0
Juglans nigra
0
0
0
Juglans sp.
0
0
0
Juncus sp.
0
0
1
Lactuca sp.
0
0
0
Myrica pensylvanica
0
0
0
Nyssa sylvatica
0
0
0
Phaselous vulgaris
0
0
0
Phytolacca americana
0
0
0
Polygonum hydropiper
0
0
0
shallow water
of ponds and shallow,
creeks,
calcareous
sometimes
ponds and
tidal
lakes
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
shores of
lakes and
rivers
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
shores of
shrub
tidal rivers swamps
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
shallow acid shallow quiet
WETLAND CATEGORIZATION water
shallow water
water
Polygonum sp.
0
0
1
Portulaca sp.
0
0
0
Potamogeton sp.
1
1
1
Prunus persica
0
0
0
Prunus sp.
0
0
0
Quercus sp.
0
0
0
Rhus sp.
0
0
0
Rubus sp.
0
0
0
Scirpus sp.
0
0
1
Triticum sp.
0
0
0
Vaccinium sp.
0
0
0
Viburnum sp.
0
0
0
Vicia sp.
0
0
0
Viola sp.
0
0
0
Vitis sp.
0
0
0
Zea mays
0
0
0
shallow water
of ponds and shallow,
creeks,
calcareous
sometimes
ponds and
tidal
lakes
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
shores of
lakes and
rivers
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
shores of
shrub
tidal rivers swamps
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
sphagnum
WETLAND CATEGORIZATION bogs
Acalypha sp.
Asclepias sp.
Carex sp.
Carpinus caroliniana
Carya sp.
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
Comptonia peregrina
Cornus sp.
Corylus sp.
Crataegus sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Cyperus sp.
Galium sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Ilex sp.
Juglans cinerea
Juglans nigra
Juglans sp.
Juncus sp.
Lactuca sp.
Myrica pensylvanica
Nyssa sylvatica
Phaselous vulgaris
Phytolacca americana
Polygonum hydropiper
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
stream and
stream and
springs springy areas river borders river edges
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
stream stream
stream banks borders margins
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
sphagnum
WETLAND CATEGORIZATION bogs
Polygonum sp.
Portulaca sp.
Potamogeton sp.
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Rubus sp.
Scirpus sp.
Triticum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Viburnum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Zea mays
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
stream and
stream and
springs springy areas river borders river edges
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
stream stream
stream banks borders margins
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
WETLAND CATEGORIZATION streamsides swamps
Acalypha sp.
0
0
Asclepias sp.
0
0
Carex sp.
1
1
Carpinus caroliniana
0
0
Carya sp.
0
0
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
0
0
Comptonia peregrina
0
0
Cornus sp.
0
0
Corylus sp.
0
0
Crataegus sp.
0
0
Cucurbita sp.
0
0
Cyperus sp.
0
0
Galium sp.
0
0
Gaylussacia sp.
0
0
Ilex sp.
0
0
Juglans cinerea
0
0
Juglans nigra
0
0
Juglans sp.
0
0
Juncus sp.
0
0
Lactuca sp.
0
0
Myrica pensylvanica
0
0
Nyssa sylvatica
0
0
Phaselous vulgaris
0
0
Phytolacca americana
0
0
Polygonum hydropiper
0
0
swamps and
Thuja
bogs along
swamps tidal rivers
the coast
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
wet, sandy and
peaty shores
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
wooded
swamps
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
Total Wetland
Spcecies
Represented
Per Plant
Type
0
2
34
1
0
4
0
3
0
1
0
7
5
1
3
0
0
0
12
0
0
2
0
0
1
WETLAND CATEGORIZATION streamsides swamps
Polygonum sp.
0
0
Portulaca sp.
0
0
Potamogeton sp.
0
0
Prunus persica
0
0
Prunus sp.
0
0
Quercus sp.
0
0
Rhus sp.
0
0
Rubus sp.
0
0
Scirpus sp.
0
0
Triticum sp.
0
0
Vaccinium sp.
0
0
Viburnum sp.
0
0
Vicia sp.
0
0
Viola sp.
0
0
Vitis sp.
0
0
Zea mays
0
0
swamps and
Thuja
bogs along
swamps tidal rivers
the coast
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
wet, sandy and
peaty shores
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
wooded
swamps
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
Total Wetland
Spcecies
Represented
Per Plant
Type
13
0
19
0
2
4
2
2
23
0
4
3
0
8
1
0
along the
COASTAL CATEGORIZATION coast
Acalypha sp.
Asclepias sp.
Carex sp.
Carpinus caroliniana
Carya sp.
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
Comptonia peregrina
Cornus sp.
Corylus sp.
Crataegus sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Cyperus sp.
Galium sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Ilex sp.
Juglans cinerea
Juglans nigra
Juglans sp.
Juncus sp.
Lactuca sp.
Myrica pensylvanica
Nyssa sylvatica
Phaselous vulgaris
Phytolacca americana
Polygonum hydropiper
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
beaches
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
dry sandy soil
along coast dunes
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
mostly near
the coast
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
mostly near
the coastal
plain
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
near the
coast
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
saline,
brackish and
calcareous
soil along the
coast
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
along the
COASTAL CATEGORIZATION coast
Polygonum sp.
Portulaca sp.
Potamogeton sp.
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Rubus sp.
Scirpus sp.
Triticum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Viburnum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Zea mays
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
beaches
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
dry sandy soil
along coast dunes
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
mostly near
the coast
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
mostly near
the coastal
plain
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
near the
coast
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
saline,
brackish and
calcareous
soil along the
coast
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
COASTAL CATEGORIZATION sand bars sand dunes
Acalypha sp.
0
Asclepias sp.
0
Carex sp.
0
Carpinus caroliniana
0
Carya sp.
0
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
0
Comptonia peregrina
0
Cornus sp.
0
Corylus sp.
0
Crataegus sp.
0
Cucurbita sp.
0
Cyperus sp.
1
Galium sp.
0
Gaylussacia sp.
0
Ilex sp.
0
Juglans cinerea
0
Juglans nigra
0
Juglans sp.
0
Juncus sp.
0
Lactuca sp.
0
Myrica pensylvanica
0
Nyssa sylvatica
0
Phaselous vulgaris
0
Phytolacca americana
0
Polygonum hydropiper
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
sands along
the coast
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
sea beaches
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
turf and
gravel near
the coast
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
wet sandy
soil near the
coast
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Total Coastal
Spcecies
Represented
Per Plant
Type
0
0
6
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
1
1
0
0
0
5
0
2
0
0
0
0
COASTAL CATEGORIZATION sand bars sand dunes
Polygonum sp.
0
Portulaca sp.
0
Potamogeton sp.
0
Prunus persica
0
Prunus sp.
0
Quercus sp.
0
Rhus sp.
0
Rubus sp.
0
Scirpus sp.
1
Triticum sp.
0
Vaccinium sp.
0
Viburnum sp.
0
Vicia sp.
0
Viola sp.
0
Vitis sp.
0
Zea mays
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
sands along
the coast
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
sea beaches
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
turf and
gravel near
the coast
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
wet sandy
soil near the
coast
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
Total Coastal
Spcecies
Represented
Per Plant
Type
3
0
0
0
2
1
1
1
3
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
ANTHROPOGENIC
DISTURBANCE
Acalypha sp.
Asclepias sp.
Carex sp.
Carpinus caroliniana
Carya sp.
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
Comptonia peregrina
Cornus sp.
Corylus sp.
Crataegus sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Cyperus sp.
Galium sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Ilex sp.
Juglans cinerea
Juglans nigra
Juglans sp.
Juncus sp.
Lactuca sp.
Myrica pensylvanica
Nyssa sylvatica
Phaselous vulgaris
!"#$%&
'!("'#!)*
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
5
5
5
5
!'#+$)&
,#+*-*
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
)(*.'+/-)& )(*.+'/-)&
!'-!*
0-.&*#("
)(.1,-*
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
5
5
5
5
)+23*
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
%'!4-"&
#")&1-""-'&
3(.*
"!0$* ,#"-*
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
ANTHROPOGENIC
DISTURBANCE
Phytolacca americana
Polygonum hydropiper
Polygonum sp.
Portulaca sp.
Potamogeton sp.
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Rubus sp.
Scirpus sp.
Triticum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Viburnum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Zea mays
!"#$%&
'!("'#!)*
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
!'#+$)&
,#+*-*
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
5
5
)(*.'+/-)& )(*.+'/-)&
!'-!*
0-.&*#("
)(.1,-*
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
5
5
5
5
5
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
)+23*
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
%'!4-"&
#")&1-""-'&
3(.*
"!0$* ,#"-*
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
ANTHROPOGENIC
DISTURBANCE
Acalypha sp.
Asclepias sp.
Carex sp.
Carpinus caroliniana
Carya sp.
Chenopodium - Amaranthus sp.
Comptonia peregrina
Cornus sp.
Corylus sp.
Crataegus sp.
Cucurbita sp.
Cyperus sp.
Galium sp.
Gaylussacia sp.
Ilex sp.
Juglans cinerea
Juglans nigra
Juglans sp.
Juncus sp.
Lactuca sp.
Myrica pensylvanica
Nyssa sylvatica
Phaselous vulgaris
3#0-'"($-*
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
*!$)7&
'#!)*()-*&
*()-0!"8&
'#!)*()-* !$)&.,(18-.* 1'!18*
6
5
6
5
6
5
5
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
5
5
6
5
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
*.#$-& 0!*.-&
0!""* 3"!1-*
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
5
5
5
5
6
5
6
5
5
5
6
5
5
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
5
6
5
5
5
5
5
6
9#.!"&
:$.,'#3#%-$(1&
;31-1(-*&
<-3'-*-$.-)&
=-'&="!$.&9736
6
>
5
6
6
?
6
6
6
6
6
6
5
5
5
5
6
@
6
5
5
6
ANTHROPOGENIC
DISTURBANCE
Phytolacca americana
Polygonum hydropiper
Polygonum sp.
Portulaca sp.
Potamogeton sp.
Prunus persica
Prunus sp.
Quercus sp.
Rhus sp.
Rubus sp.
Scirpus sp.
Triticum sp.
Vaccinium sp.
Viburnum sp.
Vicia sp.
Viola sp.
Vitis sp.
Zea mays
3#0-'"($-*
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
*!$)7&
'#!)*()-*&
*()-0!"8&
'#!)*()-* !$)&.,(18-.* 1'!18*
6
5
5
5
6
5
6
5
5
5
6
5
6
6
5
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
5
5
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
*.#$-& 0!*.-&
0!""* 3"!1-*
5
6
5
5
5
6
5
6
5
5
5
6
5
6
5
6
6
6
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
5
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
6
9#.!"&
:$.,'#3#%-$(1&
;31-1(-*&
<-3'-*-$.-)&
=-'&="!$.&9736
5
>
6
6
6
>
5
?
?
?
6
6
6
6
?
6
?
!""#$%&'(#(
(
)&*#(&$+#$*,-&#)(,.(*/#(0,*!$&1!2(&%#$*&.&1!*&,$)(
(
Includes ten sites in order of occupation: 1) 72-91 (1675-1680); (2) 72-164A
(1680-1690); (3) 72-34A (1680-1690); (4) 72-58 (1760-1770); (5) 72-171 (1765-1775);
(6) 72-88 (1775-1800); (7) 72-97C (1780-1785); (8) 72-161 (1780-1790); (9) 72-70B
(1780-1800); and (10) 72-66 (1785-1795).
!
"#$%&!'$$(&)*#+*,-.!
!
/,01!2!/,03%&+&-&..!,4!5,+#-*6#%!7&0#*-!
8'!2!8&#+9(&!'..,6*#+*,-!
8':;!2!8&#+9(&!'..,6*#+*,-!:,.+0,%<!
4(#=!2!4(#=0&-+!
>8!2!>,!4&#+9(&!
?1@1!2!?,A&(!@&3+B!
C1@1!2!C33&(!@&3+B!
C>D!E!C-F-,A-!
!
370
!
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
1326.03
3103
3111
3141
3145
3155
3155
3155
3156
3158
3160
3160
3166
3171
3173
3173
3173
3175
3179
3180
3183
3186
3187
3187
3189
3191
Unit
S14/W22
S05/E10
N05/E10
S15/W09
N10/W20
UNK
UNK
UNK
N00/W01
UNK
N04/W01
N04/W01
N05/W01
N05/W01
N05/W01
N05/W01
N05/W01
N05/W01
N05/W01
N05/W01
N05/W01
N05/W01
N05/W01
N05/W01
N07/W01
N07/W01
SE
NW
NE+NW
NE+NW
NE+NW
NE+NW
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
NE
SW
SW
SW
NW
SW
NE
NE
NW
NW
Quad
Feat.
63
2
2
NF
NF
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
U.D.
0
0
10
10
10
0
0
0
0
0
20
20
20
20
40
40
40
40
40
40
10
20
20
20
20
25
L.D
0
10
20
20
20
0
0
0
0
0
30
30
40
30
50
50
50
50
50
50
20
25
25
25
25
35
Type
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
plant
seed
nutshell
plant
plant
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
plant
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
Genus
Carya
Corylus
Corylus
unidentified
Zea
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
Corylus
Carya
unidentified
Corylus
Zea
unidentified
Comptonia
Species
sp.
americana
americana
unidentified
mays
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
americana
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
americana
unidentified
americana
sp.
unidentified
americana
mays
unidentified
peregrina
Count
16
1
1
2
2
3
1
7
1
4
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
27
1
18
1
1
4
Mass
(g)
0.16
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.06
0.01
0.03
0.07
0.11
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.85
0.01
0.78
0.02
0.01
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
3191
3191
3194
3194
3200
3203
3206
3233
3233
3233
3253
3255
3255
3256
3256
3256
3259
3260
3262
3262
3266
3266
3284
3285
3300
3300
Unit
N07/W01
N07/W01
N07/W01
N07/W01
N08/W02
N09/10/W01
N08/W01
UNK-E
UNK-E
UNK-E
N17/E00
UNK
UNK
UNK
UNK
UNK
UNK
UNK
UNK
UNK
UNK
UNK
N05/06/W01
N05/06/W01
S15/W09
S15/W09
NE
NE
Quad
SE
SE
NE
NE
SE
Feat.
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
5
5
5
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
15
15
20
20
24
24
U.D.
25
25
30
30
30
0
20
25
25
25
20
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
20
23
23
25
25
L.D
35
35
45
45
40
0
30
35
35
35
30
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
30
30
40
40
35
35
Type
plant
seed
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
plant
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
plant
plant
plant
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
plant
seed
plant
nutshell
plant
Genus
unidentified
Zea
Corylus
unidentified
Carya
Corylus
Carya
Carya
Corylus
unidentified
Zea
Carya
Prunus .
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
Carya
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
Zea
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
Species
unidentified
mays
americana
unidentified
sp.
americana
sp.
sp.
americana
unidentified
mays
sp.
sp.
americana
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
americana
sp.
americana
unidentified
unidentified
mays
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
Count
8
4
2
1
2
1
2
4
1
1
1
2
1
4
2
12
1
4
2
2
3
2
1
1
13
2
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.09
0.01
0.01
0.08
0.01
0.04
0.07
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.11
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.17
0.01
0.11
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
3302.02
3302.03
3302.04
3302.05
3303
3305
3305
3308
3311
3315
3318
3320
3323
3323
3326
3331
3331
3331
3333
3333
3335
3335
3336
3345
3346
3346
Unit
Quad
N06/W01/02
N06/W01/02
N06/W01/02
N06/W01/02
N06/W01/02
UNK
UNK
N06/W01/02
UNK
UNK
N10/W07
N29/E03
SE
N29/E03
NE
N29/E03
NE
N29/E03
N29/E03
SW
N29/E03
SW
N29/E03
SW
N29/S03
SW
N29/S03
SW
N29/E03NW
N29/E03
NW
N29/E03
NW
S19/20/E03/04
S19/20/E03/04
S19/20/E03/04
Feat.
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
29
32
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
54
54
54
U.D.
20
20
20
20
20
25
25
20
35
20
0
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
20
20
20
L.D
25
25
25
25
25
35
35
50
50
35
0
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
30
30
30
Type
plant
plant
nutshell
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
plant
seed
seed
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
seed
plant
nutshell
plant
seed
plant
plant
nutshell
nutshell
plant
seed
nutshell
nutshell
Genus
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
Juglans
unidentified
Carya
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
Zea
Carya
Carya
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
Corylus
Species
unidentified
unidentified
americana
cinerea
unidentified
sp.
americana
unidentified
unidentified
mays
sp.
sp.
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
americana
Count
7
8
4
1
1
1
5
2
1
1
1
7
3
2
1
75
10
1
1
2
14
1
1
1
3
2
Mass
(g)
0.03
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.01
0.03
0.08
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.2
0.06
0.01
0.02
0.7
0.03
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.4
0.06
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.03
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
3346
3346
3359
3361
3364
3368
3368
3369
3369
3370
3372
3378
3378
3378
3388
3391
3394
3394
3396
3396
3396
3397
3402
3403
3403
3406
Unit
Quad
S19/20/E03/04
S19/20/E03/04
N36/W24/28
N36/W27
N36/W27/28
N36/W29
NW+SW
N36/W29
NW+SW
S17/W04
NE+NW
N36/W29
NW+SW
N36/W29
NW+SW
N36/W29
NW+SW
N36/W29
NW+SW
N36/W29
NW+SW
N36/W29
NW+SW
N36/W29
NW+SW
N36/W29
NW+SW
N36/W29
NW+SW
N36/W29
NW+SW
N36/W29
NW+SW
N36/W29
NW+SW
N36/W29
NW+SW
N36/W29
NW+SW
N36/W28/29
N36/W24/28
N36/W24/28
N36/W28/29
Feat.
54
54
2
2
2
2
2
57
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
U.D.
20
20
0
0
0
0
0
20
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
L.D
30
30
0
0
0
0
0
30
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Type
seed
plant
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
plant
plant
seed
seed
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
plant
plant
nutshell
nutshell
plant
plant
plant
nutshell
plant
nutshell
Genus
Prunus
unidentified
Carya
Carya
Carya
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
Carya
Species
persica
unidentified
sp.
sp.
sp.
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
sp.
Count
1
2
3
35
10
12
6
1
1
1
8
1
1
1
18
25
1
2
75
1
10
1
1
8
3
24
Mass
(g)
0.07
0.04
0.03
0.27
0.13
0.16
0.07
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.08
0.03
0.02
0.03
0.11
0.24
0.02
0.03
1.71
0.01
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.12
0.05
0.11
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
3410
3411
3411
3411
3414
3417
3417
3422
3422
3424
3424
3425
3425
3428
3429
3429
3433
3434
3441
3450
3450
3455
3458
3460
3460
3460
Unit
Quad
N36/W28/29
N36/W28/29
N36/W28/29
N36/W28/29
N36/W28/29
N36/W28/29
N36/W28/29
N36/W28/29
N36/W28/29
N36/W28/29
N36/W28/29
N36/W28/29
N36/W28/29
N36/W28/29
N36/W28/29
N36/W28/29
N37/W40
N37/W40
S06/W22
S13/14/W39
S13/14/W39
S14/15/W28
S14/15/W28
S14/15/W28
S14/15/W28
S14/15/W28
Feat.
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
U.D.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
20
20
25
25
L.D
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
25
25
25
30
30
Type
plant
nutshell
plant
seed
plant
nutshell
seed
nutshell
plant
plant
seed
nutshell
nutshell
seed
plant
plant
seed
plant
seed
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
seed
nutshell
plant
Genus
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Zea
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
Carya
Carya
Rubus
unidentified
unidentified
Species
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
mays
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
sp.
sp.
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
Count
1
6
5
2
3
15
1
4
4
2
3
200
1
1
2
1
1
3
1
44
3
8
19
1
3
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.17
0.03
0.08
0.03
0.01
0.06
3.19
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.49
0.03
0.05
0.22
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
3460
3461
3461
3461
3462
3470
3474
3478
3478
3480
3480
3480
3483
3491
3492
3492
3494
3495
3495
3496
3497
3499
3500
3500
3501
3503
Unit
Quad
S14/15/W28
S14/15/W28
S14/15/W28
S14/15/W28
S14/15/W28
S14/15/W28 NW
S14/15/W28
S14/15/W28
S14/15/W28
S14/15/W28
S14/15/W28
S14/15/W28
N36/W24/28
N00/W25
N
N10/W07
N10/W07
N10/W07
N10/W07
N10/W07
N10/W07
N10/W07
N10/W07
N10/W07
N10/W07
N10/W07
N10/W07
Feat.
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
31
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
U.D.
25
25
25
20
20
20
25
25
25
25
25
25
0
0
17
17
17
17
17
0
0
17
17
17
17
17
L.D
30
30
30
25
25
25
30
30
30
30
30
30
0
0
20
20
20
20
20
0
0
20
20
20
20
20
Type
plant
nutshell
plant
plant
plant
plant
nutshell
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
plant
plant
nutshell
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
plant
seed
seed
plant
Genus
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
Carya
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
Zea
Corylus
Carya
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Gaylussacia
unidentified
Species
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
sp.
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
mays
americana
sp.
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
Count
1
3
1
1
1
2
6
3
1
4
2
2
2
5
5
1
1
1
1
14
1
1
2
1
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.07
0.04
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.06
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.11
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
3506
3508
3510
3513
3517
3518
3521
3525
3527
3527
3535
3537
3543
3556
3556
3556
3559
3561
3566
3566
3573
3574
3577
3580
3583
3586
Unit
N10/W07
N10/W07
N10/W07
N00/W25
N10/W07
N10/W07
N10/W07
N00/W07
N10/W07
N10/W07
N10/W07
UNK
N30/E05
S15/W28
S15/W28
S15/W28
S15/W28
S15/W56
S15/W56
S15/W56
S15/W57
S15/W57
S17/W23
S15/W57
S17/W21
S17/W24
SW
NW
N
S
S
S
S
Quad
Feat.
32
32
32
31
32
32
32
32A
32A
32A
32B
32B
34
47
47
47
47
50
50
50
49
49
61
49
62
62
U.D.
17
12
12
0
17
17
17
20
20
20
20
0
0
0
0
0
0
35
35
35
0
0
0
0
0
0
L.D
20
20
70
0
20
20
20
30
30
30
30
0
10
0
0
0
0
35
35
35
0
0
0
0
0
0
Type
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
plant
plant
plant
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
plant
Genus
Carya
Zea
Carya
Carya
Carya
Corylus
Carya
Carya
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
Carya
Carya
Corylus
unidentified
Carya
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
Carya
unidentified
Species
sp.
mays
sp.
sp.
sp.
americana
sp.
sp.
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
sp.
sp.
americana
unidentified
sp.
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
sp.
unidentified
Count
7
1
5
6
1
1
1
4
1
1
1
1
1
9
1
1
6
2
4
5
2
1
2
3
3
1
Mass
(g)
0.06
0.03
0.07
0.09
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.07
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.05
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.06
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
3597
3597
3598
3600
3600
3600
3603
3603
3605
3605
3605
3615
3623
3630
3636
3640
3640
3645
3648
3652
3652
3652
3655
3663
3667
3675
Unit
S18/W27
S18/W27
S18/W27
S18/W27
S18/W27
S18/W27
S19/W27
S19/W27
S17/W32
S17/W32
S17/W32
S20/W23
S14/W23
S19/W26
S19/W29
UNK
UNK
S16/W30
S17/W30
S18/W30
S18/W30
S18/W30
S16/W29
S16/W22
S17/W26
S18/W23
Feat.
76
76
76
76
76
76
77
77
NW
81
NW
81
NW
81
107
64
NE+NW 65
NE
68
68
68
NW+SW 71
72
85
85
85
86
NE
90
94
NE
106
Quad
U.D.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
42
42
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
L.D
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
42
42
42
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Type
seed
plant
seed
nutshell
nutshell
plant
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
plant
nutshell
seed
plant
nutshell
plant
plant
plant
plant
plant
plant
plant
nutshell
plant
nutshell
Genus
Crataegus
unidentified
Crataegus
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
Carya
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
Carya
Species
sp.
unidentified
sp.
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
americana
unidentified
sp.
americana
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
americana
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
sp.
Count
1
3
1
3
1
4
1
1
1
1
2
1
6
10
1
1
1
2
3
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
3678
3733
3949
3954
3956
3963
3963
3969
4172
5161
5164
5164
7552
7559
7580
7584
9703
9715
10304
10306
11421
11551
11591
11599
11600
11635
Unit
S18/W23
UNK-N+S
N36/W29
S17/W32
S19/W26
S17/W23
S17/W23
S14/15/W28
S14/W31
N01/W19
N01/W19
N01/W19
N38/W55
N38/W55
N38/W56
N38/W56
N37/W62
N37/W62
N37/W65
N37/W65
N37/W65
N42/W59
N42/W62
N42/W63
N42/W63
N43/W60
SW
NW
SW
SE
SE
NE
NE
SW
SE
NE
NW
SW
NW
SE
NE
SE
SW
SW
Quad
NE
S
NE
NW
Feat.
106
25
2
81
78
89
89
02A
30
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
U.D.
0
25
0
0
29
0
0
30
20
10
10
10
20
20
10
20
0
5
5
10
10
0
0
10
10
10
L.D
0
35
0
0
29
0
0
30
20
20
20
20
25
25
20
25
5
10
10
15
15
5
10
15
15
15
Type
seed
plant
plant
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
plant
nutshell
nutshell
plant
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
plant
plant
nutshell
seed
seed
plant
nutshell
nutshell
seed
nutshell
Genus
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Crataegus
Crataegus
Carya
Zea
unidentified
Carya
Carya
unidentified
Zea
Zea
Zea
Zea
Zea
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
Carya
Zea
Carya
Species
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
sp.
sp.
mays
unidentified
sp.
sp.
unidentified
mays
mays
mays
mays
mays
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
sp.
mays
sp.
Count
1
2
1
1
3
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
3
1
2
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.13
0.18
0.09
0.07
0.05
0.14
0.05
0.08
0.05
0.05
0.03
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.03
Com.
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
11894
11901
11902
11965
12015
12016
12030
12033
12037
12038
12048
12051
12057
12069
12086
12086
12173
12186
12217
12221
12225
12251
12253
12268
12268
12275
Unit
N26/W27
N26/W27
N26/W27
N27/W27
N25/W27
N25/W27
N25/W27
N25/W27
N25W27
N25/W27
N25/W27
N25/W27
N25/W27
N25/W29
N25/W29
N25/W29
N27/W31
N28/W26
N28/W31
N28/W31
N28/W31
N30/W31
N30/W31
N30/W31
N30/W31
N30/W31
Quad
SE
SE
SE
SE
SW
SE
NE
NW
NE
NE
NW
NE
NW
NW
NW
NW
SW
SW
SE
NW
NW
NW
SE
NW
NW
SW
Feat.
NF
NF
82
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
85
85
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
U.D.
10
15
15
15
5
10
15
20
20
20
25
25
30
5
15
15
15
10
15
15
15
0
5
10
10
15
L.D
15
20
20
20
10
15
20
25
25
25
30
30
35
10
20
20
20
15
20
20
20
5
10
15
15
20
Type
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
Genus
Zea
Zea
Carya
Zea
Zea
unidentified
Zea
Zea
Zea
Carya
unidentified
Zea
Carya
Zea
Corylus
Zea
Zea
Zea
Corylus
unidentified
Corylus
Carya
Carya
unidentified
Zea
unidentified
Species
mays
mays
sp.
mays
mays
unidentified
mays
mays
mays
sp.
unidentified
mays
sp.
mays
americana
mays
mays
mays
americana
unidentified
americana
sp.
sp.
unidentified
mays
unidentified
Count
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
2
1
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.16
0.12
0.13
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.07
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.03
0.05
0.07
0.02
0.04
0.03
0.07
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.06
Com.
