’
"J9>8>6A G:K>:L B6II:GH AI=DJ<= 6 CJB7:G D; H8=DA6GH =6K:
:C9:6KDG:9DK:GI=:N:6GHID9:BDCHIG6I:I=6II=:8DJGIHD;;:GDCAN
a “hollow” hope to advocates of significant social change, 8DJGIH
G:B6>CI=:A6HI=DE:D;A:<6AG:9G:HH;DGK>8I>BHD;JC8DCHI>IJI>DC6A
government conduct. To amend Justice Robert Jackson’s oft8>I:9
DE:C>C< HI6I:B:CI 6I I=: &JG:B7:G< IG>6AH ?J9>8>6A G:K>:L 86C
H:GK:6H6B:6CHD;:CHJG>C<I=6IEDL:GD;;:GH6IG>7JI:IDG:6HDC—
I=6I E6GI>8JA6G :M:G8>H:H D; <DK:GCB:CI EDL:G 6G: 8DCH>HI:CI L>I=
I=: G6I>DC6A EG>C8>EA:H H:I ;DGI= >C DJG DCHI>IJI>DC/=:C ?J9<:H
;6>A ID <>K: :;;:8I ID 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A A>B>IH DC <DK:GCB:CI EDL:G
E:DEA: B6N 7: 9:EG>K:9 D; I=:>G A>7:GIN I=:>G EGDE:GIN 6C9 :K:C
I=:>GA>K:H6G7>IG6G>AN—;DGCD7:II:GG:6HDCI=6CI=6II=:=DA9:GHD;
EDA>I>86AEDL:GL>AA>IID7:HD>K:CI=:<G6K>IND;I=:HI6@:H>I >H
HH>HI6CI>G:8IDG:CI:G;DG"J9>8>6AC<6<:B:CI6II=:!CHI>IJI:;DG"JHI>8:
)))+*'*, $!+!'& %#!&!& %'*1, +-(*% '-*,+
&,!'&$ ('$!1 %#* *$ *'+&* , '$$'/ '( &
'-*,+ *!& '-, +'!$ & %*# . ,-+ &, ,#!& , '&+,!,-,!'& /1 *'% , '-*,+ "*1 *'+& , %'+,
%'*,! *& '/ , '-*,+ +*. %*! %! $ "
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4
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EGDE:GAN C9 >I >H JCHJGEG>H>C< I=6I CD :C9 D; 688DJCIH D; =DL
?J9>8>6AG:K>:LH=DJA97:E:G;DGB:9=6K:7::CEJI;DGL6G9
Professor Tara Smith’s new book, Judicial Review in an
'7?:8I>K: $:<6A +NHI:B HI6C9H DJI >C 6 8GDL9:9 ;>:A9 7:86JH: D;
I=: 7DA9C:HH D; >IH 8:CIG6A 8A6>BH 6C9 I=: :A:<6C8: 6C9
E:GHJ6H>K:C:HH D;I=:6G<JB:CIHH=:69K6C8:H>CHJEEDGID;I=:B
+B>I= 8DCI:C9H I=6I D7?:8I>K>IN >C I=: E:G;DGB6C8: D; ?J9>8>6A
G:K>:L>H7DI=EDHH>7A:6C9C:8:HH6GN —I=6I?J9<:H86C6C9BJHI
6GG>K: 6I 688JG6I: @CDLA:9<: D; L=6I DJG DCHI>IJI>DC B:6CH 6C9
=DA9 <DK:GCB:CI D;;>8>6AH ID >IH I:GBH 7H:CI D7?:8I>K>IN +B>I=
6G<J:HI=:GJA:D;A6L:HI67A>H=:97NI=:DCHI>IJI>DC<>K:HL6NID
I=: GJA: D; B:C DK:GCB:CI EDL:G >H EJI >C I=: H:GK>8: D; L>AA
G6I=:G I=6C G:6HDC 6C9 B><=I IGJBEH >C9>K>9J6A G><=IH G6L>C<
JEDCI=:IL>C9>H8>EA>C:HD;:E>HI:BDAD<N6C9EDA>I>86AE=>ADHDE=N
+B>I=HNCI=:H>O:H6C6EEGD68=ID?J9>8>6AG:K>:LI=6I>HI6>ADG:9ID
:CHJre that we live under “a government of laws, and not of men.” !CI=>H:HH6N!L>AA7:<>C7NHJBB6G>O>C<I=:EG>C8>E6A;:6IJG:HD;