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
12310
12329
12329
12344
12360
12394
12407
12434
12440
12468
12501
12505
12559
12597
12597
12602
12609
12620
12620
12774
12834
12838
12856
12861
12864
12904
Unit
N25/W28
N25/W28
N25/W28
N26/W30
N27/W26
N27/W32
N27/W32
N28/W32
N28/W32
N29/W26
N29/W31
N29/W31
N21/W31
N31/W32
N31/W32
N31/W32
N31/W32
N31/W32
N31/W32
N29/W32
N32/W32
N32/W32
N32/W32
N32/W32
N32/W32
N34/W32
Quad
SW
NE
NE
SE
NE
NW
SE
NW
NE
NE
SW
NW
SW
SE
SE
SW
SW
NE
NE
SE
NE
SW
NE
SW
SE
SE
Feat.
NF
NF
NF
79
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
U.D.
10
20
20
10
10
15
15
15
15
10
15
20
5
10
10
10
15
20
20
20
5
10
15
20
20
20
L.D
15
25
25
23
15
20
20
20
20
15
20
25
10
15
15
15
20
25
25
25
10
15
20
25
25
25
Type
seed
plant
seed
nutshell
seed
plant
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
plant
plant
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
plant
seed
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
plant
Genus
Zea
unidentified
Zea
Carya
Zea
unidentified
Corylus
Zea
Corylus
Zea
Corylus
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Zea
Zea
Carya
unidentified
Zea
unidentified
Zea
Zea
unidentified
Zea
unidentified
Species
mays
unidentified
mays
sp.
mays
unidentified
americana
mays
americana
mays
americana
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
mays
mays
sp.
unidentified
mays
unidentified
mays
mays
unidentified
mays
unidentified
Count
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
Mass
(g)
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.09
0.05
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.13
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.06
0.06
0.09
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
12914
12930
12934
12963
12967
12974
12974
12974
12978
12990
12999
13003
13007
13016
13017
13017
13018
13020
13029
13036
13037
13045
13050
13055
13216
13224
Unit
N27/W33
N29/W33
N29/W33
N30/W33
N30/W33
N30/W33
N30/W33
N30/W33
N30/W33
N31/W33
N31/W33
N31/W33
N31/W33
N31/W33
N31/W33
N31/W33
N31/W33
N31/W22
N31/W33
N31/W33
N31/W33
N31/W34
N31/W34
N31/W34
N28/W33
N28/W33
Quad
NE
SW
NW
SE
NE
SW
SW
SW
NE
SW
SW
NW
NE
SE
SE
SE
SW
NE
SE
NE
SE
NW
SW
NW
NW
SW
Feat.
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
U.D.
10
5
5
10
15
20
20
20
20
10
15
15
15
15
15
15
20
20
20
25
25
10
15
15
15
15
L.D
15
10
10
15
20
25
25
25
25
15
20
20
20
20
20
20
25
25
25
27
27
15
20
20
20
20
Type
plant
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
plant
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
Genus
unidentified
Zea
Corylus
Zea
Zea
Carya
Corylus
unidentified
Zea
Zea
unidentified
Zea
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
Zea
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
Zea
Carya
Carya
Zea
Zea
Carya
Zea
Species
unidentified
mays
americana
mays
mays
sp.
americana
unidentified
mays
mays
unidentified
mays
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
mays
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
mays
sp.
sp.
mays
mays
sp.
mays
Count
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
3
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.03
0.09
0.02
0.01
0.04
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.04
0.07
0.03
0.07
0.04
0.04
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.09
0.03
0.07
0.05
0.02
0.06
0.06
0.04
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
13277
13277
13278
13328
13341
13383
13387
13392
13835.01
13843.02
13844.03
13844.03
13845.03
13884
13885
13901
13902
13930
13937
13937
13942
13965
13966
13973
14012
14016
Unit
N33/W28
N33/W28
N33/W28
N34/W28
N34/W29
N34/W33
N35/W26
N35/W26
N36/W24
N36/W26
N36/W26
N36/W26
N36/W26
N32/W29
N32/W29
N32/W29
N32/W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W30
N32W29
N32W29
N32/W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SE
SE
SE
SE
Quad
SE
SE
SE
NE
SW
SE
SW
NE
SW
SW
Feat. U.D.
NF
15
NF
15
NF
15
NF
20
NF
20
NF
10
NF
15
NF
15
2
10
2
10
2
15
2
15
2
20
92(03) 50
92(03) 50
92(05a)55
92(05a)55
92 (10)80
92 (10)80
92 (10)80
92 (10)85
92 (01)45
92(01a)45
92 (03)50
92 (01)65
92 (06)70
L.D
20
20
20
25
25
15
20
20
15
15
20
20
25
55
55
60
60
80
80
80
80
40
50
45
65
65
Type
nutshell
plant
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
nutmeat
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
Genus
Carya
unidentified
Carya
Zea
Carya
Zea
Carya
Zea
Carya
Carya
Carya
Corylus
Corylus
Zea
Zea
Carya
Zea
Carya
Carya
unidentified
Carya
Zea
Zea
Carya
Zea
Carya
Species
sp.
unidentified
sp.
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
sp.
sp.
americana
americana
mays
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
sp.
unidentified
sp.
mays
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
Count
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
4
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
8
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.04
0.03
0.07
0.09
0.12
0.04
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.06
0.08
0.06
0.07
0.07
0.09
0.11
0.09
0.01
0.28
0.05
0.13
0.14
0.03
0.93
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
14046
14046
14047
14058
14066
14077
14078
14079
14118
14131
14136
14152
14182
14185
14197
14200
14204
14204
14208
14211
14226
14231
14232
14254
14277
14289
Unit
N32W30
N32W30
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N33/W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N33N29
N33W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N33W29
N33W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
NE B
NE B
NE B
NE B
NW B
NW C
NE A
NE A
NE
NE B
NE B
Quad
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SW BC
Feat. U.D.
92 (06c)80
92 (06)80
92 (06c)80
92 (10)80
92 (10)85
92 (10)85
92 (10)85
92 (10)85
92(01) 15
92 (03a)70
92 (04)75
92 (06b)95
92 (12)100
92
0
92 (01)40
92 (01c)60
92 (04)70
92 (04)70
92 (04d)75
92 (04)75
92 (13)90
92 (06b)90
92 (06b)90
92 (06b)95
92 (10)86
92(10) 50
L.D
75
75
75
80
80
80
85
85
20
70
70
90
95
0
40
60
65
65
70
70
85
85
85
90
86
55
Type
nutshell
nutmeat
seed
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
nutmeat
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
Genus
Carya
unidentified
Zea
Carya
Carya
Carya
Zea
Phaseolus
unidentified
Zea
Zea
Zea
Zea
Carya
Zea
Zea
Carya
unidentified
Zea
Carya
Zea
Zea
Carya
Zea
Carya
Zea
Species
sp.
unidentified
mays
sp.
sp.
sp.
mays
vulgaris
unidentified
mays
mays
mays
mays
sp.
mays
mays
sp.
unidentified
mays
sp.
mays
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
mays
Count
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
1
1
1
2
1
Mass
(g)
0.66
0.01
0.12
0.02
0.16
0.17
0.06
0.13
0.03
0.2
0.21
0.1
0.05
0.18
0.15
0.11
0.35
0.01
0.17
0.16
0.09
0.13
0.02
0.14
0.1
0.24
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
14294
14299
14308
14308
14322
14329
14330
14332
14351
14372
14377
14380
14402
14726
14727
14727
14727
14732
14732
14732
14733
14742
14742
14746
14749
14749
Unit
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
UNK
N32W30
N33W30
N32W30
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
NW CD
NW
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
Quad
NW C
Feat. U.D.
92(01) 55
92 (04d)70
92 (01c)80
92(01c)75
92 (06)80
92 (06)85
92 (06)85
92 (06)80
92 (10)95
92 (04b)0
92 (01c)75
92 (05b)80
92 (10)95
92
25
92
25
92
25
92
25
92
30
92
30
92
25
92
25
92
35
92
35
92 (01)40
92 (01)40
92 (01)40
L.D
60
65
75
80
75
80
80
75
90
0
70
75
90
20
20
20
20
25
25
30
30
30
30
35
35
35
Type
seed
seed
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
nutshell
Genus
Zea
Zea
Carya
unidentified
Carya
Carya
Zea
Carya
Zea
Zea
Zea
Zea
Zea
Zea
Carya
unidentified
Zea
Carya
unidentified
Zea
Rhus
Carya
Zea
Zea
Carya
unidentified
Species
mays
mays
sp.
unidentified
sp.
sp.
mays
sp.
mays
mays
mays
mays
mays
mays
sp.
unidentified
mays
sp.
unidentified
mays
sp.
sp.
mays
mays
sp.
unidentified
Count
2
1
5
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
3
5
27
1
2
24
4
3
1
5
2
1
2
4
Mass
(g)
0.24
0.08
0.73
0.01
0.09
0.19
0.19
0.31
0.18
0.18
0.17
0.03
0.13
0.2
0.47
0.01
0.01
0.45
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.02
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
14749
14753
14753
14757
14757
14759
14767
14767
14786
14786
14786
14786
14787
14788
14792.01
14792.02
14792.05
14792.05
14792.06
14795
14795
14795
14803
14808
14816
14825
Unit
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W30
N32W30
N32W30
N32W30
N32W30
N32W30
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W30
SW
SW
SW
SW
Quad
SE
SE
SE
SW
SW
SE
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
Feat. U.D.
92 (01)40
92 (03)45
92 (03)45
92 (03)50
92 (03)50
92 (03)50
92(03) 50
92(03) 50
92 (05a)65
92 (05a)65
92 (05a)65
92 (05a)65
92 (05a)65
92 (05a)65
92
60
92
60
92
60
92
60
92
60
92 (06b)75
92 (06b)75
92 (06b)75
92 (06b)75
92 (06b)75
92 (06b)80
92 (06b)80
L.D
35
40
40
45
45
45
55
55
60
60
60
60
60
60
55
55
55
55
55
70
70
70
70
70
80
80
Type
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
Genus
Zea
Carya
Zea
Carya
Zea
Zea
Carya
Zea
Comptonia
Gaylussacia
unidentified
Zea
Rubus
Zea
Carya
Zea
Carya
Zea
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
Zea
Comptonia
Comptonia
Carya
Species
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
mays
mays
sp.
mays
peregrina
sp.
unidentified
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
mays
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
mays
peregrina
peregrina
sp.
Count
2
4
1
13
2
1
11
1
2
1
1
5
2
10
56
2
7
1
8
31
1
2
1
2
1
51
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.05
0.01
0.49
0.03
0.02
0.13
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.05
0.01
0.28
1.33
0.03
0.07
0.01
0.06
1.24
0.07
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.01
1.38
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
14825
14825
14825
14842
14842
14842
14849
14854
14854
14854
14862
14862
14874
14876
14891
14893
14893
14895
14921
14935
14947
14947
14961
14961
14977
14978
Unit
N32W30
N32/W30
N32W30
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W30
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
Quad
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE 1/4
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
Feat. U.D.
92 (06b)80
92(06b)80
92 (06b)80
92 (10)90
92 (10)90
92 (10)90
92 (10)90
92 (10)90
92 (10)90
92(10) 85
92 (10)90
92 (10)90
92(01a)45
92 (04a)50
92(03) 50
92(03) 50
92(03) 50
92(06) 55
92 (04b)65
92 (07)75
92 (10)85
92 (10)85
92 (10)85
92 (10)85
92 (06c)80
92 (06c)80
L.D
80
80
80
85
85
85
85
85
85
90
85
85
50
45
55
55
55
60
60
70
80
80
80
80
75
75
Type
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
Genus
Comptonia
Corylus
Zea
Comptonia
Myrica
Rubus
unidentified
Carya
Phaseolus
unidentified
unidentified
Zea
Carya
Zea
Zea
Carya
Zea
Carya
Carya
Carya
Carya
Zea
Comptonia
Zea
Zea
Rubus
Species
peregrina
americana
mays
peregrina
pensylvanica
sp.
unidentified
sp.
vulgaris
unidentified
unidentified
mays
sp.
mays
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
sp.
sp.
sp.
mays
peregrina
mays
mays
sp.
Count
1
1
4
1
1
2
1
29
1
1
1
2
6
5
5
25
5
5
10
1
35
4
3
1
6
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.02
0.09
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
1.46
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.16
0.05
0.04
0.6
0.12
0.07
0.23
0.02
1.31
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.11
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
14988
14988
14988
15004
15004
15004
15004
15027
15027
15027
15068
15069
15069
15073
15082
15082
15108
15118
15118
15132
15132
15133
15138
15149
15155
15167
Unit
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32/W30
N32W30
N32/W30
N32W30
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32/W30
N32W30
N32W30
N32W30
N32W30
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W28
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
Quad
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
NE A
NE A
NE A
NE B
NE B
NE B
NE B
S
S
SW
SW
SW
SE
SE
SE
SE
NE B
NE B
NE B
Feat. U.D.
92 (06c)80
92 (06c)80
92 (06c)80
92 (10)90
92 (10)90
92 (10)90
92 (10)90
92(10) 95
92 (10)100
92(10) 95
92 (10)95
92 (10)95
92 (10)95
92 (10)95
92
25
92
30
92 (10)85
92 (10)85
92 (10)85
92 (10)95
92 (10)95
92 (10)95
92 (10)95
92 (06b)95
92 (06b)95
92 (06b)95
L.D
75
75
75
85
85
85
85
100
95
100
90
90
90
90
30
25
80
80
80
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
Type
Genus
nutshell Carya
nutshell unidentified
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
nutshell Corylus
seed
Cucurbita
nutshell unidentified
nutshell Carya
seed
Prunus
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
nutshell unidentified
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
Comptonia
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
nutshell unidentified
seed
Zea
seed
Rhus
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
seed
Comptonia
Species
sp.
unidentified
mays
sp.
sp.
sp.
unidentified
sp.
persica
mays
sp.
unidentified
mays
mays
sp.
mays
peregrina
sp.
mays
sp.
unidentified
mays
sp.
mays
mays
peregrina
Count
50
4
36
18
1
3
3
6
1
4
1
6
1
1
3
2
1
41
17
2
1
4
1
1
2
1
Mass
(g)
1.6
0.01
0.09
0.97
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.11
0.15
0.04
0.11
0.01
0.01
0.07
0.09
0.05
0.01
1.96
0.23
0.44
0.01
0.05
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
whole
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
0.01
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
15167
15167
15170
15194
15195
15209
15229
15238
15238
15238
15243
15256
15256
15262
15272
15275
15281
15281
15304
15304
15304
15304
15309
15310
15310
15341
Unit
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W30
N32W30
N32W29
Quad
NE B
NE B
NE B
SE 1/4
SE 1/4
SE 1/4
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NE A
NE A
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
Feat. U.D.
92 (06b)95
92 (06b)95
92 (06b)90
92 (06b)75
92 (06b)75
92 (06b)75
92 (06b)80
92 (06b)80
92 (06b)80
92 (06b)80
92 (06b)80
92 (06b)80
92 (06b)80
92 (10)90
92 (10)90
92 (10)90
92 (06b)90
92 (06b)90
92 (06b)85
92 (06b)85
92 (06b)85
92 (06b)85
92 (06b)85
92 (06b)85
92 (06b)85
92 (06b)90
L.D
90
90
85
70
70
70
75
75
75
75
75
75
75
85
85
85
85
85
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
85
Type
Genus
seed
unidentified
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Comptonia
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Phaseolus
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
seed
Comptonia
nutshell Carya
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
Comptonia
nutshell unidentified
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
Species
unidentified
mays
sp.
peregrina
sp.
mays
mays
sp.
vulgaris
mays
mays
sp.
mays
mays
peregrina
sp.
sp.
mays
peregrina
unidentified
mays
mays
mays
sp.
mays
mays
Count
1
11
11
1
61
3
2
40
2
4
3
30
3
2
1
4
17
3
3
11
17
1
2
75
1
8
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.03
0.52
0.01
2.33
0.07
0.05
1.05
0.03
0.07
0.06
1.1
0.02
0.04
0.01
0.11
0.82
0.03
0.01
0.04
0.05
0.01
0.23
2.57
0.02
0.38
Com.
whole
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
15360
15360
15368
15369
15381
15390
15391
15391
15399
15399
15416
15417
15418
15418
15425
15441
15441
15441
15441
15441
15451
15451
15454
15454
15454
15454
Unit
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
Quad
NW C
NW C
NE AB
NE AB
NE AB
NE AB
NE AB
NE AB
NE AB
NE AB
NE A
NE A
NE A
NE A
NW C
S
S
S
S
S
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
Feat. U.D.
92 (06b)90
92 (06b)90
92 (06)0
92 (06)0
92 (06)0
92(10) 0
92(10) 0
92(10) 0
92(10) 0
92 (10)0
92 (01c)65
92 (01c)65
92(01c)60
92(01c)60
92 (03)65
92 (01)45
92 (01)45
92 (01)45
92 (01)45
92 (01)45
92 (06)75
92 (06)75
92 (06)75
92 (06)75
92 (06)75
92 (06)75
L.D
85
85
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
60
60
65
65
60
40
40
40
40
40
70
70
70
70
70
70
Type
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
Genus
Carya
Zea
Zea
Carya
Carya
Phaselous
Carya
Prunus
Phaselous
Zea
Zea
Zea
Carya
Zea
Carya
Carya
Corylus
Myrica
Rubus
Zea
Carya
Zea
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
Zea
Species
sp.
mays
mays
sp.
sp.
vulgaris
sp.
persica
vulgaris
mays
mays
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
sp.
sp.
pensylvanica
sp.
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
mays
Count
20
1
2
1
17
2
7
1
2
2
6
5
27
2
4
40
1
1
1
28
16
4
3
1
1
2
Mass
(g)
1.06
0.01
0.07
0.02
0.99
0.15
0.48
0.11
0.03
0.03
0.25
0.06
0.95
0.06
0.16
0.8
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.39
0.75
0.13
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
15467
15467
15468
15468
15481
15481
15482
15482
15486
15502
15504
15504
15511
15528
15536
15539
15539
15547
15661
15662
15664
15733
16338
16351
16351
16351
Unit
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32/W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W30
N32W29
N32/W29
N32W29
N28/W25
N28/W25
N28/W25
N27/W36
N33/W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
Quad
SE
SE
SE
SE
NE-AB
NE AB
NE AB
NE AB
NW D
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NE AB
NE AB
NE
NE
NE AB
NW
SW
SE
NW
SE
NE A
NE A
NE A
Feat. U.D.
92
40
92
40
92
40
92
40
92(06a)0
92 (06a)0
92 (06a)0
92 (06a)0
92 (01c)80
92 (13)110
92 (13)110
92 (13)110
92 (10)105
92 (03)0
92(01c)0
92 (01c)0
92(01c)0
92 (12)0
NF
10
NF
10
NF
10
NF
15
509 30
92 (01)35
92 (01)35
92 (01)35
L.D
35
35
35
35
0
0
0
0
75
105
105
105
100
0
0
0
0
0
15
15
15
20
50
30
30
30
Type
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
seed
Genus
unidentified
Zea
Carya
Zea
Juglans
Zea
Carya
Zea
Zea
Zea
Carya
Comptonia
Comptonia
Carya
Zea
Carya
Carya
Zea
Zea
Zea
Zea
Corylus
Carya
Carya
Juglans
Zea
Species
unidentified
mays
sp.
mays
cinerea
mays
sp.
mays
mays
mays
sp.
peregrina
peregrina
sp.
mays
sp.
sp.
mays
mays
mays
mays
americana
sp.
sp.
sp.
mays
Count
4
2
23
8
1
7
18
3
1
1
1
2
2
1
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
42
1
3
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.33
0.07
0.07
0.16
0.83
0.07
0.01
0.04
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.11
0.13
0.09
0.09
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.06
0.05
0.06
0.71
0.05
0.13
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
16352
16357
16366
16366
16374
16374
16374
16382
16392
16392
16392
16393
16393
16394
16413
16413
16413
16414
16421
16421
16421
16434
16436
16438
16439
16439
Unit
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
NW C
NE C
NE C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
SE D
SE D
NW C
NW C
NW C
Quad
NE A
NE A
NE A
NE A
NE A
NE A
NE A
NE A
NW C
Feat. U.D.
92 (01)35
92(01) 30
92 (01)40
92(01) 35
92 (01)50
92 (10)50
92 (01)50
92(01) 55
92 (01)35
92 (1/1c)
70
92 (01)35
92 (01)35
92 (01)35
92 (01)35
92 (01)45
92 (01)45
92 (01)45
92(01) 40
92(01) 55
92(01) 55
92(01) 55
92 (01)0
92 (01)0
92(01) 50
92(01a)50
92(01a)50
L.D
30
35
35
40
45
45
45
60
30
65
30
30
30
30
40
40
40
45
60
60
60
0
0
55
55
55
Type
seed
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
Genus
Zea
Rubus
Myrica
Zea
Carya
unidentified
Zea
Carya
Phaseolus
Polygonum
Zea
Carya
unidentified
Myrica
Carya
Myrica
Zea
Zea
Carya
Vitis
Zea
unidentified
Carya
Zea
Carya
Zea
Species
mays
sp.
pensylvanica
mays
sp.
unidentified
mays
sp.
vulgaris
hydropiper
mays
sp.
unidentified
pensylvanica
sp.
pensylvanica
mays
mays
sp.
sp.
mays
unidentified
sp.
mays
sp.
mays
Count
2
2
1
2
22
2
7
5
1
3
4
4
1
1
45
3
21
4
14
1
5
1
32
6
10
2
Mass
(g)
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.07
0.59
0.02
0.13
0.16
0.01
0.02
0.12
0.08
0.01
0.01
0.62
0.01
0.26
0.11
0.37
0.02
0.06
0.01
0.74
0.11
0.78
0.03
Com.
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
16447
16447
16448
16458
16462
16462
16464
16484
16486
16486
16487
16487
16491
16493
16493
16508
16509
16510
16510
16520
16520
16521
16523
16523
16547
16548
Unit
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32/W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W30
N32W30
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
Quad
NW C
NW C
NE C
NW C
NE A
NE A
NE A
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
Feat. U.D.
92 (1/1b)
50
92 (1/1b)
50
92 (1/1b)
50
92(01b)55
92 (01c)75
92 (01c)75
92 (01c)75
92 (1b/1c)
65
92 (1b/1c)
65
92 (1b/1c)
65
92 (1b/1c)
65
92 (1b/1c)
65
92 (1/1c)
70
92 (1/1c)
70
92 (1/1c)
70
92 (01c)75
92 (01c)75
92 (01c)75
92 (01c)75
92 (01c)80
92 (01c)80
92 (01c)80
92 (01c)80
92 (01c)80
92(02a)50
92(02a)50
L.D
45
45
45
60
70
70
70
60
60
60
60
60
65
65
65
70
70
70
70
75
75
75
75
75
55
55
Type
Genus
nutshell Carya
seed
Phaseolus
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
Comptonia
nutshell Carya
nutshell unidentified
seed
Zea
seed
Gaylussacia
seed
unidentified
seed
Zea
seed
Comptonia
seed
Rubus
seed
Zea
seed
unidentified
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
Carex
nutshell Carya
seed
Carex
nutshell unidentified
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
Species
sp.
vulgaris
mays
sp.
sp.
mays
peregrina
sp.
unidentified
mays
sp.
unidentified
mays
peregrina
sp.
mays
unidentified
sp.
mays
sp.
sp.
sp.
unidentified
mays
mays
sp.
Count
12
2
12
5
37
10
2
8
1
20
1
4
8
3
1
4
1
10
2
1
36
7
1
13
2
3
Mass
(g)
0.43
0.09
0.26
0.22
1.52
0.24
0.01
0.37
0.01
0.3
0.01
0.01
0.21
0.01
0.01
0.1
0.01
0.53
0.1
0.01
1.81
0.01
0.01
0.22
0.06
0.1
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
16569
16569
16569
16569
16571
16572
16572
16590
16610
16610
16638
16647
16661
16662
16665
16669
16676
16689
16690
16705
16706
16706
16711
16712
16712
16717
Unit
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
NW C
SW D
NW C
NW C
NW D\
NE B
NW C
NW D
NW D
NE B
NE B
NE B
NE B
NE B
NE B
NE B
Quad
NE AB
NE AB
NE AB
NE AB
NE AB
NE AB
NE AB
NW D
Feat. U.D.
92 (01)0
92 (01)0
92 (01)0
92 (01)0
92(01) 0
92 (01)0
92 (01)0
92 (01c)85
92 (03)70
92 (03)70
92(03) 55
92 (13)0
92(01) 50
92(01) 50
92(01) 35
92(01a)50
92 (1b/1c)
90
92 (01c)65
92 (01c)65
92 (01)45
92 (01)45
92 (01)45
92(01) 45
92 (01)50
92 (01)50
92(01) 50
L.D
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
80
65
65
60
0
55
55
55
55
85
60
60
40
40
40
50
45
45
55
Type
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
Genus
Carya
Myrica
Phaseolus
Zea
Zea
Carya
Zea
Carya
Carya
Zea
Zea
Carya
Zea
Zea
Zea
Carya
Zea
Carya
Zea
Carya
Phaseolus
Zea
Zea
Carya
Zea
Carya
Species
sp.
pensylvanica
vulgaris
mays
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
sp.
mays
mays
sp.
mays
mays
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
vulgaris
mays
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
Count
2
1
7
11
1
22
14
1
1
1
1
1
5
3
1
1
4
1
3
17
2
4
3
11
1
19
Mass
(g)
0.05
0.01
0.11
0.28
0.07
0.47
0.22
0.02
0.01
0.05
0.02
0.08
0.18
0.09
0.11
0.06
0.02
0.06
0.27
0.35
0.08
0.09
0.16
0.42
0.03
0.84
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
16717
16718
16729
16730
16734
16737
16738
16745
16756
16762
16763
16795
16795
16796
16797
16812
16823
16825
16826
16839
16839
16841
16852
16853
16863
16864
Unit
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32FW29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
NE B
NE B
NE B
NE B
NE B
NE B
NE B
NE B
NE B
NE A
NE B
NE B
NE B
NW C
NE A
NE A
Quad
NE B
NE B
NE A
Feat. U.D.
92(01) 50
92(01) 50
92(01c)65
92 (01c)70
92(2a-2d)
55
92(02a)55
92(02a)55
92 (02c)65
92 (01)30
92(02a)50
92(02a)50
92 (03)70
92 (03)70
92 (03a)70
92 (03a)70
92 (04)70
92 (01)40
92(01) 35
92(01) 35
92(01) 55
92(01) 55
92(01) 55
92 (1b/1c)
65
92 (1b/1c)
65
92(01c)65
92 (01c)70
L.D
55
55
70
65
60
60
60
60
15
55
55
65
65
65
65
65
35
40
40
60
60
60
60
60
70
65
Type
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
Genus
Zea
Zea
Zea
Carya
Zea
Zea
Carya
Carya
Phaseolus
Carya
Zea
Carya
Zea
Zea
Comptonia
Carya
Comptonia
Zea
Carya
Carya
Zea
Zea
Zea
Carya
Zea
Carya
Species
mays
mays
mays
sp.
mays
mays
sp.
sp.
vulgaris
sp.
mays
sp.
mays
mays
peregrina
sp.
peregrina
mays
sp.
sp.
mays
mays
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
Count
1
7
5
21
5
1
1
1
1
9
2
7
1
1
1
2
2
5
24
17
3
17
1
4
3
12
Mass
(g)
0.12
0.27
0.11
1.19
0.13
0.03
0.06
0.04
0.03
0.43
0.02
0.21
0.08
0.03
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.15
0.47
0.53
0.07
0.49
0.02
0.12
0.03
0.42
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
16864
16873
16875
16889
16890
16891
16893
16908
16909
16918
16938
16940
16959
16969
16969
16970
16973
16985
16990
16991
17004
17014
17017
17030
17034
17043
Unit
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32/W29
NW32/W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
NE B
NE B
NE B
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NE B
NE B
NW D
NW D
NW D
NW D
NE B
NE B
NE B
NE A
NW A
NE A
Quad
Feat. U.D.
92 (01c)70
92 (01c)75
92 (01c)75
92 (01c)75
92 (01c)75
92 (01c)75
92 (01c)75
92 (02a)45
92 (02a)45
92(03) 55
92 (04)75
92 (04)75
92 (04)80
92 (04)70
92 (04)70
92 (04)70
92 (04)70
92 (04)70
92 (04)75
92 (04)75
92 (04)80
92 (4b/4d)
75
92 (4b/4d)
75
92 (4b/4d)
75
92 (04b)80
92 (04b)80
L.D
65
70
70
70
70
70
70
40
40
60
70
70
75
65
65
65
65
65
70
70
75
70
70
70
75
75
Type
Genus
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
Comptonia
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
nutshell Carya
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
Comptonia
seed
Carex
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Comptonia
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
Gaylussacia
Species
mays
sp.
mays
peregrina
mays
mays
sp.
sp.
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
sp.
sp.
mays
peregrina
sp.
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
peregrina
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
Count
1
12
3
3
20
3
32
2
1
6
5
28
4
18
1
2
1
2
22
5
4
4
4
22
3
1
Mass
(g)
0.02
0.38
0.04
0.01
0.54
0.07
2.06
0.12
0.02
0.53
0.09
2.51
0.32
1.15
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.05
1.32
0.23
0.25
0.02
0.09
2.56
0.04
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
17049
17052
17053
17058
17060
17060
17072
17073
17073
17076
17102
17103
17106
17118
17122
17135
17135
17136
17153
17153
17159
17161
17161.01
17163
17165
17176
Unit
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32/W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W30
N32W30
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
NW B
Quad
NW C
NW D
NW D
NE A
NW D
NW D
NE A
NE A
NE A
NE A
NW D
NE A
NE A
NE B
NE B
NE B
NE B
NE B
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
West 1/2
Feat. U.D.
92 (04b)80
92 (04b)75
92 (04b)75
92 (04c)80
92 (04c)80
92 (04c)80
92(4c/4e)
85
92 (4c/4e)
90
92 (4c/4e)
90
92 (4c/4e)
90
92 (04d)85
92 (04d)85
92 (4c/4e)
90
92 (04b)75
92 (04d)75
92 (04d)80
92 (04d)80
92 (04d)80
92 (04d)65
92(04d)60
92 (04d)65
92(04d)60
92
65
92 (04d)70
92 (04d)70
92 (05b)80
L.D
75
70
70
75
75
75
90
85
85
85
80
80
85
70
70
75
75
75
60
65
60
65
60
65
65
75
Type
Genus
nutshell Carya
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
nutshell Carya
nutshell Carya
nutshell Carya
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
seed
Phaselous
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Comptonia
Species
sp.
sp.
mays
mays
sp.
mays
mays
sp.
mays
mays
mays
sp.
sp.
sp.
sp.
sp.
mays
mays
sp.
mays
mays
vulgaris
mays
mays
sp.
peregrina
Count
3
10
3
5
14
2
1
6
1
1
1
6
9
3
2
11
1
1
18
7
1
1
1
1
3
1
Mass
(g)
0.15
0.49
0.07
0.14
0.53
0.02
0.02
0.12
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.24
0.7
0.24
0.17
0.39
0.02
0.07
0.22
0.17
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.09
0.07
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
17177
17177
17178
17189
17202
17211
17219
17232
17232
17243
17243
17244
17247
17267
17267
17268
17287
17288
17289
17289
17304
17309
17316
17317
17317
17334
Unit
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W30
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32/W29
N32W30
N32W30
N32W30
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W30
NW D
NW D
NW D
NE A
NE A
NE A
NE A
NE B
NW D
NW D
NW D
NW D
SW D
NW C
NW D
NW D
NW D
Quad
NW D
NW D
NW D
NW C
NE B
NE B
NE B
Feat. U.D.
92 (05b)80
92 (05b)80
92 (05b)80
92 (04b)85
92 (06)75
92 (06)85
92 (06)85
92 (06)70
92(06) 65
92 (06)75
92 (06)75
92 (06)75
92 (06)70
92 (06)80
92 (06)80
92 (06)80
92 (06)85
92 (06)85
92 (06)85
92 (06)85
92 (06)80
92 (06)85
92 (06)85
92 (06)85
92 (06)85
92 (06)0
L.D
75
75
75
80
70
80
80
65
70
70
70
70
65
75
75
75
80
80
80
80
75
80
80
80
80
0
Type
Genus
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
nutshell Carya
seed
Myrica
nutshell Carya
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
Comptonia
seed
Myrica
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
unidentified
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
Species
sp.
mays
mays
sp.
sp.
pensylvanica
sp.
sp.
mays
sp.
mays
mays
sp.
sp.
mays
mays
sp.
mays
peregrina
pensylvanica
sp.
mays
unidentified
sp.
mays
sp.
Count
37
2
4
5
11
2
1
3
1
1
1
2
3
20
1
3
18
3
5
1
9
4
4
37
1
9
Mass
(g)
1.51
0.06
0.11
0.27
0.58
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.08
0.68
0.01
0.03
1.01
0.07
0.01
0.01
0.71
0.22
0.01
0.82
0.01
0.29
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
17337
17366
17368
17369
17369
17387
17387
17408
17409
17410
17411
17431
17432
17433
17434
17459
17461
17462
17463
17471
17498
17517
17518
17528
17529
17539
Unit
N32W30
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W30
N32W30
N32W30
N32W30
N32W30
N32W30
N32W30
N32W30
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W30
N32W30
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
Quad
SW D
NW C
NE A
NE A
NE A
NW D
NW D
NW D
NE D
NW D
NW D
NW D
NW D
NW D
NW D
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW C
NW D
NW C
NW D
NW D
SE A
NE A
NE A
Feat. U.D.
92 (06)0
92 (06b)95
92 (06b)95
92 (06b)95
92 (06b)95
92 (06b)85
92 (06b)85
92 (06b)90
92 (06b)90
92 (06b)90
92 (06b)90
92 (06b)95
92 (06b)95
92 (06b)95
92 (06b)95
92 (06c)95
92 (06c)95
92 (06c)95
92 (06c)95
92 (08a)75
92 (10)100
92 (10)95
92 (10)95
92 (12)100
92 (12)100
92 (12)105
L.D
0
90
90
90
90
80
80
85
85
85
85
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
70
95
90
90
95
95
100
Type
Genus
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
seed
Gaylussacia
seed
Zea
seed
Comptonia
nutshell Carya
seed
Rubus
nutshell Carya
seed
Comptonia
seed
Zea
seed
Rubus
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
Species
mays
mays
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
mays
mays
sp.
mays
peregrina
sp.
sp.
sp.
peregrina
mays
sp.
mays
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
mays
mays
Count
3
3
5
14
1
5
3
24
4
2
1
2
1
7
1
17
1
4
1
2
2
1
1
1
3
2
Mass
(g)
0.02
0.04
0.18
0.66
0.01
0.25
0.06
0.85
0.16
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.29
0.01
0.21
0.01
0.08
0.01
0.07
0.05
0.06
0.02
0.02
0.08
0.02
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
17540
17541
17541
17585
17606
17606
17621
17621
17650
17651
17665
17670
17677
17690
17691
17704
17723
17726
17750
17763
17777
17778
17778
17788
17792
17809
Unit
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W30
N32W30
N32W30
N32W30
N32/W30
N32W30
N32W30
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32/W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32/W30
N32W30
N32W30
N32/W29
N32/W29
N32/W29
Quad
NE A
NE A
NE A
NW C
NW D
NW D
NW D
NW D
SW D
SW D
NE B
NE B
NE C
NE A
NE A
NE B
NW C
NW C
NE B
NE B
S
S
S
SW
SW
SW
Feat. U.D.
92 (12)105
92 (12)105
92 (12)105
92 (12)100
92 (07)90
92 (07)90
92 (12)100
92(12) 95
92 (12)0
92 (12)0
92 (12a)85
92 (13a)90
92 (12a)90
92 (13)105
92(13) 100
92 (13)105
92 (13)105
92 (13)105
92 (13a)90
92 (13a)85
92
20
92
25
92
25
92(03) 50
92(03) 50
92(05a)55
L.D
100
100
100
95
85
85
95
100
0
0
80
85
85
100
105
100
100
100
85
80
25
20
20
55
55
60
Type
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
cupule
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
Genus
Zea
Carya
Zea
unidentified
Carya
Zea
Comptonia
Rhus
Carya
Myrica
Zea
unidentified
Carya
Zea
Gaylussacia
Zea
Comptonia
Carya
Comptonia
Carya
Carya
Zea
Zea
Carya
Carya
Carya
Species
mays
sp.
mays
unidentified
sp.
mays
peregrina
sp.
sp.
pensylvanica
mays
unidentified
sp.
mays
sp.
mays
peregrina
sp.
peregrina
sp.
sp.
mays
mays
sp.
sp.
sp.
Count
8
17
4
1
3
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
1
2
2
6
1
2
23
27
1
1
3
38
Mass
(g)
0.29
0.53
0.08
0.01
0.09
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.08
0.01
0.14
0.61
0.48
0.27
0.11
0.09
1
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
17809
17810
17812
17819
17819
17828
17831
17843
17844
17856
17856
17856
17857
17858
17861
17868
17869
17879
17883
17883
17886
17886
17894
17895
17896
17897
Unit
N32/W29
N32/W29
N32/W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32/W29
N32W30
N32/W30
N32W31
N32/W31
N32W32
N32/W32
N32W33
SW
SW
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
Quad
SW
SW
SW
Feat. U.D.
92(05a)55
92(05a)55
92(05a)55
92 (05a)70
92 (05a)70
92 (05a)70
92 (05a)70
92 (07)80
92 (07)80
92 (03)45
92 (03)45
92 (03)45
92 (03)45
92 (03)45
92 (03)45
92 (01)45
92 (01)45
92 (01)50
92(01) 45
92 (01)50
92 (01a)50
92(01a)45
92(01a)45
92 (01a)50
92 (01a)50
92(01a)45
L.D
60
60
60
65
65
65
65
80
80
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
45
50
45
45
50
50
45
45
50
Type
Genus
seed
Zea
seed
Rubus
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Comptonia
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Comptonia
nutshell Carya
nutshell Corylus
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
seed
Comptonia
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
Comptonia
seed
Rhus
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Phaselous
Species
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
peregrina
sp.
mays
sp.
peregrina
sp.
sp.
mays
mays
peregrina
mays
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
mays
peregrina
sp.
mays
mays
sp.
vulgaris
Count
5
1
4
1
4
13
5
7
1
18
1
2
4
1
1
1
1
11
36
11
1
1
6
3
5
1
Mass
(g)
0.03
0.01
0.16
0.01
0.01
0.89
0.14
0.16
0.01
0.38
0.01
0.03
0.2
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.24
1.16
0.17
0.01
0.01
0.07
0.02
0.08
0.17
Com.
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
17897
17911
17913
17914
17914
17931
17931
17934
17935
17940
17941
17941
17948
17948
17949
17949
17963
17963
17963
17968
17968
17979
17979
17980
18002
18003
Unit
N32/W33
N32W34
N32/W34
N32W35
N32/W35
N32W36
N32/W36
N32W37
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32/W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
SE
SE
SE
NE B
NE B
Quad
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
Feat. U.D.
92 (01a)50
92(04b)55
92(04b)55
92(04b)55
92(04b)55
92 (04d)65
92 (04d)65
92(04b)0
92 (04b)65
92 (04d)65
92 (04d)65
92 (04d)65
92 (04d)65
92 (04d)65
92(04d)60
92 (04d)65
92 (06)70
92 (06)70
92 (06)70
92 (06)70
92 (06)70
92 (12)100
92 (12)100
92 (12)100
92 (02a)50
92 (02a)50
L.D
45
60
60
60
60
60
60
0
60
60
60
60
60
60
65
60
65
65
65
65
65
95
95
95
45
45
Type
Genus
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Rubus
seed
Scirpus
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
seed
Vitis
seed
Rubus
seed
unidentified
seed
unidentified
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
Zea
seed
Gaylussacia
nutshell unidentified
nutshell Carya
seed
unidentified
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
unidentified
seed
Comptonia
nutshell Carya
seed
Phaseolus
Species
mays
mays
sp.
sp.
sp.
mays
mays
sp.
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
mays
sp.
mays
sp.
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
mays
mays
mays
sp.
unidentified
peregrina
sp.
vulgaris
Count
5
12
28
2
1
11
1
1
1
1
1
6
18
1
1
1
37
1
5
6
2
1
1
3
5
1
Mass
(g)
0.17
0.07
0.48
0.01
0.01
0.24
0.23
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.2
0.72
0.02
0.01
0.01
1.49
0.01
0.11
0.38
0.41
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.13
0.03
Com.
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
whole
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
18003
18010
18010
18014
18014
18016
18033
18038
18043
18317
18346.04
18346.04
18350.02
18353.04
18353.04
18353.04
18353.06
18355.04
18360.01
18363.01
18367.02
18372.04
18444.03
18636.02
18750.00
19196.00
Unit
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32W29
N32/W28
N26/W28
N26/W28
N26/W28
N26/W30
N26/W30
N26/W30
N26/W30
N26/W30
N26/W30
N26/W30
N31/W31
N29/W31
N30/W31
N26/W30
S10W1
N35W50
Feat. U.D.
92 (02a)50
92 (02a)50
92 (02a)50
92 (02d)70
92(02d)70
92 (02d)70
92 (04d)70
92 (04d)70
92 (04d)70
NE
102 30
SW
80
35
SW
80
35
NW
80
35
SE/NE
83
18
SE/NE
83
18
SE/NE
83
18
SE/NE
83
18
SE/NE
83
30
NE
83
18
SE
83
18
NW/SW 86
20
NE
89
30
NE
322 0
SE
83
18
E1/2
2
40
NE
NF
15
Quad
NE B
NE B
NE B
L.D
45
45
45
65
65
65
65
65
65
40
40
40
40
23
23
23
23
35
23
23
30
35
0
23
20
10
Type
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
plant
seed
plant
seed
nutshell
nutshell
seed
nutshell
plant
seed
seed
nutshell
Genus
Zea
Comptonia
Vitis
Gaylussacia
unidentified
Carya
Carya
Zea
Zea
Zea
Carya
Zea
Zea
Carya
unidentified
Zea
unidentified
Zea
Carya
Carya
Zea
Corylus
unidentified
Zea
Comptonia
Carya
Species
mays
peregrina
sp.
sp.
unidentified
sp.
sp.
mays
mays
mays
sp.
mays
mays
sp.
unidentified
mays
unidentified
mays
sp.
sp.
mays
americana
unidentified
mays
peregrina
sp.
Count
5
5
1
1
1
17
8
6
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.07
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.34
0.43
0.09
0.07
0.05
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.06
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
Com.
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
19200
19266
19296
19309
19329
19348
19363
19369
19370
19374
19375
19378
19379
19397
19404
19411
19412
19415
19417
19440
19452
19482
19502
19525
19527
19532
Unit
N35W50
N35W51
N35W53
N35W56
N36W52
N37W51
N38W52
N38W52
N38W52
N38W52
N38W52
N38W58
N38W58
N36W47
N36W54
N36W54
N36W54
N36W54
N36W54
N37W52
N38W50
N36W44
N36W46
N38W49
N39W49
N39W49
Quad
NE
SE
NE
NW
NW
NE
NW
SE
SE
NE
NE
NE
NE
SW
NE
NW
NE/NW
NW
NE
NW
NW
NW
SW
NW
NE
NW
Feat.
132
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
152
NF
NF
NF
U.D.
20
15
29
20
20
20
15
15
15
15
15
20
20
15
10
15
15
20
20
15
20?
15
15
10
10
15
L.D
15
10
15
15
15
20
10
10
10
10
10
15
15
10
5
10
15
15
15
10
20?
10
10
5
5
10
Type
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
Genus
Myrica
Phaseolus
Zea
Myrica
Zea
Zea
Zea
Zea
unidentified
Carya
Zea
Carya
Zea
Phaseolus
Zea
Zea
Zea
Zea
Zea
Zea
Zea
Zea
Zea
Carya
unidentified
Zea
Species
pensylvanica
vulgaris
mays
pensylvanica
mays
mays
mays
mays
unidentified
sp.
mays
sp.
mays
vulgaris
mays
mays
mays
mays
mays
mays
mays
mays
mays
sp.
unidentified
mays
Count
1
1
1
1
2
1
4
5
2
2
3
1
3
1
1
4
3
4
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.09
0.06
0.01
0.11
0.13
0.13
0.17
0.01
0.03
0.07
0.02
0.09
0.02
0.01
0.17
0.08
0.25
0.06
0.03
0.02
0.08
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.07
Com.
whole
whole
frag
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
19582
19587
19588
19588
19590
19598
19604
19606
19610
19612
19616
19619
19620
19622
19626
19628
19631
19633
19636
19667
19672
19698
19699
19705
19716
19726
Unit
S14W27
S14W27
S14W27
S14W27
S14W47
S14W26
S14W23
S14W23
S14W24
S14W24
S14W25
S14W25
S14W25
S14W25
S14W30
S14W30
S14W34
S14W34
S14W35
S14W23
S14W23
S15W26
S15W26
S15W28
S15W30
S15W32
Quad
NW
SW
SW
SW
SE
SW
NW
SE
NW
NE
NE
NW
NW
SE
SE
SE
NW
NE
SE
NE
SW
NW
NW
All
SE
SW
Feat.
2
2
2
2
2
2
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
2
2
NF
NF
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
U.D.
26
26
26
26
26
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
L.D
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
21
21
21
21
20
20
20
20
20
21
21
20
20
20
20
20
Type
nutshell
seed
nutshell
plant
plant
nutshell
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
plant
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
plant
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
plant
Genus
Carya
Zea
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
Carya
unidentified
Carya
Carya
Carya
unidentified
Juglans
Carya
Juglans
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
Carya
Carya
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
Carya
Carya
unidentified
Species
sp.
mays
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
sp.
unidentified
sp.
sp.
sp.
unidentified
sp.
sp.
sp.
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
sp.
sp.
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
sp.
sp.
unidentified
Count
1
1
2
1
1
3
5
1
2
4
2
4
3
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
3
3
9
1
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.09
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.07
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.22
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.04
0.07
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
19739
19749
19750
19751
19763
19764
19772
19773
19774
19776
19779
19782
19783
19795
19804
19806
19812
19816
19823
19825
19832
19834
19836
19841
19845
19853
Unit
S15W34
S15W36
S15W36
S15W36
S16W19
S16W19
S16W19
S16W19
S16W19
S16W19
S16W19
S16W19
S16W19
S16W20
S16W20
S16W20
S16W22
S16W20
S16W21
S16W21
S16W21
S14W21
S16W21
S16W24
S16W24
S16W25
Feat.
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
SE
2
2
NW
2
SE - subsoil2
NE
2
NE
2
subsoil
2
NW
2
N1/2
2
N1/2
2
Quad
NE
All
All
All
SW
SW
U.D.
21
21
21
21
21
21
30
30
30
25
40
25
25
25
30
30
51
26
31
26
26
31
26
21
25
30
L.D
20
20
20
20
20
20
25
25
25
21
35
21
21
21
25
25
50
21
26
21
21
26
21
20
25
30
Type
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
seed
plant
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
seed
nutshell
plant
plant
plant
nutshell
plant
plant
plant
nutshell
plant
plant
nutshell
nutshell
Genus
Carya
Juglans
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
Carya
Carya
Zea
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
Zea
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Species
sp.
sp.
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
sp.
sp.
mays
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
mays
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Count
2
5
2
1
2
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
Mass
(g)
0.04
0.25
0.02
0.02
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.04
0.01
0.09
0.01
0.01
0.13
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.08
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
19864
19871
19871
19878
19883
19887
19894
19913
19914
19915
19915
19932
19941
19942
19950
19962
19966
19971
19986
19987
19988
19999
20002
20019
20019
20020
Unit
S16W27
S16W29
S16W29
S16W34
S16W35
S17W19
S17W20
S17W25
S17W25
S17W25
S17W25
S17W33
S17W35
S17W36
S17W36
S18W24
S18W27
S18W27
S18W32
S18W32
S18W32
S18W35
S18W35
S19W27
S19W27
S19W27
SE
SW
SW
SW
SE
All
All
All
E1/2
NW
NW
SW
E1/2
E1/2
SE
NW
NE
SE
Quad
N1/2
Feat. U.D.
2
30
NF
41
NF
41
NF
21
NF
21
NF
21
NF
21
NF
21
NF
31
NF
31
NF
31
NF
36
NF
21
NF
21
NF
21
NF
21
76
41
77
36
NF
21
NF
21
NF
21
NF
21
NF
21
77, 78 m
21
77, 78 m
21
77, 78 21
L.D
25
21
21
20
20
20
20
20
21
21
21
21
20
20
20
20
21
21
21
21
21
20
20
20
20
20
Type
seed
nutshell
plant
plant
nutshell
nutshell
plant
plant
plant
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
nutshell
seed
plant
plant
seed
seed
nutshell
nutshell
Genus
Myrica
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
Corylus
unidentified
Myrica
Potamogeton
Ilex
unidentified
unidentified
Myrica
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Ilex
unidentified
unidentified
Species
pensylvanica
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
sp.
unidentified
pensylvanica
sp.
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
pensylvanica
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
Count
1
4
1
1
2
5
2
2
5
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.09
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.19
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
whole
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
20028
20040
20048
20060
20062
20063
20063
20072
20076
20079
20082
20146
20150
20150
20156
20160
20168
20170
20282
20282
20287
20291
20292
20292
20292
20292
Unit
S19W34
S20W23
S20W28
S23W27
S23W27
S14/15W27
S14/15W27
S14W27
S14W27
S14W26
S14W26
S15W31
S15W31
S15W31
S15W32
S15W32
S16W29
S16W28
N36W46
N36W46
N36W46
N36W46
N36W46
N36W46
N36W46
N36W46
NW
NW
NE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
S1/2
S1/2
Quad
NW
SW
NE
SE
NW
Feat. U.D. L.D
NF
21
20
NF
21
21
NF
21
20
NF
21
20
NF
21
20
2
25
25
2
25
25
2
25
25
2
30
30
2
25
25
2
25
25
2
41
21
2
46
21
2
46
21
2
55
55
2
35
35
2
41
21
2
41
21
152 A,B,C
20 A/B16
152 A,B,C
20 A/B16
152 A,B,C
20 A/B16
152 A,B,C
20 A/B16
152 A,B,C
20 A/B16
152 A,B,C
20 A/B16
152 A,B,C
20 A/B16
152 A,B,C
20 A/B16
Type
nutshell
seed
nutshell
plant
plant
nutshell
plant
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
plant
plant
seed
seed
plant
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
plant
seed
Genus
unidentified
Myrica
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
Myrica
Myrica
unidentified
unidentified
Myrica
Myrica
unidentified
unidentified
Zea
Carya
Phaseolus
Carya
Myrica
unidentified
Zea
Species
unidentified
pensylvanica
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
pensylvanica
pensylvanica
unidentified
unidentified
pensylvanica
pensylvanica
unidentified
unidentified
mays
sp.
vulgaris
sp.
pensylvanica
unidentified
mays
Count
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
3
1
1
1
2
4
1
1
1
3
3
1
4
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.07
0.04
0.05
0.03
0.23
0.11
0.01
0.16
0.02
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
20294
20295
20296
20297
20297
20297
20305
20305
20307
20308
20332
20332
20336
20344
20348
20348
20348
20350
20353
20353
20353
20356
20369
20381
20384
20393
Unit
N36W46
N36W46
N36W46
N36W46
N36W46
N36W46
N36W48
N36W48
N36W48
N38W48
N37W47
N37W47
N37W47
N37W50
N37W48
N37W48
N37W48
N38W48
N37W48
N37W48
N37W48
N37W48
N38W49
N38W50
N38W50
N38W51
Quad
SW
SW
SW
E
E
E
S
S
S
S
All
All
SW
NE
N
N
N
S
NW
NW
NW
NE
S
All
S
All
Feat. U.D. L.D
152 A,B,C
20 A/B16
152 20
16
152 20
16
152 26
20
152 26
20
152 26
20
138 61
21
138 61
21
138 26
26
138 26
26
2
46
20
2
46
20
2
41
21
2
45
45
2
46
26
2
46
26
2
46
26
138 46
21
2
41
26
2
41
26
2
41
26
2
41
26
2
31
26
2
21
20
2
36
21
149 20
20
Type
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
plant
seed
plant
seed
nutshell
seed
plant
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
plant
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
plant
seed
seed
Genus
Phaseolus
Phaseolus
Carya
Phaseolus
unidentified
unidentified
Phaseolus
unidentified
Phaseolus
Carya
Myrica
unidentified
Myrica
Phaseolus
Corylus
Myrica
unidentified
Carya
Myrica
unidentified
Zea
Carya
Carya
unidentified
Myrica
Zea
Species
vulgaris
vulgaris
sp.
vulgaris
unidentified
unidentified
vulgaris
unidentified
vulgaris
sp.
pensylvanica
unidentified
pensylvanica
vulgaris
sp.
pensylvanica
unidentified
sp.
pensylvanica
unidentified
mays
sp.
sp.
unidentified
pensylvanica
mays
Count
1
4
1
1
10
3
1
1
1
3
2
1
1
5
1
1
1
1
7
1
1
2
1
3
2
1
Mass
(g)
0.05
0.07
0.07
0.03
0.39
0.01
0.04
0.01
0.04
0.74
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.09
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.29
0.02
0.02
0.06
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.15
Com.
whole
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
20395
20403
20403
20421
20425
20428
20432
20442
12691C
12693D
12694D
12720C
12721C
12722C
12738D
13148B
13154B
13155E
13678D
13691C
13692C
13692C
13698E
13698F
13702D
13719C
Unit
N38W51
N32W52
N32W52
N38W51
N38W51
N38W51
N38W52
S13W47
N25/W27
N25/W28
N25/W28
N29/W31
N29/W31
N29/W31
N33/W30
N31/W30
N32/W32
N32/W32
N24/W25
N27/W25
N27/W25
N27/W25
N28/W25
N28/W25
N28/W33
N30/W29
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
Quad
All
NE
NE
SW
SW
SE
S1/2
All
SW
SW
SW
SW
Feat.
149
127
127
2
149
2
2
2
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
U.D.
24
26
26
51
51
26
55
21
25
5
10
10
15
20
5
20
15
20
20
10
15
15
10
10
15
20
L.D
17
21
21
26
20
21
20
21
30
10
15
15
20
25
10
25
20
25
25
15
20
20
15
15
20
25
Type
plant
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
plant
seed
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
plant
seed
plant
seed
plant
seed
seed
seed
Genus
unidentified
Carya
Myrica
Myrica
Myrica
Phaseolus
Myrica
Myrica
Zea
unidentified
Zea
Carya
Corylus
Corylus
unidentified
Carya
Carya
Carya
unidentified
Zea
unidentified
Zea
unidentified
Zea
Zea
Zea
Species
unidentified
sp.
pensylvanica
pensylvanica
pensylvanica
vulgaris
pensylvanica
pensylvanica
mays
unidentified
mays
sp.
americana
americana
unidentified
sp.
sp.
sp.
unidentified
mays
unidentified
mays
unidentified
mays
mays
mays
Count
1
3
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.28
0.09
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.06
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.08
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.08
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.04
Com.
frag
frag
whole
whole
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
13729B
13730A
13732C
13734D
13734D
13758C
13758D
13760C
13760C
13762B
13762B
13770C
13773C
13773C
13773C
13777D
13784C
13788C
13790D
13806C
13806C
13809D
13809D
13809D
13809D
13812D
Unit
N30/W33
N30/W33
N31/W25
N31/W26
N31/W26
N32/W27
N32/W27
N32/W28
N32/W28
N32/W30
N32/W30
N33/W26
N33/W27
N33/W27
N33/W27
N33/W28
N33/W32
N34/W24
N34/W24
N34/W29
N34/W29
N34/W31
N34/W31
N34/W31
N34/W31
N34/W32
Quad
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SE
SW
SW
NE
NE
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
Feat.
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
U.D.
15
20
10
5
5
15
15
10
10
10
10
15
10
10
10
15
5
5
15
25
25
15
15
15
15
15
L.D
20
25
15
10
10
20
20
15
15
15
15
20
15
15
15
20
10
10
20
30
30
20
20
20
20
20
Type
seed
plant
seed
nutshell
plant
seed
seed
nutshell
plant
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
plant
seed
nutshell
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
plant
plant
plant
Genus
Zea
unidentified
Zea
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
Crataegus
Carya
unidentified
Carya
Zea
Carya
Carya
unidentified
Zea
Carya
Carya
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Species
mays
unidentified
mays
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
sp.
unidentified
sp.
mays
sp.
sp.
unidentified
mays
sp.
sp.