Smith’s account of judicial review; proceed to consider several
EDI:CI>6A D7?:8I>DCH ID =:G EGDEDH:9 6EEGD68= 6C9 8DC8AJ9: 7N
applying Smith’s approach to three areas of constitutional law that
6G:>C9:HE:G6I:C::9D;69DH:D;D7?:8I>K>IN
It is to be doubted whether anyone has improved upon Aristotle’s formulation of
the fundamental distinction between the rule of law and the rule of men: “He who
7>9HI=:A6LGJA:B6N7:9::B:9ID7>9D96C9*:6HDC6ADC:GJA:7JI=:L=D7>9H
man rule adds an element of the beast . . . The law is reason unaffected by desire.”
*!+,',$('$!,!++I:E=:CK:GHDC:96B7G>9<:-C>K(G:HH
%++'&+,D;6GI000P!
);$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
!CDG9:GID“sayL=6II=:A6Lis,”?J9<:HBJHI7:67A:ID6GG>K:
6I 688JG6I: @CDLA:9<: D; L=6I I=: A6L >H ,=JH 6CN 688DJCI D;
?J9>8>6A G:K>:L BJHI G:AN — :K:C >BEA>8>IAN — JEDC 6 I=:DGN D;
@CDLA:9<: +B>I= I=JH 7:<>CH L>I= I=: “characteristically 9>;;>8JAI
I:GG6>C D; epistemology,” JC9:GI6@>C< >C I=: ;>GHI 8=6EI:G D; =:G
7DD@ID6GI>8JA6I:6I=:DGND;@CDLA:9<:6C9IDH:I;DGI=6B:I=D9
D;68FJ>G>C<@CDLA:9<:I=6I>H6EEA>867A:ID:K:GN;>:A9D;>CFJ>GN
!C HJ7H:FJ:CI 8=6EI:GH +B>I= 6EEA>:H I=6I B:I=D9 ID I=: ;>:A9H D;
EDA>I>86A E=>ADHDE=N 6C9 A6L 6C9 JAI>B6I:AN ID I=: EG:8>H:
FJ:HI>DC D; =DL ?J9>8>6A G:K>:L H=DJA9 7: E:G;DGB:9 JC9:G I=:
B:G>86CDCHI>IJI>DC
'",!.!,1/
,!+!,
Smith’s theory of knowledge, which is based upon the
:E>HI:BDAD<>86A LDG@ D; NC *6C9 >H :HH:CI>6AAN G:6A>HI +B>I=
8DCI:C9H I=6I E=NH>86A D7?:8IH :K:CIH G:A6I>DCH=>EH 6C9 >9:6H
>C8AJ9>C< B6CB69: GJA:H G:6AAN :M>HI 6C9 I=6I :68= D; I=:H:
“existents” has a specific nature that is independent of human
beings’ “observations, attitudes, and beliefs about [their] nature.”
JB6C 7:>C<H 86C <6>C 688JG6I: @CDLA:9<: D; I=: C6IJG: D;
E6GI>8JA6G :M>HI:CIH 7JI :M>HI:CIH 6G: L=6I I=:N 6G: G:<6G9A:HH D;
%6G7JGNK%69>HDC-+
,*+%!, "-!!$*.!/!&&'",!.$$+1+,%
)) +)2)6%00= 1& *& !&,*'-,!'& ,' '",!.!+, (!+,%'$'1 6GGN
>CHL6C<:G $:DC6G9 (:>@D;; :9H $'&* (!#' '",!.!+%
, ( !$'+'( 1'1&*&DG6=:AE;JAHJBB6GND;B:I6E=NH>86A
G:6A>HB H:: (-,&% *+'& ,*-, & !+,'*1 6HH:GI>C< I=6I
realism holds that “the world consists of some fixed totality of mind>C9:E:C9:CI
objects” and “[t]ruth involves some sort of correspondence relation between words
DGI=DJ<=Isigns and external things and sets of things.”
+%!, 7946%CDI:6I
4
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L=6IL:7:A>:K:I=6II=:N6G:,=JHL:C::9ID9:K:ADE6B:I=D9
of thinking that can “sift[] true beliefs from untrue and valid
inferences from invalid.”
,=:B:I=D9D;I=>C@>C<+B>I=D;;:GH>HD7?:8I>K>IN'7?:8I>K>IN>H
a mental discipline that consists in pursuing “the actual nature of
the specific object or phenomena in question,” relying solely on
“relevant evidence and logical inferences therefrom.” !9:CI>;N>C<
I=: C6IJG: D; :M>HI:CIH :CI6>AH >9:CI>;N>C< I=:>G :HH:CI>6A
8=6G68I:G>HI>8H — I=: ;JC96B:CI6A 8DBBDC 9:CDB>C6IDGH I=6I
9>HI>C<J>H=I=:B;GDBDI=:G:M>HI:CIH '7?:8I>K>IN>H:BE>G>86A—>I
G:A>:H JEDC D7H:GK6I>DC6A :K>9:C8: G6I=:G I=6C >CIJ>I>DC DG
HE:8JA6I>DC'7?:8I>K>IN >H =>:G6G8=>86A — DC: 86CCDI JC9:GHI6C9
complex ideas like “property” without understanding other ideas
JEDC L=>8= I=:N G:HI >C6AAN D7?:8I>K>IN >H 8DCI:MIJ6A —L=6I
:K>9:C8:>HG:A:K6CIID6<>K:C>CFJ>GN9:E:C9HJEDCI=:EJGEDH:D;
I=:>CFJ>GN6C9L=6IDC:>H?JHI>;>:9>C7:A>:K>C<67DJI6E6GI>8JA6G
D7?:8I DG E=:CDB:CDC 9:E:C9H JEDC I=: ;68IH D; L=>8= DC: >H
6L6G:If we discover that our “earlier knowledge was incomplete
+%!, 7946%CDI:6I
(6I
))*&7946%CDI:6I46 (explaining that “fundamental” characteristics are
those “which make[] the greatest numbers of others possible” and “explain[] the
greatest number of others.” Thus, we define “man” as “rational animal” rather than
“watchwearing animal” because rationality explains more about human beings’
8=6G68I:G>HI>8HI=6CI=:;68II=6IL:L:6GL6I8=:HJI;DGDJGG6I>DC6A>INL:LDJA9
CDI7:67A:ID8DCHIGJ8IL6I8=:H>CI=:;>GHIEA68:
Ultimately, all knowledge can be reduced to “sensory, perceptual experience.”
+%!, 7946% CDI: 6I )) %073 "' & $'# & ++1 '&*&!& -%&
-&*+,&!&7@!!8=P3=:G:>C6;I:G++1] (“Let us then suppose the
B>C9 ID 7: 6H L: H6N L=>I: E6E:G KD>9 D; 6AA 8=6G68I:GH L>I=DJI 6CN >9:6H =DL
8DB:H >I ID 7: ;JGC>H=:9 /=:C8: =6H >I 6AA I=: B6I:G>6AH D; G:6HDC 6C9
@CDLA:9<: ,D I=>H ! 6CHL:G >C DC: LDG9 ;GDB :ME:G>:C8: >C I=6I 6AA DJG
knowledge is founded; and from that it ultimately derives itself.”). In the case of property, “ownership,” “JH:” and “:M8AJH>K:” to name a few.