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
americana
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Count
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
4
2
1
1
2
5
3
3
4
2
8
2
3
1
1
1
1
5
5
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.07
0.02
0.02
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
13812D
13817C
13819C
13823C
13832C
13846D
13847C
13847C
13847C
13848B
13853C
14421B
14433D
14433E
14439C
14450B
14459C
14462C
14476C
14482B
14482B
14483C
14494C
14495E
14511B
14637A
Unit
N34/W32
N35/W25
N35/W25
N35/W26
N35/W32
N37/W24
N37/W24
N37/W24
N37/W24
N37/W24
N37/W25
N23/W31
N26/W33
N26/W33
N28/W34
N35/W33
N39/W24
N39/W24
N25/W32
N25/W33
N25/W33
N25/W33
N29/W34
N29/W34
N35/W30
N38/W24
Quad
SW
NW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
NE
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
Feat.
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
U.D.
15
0
15
15
20
0
10
10
10
15
20
15
20
20
10
5
10
25
5
15
15
20
15
20
10
15
L.D
20
10
20
20
25
10
15
15
15
20
25
20
25
25
15
10
15
30
10
20
20
25
20
25
15
20
Type
seed
seed
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
plant
plant
plant
nutshell
seed
plant
plant
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
seed
plant
plant
seed
plant
seed
seed
plant
seed
Genus
Zea
Zea
Carya
Carya
Carya
Crataegus
Crataegus
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
Rhus
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
Carya
Zea
unidentified
unidentified
Zea
unidentified
Zea
Zea
unidentified
Zea
Species
mays
mays
sp.
sp.
sp.
sp.
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
americana
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
sp.
mays
unidentified
unidentified
mays
unidentified
mays
mays
unidentified
mays
Count
1
1
1
21
1
1
1
1
10
4
1
1
1
3
4
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.28
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.06
0.03
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
14638B
14656C
14661D
14661D
14664B
14676A
14698D
14700D
14708F
14708F
14713E
14713E
14714C
14722B
14722B
15043A
15043A
15050B
15052C
15052C
15053B
15084C
15090B
15090F
18378A
18397B
Unit
N38/W24
N32/W36
N23/W31
N23/W31
N24/W26
N24/W34
N31/W35
N31/W35
N33/W33
N33/W33
N33/W36
N33/W36
N33/W36
N39/W25
N39/W25
N26/W36
N26/W36
N31/W37
N31/W37
N31/W37
N31/W37
N25/W36
N29/W36
N29/W36
N31/W30
N28/W30
Quad
SW
SW
NW
NW
NE
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
NE
NW
NW
SW
SW
SW
SW
NW
Feat.
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
95
116
U.D.
10
20
5
5
5
15
5
10
10
10
15
15
20
20
20
5
5
10
20
20
25
5
10
10
20
47
L.D
15
25
10
10
10
20
10
15
15
15
20
20
25
25
25
10
10
15
25
25
30
10
15
15
30
52
Type
nutshell
plant
plant
seed
seed
plant
plant
seed
nutshell
seed
plant
seed
plant
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
seed
nutshell
plant
plant
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
plant
nutshell
Genus
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
Zea
Zea
unidentified
unidentified
Zea
unidentified
Zea
unidentified
Zea
unidentified
Carya
Corylus
Carya
Zea
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Zea
Carya
Vitis
unidentified
Corylus
Species
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
mays
mays
unidentified
unidentified
mays
unidentified
mays
unidentified
mays
unidentified
sp.
americana
sp.
mays
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
mays
sp.
sp.
unidentified
americana
Count
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
4
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.04
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.03
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
18398B
18402B
18402E
18464B
18474B
18474D
18482B
18482C
18493B
18502C
18504C
18517A
18522B
18532C
18542B
18543D
18547B
18548E
18548F
18549F
18549G
18551B
18552C
18554A
18556B
18558D
Unit
N22/E0
N22/E0
N22/E0
N31W33
N34W33
N34W33
N32W29
N32W29
N29W28
N35W57
N25W29
N0W2/S1W2
N9E0
N34W57
N18E0
N18E0
N18E0
N19E0
N19E0
N19E0
N19E0
N20E0
N20E0
N20E0
N20E0
N21E0
Quad
SE
SE
SE
SW
SW
SW
S1/2
S1/2
SE
SW
NE
NE
SE
NW
SE/SW
SW/SE
NW
SW
SW
SW
SW
NW
NW
SW
SW
NW
Feat. U.D.
117
25
117
20
117
20
NF
35
NF
20
NF
20
NF
NF
NF
48
F.2 PM 40
541
NF
35
NF
30
F.2 PM 30
552
2
40
2
45
2
45
2
45
2
40
2
40
2
40
2
40
2
45
2
45
2
45
2
45
2
45
25
25
25
20
20
5
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
22
22
22
22
40
L.D
30
30
30
27
15
15
Type
plant
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
plant
nutshell
plant
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
plant
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
Genus
unidentified
Carya
Zea
Comptonia
Zea
unidentified
Carya
Myrica
Comptonia
Myrica
Corylus
Myrica
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
Zea
unidentified
unidentified
Comptonia
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
Myrica
Myrica
Species
unidentified
sp.
mays
peregrina
mays
unidentified
sp.
pensylvanica
peregrina
pensylvanica
sp.
pensylvanica
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
mays
unidentified
unidentified
peregrina
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
pensylvanica
pensylvanica
Count
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
6
2
1
1
1
1.5
2
1
1
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.06
0.07
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
18558E
18558H
18559B
18560B
18560C
18560D
18560E
18560H
18562C
18562C
18562D
18564A
18566A
18568D
18570A
18571A
18571D
18572A
18577A
18577C
18577D
18578E
18578E
18578G
18578H
18578I
Unit
N21E0
N21E0
N21E0
N22E0
N22E0
N22E0
N22E0
N22E0
N22E0
N22E0
N22E0
N22E0
N23E0
N24E0
N24E0
N24E0
N24E0
N24E0
N6W1
N6W1
N6W1
N6W1
N6W1
N6W1
N6W1
N6W1
Quad
NW
NW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
NW
NW
NW
SW
SW
SW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NE/SE
NE/SE
NE/SE
SE/NE
SE/NE
SE/NE
SE/NE
SE/NE
Feat.
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
U.D.
45
45
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
25
40
40
30
30
30
30
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
L.D
40
40
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
25
25
25
25
25
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
Type
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
plant
seed
seed
seed
seed
plant
seed
seed
nutshell
nutshell
plant
seed
nutshell
seed
Genus
Comptonia
Comptonia
Myrica
Comptonia
Myrica
Comptonia
Myrica
unidentified
Comptonia
Comptonia
Carex
Comptonia
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Comptonia
Myrica
unidentified
Myrica
Comptonia
Juglans
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
Comptonia
Species
peregrina
peregrina
pensylvanica
peregrina
pensylvanica
peregrina
pensylvanica
unidentified
peregrina
peregrina
sp.
peregrina
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
peregrina
pensylvanica
unidentified
pensylvanica
peregrina
sp.
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
peregrina
Count
3
1
1
1
1
3
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
2
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
Com.
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
18579G
18579I
18580F
18580G
18581D
18581P
18581T
18581T
18582B
18582E
18583P
18584C
18586A
18590C
18592C
18596B
18597B
18597B
18598C
18603B
18603D
18603F
18603F
18604A
18606A
18608I
Unit
N6W1
N6W1
N7W1
N7W1
N7W1
N7W1
N7W1
N7W1
N7W1
N7W1
N7W1
N8W1
N9W1
N14W1
N45W57
N34W57
N34W57
N34W57
N34W57
N34W57
N34W57
N34W57
N34W57
N34W57
N34W57
N35W57
NW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
NE
NW
Quad
NE/SE
SE/NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
SW
SW
SW
N
Feat.
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
U.D. L.D Type
50
30
seed
50
30
nutshell
45
20
plant
45
20
seed
45
20
seed
45
20
nutshell
45
20
seed
45
20
seed
45
20
seed
45
20
seed
45
20
seed
45
20
nutshell
23
20
seed
35
20
seed
40
5
seed
25
20
nutshell
30
25
seed
30
25
plant
30
25
nutshell
40
30
seed
40
30
seed
40
30
seed
40
30
seed
40
30
seed
40
35
plant
no depthno depth
nutshell
Genus
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
Comptonia
Comptonia
Carya
Comptonia
Myrica
Myrica
Comptonia
Zea
Carya
unidentified
Comptonia
unidentified
unidentified
Comptonia
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Comptonia
Myrica
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
Species
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
peregrina
peregrina
sp.
peregrina
pensylvanica
pensylvanica
peregrina
mays
sp.
unidentified
peregrina
unidentified
unidentified
peregrina
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
peregrina
pensylvanica
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
Count
1
1
2
1
4.5
8
1
4
1
1.5
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
whole
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
18608I
18608J
18608J
18610A
18611B
18611B
18611D
18611E
18611G
18611G
18612A
18612A
18612F
18614A
18616A
18622A
18623A
18623E
18625C
18625F
18627B
18627D
18629B
18629C
18629D
18630B
Unit
Quad
N35W57
NW
N35W57
NW
N35W57
NW
N35W57
SW
N35W57
S1/2
N35W57
S1/2
N35W57
S1/2
N35W57
S1/2
N35W57
S1/2
N35W57
S1/2
N35W57
NE
N35W57
NE
N35W57
NE
N35W57
SE
N35W57
NE
N36W25
NE
N36W25
NE
N36W25
NE
N36W25
NW
N36W25
NW
N36W26
NW
N36W26
NW
N36W24/N37W24
N36W24/N37W24
N36W24/N37W24
N36W24/N37W24
Feat.
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
U.D. L.D Type
no depthno depth
plant
no depthno depth
seed
no depthno depth
seed
no depthno depth
seed
no depthno depth
seed
no depthno depth
seed
no depthno depth
plant
no depthno depth
nutshell
no depthno depth
seed
no depthno depth
seed
45
20
seed
45
20
seed
45
20
seed
45
20
seed
50
25
seed
55
25
seed
55
25
seed
55
25
seed
55
25
nutshell
55
25
seed
50
25
seed
50
25
plant
45
20
seed
45
20
plant
45
20
plant
45
20
seed
Genus
unidentified
Comptonia
Comptonia
Myrica
Comptonia
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Myrica
unidentified
Comptonia
Myrica
Comptonia
Myrica
Myrica
Comptonia
Comptonia
Comptonia
Corylus
Comptonia
Comptonia
unidentified
Rubus
unidentified
unidentified
Comptonia
Species
unidentified
peregrina
peregrina
pensylvanica
peregrina
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
pensylvanica
unidentified
peregrina
pensylvanica
peregrina
pensylvanica
pensylvanica
peregrina
peregrina
peregrina
sp.
peregrina
peregrina
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
peregrina
Count
1
3
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
4
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
4
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
frag
whole
frag
whole
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
whole
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
18633D
18633E
18633F
18637B
18637B
18637D
18639E
18639H
18640B
18640C
18640E
18641A
18641A
18643C
18646C
18648A
18648B
18648B
18649C
18650E
18656E
18660G
18662A
18666A
18666A
18666A
Unit
Quad
N36W24/N37W24
E1/2
N36W24/N37W24
E1/2
N36W24/N37W24
E1/2
N37W25/N36W25
SW/NW
N37W25/N36W25
SW/NW
N37W25/N36W25
SW/NW
N37W25/N36W25
SW/NW
N37W26/N36W26
SW/NW
N37W26/N36W26
SW/NW
N37W26/N36W26
SW/NW
N37W26/N36W26
SW/NW
N37W26/N36W26
SW/NW
N37W26/N36W26
SW/NW
N36W57
N36W57
All
N36W57
SecH
N36W57
N36W57
N36W47
All
N37W57
NW
N37W58
N37W59
NE
N37W59
NE
N38W56
SE
N38W56
SE
N38W56
SE
Feat.
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
U.D.
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
50
25
50
50
50
25
30
30
30
35
40
40
40
L.D
20
20
20
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
20
25
25
25
20
25
25
25
30
25
25
25
Type
plant
seed
seed
nutshell
plant
seed
seed
seed
plant
seed
seed
nutshell
plant
nutshell
seed
plant
nutshell
plant
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
plant
Genus
unidentified
Comptonia
Myrica
Corylus
unidentified
Comptonia
Comptonia
Myrica
unidentified
Comptonia
Comptonia
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
Myrica
unidentified
Myrica
unidentified
Myrica
unidentified
unidentified
Species
unidentified
peregrina
pensylvanica
sp.
unidentified
peregrina
peregrina
pensylvanica
unidentified
peregrina
peregrina
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
pensylvanica
unidentified
pensylvanica
unidentified
pensylvanica
unidentified
unidentified
Count
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
3
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
18666A
18666B
18666B
18668E
18668F
18669C
18671A
18671E
18672C
18672D
18672D
18672D
18673A
18673C
18673C
18675H
18675H
18676J
18677A
18678A
18678B
18679E
18680C
18680C
18680D
18680H
Unit
N38W56
N38W56
N38W56
N38W56
N38W56
N38W56
N38W56
N38W56
N38W56
N38W56
N38W56
N38W56
N38W56
N38W56
N38W56
N38W60
N38W60
N38W60
N38W60
N38W60
N38W60
N38W60
N39W50
N39W50
N39W50
N39W50
Quad
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
SW
SW
NW
NE
NW
NW
NE
SW
SW
SW
SW
Feat.
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
U.D. L.D Type
40
25
seed
40
25
nutshell
40
25
seed
no depthno depth
seed
no depthno depth
seed
50
25
seed
50
25
seed
50
25
seed
65
25
seed
65
25
seed
65
25
seed
65
25
plant
65
25
seed
65
25
seed
65
25
seed
30
25
seed
30
25
plant
30
25
seed
45
35
plant
35
25
seed
35
25
seed
35
25
seed
no depthno depth
seed
no depthno depth
plant
no depthno depth
seed
no depthno depth
nutshell
Genus
Zea
Corylus
Myrica
Rubus
Comptonia
unidentified
Comptonia
unidentified
unidentified
Comptonia
Myrica
unidentified
Comptonia
Comptonia
Myrica
Myrica
unidentified
Myrica
unidentified
Zea
Myrica
Myrica
Comptonia
unidentified
Myrica
unidentified
Species
mays
sp.
pensylvanica
sp.
peregrina
unidentified
peregrina
unidentified
unidentified
peregrina
pensylvanica
unidentified
peregrina
peregrina
pensylvanica
pensylvanica
unidentified
pensylvanica
unidentified
mays
pensylvanica
pensylvanica
peregrina
unidentified
pensylvanica
unidentified
Count
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
5
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
Mass
(g)
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
Com.
frag
frag
whole
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
whole
frag
whole
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
18682C
18683A
18683B
18683C
18684H
18684H
18684I
18684J
18684K
18685B
18685C
18686E
18686E
18686E
18687E
18687E
18688B
18688B
18688C
18688D
18688D
18688D
18689C
18690B
18690B
18690B
Unit
N39W56
N39W56
N39W56
N39W56
N39W57
N39W57
N39W57
N39W57
N39W57
N39W60
N39W60
N40W52
N40W52
N40W52
N40W57
N40W57
N40W57
N40W57
N40W57
N40W57
N40W57
N40W57
N40W57
N40W57
N40W57
N40W57
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
SW
SW
SW
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
SE
NW
NW
NW
Quad
Feat.
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
U.D. L.D Type
50
25
seed
50
25
seed
50
25
seed
50
25
seed
45
25
nutshell
45
25
plant
45
25
seed
45
25
seed
45
25
seed
no depthno depth
seed
no depthno depth
seed
43
25
seed
43
25
seed
43
25
seed
35
21
seed
35
21
plant
35
21
seed
35
21
plant
35
21
seed
35
21
seed
35
21
seed
35
21
seed
45
25
seed
35
21
seed
35
21
seed
35
21
plant
Genus
Myrica
Comptonia
Myrica
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Comptonia
Myrica
Myrica
Myrica
Myrica
Comptonia
Myrica
unidentified
Myrica
unidentified
Myrica
unidentified
Myrica
Comptonia
Myrica
unidentified
Myrica
Comptonia
Myrica
unidentified
Species
pensylvanica
peregrina
pensylvanica
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
peregrina
pensylvanica
pensylvanica
pensylvanica
pensylvanica
peregrina
pensylvanica
unidentified
pensylvanica
unidentified
pensylvanica
unidentified
pensylvanica
peregrina
pensylvanica
unidentified
pensylvanica
peregrina
pensylvanica
unidentified
Count
1
1.5
2
2
1
1
1
5
2
1
1
1
1.5
1
2.5
2
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
frag
whole
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
18692A
18693C
18702B
18704D
18705D
18706B
18706C
18706D
18706D
18706F
18706F
18706F
18706F
18706H
18707B
18714A
18714C
18714D
18716C
18717C
18719C
18719C
18719C
18721C
18722U
18729C
Unit
N40W57
N40W57
N41W59
N41W58
N41W58
N41W58
N41W58
N41W58
N41W58
N41W58
N41W58
N41W58
N41W58
N41W58
N41W58
N28W28
N28W28
N28W28
N28W28
N35W27
UNK
UNK
UNK
N0E0
N1W1
S5E0
Quad
SE
NW
NE
SW
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SW
SE
SE
SE
NW
SE/SW
NW
NW
NW
SW/SE
NW
SW
Feat.
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
73
73
73
73
104
2
2
2
122
2
NF
U.D.
40
40
45
35
55
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
40
40
40
40
45
30
35
35
35
22
40
25
L.D
22
21
25
25
23
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
35
35
35
30
25
30
30
30
20
20
25
Type
seed
seed
plant
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
plant
seed
nutshell
plant
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
plant
seed
nutshell
seed
plant
seed
nutshell
nutshell
seed
Genus
Myrica
Myrica
unidentified
Myrica
Myrica
Comptonia
Carya
Myrica
unidentified
Myrica
unidentified
unidentified
Zea
Myrica
Myrica
Myrica
Comptonia
unidentified
Comptonia
Carya
Rhus
unidentified
Vaccinium
Carya
Carya
Myrica
Species
pensylvanica
pensylvanica
unidentified
pensylvanica
pensylvanica
peregrina
sp.
pensylvanica
unidentified
pensylvanica
unidentified
unidentified
mays
pensylvanica
pensylvanica
pensylvanica
peregrina
unidentified
peregrina
sp.
sp.
unidentified
sp.
sp.
sp.
pensylvanica
Count
1
1
1
1
4
2
1
2
2
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
2
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.01
Com.
whole
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
18731B
18735A
18736B
18736B
18736B
18736D
18736E
18736E
18737F
18737F
18738C
18738D
18739D
18740A
18740C
18741C
18741C
18742B
18742B
18742B
18743A
18743C
18743C
18743C
18743F
18744D
Unit
S7E0
S1W1
S1W1
S1W1
S1W1
S1W1
S1W1
S1W1
S2W1
S2W1
S3W1
S3W1
S6W1
S7W1
S7W1
S8W1
S8W1
S8W1
S8W1
S8W1
S8W1
S8W1
S8W1
S8W1
S8W1
S9W1
Quad
NE
SE
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
SW
SW
SW
SE
NW
SW/NW
SW/NW
SW
SW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
SE
Feat.
NF
120
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
U.D.
30
30
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
25
25
30
40
40
45
45
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
L.D
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Type
seed
nutmeat
nutshell
plant
seed
plant
seed
seed
nutshell
plant
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
plant
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
Genus
Myrica
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Comptonia
Myrica
Carya
unidentified
Comptonia
unidentified
Myrica
Carya
Myrica
Comptonia
unidentified
Comptonia
Myrica
unidentified
unidentified
Myrica
Myrica
Zea
Comptonia
Comptonia
Species
pensylvanica
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
peregrina
pensylvanica
sp.
unidentified
peregrina
unidentified
pensylvanica
sp.
pensylvanica
peregrina
unidentified
peregrina
pensylvanica
unidentified
unidentified
pensylvanica
pensylvanica
mays
peregrina
peregrina
Count
1
2
7
1
1
26
9
2
2
5
4
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
8
4
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.06
0.18
0.08
0.01
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
18744E
18744G
18744G
18744G
18744G
18746A
18747B
18747C
18748B
18749C
18749C
18749C
18749D
18749F
18750B
18750G
18751A
18752A
18752B
18752B
18752B
18752B
18752B
18752D
19013D
19014C
Unit
S9W1
S9W1
S9W1
S9W1
S9W1
S9W1
S9W1
S9W1
S9W1
S9W1
S9W1
S9W1
S9W1
S9W1
S10W1
S10W1
S10W1
S10W1
S10W1
S10W1
S10W1
S10W1
S10W1
S10W1
N20E0
N1W1
Quad
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
NW
NW
NE
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
E1/2
E1/2
E1/2
W1/2
W1/2
W1/2
W1/2
W1/2
W1/2
W1/2
W1/2
NW
Feat.
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
U.D.
40
40
40
40
40
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
45
60
L.D
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
22
40
Type
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
plant
seed
nutshell
seed
plant
nutshell
seed
plant
seed
seed
plant
seed
plant
plant
seed
seed
plant
seed
seed
plant
nutshell
nutshell
Genus
Carya
Carya
Comptonia
Myrica
unidentified
Comptonia
unidentified
Comptonia
unidentified
Carya
Myrica
unidentified
Comptonia
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Comptonia
Myrica
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
Corylus
Species
sp.
sp.
peregrina
pensylvanica
unidentified
peregrina
unidentified
peregrina
unidentified
sp.
pensylvanica
unidentified
peregrina
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
peregrina
pensylvanica
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
sp.
Count
1
1
1
2
4
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
4
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.06
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
72-91
Inventory
#
19015F
19015H
19015I
19015K
19015M
19016C
19016E
19016H
19019C
19019G
19020C
19020C
19020D
19020D
19021D
19022B
19022D
19023C
19120B
19124B
19131B
19250B
19455D
Unit
S1W1
S1W1
S1W1
S1W1
S1W1
S1W1
S1W1
S1W1
S7W1
S7W1
S8W1
S8W1
S8W1
S8W1
S9W1
S9W1
S9W1
S9W1
N36W48
N36W49
N36W48
N33W57
S9W1
Quad
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW/NW
SW/NW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SE
SW
SW
SW
SE
NW
SW
NE
SW
Feat.
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
138
NF
138
144
2
U.D.
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
15
15
20
15
45
L.D
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
10
10
15
10
20
Type
plant
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
plant
seed
seed
seed
seed
plant
seed
plant
seed
seed
seed
seed
Genus
unidentified
Myrica
Myrica
Carya
Myrica
Comptonia
Zea
Comptonia
unidentified
Comptonia
Comptonia
unidentified
Comptonia
Myrica
Comptonia
Comptonia
unidentified
Comptonia
unidentified
Zea
Phaseolus
Phaseolus
Comptonia
Species
unidentified
pensylvanica
pensylvanica
sp.
pensylvanica
sp.
mays
sp.
unidentified
peregrina
sp.
unidentified
sp.
pensylvanica
sp.
sp.
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
mays
vulgaris
vulgaris
peregrina
Count
10
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
9
2
1
7
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
Mass
(g)
0.03
0.03
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
2
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.07
0.04
0.02
0.01
Com.
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
Inventory #
28.01
29.01
89.00
103.00
132.01
150.00
154.00
182.05
182.17
182.22
182.23
182.24
182.25
183.06
184.09
185.06
185.09
196.00
221.08
221.11
221.16
222.05
223.10
223.11
224.04
242.00
284.00
285.02
344.00
352.00
366.01
Unit
N473E77
N473W77
N470W76
N475W77
N471W73
N477W75
N477W75
N472W80
N472W80
N472W80
N472W80
N472W80
N472W80
N472W80
N472W80
N472W80
N472W80
N473W76
N473W80
N473W80
N473W80
N473W80
N473W80
N473W80
N473W80
N478W80
N473/W78
N473W78
N475W76
N475W81
N471W77
Quad
NE
SE
SW
NW
NE
SW
NW
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
NE
SW
NW
NW
SW
NW
NW
NW
SW
SE
SE
NE
NE
SE
SW
NW
SE
NW
Feature
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
0
0
0
10
0
0
U.D.
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
10
10
10
20
10
10
L.D.
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
NF
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
NF
1
1
NF
NF
NF
Type
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nushell
nutshell
nutmeat
nutshell
nutshell
bud
seed
seed
seed
plant
plant
bud
cupule
seed
plant
seed
nutmeat
plant
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
seed
bark
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
Genus
unidentifiable
Quercus
unidentifiable
Corylus
Carya
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Asclepias
Gaylussacia
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
cf. Zea
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Carya
Cornus
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Carya
Quercus
Species
unidentifiable
sp.
unidentifiable
americana
sp.
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp.
sp.
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
mays
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp.
sp.
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp.
sp.
Count
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
50
5
1
2
4
7
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
9
1
2
1
1
5
1
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.11
0.14
0.63
0.135
0.1
0.1
0.01
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.4
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.02
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.08
0.07
0.34
0.17
0.05
0.01
Con.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Exc.
Exc.
Exc.
Exc.
Exc.
Exc.
Exc.
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Exc.
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Exc.
Exc.
Exc.
Exc.
Exc.
Exc.
Site
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
Inventory #
383.01
385.01
386.01
392.00
411.00
877.10
877.16
877.17
878.06
880.09
880.10
881.14
883.13
883.15
883.16
883.17
883.18
885.06
885.11
885.12
886.07
886.08
886.13
887.05
890.05
890.06
890.14
891.04
891.05
891.08
891.10
Unit
N470W74
N470W74
N470W74
N471W71
N474W73
N473W79
N473W79
N473W79
N473W79
N473W78
N473W78
N473W78
N472W79
N472W79
N472W79
N472W79
N472W79
N472W79
N472W79
N472W79
N472W73
N472W73
N472W73
N472W73
N472W78
N472W78
N472W78
N472W78
N472W78
N472W78
N472W78
Quad
NW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SE
NW
NW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
NE
NE
NE
SW
SW
SW
NW
NW
NW
NW
SW
SW
SW
SW
Feature
0
10
10
0
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
10
10
10
30
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
U.D.
10
20
20
10
20
20
20
20
20
15
15
20
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
15
15
15
40
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
L.D.
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
4
4
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Type
plant
plant
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
seed
plant
seed
bud
seed
seed
nutmeat
nutshell
seed
seed
plant
seed
bud
nutshell
bud
seed
nutshell
plant
nutshell
plant
seed
plant
plant
bud
nutshell
Genus
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Carya
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Gaylussacia
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Identifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Chenopodium
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Rhus
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Carya
Species
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp.
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Identifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp.
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp.
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp.
Count
1
1
2
1
1
3
6
1
1
4
2
3
1
6
14
6
1
1
1
2
2
1
3
1
10
1
2
5
4
2
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.51
0.21
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.08
0.01
0.01
0.07
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Con.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Exc.
Exc.
Exc.
Exc.
Exc.
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
72-164A
Inventory #
891.11
891.13
892.05
892.09
892.12
892.13
892.14
892.15
892.16
892.17
893.09
893.09
893.13
893.15
893.16
894.06
894.07
Unit
N472W78
N472W78
N472W78
N472W78
N472W78
N472W78
N472W78
N472W78
N472W78
N472W78
N472W78
N472W78
N472W78
N472W78
N472W78
N474W77
N474W77
Quad
SW
SW
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
East 1/2
East 1/2
Feature
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
20
20
U.D.
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
35
35
L.D.
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
Type
nutshell
seed
bud
nutshell
plant
plant
plant
plant
plant
seed
nutshell
plant
bud
seed
plant
plant
seed
Genus
unidentifiable
Chenopodium
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Chenopodium
Species
unidentifiable
sp.
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp.