+%!, 7946%CDI:6I
(6I
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in certain respects,” we must “alter our conclusions, however
D7?:8I>K:AN ;DGB:9 I=DH: 8DC8AJH>DCH L:G: 6I I=: I>B: I=:N L:G:
first made.”
+B>I= I6@:H I>B: ID 699G:HH 6C9 9>HE:A EDI:CI>6A
B>H8DC8:EI>DCH8DC8:GC>C<D7?:8I>K>IN>GHID7?:8I>K>IN>H6C68I>K:
EGD8:HH M>HI:Cts, be they physical objects or “highA:K:A
abstractions” like legal concepts, do not simply reveal their nature
ID JH — <G6HE>C< I=:>G C6IJG: G:FJ>G:H 9>A><:CI >CI:AA:8IJ6AAN
:C<6<:9 :;;DGI +:8DC9 D7?:8I>K>IN >H CDI 9:I:GB>C:9 7N
8DCH:CHJH :K:C >C;DGB:9 8DCH:CHJH /=:I=:G 6 E:GHDC =6H
“ground[ed] their thinking in observation of reality” and
“remain[ed] faithful to what they observe through the conscientious
use of logic” does not turn on who they are or who agrees with
I=:B,=>G9D7?:8I>K>IN>HCDI>C;6AA>7A:/:86C8DB:ID:GGDC:DJH
conclusions, despite our most disciplined efforts to “get reality
right.”8DC8AJH>DCI=6I>HD7?:8I>K:>HCDIC:8:HH6G>AN8DGG:8I!I>H
however, the product of a method that gives us the “firmest ground
EDHH>7A: for our conclusions to hug the facts.” ,D 6HH:GI I=6I 6
conclusion is objective is to assert that “in the state of knowledge at
the relevant time,” the conclusion “most fully and accurately
G:;A:8IHI=:C6IJG:D;I=::M>HI:CIH>CFJ:HI>DC6C9I=:G:A6I>DCH=>EH
between them.”
:86JH: D7?:8I>K>IN >H =>:G6G8=>86A 6C9 8DCI:MIJ6A 9:K:ADE>C<
6CD7?:8I>K:6EEGD68=ID?J9>8>6AG:K>:LG:FJ>G:H6CJC9:GHI6C9>C<
(6I
(6I
))-(6t 42 n.36 (“Objectivity does not require a so86AA:97><7G6>C7JI>I9:B6C9H
the active, disciplined, methodological use of the brain that one has.”). ))-(6t 42 (“Consensus as such does not help anyone to know reality.”). ( at 27. Certain peoples’ opinions may warrant more attention than others, but
only “because these people have made themselves more knowledgeable about the
subject in question.” (6IC
(6I
(6I
(6I>I6A>8HDB>II:9
4
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D;I=:;JC8I>DCD;I=:A:<6AHNHI:BD;L=>8=?J9>8>6AG:K>:L>H6E6GI
L=>8= >C IJGC G:FJ>G:H 6C JC9:GHI6C9>C< D; I=: ;JC8I>DC D; I=:
<DK:GCB:CI I=6I DE:G6I:H I=GDJ<= I=6I A:<6A HNHI:B +B>I= IJGCH
;GDB :E>HI:BDAD<N ID EDA>I>86A E=>ADHDE=N >CK:HI><6I>C< L=N
governments that operate through legal systems are “instituted
among men” and how legal systems musIDE:G6I:>CDG9:GID:C67A:
<DK:GCB:CIHID;JA;>AAI=:>GEGDE:G;JC8I>DC
'",!.!,1!&, $/,
*+'&—&*! ,+
*-$'$/+, *-$'
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DE:G6I: — 6G: JC>FJ: >CHI>IJI>DCH “To 9D I=>C<H 7N law,” +B>I=
LG>I:H“isID9DI=:B7Nforce.”'G9>C6G>ANE:DEA:86CCDI;DG8>7AN
8DBE:A DI=:G E:DEA: ID 9D I=>C<H I=6I I=:N LDJA9 G6I=:G CDI 9D
DK:GCB:CIH =DL:K:G CDI DCAN :M:G8>H: HJ8= 8D:G8>K: EDL:G
I=GDJ<=A:<6AHNHI:BH7JI8A6>BI=6IG:H>HI>C<I=:>GEDL:GLDJA97:
LGDC< — I=:N 8A6>B BDG6A 6JI=DG>IN ID 9:6A L>I= E:DEA: 7N ;DG8:
6C9 I=G:6IH D; ;DG8: ,D JH: %6M Weber’s ;DGBJA6I>DC
, $*,!'&'!&(&&E6G6-+
+%!, 7946%CDI:6I
,=: C::9 ;DG 6 CDGB6I>K: ?JHI>;>86I>DC ;DG <DK:GCB:CI >H K>K>9AN >AAJHIG6I:9 7N
Augustine of Hippo’s memorable description of an encounter between Alexander
I=:G:6I6C9686EIJG:9E>G6I:))+!&, --+,!&, !,1' ' :CGN
:II:CHDCIG6CH(:C<J>C
The king asked the fellow, “/=6I>HNour idea, in infesting the sea?”C9
I=: E>G6I: 6CHL:G:d, with uninhibited insolence, “,=: H6B: 6H NDJGH >C
infesting the earth! But because I do it with a tiny craft, I’m c6AA:96E>G6I:
because you have a mighty navy, you’re called an emperor.”
))'* +%!, , +1+,%' $!*,13=:G:>C6;I:G, +1+,%'
$!*,1] (“It is obvious that the state is a coercive institution, one that deals with
E:DEA: 7N B:6CH D; E=NH>86A ;DG8: 6C9 I=G:6IH D; ;DG8: JI I=: HI6I: >H 6AHD 6
CDGB6I>K: DG BDG6A >CHI>IJI>DC—DC: I=6I 8A6>BH ID JH: 8D:G8>DC 6H 6 B6II:G D;
right.”).
);$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
<DK:GCB:CIH8A6>B“theBDCDEDAND;I=:A:<>I>B6I:JH:D;E=NH>86A
force.”/=6I>;6CNI=>C<?JHI>;>:HI=:H:8A6>BH
H <DK:GCB:CIH 6G: 9>HI>C8I>K:AN =JB6C >CHI>IJI>DCH 6C9
G:<JA6I: =JB6C 7:=6K>DG 9:I:GB>C>C< L=:I=:G I=:>G 8A6>BH D;
BDG6A 6JI=DG>IN 86C 7: ?JHI>;>:9 G:FJ>G:H 6C >CFJ>GN >CID =JB6C
C6IJG: Smith begins with a premise that is “so basic and widely
688:EI:d” that she does not defend it at any length: “[E]ach man is
an end in himself.”GDBI=>HEG:B>H:H=:9:G>K:H6BDG6AG><=IID
A>;: — a justified claim to live for one’s own sake and to pursue
one’s own happiness. JB6CA>;:6C9=6EE>C:HH9:E:C9JEDCI=:
%0 /* , , '*1 ' +'!$ & '&'%! '*&!2,!'& ,6A8DI
(6GHDCH :9 % :C9:GHDC ,6A8DII (6GHDCH IG6CH :BE=6H>H
699:9
+%!, 7946%CDI:6I!I>H6;DJC96I>DC6AEG:B>H: D;8A6HH>86A A>7:G6AEDA>I>86A