Count
2
1
24
10
3
2
10
8
11
7
2
11
3
1
1
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.07
0.09
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.07
0.06
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Con.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
15.04
64.02
93
141
142.07
142.09
142.13
482
515
532
592.03
615.09
616.04
628.06
651.01
651.02
698.01
716.01
773
788.02
788.04
790.02
790.05
792.02
799.02
799.12
800.02
800.08
801.02
802.02
802.05
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
S1E0
N0E0
N5E0
N3E0
N3E0
N3E0
N3E0
N5W6
S2E2
S3E1
S1W6
N0W1
N1E0
N1E5
N3E3
N3E3
N5E2
N5E3
N7E4
S1E0
S1E0
S1W6
S1W6
N4E3
N4E3
N4E3
N4E3
N4E3
N4E3
N4E3
N4E3
Inventory
#
Unit
Site
NE
SW
SE
NE
SW
SW
SW
SE
NW
NE
SE
ALL
NE
NE
NW
NW
NW
NW
SE
SW
SW
SE
SE
Quad
2
NF
NF
FA7
FA7
FA7
FA7
NF
NF
NF
5
1
FA2
NF
6
6
FAPPM
NF
PPM
2
2
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
Feature
7
0
0
0
5
5
5
0
10
0
15
10
10
8
0
10
20
30
15
15
15
25
25
10
10
10
15
15
20
10
10
10
5
5
5
10
10
10
10
15
10
20
15
15
15
0
15
25
35
20
15
15
25
25
15
15
15
20
20
24
15
15
Genus
Species
seed
unidentified unidentified
plant
unidentified unidentified
nutshell Corylus
americana
nut
Corylus
americana
plant
unidentified unidentified
seed
unidentified unidentified
plant
unidentified unidentified
nut
Corylus
americana
nut
Corylus
americana
nut
Corylus
americana
plant
unidentified unidentified
plant
unidentified unidentified
plant
unidentified unidentified
plant
unidentified unidentified
nut
Corylus
americana
seed
Cornaceae Family
plant
unidentified unidentified
plant
unidentified unidentified
seed
Comptonia perigrina
cone/bud unidentified unidentified
plant
unidentified unidentified
seed
Zea
mays
plant
unidentified unidentified
plant
unidentified unidentified
seed
Zea
mays
seed
unidentified unidentified
plant
unidentified unidentified
seed
Comptonia perigrina
cone/bud unidentified unidentified
seed
Comptonia perigrina
nut
Corylus
americana
U. D. L.D. Type
1
1
8
8
1
3
6
1
1
4
5
1
7
1
1
2
1
1
3
1
1
1
3
1
3
2
2
2
1
4
1
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.06
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.09
0.08
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.04
0.02
0.01
0.04
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Mass
Count (g)
Com. Sample
802.12
802.16
804.02
804.07
804.09
921.03
924.02
924.03
929.01
929.02
930.05
934.02
935.02
937.02
943.03
943.04
962.05
962.07
962.08
962.09
962.1
962.11
963.02
963.03
963.04
963.05
963.08
963.09
964.03
964.04
964.05
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
N4E3
N4E3
N4E3
N4E3
N4E3
S5E5
S10E2
S10E2
S7E4
S7E4
S7E4
S8E3
S8E3
S9E3
S13E1
S13E1
S8E6
S8E6
S8E6
S8E6
S8E6
S8E6
S8E6
S8E6
S8E6
S8E6
S8E6
S8E6
S8E6
S8E6
S8E6
Inventory
#
Unit
Site
Feature
6
6
6
6
6
SE
36
37
37
ALL
38
ALL
38
ALL
38
South 1/2 39A
South 1/2 39A
SE
39C
NW
40
NW
40
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
Quad
10
10
10
10
10
20
15
15
15
15
15
15
20
20
20
20
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
70
70
50
50
90
90
90
15
15
15
15
15
25
20
20
20
20
20
20
25
30
25
25
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
80
80
70
70
100
100
100
Genus
plant
unidentified
plant
unidentified
seed
Comptonia
plant
unidentified
plant
unidentified
plant
unidentified
plant
unidentified
plant
unidentified
seed
Acalypha
nutmeat unidentified
plant
unidentified
plant
unidentified
plant
unidentified
plant
unidentified
nut
unidentified
nut
Carya sp
seed
unidentified
plant
unidentified
seed
(Ericaceae
cone/bud unidentified
nut
unidentified
bud
unidentified
seed
Comptonia
seed
unidentified
plant
unidentified
cone/bud unidentified
seed
Nyssa
seed
Gaylussacia
plant
unidentified
seed
Nyssa
seed
Comptonia
U. D. L.D. Type
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
perigrina
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
sp.
unidentified
sp.
perigrina
unidentified
unidentified
perigrina
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
Species
20
20
1
1
1
8
1
5
1
4
3
2
1
2
1
13
1
50
1
3
3
1
12
2
50
7
1
2
8
1
1
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.06
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.08
0.28
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
whole Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
whole Soil
whole Soil
Mass
Count (g)
Com. Sample
965.02
972.07
1006.02
1007
1008
1009
1010
1011.01
1012
1013.01
1014.02
1014.03
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
72-34A
S8E6
N1E0
N1E0
Inventory
#
Unit
Site
Feature
35
2
FA2
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
North 1/2 35
North 1/2 35
SW
SW
Quad
100
10
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
80
80
110
15
15
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
90
90
plant
plant
plant
seed
seed
bud
seed
plant
seed
plant
seed
plant
U. D. L.D. Type
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Rubus
Comptonia
unidentified
Myrica
unidentified
Cornus
unidentified
Gaylussacia
unidentified
Genus
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
whole Soil
whole Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
frag Soil
whole Soil
frag Soil
whole Soil
frag Soil
Mass
Count (g)
Com. Sample
unidentified 15
unidentified 2
unidentified 3
sp.
1
perigrina
4
unidentified 1
pensylvanica 1
unidentified 6
florida
1
unidentified 6
sp.
1
unidentified 1
Species
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
Site
602.01
984.01
1132.02
1132.04
1170.06
1170.07
1170.08
1170.11
1171.02
1171.03
1171.04
1171.05
1172.05
1172.06
1172.07
1173.02
1437.01
1437.06
1533.02
1533.03
1981.01
1981.02
1981.03
1981.12
1981.13
1984.02
1984.03
1984.05
1985.03
N196/E527/
N196/E527
N186/E525
N196/E517
N196/E517
N182/E525
N182/E525
N182/E525
N182/E525
N182/E525
N182/E525
N182/E525
N182/E525
N182/E525
N182/E525
N182/E525
N182/E525
N181/E525
N181/E525
N198/E518
N198/E518
N181/E524
N181/E524
N181/E524
N181/E524
N181/E524
N181/E524
N181/E524
N181/E524
N181/E524
Inventory # Unit
SE/SW
E
NE
NE
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
SE
SE
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
Quad
2
7
4
4
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
Feature
20
20
10
10
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
25
25
25
35
10
10
0
0
10
10
10
10
10
30
30
30
40
30
30
20
20
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
35
35
35
45
20
20
10
10
20
20
20
20
20
40
40
40
45
Genus
nutshell Corylus
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Vaccinium
seed
unidentified
germ Zea
seed
Myrica
seed
Ilex
plant unidentified
nutshell Quercus
plant unidentified
seed
Rhus
seed
Myrica
bud
unidentified
germ Zea
nutshell Corylus
seed
unidentified
plant unidentified
bud
unidentified
seed
Quercus
nutshell Corylus
seed
Myrica
seed
unidentified
nutshell Corylus
nutshell Quercus
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
U.D. L.D. Type
americana
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
mays
sp.
sp.
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
sp.
pensylvanica
unidentified
mays
americana
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
americana
pensylvanica
unidentified
americana
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
Species
3
3
8
7
4
1
1
1
1
1
2
16
3
1
3
1
1
1
2
3
3
1
9
1
1
1
1
9
1
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.18
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
Mass
Count (g)
Com.
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Sample
Site
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
Inventory #
1985.04
1985.05
2412.01
2412.02
2412.03
2412.04
2412.04
2412.04
2412.04
2412.04
2412.07
2412.08
2412.09
2412.11
2412.12
2412.13
2412.19
2412.2
2412.21
2412.22
2412.23
2413.01
2413.02
2413.02
2413.03
2413.04
2413.05
2413.06
2413.07
2413.08
2413.09
Unit
N181/E524
N181/E524
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
Quad Feature
NW
3
NW
3
NE/NW 3
NE/NW 3
NE/NW 3
NE/NW 3
NE/NW 3
NE/NW 3
NE/NW 3
NE/NW 3
NE/NW 3
NE/NW 3
NE/NW 3
NE/NW 3
NE/NW 3
NE/NW 3
NE/NW 3
NE/NW 3
NE/NW 3
NE/NW 3
NE/NW 3
NE
3
NE
3
NE
3
NE
3
NE
3
NE
3
NE
3
NE
3
NE
3
NE
3
U.D.
40
40
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
L.D.
45
45
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
65
65
65
65
65
65
65
65
65
65
Type Genus
seed
Rubus
plant unidentified
seed
Rhus
nutshell Carya
nutshell Corylus
nutshell Corylus
nutshell Quercus
bud
unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Zea
plant unidentified
seed
Rubus
seed
Myrica
seed
Zea
seed
Cornus
plant unidentified
seed
Latuca
seed
Gaylussacia
seed
Vaccinium
seed
Scirpus
bud
unidentified
seed
Rhus
nutshell Corylus
bud
unidentified
seed
Gaylussacia
plant unidentified
seed
Rhus
nutshell Corylus
seed
Carex
seed
unidentified
bud
unidentified
Species
sp.
unidentified
sp.
sp.
americana
americana
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
mays
unidentified
sp.
pensylvanica
mays
sp.
unidentified
sp.
sp.
sp.
sp.
unidentified
sp.
americana
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
sp.
americana
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
Count
1
6
5
1
14
29
8
1
1
1
20
1
5
1
6
99
1
5
1
1
7
7
6
1
4
1
1
10
2
2
5
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.24
0.26
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.05
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.1
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
Inventory #
2413.1
2413.11
2413.12
2413.19
2413.2
2420.04
2420.04
2420.05
2420.06
2421.04
2421.04
2421.04
2421.05
2421.07
2421.07
2421.08
2422.01
2422.02
2422.02
2422.02
2422.02
2422.03
2422.04
2422.05
2422.06
2422.07
2422.08
2422.09
2422.1
2422.12
2422.2
Unit
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
Quad
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
Feature
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
U.D.
44
44
44
44
44
13
13
13
13
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
L.D.
65
65
65
65
65
82
82
82
82
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
82
82
82
82
82
82
82
82
82
82
82
82
82
82
82
Type Genus
cap/stemunidentified
seed
Ranunculaceae
plant unidentified
nutshell Carya
seed
Myrica
seed
Carpinus
plant unidentified
nutshell Corylus
seed
Rhus
bark
unidentified
bud
unidentified
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
nutshell unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Rhus
seed
Rhus
seed
Myrica
bud
unidentified
nutshell unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Cyperaceae
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
bud
unidentified
seed
Cornus
seed
Zea
seed
Myrica
seed
Gaylussacia
plant unidentified
seed
Chenopodium
Count
1
1
unidentified 13
sp.
1
pensylvanica 2
sp.
1
unidentified 2
americana
12
sp.
2
unidentified 12
unidentified 1
unidentified 1
unidentified 1
unidentified 2
unidentified 1
sp.
1
sp.
3
pensylvanica 1
unidentified 1
unidentified 2
unidentified 2
1
unidentified 1
unidentified 1
unidentified 5
sp.
1
mays
2
pensylvanica 6
sp.
3
unidentified 25
sp.
1
Species
unidentified
Mass
Com.
(g)
0.01 frag
0.01 whole
frag
0.01 frag
0.01 frag
0.01 whole
NTF whole
NTF frag
NTF whole
0.02 frag
0.01 frag
0.01 frag
0.01 frag
0.01 frag
0.01 frag
0.01 whole
0.01 frag
0.01 frag
0.01 frag
0.01 frag
0.01 frag
0.01 whole
0.01 frag
0.01 frag
0.01 frag
0.01 frag
0.01 frag
0.05 frag
0.01 whole
0.03 frag
0.01 whole
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
Inventory #
2422.21
2423.01
2423.02
2423.03
2423.04
2423.05
2423.06
2423.07
2495.01
2495.02
2495.02
2495.04
2495.1
2496.02
2496.03
2496.04
2497.04
2497.07
2497.14
2497.15
2498.03
2501.03
2501.04
2501.06
2501.11
2501.16
2501.17
2502.03
2502.04
2502.05
2502.1
Unit
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N181/E523
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
Quad
SE
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
Feature
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
U.D.
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
20
20
20
20
20
25
25
25
20
20
20
20
25
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
L.D.
82
82
82
82
82
82
82
82
25
25
25
25
25
30
30
30
25
25
25
25
30
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
Type Genus
seed
Cyperus
seed
Rhus
seed
Myrica
seed
Gaylussacia
seed
Gramineae
seed
unidentified
bud
unidentified
seed
unidentified
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
nutshell Carya
plant unidentified
seed
Rubus
bark
unidentified
rind
Cucurbitaceae
bark
unidentified
seed
unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Rhus
plant unidentified
seed
Myrica
seed
unidentified
plant unidentified
cupule Zea
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Carex
seed
unidentified
seed
Myrica
seed
Comptonia
Count
4
4
7
1
1
unidentified 1
unidentified 6
unidentified 3
unidentified 8
unidentified 4
unidentified 3
sp.
7
unidentified 5
sp.
1
unidentified 16
6
unidentified 8
unidentified 3
unidentified 2
sp.
1
unidentified 1
pensylvanica 5
unidentified 4
unidentified 3
mays
1
unidentified 1
unidentified 1
sp.
1
unidentified 14
pensylvanica 5
sp.
1
Species
sp.
sp.
pensylvanica
sp.
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.06
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
Com.
whole
whole
frag
whole
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
whole
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
Inventory #
2502.12
2502.14
2504.03
2504.04
2504.05
2505.01
2505.02
2505.03
2505.2
2510.02
2510.03
2510.04
2511.02
2511.03
2511.04
2515.01
2515.03
2515.06
2515.08
2519.03
2519.1
2519.11
2523.04
2523.06
2523.07
2524.01
2524.02
2524.02
2524.03
2525.01
2555.01
Unit
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N188/E522
N188/E522
N188/E522
N188/E522
N188/E522
N188/E522
N188/E522
N188/E522
N188/E522
N188/E522
N188/E522
N188/E522
N188/E522
N188/E522
N188/E522
N183/E529
Quad
N
N
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SW
SW
SW
SE
SE
SE
SW
SW
SW
SW
NE
NE
NE
SW
SW
SW
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
NE
Feature
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
10
U.D.
20
20
30
30
30
35
35
35
35
40
40
40
40
40
40
20
20
20
20
40
40
40
50
50
50
60
60
60
60
60
20
L.D.
50
50
35
35
35
40
40
40
40
50
50
50
50
50
50
30
30
30
30
50
50
50
60
60
60
70
70
70
70
70
60
Type Genus
seed
unidentified
bud
unidentified
bud
unidentified
bark
unidentified
seed
unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Myrica
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
bud
unidentified
nutshell unidentified
seed
unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Rubus
plant unidentified
seed
Phytolaca
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Gallium
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
nutmeat unidentified
nutmeat unidentified
nutmeat unidentified
nutmeat Juglandaceae
bud
unidentified
unidentified
Species
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
pensylvanica
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
americana
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Count
2
8
2
10
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
3
3
5
13
1
91
3
1
76
13
10
1
5
3
7
11
447
161
300
3
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
NTF
0.01
0.01
0.12
0.02
0.03
0.01
0.04
0.01
0.02
0.05
2.26
2.64
1.98
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
Inventory #
2555.02
2555.02
2555.02
2555.02
2555.02
2555.02
2555.02
2555.02
2555.03
2555.04
2555.05
2555.06
2555.08
2555.13
2589.01
2589.03
2589.05
2589.06
2589.07
2589.08
2590.01
2590.02
2590.05
2590.06
2591.01
2591.02
2591.02
2591.03
2591.04
2591.05
2591.11
Unit
N182/E529
N182/E529
N182/E529
N182/E529
N182/E529
N182/E529
N182/E529
N182/E529
N182/E529
N182/E529
N182/E529
N182/E529
N182/E529
N182/E529
N187/E526
N187/E526
N187/E526
N187/E526
N187/E526
N187/E526
N187/E522
N187/E522
N187/E522
N187/E522
N187/E522
N187/E522
N187/E522
N187/E522
N187/E522
N187/E522
N187/E522
Quad
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
Feature
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
11
11
11
11
11
11
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
U.D.
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
L.D.
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
50
50
50
50
50
50
42
42
42
42
42
42
42
42
42
42
42
Type Genus
nutshell Carya
nutshell Carya
bark
unidentified
bud
unidentified
nutshell unidentified
seed
unidentified
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
unidentified
nutshell Carya
nutshell Quercus
seed
unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Gaylussacia
seed
Comptonia
plant unidentified
seed
Compositae
seed
unidentified
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
unidentified
nutshell Corylus
seed
unidentified
seed
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
americana
unidentified
unidentified
Species
sp.
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
peregrina
unidentified
Count
43
6
6
1
4
8
48
10
1
4
3
2
99
1
1
1
1
1
12
13
13
73
14
5
33
97
4
1
1
1
2
Mass
(g)
0.54
0.32
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.16
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.09
0.02
0.12
NTF
0.12
1.67
0.27
NTF
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
Inventory #
2591.12
2591.13
2593.01
2593.02
2593.07
2596.02
2597.01
2597.02
2597.02
2597.03
2597.03
2597.04
2597.05
2597.05
2597.06
2597.07
2597.08
2597.17
2597.18
2597.19
2597.2
2597.21
2599.02
2599.04
2599.04
2600.02
2600.03
2600.04
2600.05
2600.06
2600.07
Unit
N187/E522
N187/E522
N187/E523
N187/E523
N187/E523
N187/E521
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
Quad
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
SW
SW
SW
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
Feature
13
13
13
13
13
13
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
U.D.
20
20
20
20
20
20
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
L.D.
42
42
39
36
36
36
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Type Genus
seed
Cyperaceae
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Chenopodium
bud
unidentified
nutshell unidentified
nutshell Corylus
plant unidentified
seed
Myrica
bud
unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Zea
seed
Viburnum
bud
unidentified
nutshell unidentified
nutshell Quercus
plant unidentified
seed
Cornus
seed
Rhus
bud
unidentified
nutshell Corylus
cupule Zea
seed
Rubus
seed
Gaylussacia
seed
Compositae
nutshell Corylus
seed
Rhus
seed
Rhus
americana
sp.
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
americana
unidentified
pensylvanica
unidentified
unidentified
mays
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
sp.
sp.
unidentified
americana
mays
sp.
sp.
Species
1
1
4
4
1
1
1
2
1
1
8
8
1
7
1
9
1
25
1
3
2
1
114
15
8
Count
1
69
12
13
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.13
0.02
0.02
0.01
NTF
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
NTF
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
2.19
0.02
0.02
Com.
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
whole
whole
whole
whole
frag
frag
whole
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
0.01
72-58
Inventory #
2600.08
2600.09
2600.1
2600.11
2600.12
2600.14
2600.15
2600.16
2600.17
2600.18
2601.02
2601.03
2601.04
2601.06
2602.01
2602.02
2602.03
2602.04
2602.05
2603.01
2603.02
2603.03
2603.04
2604.01
2604.02
2604.03
2604.04
2604.05
2604.06
2604.07
2604.12
Unit
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
Quad
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
SW
SW
SW
SW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
Feature
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
U.D.
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
L.D.
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
Type Genus
seed
Cyperaceae
bud
unidentified
seed
Polygonum
seed
Viburnum
seed
Viburnum
seed
Myrica
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
bud
unidentified
seed
unidentified
seed/fruitunidentified
seed
Rhus
bud
unidentified
seed
Chenopodium
seed
Rhus
seed
Myrica
plant unidentified
seed
unidentified
seed
Zea
nutshell Corylus
plant unidentified
seed
Rhus
seed
unidentified
seed
Scirpus
seed
Myrica
seed
Gaylussacia
seed
Rhus
seed
unidentified
seed
Cyperus
bud
unidentified
seed
Rhus
Count
22
unidentified 32
sp.
6
sp.
2
sp.
15
pensylvanica 6
unidentified 74
unidentified 22
unidentified 17
unidentified 7
unidentified 2
sp.
7
unidentified 6
sp.
1
sp.
20
pensylvanica 1
unidentified 36
unidentified 3
mays
1
americana
3
unidentified 1
sp.
12
unidentified 1
sp.
1
pensylvanica 2
sp.
1
sp.
19
unidentified 2
sp.
4
unidentified 5
sp.
5
Species
Mass
(g)
0.02
0.08
0.01
0.01
0.06
0.02
0.11
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.09
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
whole
frag
whole
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
whole
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
frag
whole
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
Inventory #
2605.03
2605.04
2605.05
2605.06
2605.07
2606.02
2606.03
2606.04
2607.01
2607.02
2608.02
2608.03
2608.04
2608.05
2608.06
2608.07
2609.01
2609.02
2609.03
2611.01
2611.02
2611.03
2611.04
2611.05
2612.01
2612.02
2612.03
2612.03
2613.01
2614.01
2614.02
Unit
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
Quad
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NW
NW
NW
SE
SE
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SE
SE
SE
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
NW
NW
NW
NW
SW
NW
NW
Feature
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
U.D.
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
50
50
50
L.D.
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
60
60
60
Type Genus
plant unidentified
seed
Gaylussacia
seed/fruitunidentified
seed
Myrica
seed
Zea
nutshell unidentified
seed/fruitunidentified
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
unidentified
seed
Gaylussacia
seed
Cyperus
seed
Juncus
seed
Rhus
seed
unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Myrica
seed
unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Phaseolus
seed
Zea
seed
unidentified
bud
unidentified
seed
Myrica
seed
Cyperaceae
seed
Myrica
seed
unidentified
plant unidentified
bud
unidentified
seed
Myrica
plant unidentified
Count
7
1
4
1
1
3
7
23
8
1
1
1
1
37
9
12
1
3
3
1
1
2
5
2
1
pensylvanica 3
unidentified 1
unidentified 4
unidentified 3
pensylvanica 1
unidentified 1
Species
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
pensylvanica
mays
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
sp.
sp.
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
pensylvanica
unidentified
unidentified
vulgaris
mays
unidentified
unidentified
pensylvanica
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.08
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.06
0.02
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
Inventory #
2614.03
2615.01
2615.02
2615.05
2616.01
2616.02
2618.01
2618.03
2620.01
2620.02
2620.03
2627.01
2627.02
2627.03
2627.04
2627.05
2631.02
2631.03
2631.04
2631.05
2631.06
2631.07
2631.08
2631.09
2644.02
2644.03
2644.04
2644.05
2650.01
2650.02
2650.03
Unit
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E523
N182/E525
N182/E525
N191/E521
N191/E521
N191/E521
N197/E517
N197/E517
N197/E517
N197/E517
N197/E517
N197/E517
N197/E517
N197/E517
N197/E517
N197/E517
N197/E517
N197/E517
N197/E517
N198/E517
N198/E517
N198/E517
N198/E517
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
Quad
NW
SE
SE
SE
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
NE
NE
NE
NE
SE
SE
SE
Feature
3
3
3
3
3
3
6
6
9
9
9
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
12
12
12
U.D.
50
50
50
50
60
60
20
20
30
30
30
10
10
10
10
10
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
L.D.
60
60
60
60
70
70
30
30
48
48
48
20
20
20
20
20
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
Type Genus
seed
Myrica
plant unidentified
bud
unidentified
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Zea
plant unidentified
seed
Myrica
bud
unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Crataegus
seed
Rubus
seed
Cyperaceae
seed
Myrica
plant unidentified
seed
Rubus
seed
Carex
seed
Polygonum
seed
Scirpus
seed
Cyperaceae
bud
unidentified
seed
unidentified
nutshell Carya
seed
Viburnum
nutshell unidentified
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
bud
unidentified
Count
2
2
1
5
1
3
1
12
1
1
4
1
1
1
pensylvanica 2
unidentified 10
sp.
2
sp.
1
sp.
2
sp.
8
1
unidentified 6
unidentified 1
sp.
5
sp.
1
unidentified 2
unidentified 2
unidentified 15
mays
11
mays
5
unidentified 1
Species
pensylvanica
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
mays
unidentified
pensylvanica
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
sp.
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
NTF
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.08
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
NTF
0.04
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
whole
frag
frag
whole
whole
whole
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
Inventory #
2650.04
2650.05
2650.07
2650.09
2650.11
2650.12
2650.13
2650.14
2651.01
2651.02
2651.03
2651.04
2651.05
2652.01
2652.02
2652.03
2652.04
2652.05
2652.06
2652.07
2653.02
2653.03
2653.04
2653.05
2654.01
2654.02
2654.03
2654.04
2654.05
2654.06
2654.07
Unit
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
Quad
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
Feature
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
U.D.
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
30
30
30
30
30
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
60
60
60
60
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
L.D.
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
40
40
40
40
40
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
70
70
70
70
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
Type Genus
nutshell Corylus
seed
Rubus
seed
Myrica
seed
Cyperus
seed
unidentified
bark
unidentified
seeds unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Gaylussacia
seed
Myrica
seed
Zea
seed
unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Myrica
seed
Zea
seed
Zea
seed
Gaylussacia
nutshell Carya
seed
unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
unidentified
seed
Myrica
seed
Zea
plant unidentified
seed
Rubus
seed
Myrica
seed
Chenopodium
nutshell Juglandaceae
seed
Zea
nutmeat unidentified
nutshell Corylus
mays
unidentified
americana
Species
americana
sp.
pensylvanica
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
pensylvanica
mays
unidentified
unidentified
pensylvanica
mays
mays
sp.
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
pensylvanica
mays
unidentified
sp.
pensylvanica
sp.
Count
1
1
3
1
18
10
8
21
1
3
3
1
12
6
11
1
1
2
8
2
1
1
1
9
2
3
1
1
5
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
NTF
NTF
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.19
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.04
0.01
0.01
Com.
frag
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
Inventory #
2654.08
2654.1
2654.11
2654.18
2654.19
2657.01
2657.02
2658.01
2658.02
2659.01
2659.02
2659.03
2659.05
2659.07
2659.08
2659.09
2660.01
2660.02
2660.03
2660.04
2660.05
2662.01
2662.02
2662.04
2662.05
2662.06
2663.01
2663.02
2664.01
2664.02
2664.03
Unit
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N192/E523
N197/E518
N197/E518
N197/E518
Quad
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
NW
NW
Feature
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
4
4
4
U.D.
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
30
30
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
20
20
20
20
20
55
55
55
55
55
60
60
10
10
10
L.D.
30
30
30
30
30
40
40
50
50
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
35
35
35
35
35
65
65
65
65
65
65
65
20
20
20
Type
plant
bud
seed
cupule
plant
seed
seed
seed
bark
seed
seed
seed
seed
bud
seed
plant
seed
seed
seed
seed
plant
seed
seed
seed
bud
plant
seed
plant
seed
seed
seed
Genus
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Zea
unidentified
Zea
Phaseolus
Zea
unidentified
Rubus
Rhus
Zea
Myrica
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Gaylussacia
Zea
Myrica
Boraginaceae
unidentified
Myrica
Zea
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Rubus
Myrica
unidentified
Count
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
5
1
1
5
14
1
2
2
1
unidentified 10
pensylvanica 3
mays
1
unidentified 1
unidentified 1
unidentified 14
unidentified 2
unidentified 4
sp.
3
pensylvanica 1
unidentified 1
Species
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
mays
unidentified
mays
vulgaris
mays
unidentified
sp.
sp.
mays
pensylvanica
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
mays
pensylvanica
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
Inventory #
2664.04
2664.05
2664.06
2665.01
2665.02
2666.02
2668.01
2668.03
2668.08
2669.01
2669.02
2671.01
2671.02
2671.03
2671.04
2671.05
2671.06
2671.09
2671.1
2671.12
2671.13
2671.14
2671.15
2671.18
2671.19
2672.01
2672.02
2672.03
2672.04
2672.05
2674.01
Unit
N197/E518
N197/E518
N197/E518
N197/E518
N197/E518
N192/E518
N181/E522
N181/E522
N181/E522
N186/E521
N186/E521
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N181/E522
N181/E522
N181/E522
N181/E522
N181/E522
N181/E522
Quad
NW
NW
NW
NE
NE
SE
NE
NE
NE
SE
SE
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
Feature
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
8
8
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
3
3
3
3
3
3
U.D.
10
10
10
10
10
10
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
10
10
10
10
10
10
L.D.
20
20
20
20
20
20
30
30
30
30
30
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
20
20
20
20
20
20
Type Genus
nutshell unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
unidentified
seed
Vitis
seed
Myrica
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
bark
unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Gaylussacia
cupule Zea
seed
Zea
seed
Myrica
seed
Cyperus
seed
unidentified
nutshell Quercus
nutmeat Quercus
bark
unidentified
seed
unidentified
nutshell unidentified
seed
unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Myrica
plant unidentified
seed
unidentified
bud
unidentified
seed
Galium
Species
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
pensylvanica
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
mays
mays
pensylvanica
sp.
unidentified
sp.
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
pensylvanica
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
Count
2
2
8
1
1
13
3
3
3
1
2
3
11
9
5
1
1
1
1
3
4
6
5
6
90
1
1
8
1
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.49
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
frag
whole
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
Inventory #
2674.02
2674.03
2677.01
2677.02
2677.03
2677.04
2677.05
2677.13
2677.14
2677.15
2677.16
2677.17
2677.18
2677.19
2678.01
2678.02
2678.03
2678.04
2678.05
2678.06
2678.07
2678.08
2678.09
2678.11
2678.12
2679.01
2679.02
2679.03
2679.04
2679.05
2679.06
Unit
N181/E522
N181/E522
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
Quad
NE
NE
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
Feature
3
3
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
U.D.
10
10
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
55
55
55
55
55
55
L.D.
20
20
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
68
68
68
68
68
68
Type Genus
seed
Rhus
plant unidentified
nutshell unidentified
seed
Rhus
seed
Gaylussacia
seed
Zea
seed/fruitunidentified
seed
Phaseolus
bark
unidentified
seed
unidentified
seed
Myrica
nutshell Juglandaceae
seed
unidentified
nutmeat unidentified
seed
Myrica
seed
Myrica
seed
Zea
nutshell Carya
seed
unidentified
seed
Cyperaceae
seed
unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Gramineae
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Zea
seed
Myrica
seed
Myrica
seed
Gaylussacia
seed
Rubus
seed
Polygonaceae
unidentified
unidentified
mays
pensylvanica
pensylvanica
sp.
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
pensylvanica
pensylvanica
mays
sp.
unidentified
Species
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
sp.
mays
unidentified
vulgaris
unidentified
unidentified
pensylvanica
Count
1
5
1
1
2
7
4
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
3
1
2
1
5
1
24
5
1
7
8
6
6
3
2
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.04
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.09
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
whole
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
whole
whole
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
72-58
Inventory #
2679.07
2679.09
2679.16
2679.17
2679.18
2680.01
2680.02
2682.01
2682.02
2682.03
2682.04
2682.05
2683.01
Unit
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N191/E523
N196/E518
N196/E518
N196/E518
N196/E518
N196/E518
N188/E522
Quad
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
SW
Feature
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
4
4
4
4
4
13
U.D.
55
55
55
55
55
70
70
10
10
10
10
10
30
L.D.
68
68
68
68
68
85
85
22
22
22
22
22
40
Type Genus
bud
unidentified
nutshell unidentified
seed
unidentified
seed
unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Myrica
plant unidentified
seed
Myrica
seed
Rubus
seed
Rhus
seed
Vaccinium
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
Species
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
pensylvanica
unidentified
pensylvanica
sp.
sp.
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
Count
1
3
9
9
60
1
8
11
1
1
1
13
17
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.09
0.01
0.02
0.06
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.06
0.02
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
whole
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
soil
Site
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
Inventory # Unit
41.00
N10E5
517.00
S10E1
582.00
S10E1
615.00
S10E1
707.00
S7E4
707.01
S7E4
881.03
S5E6
976.00
S15E1
1146.00
S30W1
1288.00
S2E1
1568.00
S6E3
1712.00
S9E2
1713.00
S9E2
1715.00
S9E2
1746.00
S9E2
2392.00
S1E1
2425.00
S6E0
3248.00
S9E0
3273.00
S9E0
3294.00
S9E0
3463.00
S10E2
3782.00
S4E4
3823.00
S4E4
4036.00
S5E3
4510.00
S11E1
4647.00
S14E1
4877.00
S13E1
4973.00
S13E1
5031.00
S13E8
5560.00
S11E6
5684.00
S10E4
Quad
SW
SW
NW
SE
SW
SW
NE
NE
SE
NE
NE
NW
NW
NW
SE
SW
NE
NW
NE
NW
NE
SW
SE
SW
SW
SE
NE
SW
SE
NE
SW
Feature
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
2
NF
3
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
FA4
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
L.D.
10
10
20
25
20
20
10
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
10
10
10
20
10
10
20
10
10
10
20
30
10
10
10
U.D.
0
0
10
20
10
10
0
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
0
0
0
10
0
0
10
0
0
0
10
20
0
0
0
Type
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutmeat
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
coprolite?
seed
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
coprolite?
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
Genus
Corylus
Corylus
Carya
Julglans
Corylus
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Corylus
Corylus
Carya
unidentifiable
Phaselous
Corylus
Julglans
Julglans
Carya
unidentifiable
Corylus
Quercus
Carya
Corylus
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Carya
Prunus
Prunus
unidentifiable
Corylus
Corylus
Corylus
Corylus
Species
americana
americana
sp.
nigra
americana
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
americana
americana
sp.
unidentifiable
vulgaris
americana
nigra
nigra
sp.
unidentifiable
americana
sp.
sp.
americana
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp.
sp.
persica
unidentifiable
americana
americana
americana
americana
Count
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.19
0.06
1.22
0.2
0.09
0.17
0.01
0.09
0.01
0.11
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.18
0.23
0.16
0.01
0.01
0.07
0.06
0.01
0.05
0.09
0.11
0.19
0.29
0.23
0.01
0.078
0.21
0.01
Con.
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
Inventory # Unit
5702.00
S10E4
5739.00
S10E4
6007.00
S13E7
6013.00
S13E7
6062.00
S12E5
6375.00
S15E3
6419.00
S17E2
6599.00
S19E1
6727.00
S20E4
6756.00
S18E0
6789.00
S19E4
6800.00
S15E8
7002.00
S20E3
7210.00
S16E1
7371.00
S15E9
7410.00
S17E0
7464.00
S16E5
7545.00
S12E4
7668.05
S14E0
7669.03
S14E1
7671.19
S14E1
7674.13
S14E0
7679.03
S14E0
7679.03
S14E0
7681.04
S13E1
7738.03
S18E1
7738.04
S18E1
7738.05
S18E1
7740.04
S18E1
7740.05
S18E1
7749.03
S18E7
Quad
NW
NW
SE
SE
SW
SW
SE
SE
NW
NE
SE
SE
NE
SW
NE
SE
SE
SE
SE
ALL
North 1/2
East 1/2
NE
NE
ALL
South 1/2
South 1/2
South 1/2
South 1/2
South 1/2
South 1/2
Feature
NF
NF
NF
NF
6
NF
NF
FA9
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
7
7
7
7
7
8
L.D.
10
20
10
20
30
10
10
20
30
10
30
10
10
10
10
20
10
10
40
60
80
50
60
82
82
82
82
82
40
U.D.
0
10
0
10
20
0
0
10
20
0
20
0
0
0
0
10
0
0
30
40
70
40
50
30
30
30
30
30
30
Type
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
plant
plant
plant
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
plant
plant
plant
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
plant
plant
seed
seed
plant
plant
plant
Genus
Carya
Corylus
Corylus
Carya
Prunus
Carya
Corylus
Carya
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Corylus
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Corylus
Carya
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Carya
Rhus
Chenopodium
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Myrica
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Species
sp.
americana
americana
sp.
persica
sp.
americana
sp.
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
americana
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
americana
sp.
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp.
sp.
sp.
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
cerifera
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Count
3
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
4
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
107
2
1
Mass
(g)
0.4
0.01
0.21
0.95
0.4
0.17
0.01
0.1
0.09
0.16
0.01
0.12
0.01
0.12
0.01
0.06
0.01
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.12
0.01
0.01
Con.
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
72-171
Inventory # Unit
7750.05
S19E1
7809.00
S18W1
7816.03
S18W1
7816.04
S18W1
7816.05
S18W1
8073.03
S15W1
8073.03
S15W1
8073.04
S15W1
8073.04
S15W1
8073.06
S15W1
8073.08
S15W1
8074.03
S15W1
8074.03
S15W1
8074.03
S15W1
8074.03
S15W1
8074.04
S15W1
8074.06
S15W1
8074.09
S15W1
8074.11
S15W1
8076.02
S15W1
8076.02
S15W1
8076.02
S15W1
8076.02
S15W1
8076.04
S15W1
8076.05
S15W1
8076.06
S15W1
8077.04
S15W1
8077.04
S15W1
8077.04
S15W1
8077.07
S15W1
8078.03
S15W1
Quad
NW
NE
North 1/2
North 1/2
North 1/2
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
SW
SW
SW
SW
NW
Feature
9
14
14
14
14
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
U.D.
30
20
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
30
30
30
30
34
L.D.
37
30
43
43
43
103
103
103
103
103
103
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
100
100
100
100
47
Type
seed
plant
plant
plant
seed
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
plant
seed
cupule
nutshell
plant
seed
seed
plant
nutshell
plant
nutshell
plant
rachis (?)
seed
seed
seed
plant
plant
seed
seed
plant
nutshell
Genus
Legumosia
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Cornus
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Carya
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Phaselous
Zea
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Phaselous
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Julglans
unidentifiable
Carya
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Rhus
Rhus
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Rhus
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp.
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp.
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
vulgaris
mays
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
vulgaris
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
nigra
unidentifiable
sp.
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp.
sp.
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp.
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Species
Count
1
1
2
2
2
4
14
2
2
3
1
1
13
15
1
4
2
3
24
7
2
1
1
1
1
13
2
1
2
3
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.48
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.09
0.01
0.17
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.15
0.11
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.44
0.06
0.09
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Con.
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
Inventory # Unit
Quad
72-171 8079.06
S15W1 SW
Feature
13
U.D. L.D. Type
30
50 nutshell
Genus
Carya
Species
sp.
Mass
Count (g)
Con. Sample
8
0.26 frag Soil
Site
72-88
72-88
72-88
72-88
72-88
72-88
72-88
72-88
72-88
72-88
Inventory #
150639
150661
150668
150746
150748
150802
150803
150825
150830
150856
Unit
S15E07-SW
S14/15E08-NE
S15E07-SW
SE
SE
SE
NW
SE
SE
NE
Feature
7
7
7
10
10
10
19
20
20
23
U.D. L.D.
35 40
50 55
60 65
10 15
30 35
45 50
95 100
35 40
60 65
25 30
Type
seed
nuthshell
seed
seed
seed
nuthshell
seed
seed
seed
seed
Genus
Zea
Quercus
unidentified
Prunus
Zea
Corylus
Comptonia
Cornus
Zea
Zea
Species
mays
sp.
unidentified
serotina
mays
americana
peregrina
sp.
mays
mays
Count
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
Mass (g)
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
Com.
frag
farg
whoe
whole
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
frg
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
Inventory
#
40.02
40.03
49.01
55.01
82.02
83
87.04
110.03
124.04
125.03
139.02
139.03
139.04
140.02
141.01
141.03
159.03
159.05
176.01
204.03
204.05
217.03
222.02
222.03
236.02
236.03
240.04
320
321.01
351.02
381
Unit
N10E58
N10E58
N12E57
N12E57
N15E56
N16E57
N16E57
N17E55
N17E56
N17E56
N17E56
N17E56
N17E56
N17E56
N17E56
N17E56
N17E57
N28E49
N17E58
N18E56
N18E56
N18E56
N18E57
N18E57
N18E57
N18E57
N18E56
N19E53
N19E53
N19E55
N19E56
SW
Quad
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
NE
NW
SW
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
NW
NE
SW
NE
NE
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NE
NE
NE
Feature
1
1
FA1
FA1
FA1
FA1
FA1
FA1
FA1
FA1
FA1
FA1
FA1
1
1
1
FA1
4
FA1
FA1
FA1
1
FA1
FA1
FA1
FA1
FA1
NF
NF
NF
FA1
U.P.
40
40
0
10
10
0
0
10
0
0
10
10
10
20
30
30
10
25
0
10
10
25
0
0
10
10
10
0
10
0
0
L.D.
50
50
10
20
20
10
10
20
10
10
20
20
20
30
40
40
20
30
10
20
20
30
10
10
20
20
20
10
20
10
10
Type
nut
plant
plant
seed
plant
nut
plant
plant
nutshell
plant
bud
nutshell
nutshell
bud
seed
seed
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
cupule
cone/bud
plant
cupule
seed
plant
plant
nutshell
plant
plant
seed
Genus
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
Acalypha
unidentified
Juglans
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
Chenopodium
Viola
Corylus
unidentified
Carya
Juglans
Zea
unidentified
unidentified
Zea
Portulaca
unidentified
unidentified
Juglans
unidentified
unidentified
Prunus
Species
americana
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
americana
unidentified
sp.
sp.
americana
unidentified
sp.
sp.
mays
unidentified
unidentified
mays
sp,
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
Count
1
6
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
5
3
1
3
2
1
1
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
1.34
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.06
0.08
0.01
0.01
0.06
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.04
0.36
0.01
0.01
0.458
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Exc
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Exc
Soil
Soil
Exc
Site
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
Inventory
#
524.03
567.04
567.05
605.01
658.02
658.03
674.02
700.04
708.03
744.03
744.04
771.02
779.03
779.04
782.08
782.09
782.11
886.04
938.02
938.03
938.04
994.03
1019.04
1044.03
1114.03
1161.02
1288.03
1302.03
1355.01
1355.06
1355.19
Unit
N20E55
N20E56
N20E56
N20E58
N21E56
N21E56
N21E57
N21E58
N22E54
N22E55
N22E55
N22E56
N22E57
N22E57
N22E57
N22E57
N22E57
N23E55
N23E57
N23E57
N23E57
N24E56
N24E56
N24E57
N25E56
N25E58
N27E55
N27E56
N28E49
N28E49
N28E49
SE
SE
SE
NE
NE
SE
NE
SW
NW
NW
SW
SE
SE
SW
SW
SW
SW
NW
NW
NW
SW
SW
NE
NE
NW
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
Quad
Feature
NF
1
1
NF
FA1
FA1
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
FA2
4
4
4
U.P.
10
20
20
0
10
10
0
0
0
10
10
15
0
0
10
10
10
0
10
10
10
0
10
10
0
10
10
10
20
20
20
L.D.
20
30
30
10
20
20
10
10
10
20
20
20
10
10
20
20
20
15
20
20
20
10
20
20
10
20
20
20
25
25
25
Type
nut
plant
cupule
nutshell
plant
cupule
plant
seed
plant
nut
cupule
cupule
nut
plant
nut
plant
cupule
plant
nut
plant
seed
nut
plant
plant
plant
plant
plant
nutshell
seed
seed
plant
Genus
unidentified
unidentified
Zea
Juglans
unidentified
Zea
unidentified
Phytolacca
unidentified
unidentified
Zea
Zea
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Zea
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Chenopodium
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
Vicia
unidentified
Species
unidentified
unidentified
mays
sp.
unidentified
mays
unidentified
americana
unidentified
unidentified
mays
mays
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
mays
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
americana
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
Count
1
3
1
2
6
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
4
3
8
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
5
1
1
2
1
1
27
Mass
(g)
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.18
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.06
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
Inventory
#
1355.2
1356.03
1356.15
1356.16
1356.17
1356.18
1356.19
1356.2
1359.01
1359.06
1359.07
1359.08
1403.02
1476.03
1476.04
1486.15
1486.16
1524.01
1533.01
1602.03
1655.02
1655.03
1664.02
1681.23
1681.24
1682.11
1682.18
1682.19
1682.21
1682.24
1683.08
Unit
N28E49
N28E49
N28E49
N28E49
N28E49
N28E49
N28E49
N28E49
N28E49
N28E49
N28E49
N28E49
N28E54
N29E50
N29E50
N29E50
N29E50
N29E55
N30E49
N24E58
N16E56
N16E56
N16E56
Quad
NE
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NE
NE
NE
NE
NW
SE
SE
SW
SW
NW
NE
SW
SE
SE
SE
Feature
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
NF
4
4
4
4
NF
NF
NF
FA1
FA1
FA1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
U.P.
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
0
0
0
0
0
20
20
0
0
20
0
10
0
0
10
20
20
30
30
30
30
30
0
L.D.
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
30
30
30
30
10
25
25
30
30
30
10
20
10
10
20
30
30
40
40
40
40
40
0
Type
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
bud
nutshell
nutshell
plant
seed
seed
nutshell
plant
plant
nutshell
plant
cupule
plant
seed
seed
plant
plant
cupule
nut
plant
nutshell
seed
seed
plant
nutshell
nutshell
plant
Genus
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
Zea
unidentified
Cornaceae
Crataegus
unidentified
unidentified
Zea
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Triticum
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
Species
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
americana
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
americana
unidentified
mays
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
mays
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
americana
unidentified
Count
4
1
1
2
1
2
6
25
5
2
10
26
3
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
70
10
1
1
28
5
1
4
Mass
(g)
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.08
0
0.01
0.03
0.11
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.4
0.13
0.01
0.01
0.28
0.06
0.01
0.03
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
72-97C
Inventory
#
1683.09
1683.11
1687.02
1687.08
1687.09
1687.11
1688.08
1688.09
1688.1
1688.11
1689.02
1689.03
1689.14
1689.15
1689.16
1690.02
Quad
SW
SW
SW
SW
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SW
Unit
N29E49
N29E49
N29E49
N29E49
N29E49
N29E49
N29E49
N29E49
N29E49
N29E49
N29E49
N29E49
N29E49
N23E58
Feature
2
2
FA4
FA4
FA4
FA4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
NF
U.P.
0
0
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
0
0
0
0
0
10
L.D.
0
0
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
30
30
30
30
30
20
Type
seed
bud
seed
nutshell
nutshell
plant
nutshell
plant
seed
seed
nutshell
plant
seed
nutshell
plant
plant
Genus
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Species
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
americana
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
americana
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Count
1
1
2
7
3
9
4
1
2
1
2
1
2
8
15
3
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.04
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.04
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
Inventory
#
4058
4823
4964
5005
5301
5461
5527
5527
5527
5549
5567
5567
5570
5576
5578
5581
5581
5582
5583
5591
5591
5592
5598
5603
5607
5632
5632
5655
5673
5695
5800
Unit
N62/W224
N058/W230
N059/W229
N059/W230
N059/W226
N059/W225
N057/W245
N057/W245
N057/W245
N057/W229
N062/W240&241
N062/W240&241
N62/W240
UNK
N060/W241
UNK
UNK
N060/W240
N060/W240
N050/W237
N050/W237
N050/W236
N050/W236
N50/W236
N050/W236
N056/W230
N056/W230
N057/W232
N057/W233
N057/W233
N058/W231
NE
NE
NW
NW
NW
SE
SE
SE
N
N
NW
NE
NE
NE
SE
SW
Quad
SE
SW
NE
NE
N
N
NW
NW
NW
NW
Feature
NF
1
1
1
137
137
11
11
11
35
53
53
53
55
55
56
56
56
56
63
63
64
65
65
65
78
78
1
1
1
1
U.D.
20
30
20
20
45
30
26
26
26
23
25
25
25
26
26
27
27
27
27
33
33
40
23
23
23
25
25
20
20
40
40
L.D.
10
20
10
10
40
25
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
30
20
20
20
20
20
15
10
30
30
Type
plant
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
seed
plant
nutshell
nutshell
plant
seed
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
plant
nutshell
plant
plant
nutshell
nutshell
plant
nutshell
seed
plant
seed
Genus
unidentified
Carya
Carya
Carya
Carya
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
Gramineae
unidentified
unidentified
Count
1
4
2
3
3
1
2
4
30
2
1
1
5
2
1
1
1
4
1
5
23
1
1
5
1
3
1
1
1
unidentified 2
unidentified 1
Species
unidentified
sp.
sp.
sp.
sp.
unidentified
americana
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
americana
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
americana
unidentified
unidentified
americana
americana
unidentified
unidentified
americana
unidentified
unidentified
americana
unidentified
unidentified
americana
Mass
(g)
0.01
NTF
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
NTF
NTF
NTF
0.01
0.01
0.01
NTF
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
NTF
0.01
NTF
NTF
0.01
0.01
NTF
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
Sample
Exc
Exc
Soil
Exc
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
Inventory
#
5831
5838
5838
5858
5858
5859
5861
5875
5875
5875
5911
5915
5915
5929
5931
5934
5942
5951
5962
5963
5965
5967
5968
5968
5968
5978
5978
5978
5992
5992
5994
Unit
N058/W232
N058/W232
N058/W232
N059/W230
N059/W230
N059/W230
N059/W230
N057/W230
N057/W230
N057/W230
N061/W230
UNK
UNK
N053/W245
N055/W245
N054/W244
N055/W244
UNK
UNK
N055/W244
UNK
UNK
N051/W236
N051/W236
N051/W236
N059/W232
N059/W232
N059/W232
UNK
UNK
N055/W228
ALL
S
S
S
SW
E+W
SW
SW
NW
Quad
SW
SW
SW
SE
SE
SE
NE
NE
NE
NE
SE
Feature
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
18
19
23
48
48
48
48
48
64
64
64
64
85
85
85
86
86
86
U.D.
25
30
30
20
20
20
30
30
30
30
20
0
0
25
25
15
30
40
30
40
40
30
30
30
30
35
35
35
0
0
20
L.D.
20
20
20
10
10
10
20
20
20
20
10
0
0
15
15
15
20
30
20
30
30
20
20
20
20
25
25
25
0
0
20
Type
seed
nutshell
nutshell
seed
plant
nutshell
plant
nutshell
plant
seed
seed
nutshell
nutshell
seed
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
seed
nutshell
plant
plant
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
plant
seed
plant
nutshell
Genus
Rhus
Corylus
unidentified
Rubus
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
Rhus
Carya
Juglans
unidentified
Corylus
Rubus
Rhus
unidentified
Prunus
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
Comptonia
Gaylussacia
unidentified
Rhus
unidentified
Corylus
Species
sp.
americana
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
sp.
cinerea
unidentified
americana
sp.
sp.
unidentified
sp.
americana
unidentified
unidentified
americana
unidentified
unidentified
peregrina
sp.
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
americana
Count
1
3
2
1
1
2
2
4
3
5
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
3
2
20
4
1
2
1
4
1
2
3
Mass
(g)
0.01
NTF
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
NTF
NTF
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
NTF
NTF
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
NTF
Com.
whole
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Exc
Exc
Exc
Exc
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
Inventory
#
5994
6011
6018
6018
6034
6044
6085
6085
6085
6085
6087
6104
6137
6143
6143
6174
6183
6183
6216
6216
6232
6232
6235
6235
6236
6236
6236
6236
6243
6243
6248
Unit
Quad
N055/W228
ALL
UNK
UNK
UNK
N057/W227
N
UNK
N057/W227
SE
N057/W227
SE
N057/W227
SE
N057/W227
SE
UNK
N057/W227
SE
UNK
N057/W227
SE
N057/W227
SE
UNK
N057/W227
N
N057/W227
N
N057/W227
SW
N057/W227
SW
N057/W227
SW
N057/W227
SW
N057&/W227&229
N057&/W227&229
N
N
N
N
N057/W227
SW
N057/W227
SW
N057&/W227&229
Feature
86
87
87
87
87A
87A
87A
87A
87A
87A
87A
87A
87A
87A
87A
87C
87C
87C
87C
87C
87C
87C
87C
87C
87c
87c
87c
87c
87C
87C
87C
U.D.
20
30
30
30
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
50
60
60
60
40
50
50
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
L.D.
20
20
20
20
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
40
50
50
50
30
40
40
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
Type
nutshell
plant
seed
seed
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
plant
plant
plant
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
seed
nutshell
nutshell
seed
seed
nutshell
plant
seed
seed
nutshell
plant
plant
seed
seed
seed
plant
Genus
unidentified
unidentified
Triticum
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
Carya
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Triticum
Carya
Corylus
Rhus
Rhus
Corylus
unidentified
Comptonia
Rhus
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Rhus
Rhus
unidentified
Species
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
americana
sp.
americana
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
americana
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
sp.
americana
sp.
sp.
americana
unidentified
peregrina
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
sp.
unidentified
Count
4
2
1
1
4
1
4
2
4
2
1
1
1
2
2
1
6
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
3
1
1
1
1
2
Mass
(g)
NTF
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
NTF
0.01
NTF
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
NTF
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
Inventory
#
6251
6261
6261
6261
6280
6297
6305
6321
6323
6347
6359
6359
6360
6378
6378
6403
6410
6442
6447
6447
6456
6472
6478
6487
6550
6581
6581
6584
6587
6606
6608
Unit
Quad Feature
N057&/W227&229
87C
UNK
87c
UNK
87c
UNK
87c
N060&061/W237 S
92
N057/W228
E
96
N058/W228
E
96
N060/W246
S
97
N060/W246
S
97
N054&055/W239 W
102
N062&063/W245 W
109
N062&063/W245 W
109
N63/62/W245
SW
109a
N54/W226
N
114
N54/W226
N
114
N054/W226
S
114
N061&062/W248
117
N063/W231
NE
122
N062-63/W231-23
122
N062-63/W231-23
122
N056&057/W231 S
124
N056&057/W231 N
124
N063/W229
SW
126
N061/W249
NW+SW130
N058/W226
ALL 137
N057/W226
NE/NW137
N057/W226
NE/NW137
N057/W226
NE/NW137
N057/W226
NE+NW137
N057/W226
NE+NW137
N057/W226
NE+NW137
U.D.
50
50
50
50
30
30
40
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
40
25
30
30
30
35
35
30
34
60
30
30
35
35
35
35
L.D.
40
40
40
40
20
20
30
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
30
20
20
20
20
25
25
25
20
55
25
25
30
30
30
30
Type
plant
nutshell
seed
plant
nutshell
plant
seed
plant
plant
plant
plant
plant
nutshell
nutshell
plant
nutshell
seed
plant
nutshell
plant
seed
seed
plant
plant
plant
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
plant
nutshell
Genus
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Nyssa .
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
Rubus
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
Corylus
Corylus
unidentified
Corylus
Species
unidentified
americana
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
americana
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
americana
unidentified
americana
americana
unidentified
americana
Count
1
1
1
8
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
2
20
1
3
2
1
9
1
8
1
1
1
2
1
1
4
2
1
2
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.01
NTF
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
NTF
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
NTF
0.01
NTF
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
NTF
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
72-161
Inventory
#
6608
6631
6632
6664
6695
6704
6707
6722
6727
6735
6749
6759
6762
6785
6785
6785
6789
6789
6789
6790
6800
6821
6821
6887
6896
6897
6930
6957
6957
6970
6973
Unit
N057/W226
N057/W226
N057/W226
N058/W226
N059/W225
N059/W225
N059/W225
N057/W226
N059/W225
N059/W225
N063/W250
N051/W231
N051/W231
N058/W231
N058/W231
N058/W231
N058/W231
N058/W231
N058/W231
N058/W231
N053/W225
N057/W225
N057/W225
N057/W225
N057/W225
N058/W226
N059/W225
UNK-E
UNK-E
N058/W231
N058/W231
Quad Feature
NE+NW137
NE+NW137
NE+NW137
NE+NW137
SE+SW137
SE/SW 137
SE/SW 137
NE+NW137
NE+NW137
SE+SW137
NE
139
SW
142
SW
142
S
133
S
133
S
133
S
133
S
133
S
133
S
133
N
134
NE/NW137
NE/NW137
NE/NW137
NE/NW137
137
NE/NW137
132
132
NE
001
NE
001
U.D.
35
40
40
40
30
35
35
25
50
55
30
35
35
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
40
25
25
50
55
55
25
25
25
60
60
L.D.
30
35
35
35
25
30
30
20
45
50
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
30
20
20
45
50
50
20
20
20
50
50
Type
nutshell
nutshell
plant
plant
plant
nutshell
plant
plant
nutshell
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
plant
seed
plant
seed
nutshell
plant
plant
plant
nutshell
plant
nutshell
nutshell
nutshell
plant
plant
plant
Genus
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
Corylus
Corylus
unidentified
Corylus
Corylus
Carya
Corylus
unidentified
Rubus
unidentified
Vaccinium
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Carya
unidentified
Corylus
Carya
Corylus
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Species
unidentified
americana
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
americana
unidentified
unidentified
americana
americana
unidentified
americana
americana
sp.
americana
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
sp,
americana
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
unidentified
americana
sp.
americana
unidentified
unidentified
unidentified
Count
1
4
4
2
1
3
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
12
2
4
2
1
4
1
1
8
4
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
Mass
(g)
0.01
NTF
NTF
0.01
0.01
NTF
0.01
0.01
NTF
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
NTF
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
NTF
0.01
0.01
NTF
NTF
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Inventory
Site
Unit
#
72-161 6973
N058/W231
Quad Feature U.D. L.D. Type
NE
001
60
50
plant
Mass
Genus
Species
Count (g)
Com. Sample
unidentified unidentified 3
NTF frag Soil
Site
72-70B
72-70B
72-70B
72-70B
72-70B
72-70B
72-70B
72-70B
72-70B
72-70B
72-70B
72-70B
72-70B
72-70B
72-70B
72-70B
72-70B
72-70B
Inventory # Unit
Quad
Feature
220.02
N4E1
NW
NF
233.02
N4E4
SE
NF
233.03
N4E1
SE
NF
241.02
N4E1
SW
NF
300.02
N4E1
SW
NF
4219.02
N8/9W7 SW
6
4356.04
N2W1 South 1/2 1
4356.04
N2W1 South 1/2 1
4360.02
N9W7
6
4366.04
N10W3 SE
2
4367.02
N10W3 SE
2
4370.07
N10W3 SW
2
4377.02
N10W3 SW
2
4377.02
N10W3 SW
2
4377.04
N10W3 SW
2
4387.05
N10W4 SW
7
4387.08
N10W4 SW
7
4356c
N02W01 S
1
U.D.
0
0
0
0
10
25
30
30
30
15
20
20
25
25
25
40
40
30
L.D.
5
5
5
5
15
30
35
35
30
20
25
25
30
30
30
45
45
35
Type Genus
nutshell Corylus
nutshell unidentified
nutshell Corylus
nutshell Corylus
nutshell Carya
seed
Prunus
plant unidentified
plant unidentified
seed
Crataegus
seed
Myrica
plant unidentified
seed
Myrica
seed
Prunus
seed
unidentified
seed
Myrica
seed
Vitis
seed
Prunus
seed
Myrica
Count
8
2
1
3
1
1
2
1
1
1
unidentified 1
pensylvanica1
sp.
1
unidentified 10
pensylvanica1
sp.
1
persica
1
pensylvanica 1
Species
americana
unidentified
americana
americana
sp.
persica
unidentified
unidentified
sp.
Mass
(g)
0.35
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
NR
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
whole
frag
frag
Sample
Exc.
Exc.
Exc.
Exc.
Exc.
Exc.
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
Inventory
#
1200.03
1200.16
2838.07
2838.08
2838.15
2838.17
3065.02
3243.1
3247.03
3247.05
3319.07
3332
3347.07
3348.06
3349.14
3350.09
3350.1
3350.11
3350.22
3362.01
3362.06
3362.09
3362.12
3362.14
3363.09
3364.06
3364.07
3368.06
3371.05
3371.1
3371.11
Unit
S31E4
S31E4
S31E5
S31E5
S31E5
S31E5
S16W8
S17W12
S17W12
S17W12
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
Quad
NE
NE
NW
NW
NW
NW
SE
SW
NW
NW
SW
NW
SW
SE
NE
NW
NW
NW
NW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
NE
NW
NW
NW
north half
north half
north half
Feature
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
U.D.
20
20
20
20
20
20
30
35
40
40
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
35
35
35
35
L.D.
30
30
30
30
30
30
40
40
45
45
20
20
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
40
40
40
40
Type
plant
plant
nutshell
seed
plant
seed
plant
seed
plant
seed
plant
plant
seed
plant
plant
plant
plant
plant
seed
seed
plant
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
plant
seed
seed
Genus
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Corylus
Ericaceae
unidentifiable
Ericaceae
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Gaylussacia
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Rhus
Prunus
unidentifiable
Rhus
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Ericaceae
unidentifiable
Rhus
unidentifiable
Ericaceae
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp.
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp.
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp.
persica
unidentifiable
sp.
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Species
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp..
Count
2
1
1
1
2
1
4
2
3
1
3
2
1
4
4
13
6
1
34
2
26
18
1
4
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
Mass
(g)
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.42
0.04
0.01
0.2
0.04
0.13
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
frag
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Exc.
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
Inventory
#
3374.04
3374.05
3375.05
3375.08
3375.09
3376.02
3376.06
3380.01
3380.06
3380.11
3381.05
3382.01
3382.07
3382.1
3384.01
3384.09
3389.01
3390.03
3392.07
3393.03
3398
3448.1
3448.12
3449.08
3472.06
3472.15
3472.16
3473.08
3474.02
3474.04
3474.11
Unit
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W13
S17W14
S18W13
S18W13
S18W13
S18W13
S18W13
S18W13
S18W13
S18W13
S18W13
S18W13
Quad
NW
NW
SE
SE
SE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NW
SE
SE
SE
SW
SW
NE
NE
SW
NW
SW
NE
NE
NE
NW
NW
NW
NE
NE
NE
NE
Feature
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
U.D.
35
35
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
45
45
45
45
45
45
50
50
50
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
30
30
30
L.D.
40
40
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
50
50
50
50
50
50
55
55
55
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
35
35
35
Type
plant
seed
seed
plant
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
plant
seed
plant
seed
plant
seed
seed
plant
seed
seed
plant
nutshell
plant
seed
seed
seed
seed
seed
plant
seed
seed
seed
Genus
unidentifiable
Gaylussacia
Zea
unidentifiable
Zea
Gramineae
Rubus
Gaylussacia
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Rhus
unidentifiable
Rubus
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Quercus
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Leguminosae
Rhus
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Phaseolus
Gaylussacia
Rhus
sp.
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp.
sp.
sp.
sp.
sp.
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp.
unidentifiable
sp.
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp.
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Species
unidentifiable
sp.
sp.
unidentifiable
sp.
Count
4
1
2
6
3
1
1
2
2
13
1
10
1
65
1
2
3
3
11
1
1
2
4
11
2
2
2
5
1
1
33
Mass
(g)
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.04
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
.04.02
0.1
0.01
0.25
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
whole
whole
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Site
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
72-66
Inventory
#
3474.16
3475.09
3475.1
3475.11
3475.14
3475.16
3475.19
3475.26
3480.05
3480.09
3482.06
3483.03
3485.06
3485.07
3486.05
5673
5883.01
5904.01
6086
6655.08
6655.09
Unit
S18W13
S18W13
S18W13
S18W13
S18W13
S18W13
S18W13
S18W13
S18W13
S18W13
S18W13
S18W13
S18W13
S18W13
S18W13
S27W9
S28W10
S28W12
S29W10
unknown
unknown
Quad
NE
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NE
NW
NW
NW
NW
NE
SE
NE
SW
Feature
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
NF
NF
NF
NF
1
1
U.D.
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
35
35
40
40
45
45
50
0
10
0
10
L.D.
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
40
40
45
45
50
50
55
10
20
10
20
Type
plant
plant
nutshell
seed
seed
plant
seed
plant
plant
seed
plant
plant
nutshell
seed
seed
seed
plant
plant
plant
nutshell
seed
Genus
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Carya
Leguminosae
Rhus
unidentifiable
Zea
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Prunus
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
Rhus
sp.
unidentifiable
sp.
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
persica
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp.
Species
unidentifiable
unidentifiable
sp.
Count
25
4
1
3
58
7
1
33
30
5
12
1
9
2
10
1
1
2
1
1
2
Mass
(g)
0.22
0.02
0.05
0.02
0.17
0.01
0.01
0.23
0.2
0.049
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.006
0.33
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
Com.
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
frag
Sample
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Exc.
Soil
Soil
REFERENCES CITED
Adams, Karen R.
2004 Archaeobotanical Analysis: Principles and Methods [HTML Title]. Available:
http://www.crowcanyon.org/plantmethods. Date of use: 01/15/2012.
Adams, Karen R., and Shawn S. Murray
2004 Identification Criteria for Plant Remains Recovered from Archaeological Sites in
the Central Mesa Verde Region [HTML Title]. Available:
http://www.crowcanyon.org/plantID. Date of use: 01/15/2012.
Allison, Penelope M.
1999 Introduction. In The Archaeology of Household Activities, edited by Penelope M.
Allison, pp. 1-18. Routledge Press, London.
Anderson, M. Kat
2005 Tending the Wild: Native American Knowledge and the Management of
California’s Natural Resources. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Asouti, Eleni
2003 Wood Charcoal from Santorini (Thera): New Evidence for climate, vegetation and
timber imports in the Aegean Bronze Age. Antiquity 77:471-484.
Asouti, Eleni and Phil Austin
2005 Reconstructing Woodland Vegetation and its Exploitation by Past Societies based
on Analysis and Interpretation of Archaeological Wood Charcoal Macro-Remains.
Environmental Archaeology 10:1-18.
Atalay, Sonya
2006 Decolonizing Archaeology: Efforts to Transform a Discipline, a special issue of
American Indian Quarterly 30(3):280-310.
2012 Community Based Archaeology: Research with, by, and for Indigenous and Local
Communities. University of California, Press, Berkeley.
Balée, William
1998 Introduction. In Advances in Historical Ecology, edited by William Balée, pp. 110. Columbia University Press, New York.
Balée, William and Erikson, Clark (editors.)
2006 Time and Complexity in Historical Ecology: Case Studies in the Neotropical
Lowlands. Columbia University Press, New York.
Barron, Hal S.
1987 Those Who Stayed Behind: Rural Society in Nineteenth-Century New England.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
465
Bharucha, Zareen and Jules Pretty
2010 The roles and values of wild foods in agricultural systems. Phil. Trans. R. Soc.
365:2913-2926.
Bender, Barbara
2002 Landscape: Politics and Perspectives. Berg, Oxford.
Bendremer, Jeffery C.
1993 Late Woodland Settlement and Subsistence in Eastern Connecticut. Unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Connecticut, Storrs.
1999 Changing Strategies in the Pre-and Post-Contact Subsistence Systems of Southern
New England: Archaeological and Ethnohistorical Evidence. In Current Northeast
Palaeoethnobotany, edited by John P. Hart, pp. 133-155. New York State Museum
Bulletin No. 494, The University of the State of New York, The State Education
Department, Albany.
Bennett, M.K.
1955 The Food Economy of New England Indians, 1605-75. The Journal of Political
Economy 63(5):369-397.
Berkes, Fikret.
2008 Sacred Ecology, 2nd edition. Routledge, New York.
Bernstein, David J.
1993 Prehistoric Subsistence on the Southern New England Coast. Academic Press, San
Diego.
1999 Prehistoric Use of Plant Foods on Long Island and Block Island Sounds. In Current
Northeast Paleoethnobotany, ed. by John P. Hart, pp. 101–119. New York State Museum
Bulletin No. 494. New York.
Binford, Lewis
1962 Archaeology as Anthropology. American Antiquity 28(2); 217-225.
1965 Archaeological Systematics and the Study of Culture Process. American Antiquity
31(2):203-210.
Binford, Sally and Lewis Binford
1968 New Perspectives in Archaeology. Aldine Press, Chicago.
Bird, Douglas W. and James F. O'Connell
2006 Behavioral Ecology and Archaeology. Journal of Archaeological Research
14(2):143-188.
466
Black, Meredith Jean
1980 Algonquin Ethnobotany: An Interpretation of Aboriginal Adaptation in South
Western Quebec. Ottawa. National Museums of Canada. Mercury Series Number 65.
Bohrer, Vorsila L., and Karen R. Adams
1977 Ethnobotanical Techniques and Approaches at Salmon Ruin, New Mexico.
Contributions in Anthropology, vol. 8, no. 1. Eastern New Mexico University, Portales.
Bourdieu, Pierre
1984 Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste. Harvard University Press,
Cambridge.
1990 The Logic of Practice. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California.
Bragdon, Kathleen J.
1996a Native People of Southern New England, 1500-1650. University of Oklahoma
Press, Norman.
1996b Gender as a Social Category in Native Southern New England. Ethnohistory
43(4):573-592.
2009 Native People of Southern New England 1650-1775. University of Oklahoma
Press, Norman.
Brooks, Joanna
2006 The Collected Writings of Samson Occum, Mohegan: Leadership and Literature in
Eighteenth Century Native America. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Bruchac, Margaret M.
2005 Earthshapers and Placemakers: Algonkian Indian Stories and the Landscape. In
Indigenous Archaeologies: Decolonizing Theory and Practice, edited by Claire Smith
and H. Martin Wobst, pp. 56-80. Routledge, London.
Bruchac, Margaret M., Hart, Siobhan and Wobst, H. Martin (editors)
2010 Indigenous Archaeologies: A Reader in Decolonization. Left Coast Press, Walnut
Creek, California.
Brumfiel, Elizabeth M.
1990 The realm of cultural-human ecology, adaptation and change in historical
perspective. In The earth as transformed by human action: Global and regional changes
in the biosphere over the last 300 years, edited by B.L. Turner, William Clark, Robert W.
Kates, John F. Richards, Jessica T. Mathews and William B Meyer, pp. 658-701.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
2000 On the Archaeology of Choice: Agency Studies as the Research Stratagem. In
Agency in Archaeology, edited by Marcia-Anne Dobres and John Robb, pp. 249255.Routledge, London.
467
Campisi, Jack
1990 The Emergence of the Mashantucket Pequot Tribe, 1637-1975. In The Pequots in
Southern New England: The Rise and Fall of an American Indian Nation, edited by
Laurence M. Hauptman and James D. Wherry, pp. 117-140. University of Oklahoma
Press, Norman
Chilton, Elizabeth
1999 Mobile Farmers of Pre-Contact Southern New England: The Archaeological and
Ethnohistoric Evidence. In Current Northeast Palaeoethnobotany, edited by John Hart,
pp.157-176. New York State Museum Bulletin No. 494, The University of the State of
New York, The State Education Department, Albany.
2001 The Archaeology and Ethnohistory of the Contact Period in the Northeastern United
States. Reviews in Anthropology 29:337-360.
2002 “Towns They Have None”: Diverse Subsistence and Settlement Strategies in Native
New England. In Northeast Subsistence-Settlement Change: A.D. 700-1300, edited by
John P. Hart and Christine B. Reith, pp. 289—300, New York State Museum Bulletin
No. 496, The University of the State of New York, The State Education Department,
Albany.
2005 Farming and Social Complexity in the Northeast. In North American Archaeology,
edited by Timothy R. Pauketat and Diana Dipaolo Loren, pp. 138-160. Blackwell
Publishing, New York.
2006 The Origin and Spread of Maize (Zea Mays) in New England. In Histories of
Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Biogeography,
Domestication, and Evolution of Maize, edited by John Staller, Robert Tykot, and
Bruce Benz, Elsevier, pp. 539-547. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
2008 So Little Maize, So Much Time: Understanding Maize Adoption in New England.
In Current Northeast Paeleoethnobotany II, edited by John P. Hart, pp. 53-58, New York
State Museum Bulletin No. 512, The University of the State of New York, The State
Education Department, Albany.
2010 Mobile Farmers and Sedentary Models: Horticulture and Cultural Transitions in
Late Woodland and Contact Period New England, edited by Susan M. Alt, pp. 96-103.
The University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.
Chilton, Elizabeth, Tanya B. Largy and Kathryn Curran
2000 Evidence for Prehistoric Maize Horticulture at the Pine Hill Site, Deerfield
Massachusetts. Northeast Anthropology 59:23-46.
468
Claassen, Cheryl and Rosemary A. Joyce (editors)
1997 Women in Prehistory: North America and Mesoamerica. University of
Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
Clarke, David
1968 Analytical Archaeology. Meuthen and Company, London.
Cobb, Charles R. (editor)
2003. Stone Tool Traditions in the Contact Era. University of Alabama Press,
Tuscaloosa.
Conkey, Margaret
2005 Dwelling at the margins, action at the intersection? Feminist and indigenous
archaeologies, 2005. Archaeologies 1(1): 9-59.
Connecticut Indian Papers
n.d. Series I and II, RGOO1. Connecticut State Library and Archives, Hartford,
Connecticut.
Cronon, William
1983 Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England. Hill
and Wang, New York.
Crumley, Carole
1979 Three locational models: an epistemological assessment of anthropology and
archaeology. In Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, Vol. 2, edited by
Michael Schiffer, pp. 141-173. Academic Press, New York.
1994 Historical Ecology: A Multidimensional Ecological Orientation. In Historical
Ecology: Cultural Knowledge and Changing Landscapes, edited by Carol Crumley, pp.
1-16. School of American Research Press, Santa Fe.
2005 Remember How to Organize: Heterarchy Across Disciplines. In Nonlinear Models
for Archaeology and Anthropology, edited by Christopher S. Beekman and William S.
Baden, eds., pp. 35-50. Ashgate Press, Aldershot UK.
Curran, Kathryn
2010 Increasing the Scale of Inquiry: A GIS Approach to Archaeology, Environment and
Landscape During the Early Holocene in Central Massachusetts. Unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation in Anthropology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst.
Davies, Matthew
2009 Wittfogel’s dilemma: heterarchy and ethnographic approaches to irrigation
management in Eastern Africa and Mesopotamia. World Archaeology 41(1): 16-35.
469
Davis, Linda W.
1992 Weed Seeds of the Great Plains: A Handbook for Identification. University of Press
of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas.
Deegan, Kathleen
1996 Colonial Transformations: Euro-American Cultural Genesis in the Early SpanishAmerican Colonies. Journal of Anthropological Research 52(2):135-160.
Delcourt, Paul A., Hazel R. Delcourt, Cecil R. Ison, William E. Sharp, Kristen J.
Gremillion
1998 Prehistoric Human Use of Fire, the Eastern Agricultural Complex, and
Appalachian Oak-Chestnut Forests: Paleoecology of Cliff Palace Pond, Kentucky.
American Antiquity 63(2):263-278.
Delcourt, Paul A., and Hazel R. Delcourt
2004 Prehistoric Native Americans and Ecological Change: Human Ecosystems in
Eastern North America since the Pleistocene. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Delorit, R. J.
1970 An Illustrated Taxonomy Manual of Weed Seeds. Agronomy Publications, River
Falls, WI.
Dennell, Robert W.
1972 The interpretation of plant remains: Bulgaria. In Papers in Economic Prehistory,
edited by E.S. Higgs, pp. 149-159. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
1974 The purity of prehistoric crops. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 40: 132-135.
1976 Plant resources on archaeological sites. Journal of Archaeological Science 3:229247.
Den Ouden, Amy E.
2005 Beyond Conquest: Native Peoples and the Struggle for History in New England.
University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.
Donahue, Brian
2004 The Great Meadow: Farmers and the Land in Colonial Concord. Yale University
Press, New Haven.
Dobres, Marcia-Anne
1999 Of Paradigms and Ways of Seeing: Archaeological Variability As If People
Mattered. In Chilton, Elizabeth (ed.), Material Meanings: Critical Approaches to the
Interpretation of Material Culture, University of Utah Press: Salt Lake City, pp. 7-23.
2000. Technology and Social Agency. Oxford: Blackwell publishers.
470
Doran, Jennifer
2002 Agency and Archaeology: Past, Present, and Future Directions. Journal of
Archaeological Method and Theory 9:303-328.
Duer, Douglas and Nancy Turner (editors)
2005 Keeping It Living: Traditions of Plant Use and Cultivation on the Northwest Coast
of North America. University of Washington Press, Seattle.
Efremov, Ivan A.
1940 Taphonomy: a new branch of paleontology. Pan American Geologist 74: 81-93.
Ellen, Roy and Holly Harris
2000 Introduction. In Indigenous Environmental Knowledge and its Transformations:
Critical Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Roy Ellen, Peter Parkes, and Allan
Bicker, pp. 1-33. Harwood Academic Publishers, Amsterdam.
Ellingson, Ter
2001 Myth of the Noble Savage. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Farnsworth, Paul
1992 Missions, Indians, and Cultural Continuity. Historical Archaeology 26(1):22–36.
Fickes, Michael L.
2000 “They Could Not Endure that Yoke”: The Captivity of Pequot Women and
Children after the War of 1637. The New England Quarterly 73 (1): 58-81.
Fischer, Julian, Laura H. McArthur and James B. Petersen
1997 Continuity and Change in the Food Habits of the Seventeenth Century English
Colonists in Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 36:65-93.
Flannery, Kent
1994 The Early Mesoamerican Village. Left Coast Press.
Foster, David and John D. Aber (editors)
2004 Forests in Time: The Environmental Consequences of 1,000 Years of Change in
New England. Yale University Press, New Haven.
Foster, David R., Brian Donahue, David Kittredge, Glenn Motzkin, Brian Hall, Billie
Turner, Billie, and Elizabeth Chilton
2008 New England's Forest Landscape. Ecological Legacies and Conservation Patterns
Shaped by Agrarian History. In Agrarian Landscapes in Transition, edited by Charles
Redman and David Foster, pp. 44-88. Oxford University Press, Inc., New York, N. Y.
471
Ford, Richard I.
1979 Paleoethnobotany in American Archaeology. In Advances in Archaeological
Method and Theory, Vol. 2, edited by Michael B. Schiffer, pp. 285–336. Academic
Press,New York.
Foucault, Michel
1978 The History of Sexuality: An Introduction, Volume I. Vintage Book, New York.
Fried, Morton
1967 The Evolution of Political Society: And Essay in Political Anthropology. Random
House, New York.
Frink, Douglas
1992 The Chemical Variability of Carbonized Organic Matter Through Time.
Archaeology of Eastern North America 20:67-79.
Fritz, Gayle J.
2005 Paleoethnobotanical Methods and Applications. In Handbook of Archaeological
Methods, Vol. II, edited by Herbert D. G. Maschner and Christopher Chippindale, pp.
773–834. Alta Mira Press, New York.
2009 Laboratory Guide to Archaeological Plant Remains From Eastern North America.
[HTML Title]. Available:. http://artsci.wustl.edu/~gjfritz/ Date of use: 01/15/2012.
Fuller, Janice. L., David. R. Foster, Jason S. McLachlan, and Natalie Drake
1998 Impact of human activity on regional forest composition and dynamics in central
New England. Ecosystems 1: 76-95.
Fuller, Dorian Q and Steven A. Weber
2005 Formation Processes and Paleoethnobotanical Interpretation in South Asia. Journal
of Interdisciplinary Studies in History and Archaeology 2(1): 91-114.
Gardner, Paul S.
1997 The Ecological Structure and Behavioral Implications of Mast Exploitation
Strategies. In Peoples, Plants, and Landscapes: Studies in Paleoethnobotany, edited by
Kristen J. Gremillion, pp. 161-178, University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.
Garman, James
2005 Detention Castles of Stone and Steel: Landscape, Labor, and the Urban
Penitentiary. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.
George, David R.
1997 A Long Row to Hoe: The Cultivation of Archaeobotany in Southern New England.
Archaeology of Eastern North America 25:175-190.
472
George, David R. and Robert E. Dewar
1999 Chenopodium in Connecticut Prehistory: Wild, Weedy, Cultivated, or
Domesticated?. In Current Northeast Palaeoethnobotany, edited by John P. Hart, pp.
121-132. New York State Museum Bulletin No. 494, The University of the State of New
York, The State Education Department, Albany.
Gero, Joan M., and Margaret W. Conkey (editors)
1991 Engendering Archaeology: Women and Prehistory. Basil Blackwell, Oxford.
Giddens, Anthony
1984 The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration. University of
California Press, Berkeley.
1990 The Consequences of Modernity. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Gillespie, Susan, Rosemary A. Joyce, and Deborah L. Nichols
2003 Archaeology Is Anthropology. In Archaeology Is Anthropology, edited by Susan D.
Gillespie and Deborah L. Nichols, pp. 155-169. Archeological Papers of the American
Association of Anthropology, Washington D.C.
Gilchrist, Roberta
1999 Gender and Archaeology: Contesting the Past. Routledge, London and New York.
Glaza, Tobias
2003 A Historical Ethnobotany of the Pequot Indians of southeastern Connecticut
1800-1950: New insights using a multi-disciplinary approach. Master’s thesis,
Department of Botany, Connecticut College.
Godsen, Chris
2004 Archaeology and Colonialism: Culture Contact from 5000 BC to the Present.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Gremillion, Kristen
1993 Adoption of Old World Crops and Processes of Cultural Change in the Historic
Southeast. Southeastern Archaeology 12(1):15-20.
1995 Comparative Paleoethnobotany of three Native Southeastern Communities of the
Historic Period. Southeastern Archaeology 14(1):1-16.
1989 Late Prehistoric and Historic Period Paleoethnobotany of the North Carolina
Piedmont. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. Department of Anthropology, University of
North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
473
Gremillion, Kristen and Delores Piperno
2009 Human Behavioral Ecology, Phenotypic (Developmental) Plasticity, and
Agricultural Origins: Insights from the Emerging Evolutionary Synthesis. Current
Anthropology 50:615-619.
Grivetti, L. E. & Ogle, B. M.
2000 Value of traditional foods in meeting macro- and micronutrient needs: the wild
plant connection. Nutr. Res. Rev. 13, 31–46.
Hamel, Paul B. and Chiltoskey Mary U.
1975 Cherokee Plants and their Uses – A 400 Year History. Herald Publishing Co.,
Sylva, North Carolina.
Handsman, Russell
2008 “Homelands, Histories, and Landscape Ecologies: Towards an Archaeology of
Mashantucket Pequot Gardens”. Paper Presented at the Conference to Honor the Work of
William M. Gardner. National Conservation Training Center, Shepardstown, West
Virginia.
Handsman, Russell. G. and Trudie Lamb Richmond
1995 Confronting Colonialism: The Machian and Schaghticoke Peoples and Us. In
Making Alternative Histories: The Practice of Archaeology and History in Non-Western
Settings, edited by Peter R. Schmidt and Thomas C. Pattterson, pp. 87-117. School of
American Research Press, Santa Fe, New Mexico.
Harkin, Michael E. and David Rich Lewis (editors)
2007 Native Americans and the Environment: Perspectives on the Ecological Indian.
University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.
Hart, John P. (editor)
1999 Current Northeast Palaeoethnobotany. New York State Museum Bulletin No. 494,
The University of the State of New York, The State Education Department, Albany.
2008 Current Northeast Palaeoethnobotany II. New York State Museum Bulletin No.
512, The University of the State of New York, The State Education Department, Albany.
Hart, John P and Christina B Reith (editors)
2002 Northeast Subsistence-Settlement Change A.D.700-1300 A.D. New York State
Museum Bulletin No. 496, The University of the State of New York, The State Education
Department, Albany.
Hart, Siobhan
2004 Mixed Assemblages and Indigenous Agents: Decolonizing Pine Hill. Northeast
Anthropology 68:57-71.
474
Hastorf, Christine A.
1998 The Cultural Life of Early Domestic Plant Use. Antiquity 72: 773-78.
1999 Recent Research in Paleoethnobotany. Journal of Archaeological Research 7:55–
103.
Hauptman, Laurence M. and James D. Wherry (editors)
1990 The Pequot in Southern New England: The Fall and Rise of an American Indian
Nation. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. Fairclough, pp. 251-274. Left Coast
Press, Inc., Walnut Creek, CA.
Heckenberger, Michael. J., James B. Petersen, and Nancy Asch Sidell
1992. Early Evidence for Maize Agriculture in the Connecticut River Valley of Vermont.
Archaeology of Eastern North America 20:125-150.
Herrick, James William
1977 Iroquois Medical Botany. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. The State University of
New, Albany.
Hodder, Ian
1990 The Domestication of Europe. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford.
Holmes, Sarah L.
2007 “In Behalf of Myself and My People”: Mashantucket Pequot Strategies in Defense
of Their Land Rights. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation in Anthropology, University of
Connecticut.
Hubbard, R. N. L. B.
1976 On the strength of the evidence for prehistoric crop processing activities Journal of
Archaeological Science 3: 257-265.
1980 Development of Agriculture in Europe and the Near East: Evidence from
Quantitative Studies. Economic Botany 34:51-67.
Huss-Ashmore, Rebecca and Susan L. Johnston
1994 Famine foods: Wild plants as cultural adaptations to food stress. In Eating on the
Wild Side: The Pharmacologic, Ecologic, and Social Implications of Using Noncultigens,
edited by N. Etkin, pp. 62-82. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Ingerson, Alice
1994 Tracking and Testing the Nature-Culture Dichotomy. In Historical Ecology:
Cultural, Knowledge and Changing Landscapes, edited by Carole L. Crumley, pp. 43-66.
School of American Research Press, Santa Fe.
475
Ireland, Alex, W. Wyatt Oswald, and David Foster
2011 An integrated reconstruction of recent forest dynamics in a New England cultural
landscape. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 20: 245-252.
Ives, Timothy
2011 Reconstructing the Wangunk Reservation System: A Case Study of Native and
Colonial Likeness in Central Connecticut. Ethnohistory 58(1):65-89.
Jacobucci, Susan A.
2006 Constant Changes: A Study of Anthropogenic Vegetation Using Pollen and
Charcoal on the Eastern Pequot Tribal Nation Reservation, North Stonington,
Connecticut. Master’s thesis, Historical Archaeology, University of
Massachusetts-Boston, Boston.
Jarman, M. R., C. Vita-Finzi, and E. S. Higgs
1972 Site catchment analysis in archaeology. In Man, settlement, and urbanism, edited by
Peter J. Ucko, Ruth R. Tringham, and G. W. Dimbleby, pp.61-66. Cambridge Press,
Cambridge, Mass.
Johnson, Eric S.
1999 Community and Confederation: A Political Geography of Contact Period Southern
New England. In The Archaeological Northeast, edited by Mary Ann Levine, Kenneth E.
Sassaman, and Michael S. Nassaney, pp. 155-168. Bergin and Garvey, Westport,
Connecticut.
Johnson, Richard R.
1977 The Search for a Usable Indian: An Aspect of the Defense of Colonial New
England. The Journal for American History 64 (3):623-51.
Jones, Brian D.
1998 Human Adaptation to the Changing Northeastern Environment at the End o f the
Pleistocene: Implications for the Archaeological Record. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation.
Department of Anthropology, University of Connecticut, Storrs.
2002 Continuity versus Change during the Last Three Millennia at Mashantucket.
Northeast Anthropology (64): 17-29.
Jones, Brian and Daniel Forrest
2003 Life in a Postglacial Landscape: Settlement-Subsistence Change During the
Pleistocene-Holocene Transition in Southern New England. In Geoarchaeology of
Landscapes in the Glaciated Northeast, edited by David L. Cremeens and John P. Hart,
New York State Museum Bulletin 497, pp. 75-89. The State Education Department, New
York, Albany.
Jones, Glynis, Amy Bogaard, Paul Halstead, Mike Charles, and H. Smith,
1999 Identifying the intensity of crop husbandry practices on the basis of weed floras.
Annual of the British School at Athens 94: 167-89.
476
Jordan, Kurt A.
2009 Colonies, Colonialism, and Cultural Entanglement: The Archaeology of
Postcolumbian Intercultural Relations. In International Handbook of Historical
Archaeology. edited by T. Majewski and D. Gaimster, pp. 31-49. Springer Science
Media.
2010 Not Just “One Site Against the World”: Seneca Iroquois Intercommunity
Connections and Autonomy, 1550-1779. In Across a Great Divide: Continuity and
Change in Native North America Societies, 1400-1900, edited by L.L. Scheiber and M.D.
Mitchell, pp. 79-106. The University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Joyce, Rosemary A. and Jeanne Lopiparo
2005 Doing Agency in Archaeology. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory
12:365-374.
Judkins, Gabriel, Marissa Smith and Eric Keyes
2008 Determinism within Human-Environmental Research and the Rediscovery of
Environmental Causation. The Geographical Journal 174:17-29.
Kasper, Kimberly
2008 Archaeobotanical Report of the 2006 University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Archaeological Field School 2006: Eaglebrook Area D. Manuscript on file at the
Department of Anthropology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst.
Kasper, Kimberly and Kevin McBride
2009 “Dimensions of Native American Homesteads: Evaluating Mashantucket Pequot
Settlement Patterns on a Changing Landscape.” Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting
of the Northeastern Anthropological Association in Providence, RI.
Keepax, Carole
1977 Contamination of archaeological deposits by seeds of modern origin with particular
reference to the use of flotation machines. Journal of Archaeological Science 4:221-229.
Kelley, Robert
1995 The Foraging Spectrum: Diversity in Hunter-Gatherer Lifeways. Percheron Press,
Clinton Corners, NY.
Kennett, Douglas J. and Bruce Winterhalder (editors)
2006 Behavioral Ecology and the Transition to Agriculture. University of California
Press, Berkeley.
Krech III, Shepard
1999 The Ecological Indian: Myth and History. W.W. Norton and Company, New York.
477
Kroeber, Alfred L.
1948 Anthropology: race, language, culture, psychology, pre-history. Harcourt,
Brace, New York.
Lamb Richmond, Trudie
1989 Put Your Ear to the Ground and Listen: The Wigwam Festival is the Green Corn
Ceremony. Artifacts 17(4):24-34.
Lamb Richmond, T. and Amy E. Den Ouden
2003 Recovering Gendered Political Histories: Local Struggles and Native Women’s
Resistance in Colonial Southern New England. In Reinterpreting New England Indians
and the Colonial Experience, edited by Colin G. Calloway and Neal Salisbury, pp. 174213. The Colonial Society of Massachusetts, Boston.
Lammi, Kristina
2005 Variability in the Built Environment at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation, 16751856. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of
Connecticut, Storrs.
Largy, Tonya and E. Pierre Morenon
2008 Maize Agriculture in Coastal Rhode Island: Imaginative, Illusive, or Intensive?
In Current Northeast Paleoethnobotany II, edited by John P. Hart. and Christine B.
Reith,., pp. 73-85, New York State Museum Bulletin No. 496, The University of the State
of New York, The State Education Department, Albany.
Largy, Tonya and Mary Lynne Rainey
2006 Poverty or Natural Wisdom: Native Home Solutions in 18th Century Nantucket.
Archaeology of Eastern North America 34:61-69.
Layton, Robert (editor)
1989 Conflict in the archaeology of living traditions. Unwin, London.
Lee, Richard and Irven Devore
1968 Man the Hunter. Aldine Publishing, Chicago.
Lewis, Henry T.
1993 Patterns of Indian Burning in California: Ecology and Ethnohistory. In Before the
Wilderness: Environmental Management by Native Californians, edited by Thomas C.
Blackburn and Kat Anderson, pp. 55-116. Ballena Press, Menlo Park. Lightfoot, Kent G.
Culture Contact Studies: Redefining the Relationship between Prehistoric and
Historical Archaeology. American Antiquity 60:199-217.
Lightfoot, Kent G.
1995 Culture Contact Studies: Redefining the Relationship between Prehistoric and
Historical Archaeology. American Antiquity 60:199-217.
478
Lillie, Malcolm, Stephen Ellis, and Helen Fenwick
2007 Wetland Archaeology and Environments: Regional Issues, Global Perspectives.
Oxbow Books, Indiana University.
Little, Elizabeth A.
2002 Kautantouwit’s Legacy: Calibrated Dates on Prehistoric Maize in New
England. American Antiquity 67(1):109-118.
Little, Elizabeth A. and Margaret J. Schoeninger
1995 The Late Woodland Diet on Nantucket Island and the Problem of Maize in
Coastal New England. American Antiquity 60(2):351-368.
Loren, Diana DiPaolo
2008 In Contact: Bodies and Spaces in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth-Century Eastern
Woodlands. Altamira Press, New York.
Love, W. Deloss
2007 Samson Occom and the Christian Indians of New England. Syracuse University
Press, Syracuse.
Lyman, R. Lee
2010 What Taphonomy Is, What it Isn’t, and Why Taphonomists Should Care about the
Difference. Journal of Taphonomy 8(1): 1-16.
Lyons, Natasha., and Trevor J. Orchard
2007 Sourcing Archaeobotanical Remains: Taphonomic Insights from a Midden Analysis
on Haida Gwaii, British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Archaeology 31(1): 28-54.
Magee, Dennis and Harry Ahles
2007 Flora of the Northeast. University of Massachusetts, Press, Amherst.
Mancini, Jason
2002 Whose Medicine?: Observations on the Transformation of Native American
Medicinal Practices in the Context of European-American Medical Theory, Religion and
Law. Paper presented at the 3rd Mashantucket Pequot History Conference.
2009 Beyond Reservation: Indians, Maritime Labor, and Communities of Color from
Eastern Long Island Sound, 1713-1861. On file at the Mashantucket Pequot Museum and
Research Center.
Mandell, Dan
2010 King Philips War: Colonial Expansion, Native Resistance, and the End of Indian
Sovereignty. The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
479
Marguerie, Dominique and Jean-Yves Hunot
2007 Charcoal Analysis and Dendrology: Data from Archaeological Sites in NorthWestern France. Journal of Archaeological Science 34:1417-1433.
Martin, Alexander C. and William D. Barkley
2000 Seed Identification Manual. The Blackburn Press, Cadwell, New Jersey.
McBride, Kevin
n.d “Where our Fathers and Grandfathers Dwelled: The Early Reservation Period (16661760).” Unpublished manuscript. On file at the Mashantucket Pequot Museum and
Research Center Library.
1990 The Historical Archaeology of the Mashantucket Pequots, 1637-1900, A
Preliminary Analysis. In The Pequots in Southern New England: The Rise and Fall of an
American Indian Nation, edited by Laurence M. Hauptman and James D. Wherry, pp. 96116. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
1992 Prehistoric and Historic Patterns of Wetland Use in Eastern Connecticut. Man in
the Northeast 43:10-24.
1996 “Desirous To Improve After the European Manner”: The Mashantucket Pequot and
the Brotherton Indian Movement. Unpublished Manuscript. On file at the Mashantucket
Pequot Museum and Research Center Library.
2007 Transformation by Degree: Eighteenth Century Native American Land Use. In
Eighteenth Century Native Communities of Southern New England in the Colonial
Context, edited by Jack Campisi, pp. 35-54. The Mashantucket Pequot Museum and
Research Center, Occasional Paper No. 1, Mashantucket Pequot Museum and Research
Center, Ledyard, CT.
McBride, Kevin and Nicholas Bellantoni
1983 The Utility of Ethnohistoric Models for Understanding Late Woodland-Contact
Change in Southern New England. Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of Connecticut
45:51-64.
McBride, Kevin A. and Robert E. Dewar
1987 Agriculture and Cultural Evolution: Causes and Effects in the Lower Connecticut
River Valley. In Emergent Horticultural Economies of the Eastern Woodland, edited by
William F. Keegan, pp. 305-328. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Occasional
Papers No. 7. Southern Illinois University at Carbondale.
McDonald, Miller, Mark Bennet, Andrew Evan, and Alicia Sites
2012 Seed Id Workshop [HTML Title]. Available: http://www.oardc.ohiostate.edu/seedid/credits.htm. Date of use: 01/18/2012.
480
McNiven, Ian and Lynette Russell
2005 Appropriated Pasts: Indigenous Peoples and the Colonial Culture of Archaeology.
AltaMira, New York.
McWeeney, Lucinda
1994 Archaeological Settlement Patterns and Vegetation Dynamics in Southern New
England in the Late Quaternary. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Yale
University. University Microfilms.
1998 Reconstruction of the Mashantucket Pequot Cedar Swamp Paleoenvironment
Using Plant Microfossils, New England, USA. In Coastally Restricted Forests, edited by
Aimlee D. Laderman, pp. 124-141. Oxford University Press, New York.
Meher, Mark W.
1995 Cahokia’s Countryside: Household Archaeology, Settlement Patterns, and Social
Power. Northern Illinois University Press, Dekalb.
Merchant, Carolyn
2010 Ecological Revolutions: Nature Gender and Science in New England. 2nd edition.
The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.
Miksicek, Charles H.
1987 Formation processes of the archaeobotanical record. Advances in Archaeological
Method and Theory 9:211–247.
Miller, Naomi F.
1988 Ratios in Paleoethnobotanical Analysis. In Current Paleoethnobotany, edited by
Christine A. Hastorf and Virginia S. Popper, pp. 72-85. University of Chicago Press,
Chicago.
Minnis, Paul E.
1981 Seeds in Archaeological Sites: Sources and Some Interpretive Problems. American
Antiquity 46:143–152.
Mitchell, Mark D. and Laura L. Scheiber
2010 Crossing Divides: Archaeology as Long Term History. In Across a Great Divide:
Continuity and Change in Native North America Societies, 1400-1900, edited by L.L.
Scheiber and M.D. Mitchell, pp. 1-22. The University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Moerman, Daniel
1996 An analysis of the food plants and drug plants of native North America. Journal of
Ethnopharmacology 52(1):1·22.
1998 Native American Ethnobotany. Timber Press
481
Montgomery, Federick.H.
1977 Seeds and Fruits of Plants of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States.
University of Toronto Press.
Mrozowski, Stephen A.
2006 Environments of History: Biological Dimensions of Historical Archaeology. In
Historical Archaeology, edited by Martin Hall and Stephen W. Silliman, pp. 23-41.
Blackwell Publishing, Boston.
Mrozowski, Stephen A., Maria Franklin and Leslie Hunt
2008 Archaeobotanical Analysis and Interpretations of Enslaved Virginian Plant Use at
Rich Neck Plantation American Antiquity 74(4):699-728.
Munson, Patrick
1984 Experiments and Observations on Aboriginal Wild Plant Food Utilization in
Eastern North America. Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis.
Nassaney, Michael and Michael Volmar
2003 Lithic Artifacts in Seventeenth Century Native New England. In Stone Tool
Traditions in the Contact Era, edited by Charles R. Cobb, pp. 78-93. University of
Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.
Nelson, Sarah (editor)
2007 Identity and Subsistence. AltaMira Press, Lanham.
Newsom, Lee A. and Deborah Ann Trieu
2006 Introduction and Adoption of Crops from Europe. In The Handbook of North
American Indians, Volume 3, edited by D.H. Ubelaker and Bruce Smith, pp.471-484.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
2011 Fusion gardens: Native North America and the Columbian Exchange. In
Subsistence Economies of Indigenous North American Societies: A Handbook,
edited by B.D. Smith, pp. 557-576 Rowman and Littlefield Publishing Group, Lanham,
MD.
Nicholas, George P.
1992 Directions in Wetlands Research. Man in the Northeast 43:1-9.
1997 Education and Empowerment: Archaeology with, for and by the Shuswap Nation,
British Columbia. In Nicholas, George P. and Andrews, T.D. (eds.), At a Crossroads:
Archaeology and First Peoples in Canada, Archeology Press, Burnady, B.C., pp. 85-104.
Nicholas, George (editor)
2010 Being and Becoming Indigenous Archaeologists. Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek.
482
O’Brien, Jean M.
1997 Dispossession by Degrees: Indian Land and Identity in Natick, Massachusetts,
1650-1790. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.
Oliver, Jeffry
2010 Landscapes and Social Transformations on the Northwest Coast: Colonial
Encounters in the Fraser Valley. The University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Palmer, Carol and Marijke Van der Veen
2002 Archaeobotany and the Social Context. Acta Palaeobotanica 42(2): 195-202.
Pearsall, Deborah
2000 Paleoethnobotany: A Handbook of Procedures. Academic Press, San Diego.
Perdue, Theda
1998 Cherokee Women.: Gender and Culture Change, 1700-1835. University of
Nebraska Press, Lincoln.
Popper, Virginia S.
1988 Selecting Quantitative Measurements in Paleoethnobotany. In Current
Paleoethnobotany: Analytical Methods and Cultural Interpretations of Archaeological
Plant Remains, edited by Christine A. Hastorf and Virginia S. Popper, pp. 53–71.
University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Redfield, Robert, Ralph Linton, Melville Herskovits
1936 Memorandum for the Study of Acculturation. American Anthropologist 38(1):149152.
Renfew, Colin
1973 Before Civilization, the Radiocarbon Revolution and Prehistoric Europe. Pimlico,
London.
Rogers, J. Daniel
1990 Objects of Change: The Archaeology and History of Arikara Contact with
Europeans. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C.
Rubertone, Patricia
2000 The Historical Archaeology of Native Americans. Annual Review of Anthropology
29: 425-446.
Rubin, Julius
2005 Samson Occom and Christian Indian Community and Identity in Southern New
England. In Eighteenth Century Native Communities of Southern New England in the
Colonial Context. edited by Jack Campisi. Occasional Paper No. 1.Mashantucket Pequot
Museum and Research Center.
483
Salisbury, Roderick
2012 Engaging with soil, past and present. Journal of Material Culture 17(1):23-41.
Scarry, C. Margaret and John F. Scarry
2005 Native American ‘garden agriculture’ in southeastern North America. World
Archaeology 37(2):259-274.
Scarry, John
2010 Native Agency and Practice in Colonial Apalachee Province. In Across the Great
Divide: Continuity and Change in Native North American Societies, A.D. 1400-1850,
edited by Laura Scheiber and Mark Mitchell. Amerind Seminar Series. University of
Arizona Press, Tucson.
Scheiber, Laura and Mark Mitchell (editors)
2010 Across a Great Divide: Continuity and Change in Native North America Societies,
1400-1900. The University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Schiffer, Michael B.
1987 Formation Processes of the Archaeological Record. University of New Mexico
Press, Albuquerque.
Scholtz, A.
1986 Palynological and Palaeobotanical Studies in the Southern Cape. Unpublished
Master’s Thesis, Department of Archaeology, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa.
Service, Elman
1962 Primitive Social Organization: An Evolutionary Perspective. Random House, New
York.
Service, Elman and Marshal Sahlins
1960 Evolution and Culture. The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.
Shackleton, C.M. and F. Prins
1992 Charcoal Analysis and the “Principle of Least Effort” – A Conceptual Model.
Journal of Archaeological Science 19:631-637.
Shoemaker, Nancy
2004 A Strange Likeness: Becoming Red and White in Eighteenth Century North
America. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Sidell, Nancy Asch
2002 Palaeoethnobotanical Indicators of Subsistence and Settlement Change in the
Northeast. In Northeast Subsistence-Settlement Change A.D. 700-1300, edited by John P.
Hart and Christine B. Rieth, pp. 241-263. New York State Museum Bulletin No. 496, The
University of the State of New York, The State Education Department, Albany.
484
Silliman, Steven
2005 Culture Contact or Colonialism? Challenges in the Archaeology of Native North
America. American Antiquity 70(1):55-74.
2009 Change and Continuity, Practice and Memory: Native American Persistence in
Colonial New England. American Antiquity 74(2):211-230
Silliman, Steven (editor)
2008 Collaborating at the Trowel’s Edge: Teaching and Learning in Indigenous
Archaeology. The University of Arizona Press, Tucson
Silverman, David J.
2003“We chuse to be bounded”: Native American Animal Husbandry in Colonial New
England. William and Mary Quarterly 3rd series LX (3): 511-48.
Simmons, William S.
1990 The Mystic Voice: Pequot Folklore from the Seventeenth Century to the Present. In
The Pequots in Southern New England: The Rise and Fall of an American Indian Nation,
edited by Laurence M. Hauptman and James D. Wherry, pp. 141-175. University of
Oklahoma Press, Norman.
Smith, Bruce
2007 Niche construction and the behavioral context of plant and animal
domestication. Evolutionary Anthropology 16:188-199.
Smith, Eric A. and Bruce Winterhalder
1992 Evolutionary Ecology and Human Behavior. Aldine Press, Hawthorne, NY.
Smith, Claire and H. Martin Wobst (editors)
2005 Indigenous Archaeologies: Decolonizing Theory and Practice. Routledge, New
York.
Smith. Laurajane
2005 Comment on “Dwelling at the Margins, Action at the Intersection? Feminist and
Indigenous Archaeologies, 2005”. Archaeologies 1(1):60-62.
Sorensen, Marie Louise Stig
2000 Gender Archaeology. Polity Press, Cambridge, England.
Spiess, Arthur E. and Bruce D. Spiess
1984 New England Pandemic of 1616-1622: Cause and Archaeological Implication. Man
in the Northeast 34: 71-83.
485
Spriggs, Matthew
1993 The current relevance of ethnohistorical and archaeological systems. In Traditional
Ecological Knowledge: Wisdom for Sustainable Development, edited by Nancy M.
Williams and Graham Baines, pp. 109-114. Centre for Resource and Environmental
Studies, Australian National University, Canberra.
Starna, William
1990 The Pequots in the Early Seventeenth Century. In The Pequots in Southern New
England: The Rise and Fall of an American Indian Nation, edited by Laurence M.
Hauptman and James D. Wherry, pp. 33-47. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
Stein, Gil J.
2005 Introduction: The Comparative Archaeology of Colonial Encounters. In The
Archaeology of Colonial Encounters: Comparative Perspectives, edited by G.J. Stein, pp.
3-31. School for American Research Press, Santa Fe, New Mexico.
Stein, Ninian R.
2008 Dichotomies and the “Maize Debate” in Late Woodland and Contact Period
Southern New England. In Current Northeast Palaeoethnobotany II, edited by John P.
Hart, pp. 61-72. New York State Museum Bulletin No. 512, The University of the State
of New York, The State Education Department, Albany.
Stepp, J.R., and Moerman, Daniel E.,
2001 The importance of weeds in ethnopharmacology. Journal of Ethnopharmacology
75: 25–31.
Swanton, John R.
1928 Religious Beliefs and Medical Practices of the Creek Indians. SI-BAE Annual
Report 42.
Swidler, Nina, Kurt E. Dongoske, Roger Anyon, Alan S. Downer (Eds.)
1997 Native Americans and archaeologists: Stepping Stones tot common ground.
AltaMira Press, Walnut Creek.
Tantaquidgeon, Gladys
1946 A Study of Delaware Indian Medicine Practice and Folk Beliefs. Pennsylvania
Historical Commission, Harrisburg, PA.
1972 Folk Medicine of the Delaware and Related Algonquian Indians. The Pennsylvania
Historical and Museum Commission, Harrisburg.
Thomas, David H.
1971 Prehistoric subsistence-settlement patters of the Reese River Valley, central
Nevada. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. Department of Anthropology, University of
California, Davis.
486
Thomas, Peter
1976 Contrastive Subsistence Strategies and Land Use as Factors for Understanding
Indian-White Relations in New England. Ethnohistory 23(1): 1-18.
Thorson, Robert M.
1993 Pieces of the Pequot Past. Manuscript on file, Mashantucket Pequot Museum and
Research Center, Ledyard, CT.
Thorson, Robert M. and Robert S. Webb
1991 Postglacial history of a Cedar Swamp in southeastern Connecticut. Journal of
Paleolimnology 6:17-35.
Trent, Katrina
1981 A 9 meter record of vegetation in Southeastern Connecticut: A comparison to
Rogers Lake. An Unpublished Senior Thesis at Brown University, Providence, RI.
Trigg, Heather and Jessica Bowes
2008 An Examination of Botanical Materials from Mashantucket Pequot Site 72-58.
Manuscript on file, Mashantucket Pequot Museum and Research Center, Ledyard, CT
and at the Fiske Center for Archaeological Research, University of Massachusetts,
Boston.
Trigg, Heather, Kevin McBride, Melissa Smith
2007 Botanical Indication of the Impacts of the Reservation System on the Mashantucket
Pequot. Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society of Ethnobiology in
Berkeley, California.
Trigger, Bruce
1980 Archaeology and the Image of the American Indian. American Antiquity 45(4):662676.
Tusenius, Madelon Louise
1986 The Study of Charcoal from Some South African Archaeological Context.
Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Department of Archaeology, University of Stellenbosch,
South Africa.
Twiss, Kathryn
2012 The Archaeology of Food and Social Diversity. Journal of Archaeological
Research 10:1-39.
USDA Plant Database
2012 Plant Database [HTML Title]. Available:http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/
main/national/technical/alphabetical/plants/pub. Date of use: 01/01/2012.
487
Van der Leeuw, Sander der and Charles L Redman
2002 Placing Archaeology at the Center of Socio-Natural Studies. American Antiquity
67(4):597-605.
Van der Veen, M.
1992 Crop husbandry regimes: an archaeobotanical study of farming in northern
England, 1000 B.C.- A.D. 500. Sheffield: J.R. Collis Publications.
2007. Formation processes of desiccated and carbonized plant remains – the
identification of routine practice. Journal of Archaeological Science 34 (6): 968–990.
Vasta, Meredith
2007 What Ails Them?: The Changing Faunal Utilization at the Mashantucket Pequot
Reservation from the Late Woodland to the Early 19th Century. Unpublished Ph.D.
Dissertation. Department of Anthropology, University of Connecticut, Storrs.
Vitelli, Giovanna
2009 Equilibrium, Well-Being and Exchange: The Basis of Algonquian Mortuary
Practice in Seventeenth Century Southern New England. Unpublished Ph.D., University
of Reading.
Watkins, Joe
2000 Indigenous Archaeology: American Indian Values and Scientific Practice. Alta
Mira Press, Walnut Creek.
Wells, E.Christian
2004 Investigating Activity Patterns in Prehispanic Plazas: Weak Acid-Extraction ICP
AES Analysis of Anthrosols at Classic Period El Coyote, Northwestern Honduras.
Archaeometry 46:67-84.
Whitehead, Neil. L.
1998 Ecological History and Historical Ecology: Diachronic Modeling Versus Historical
Explanation. In Advances in Historical Ecology, edited by William Balée, pp. 30-41.
Columbia University Press, New York.
Wright, Patti
2010 Methodological Issues in Paleoethnobotany: A Consideration of Issues, Methods,
and Cases. In Integrating Zooarchaeology and Paleoethnobotany, edited by A.M.
VanDerwarker and T.M. Peres, pp. 37-64. Springer.
Wilk, R. and Wendy Ashmore (editors)
1988 Household and Community in the Mesoamerican Past. University of New Mexico
Press, Albuquerque.
488
Wilk, Richard and William Rathje
1982 Archaeology of the Household: Building a Prehistory of Domestic Life. American
Behavioral Scientist 25:611-725.
Winterhalder, Bruce
1986 Optimal Foraging: Simulation Studies of Diet Choice in a Stochastic Environment.
Journal of Ethnobiology 6:205-23.
1993 Work, Resources and Population in Foraging Societies. Man 28:321-40.
1994 Concepts in Historical Ecology: The View from Evolutionary Ecology. In
Historical Ecology: Cultural Knowledge and Changing Landscapes, edited by Carol
Crumley, pp. 17-41. School of American Research Press, Santa Fe.
Wobst, H. Martin
1974 Boundary Conditions for Paleolithic Social Systems: A Simulation Approach.
American Antiquity 39:147-78.
1978 The Archaeo-Ethnology of Hunter-Gatherers, or the Tyranny of the Ethnographic
Record in Archaeology. American Antiquity 43:303-309.
2000 Agency in (spite of) Material Culture. In Agency in Archaeology, edited by MarciaAnne Dobres and John Robb, pp. 40-50.Routledge, London.
2006 Artifacts as Social Interference: The Politics of Spatial Scale. In Confronting Scale
in Archaeology: Issue of Theory and Practice, edited by Gary Lock and Brian Leigh
Molyneaux, pp. 55-64. Springer Press, New York.
Wright, Rita P. (editor)
1996 Gender and Archaeology. University of Pennsylvania Press.
489