I=:DGN )) )+ *>8=6G9 'K:GIDC 2 663; +%-278 00 =6%287 6)46-28)( -2
, &$!+ $.$$*+ 55 (Andrew Sharp ed., 1998) (“To every individual in
C6IJG:>H<>K:C6C>C9>K>9J6AEGDE:GIN7NC6IJG:CDIID7:>CK69:9DGJHJGE:97N
6CN ;DG :K:GN DC: 6H =: >H =>BH:A; HD =: =6I= 6 H:A;propriety.”); "' & $'#
+'& ,*,!+'& !.!$ '.*&%&, P 3=:G:>C6;I:G +'& ,*,!+4
(“[E]very Man has a 634)68=>C=>HDLC )6732,=>HCDD9N=6H6CN*><=IID7JI
himself.”); %'&,+)-!-, +(!*!,', $/+CC:%D=A:G:I6A:9H
trans., Cambridge Univ. Press 1989) (1748) (“in the case of natural defense I have the
right to kill, because my life is mine.”); James Madison, 634)68= 6)46-28)(-2
, %!&', '-&*244 (M. Meyers ed., 1973) (“[Man] has an equal property
>C I=: ;G:: JH: D; =>H ;68JAI>:H 6C9 ;G:: 8=D>8: D; I=: D7?:8IH DC L=>8= ID :BEADN
them.”). +B>I=;DAADL>C<*6C9JC9:GHI6C9H=6EE>C:HHID7:6HI6I: D;8DCH8>DJHC:HHI=6I
DC: 86C 68=>:K: 7N A:69>C< 6 E6GI>8JA6G @>C9 D; A>;:—6 A>;: <J>9:9 7N G:6HDC
8=6G68I:G>O:97NI=:68I>K:EJGHJ>I6C9G:6A>O6I>DCD;G6I>DC6AK6AJ:HG::9DB>H6C
:HH:CI>6AEG:G:FJ>H>I:D;I=:EJGHJ>ID;=6EE>C:HH7JI>I>HCD<J6G6CI::D;68=>:K>C<
>I +%!, 7946% CDI: 6I +B>I= 9>H8JHH:H I=: G:A6I>DCH=>E 7:IL::C G:6HDC
;G::9DB A>;: 6C9 =6EE>C:HH >C <G:6I:G 9:EI= >C ,* +%!, %'*$ *! ,+ &
('$!,!$ *'%))%073"6B:H/>AHDC *8,)%896%0-+,873*2(-:-(9%07
6)46-28)( -2 , /'*#+ ' "%+ /!$+'& *D7:GI G::C %8ADH@:N
:93=:G:>C6;I:G, /'*#+'"%+/!$+'&4(“Nature has implanted in man
69:H>G:D;=>HDLC=6EE>C:HHH=:=6H:C9DL:9=>BL>I=>CI:AA:8IJ6A6C968I>K:
EDL:GHH=:=6H;JGC>H=:9=>BL>I=6C6IJG6A>BEJAH:ID:M:G8>H:=>HEDL:GH;DG=>H
DLC =6EE>C:HH !; 6AA I=>H 7: IGJ: I=: JC9:C>67A: 8DCH:FJ:C8: >H I=6I =: =6H 6
4
’!
use of reason. Human beings cannot live at all without “deliberate,
9>H8>EA>C:9 :;;DGI ID G:8D<C>O: ;68IJ6A :K>9:C8: 6C9 ID IG68: 6C9
G:HE:8I I=: AD<>86A >BEA>86I>DCH D; I=6I :K>9:C8: >C 9G6L>C<
8DC8AJH>DCH 6C9 I6@ing actions.” *:<6G9A:HH D; L=:I=:G L: 6G:
seeking to determine “[if] this mushroom is edible, whether copper
8DC9J8IH:A:8IG>8>INL=:I=:GID?D>CI=:%6G>C:HDGB6GGN%:A>HH6
how to fix a flat tire or manage a company,” we must investigate
I=: G:A:K6CI :K>9:C8: 6C9 9G6L AD<>86A >C;:G:C8:H ;GDB I=6I
:K>9:C8: >; L: L6CI ID 6GG>K: 6I 6C 6CHL:G I=6I EGDBDI:H DJG
L:AA7:>C<-AI>B6I:AN 6AA D; DJG E6GI>8JA6GG><=IH — IDHE:6@ ID
68FJ>G:DLC6C9JH:EGDE:GINIDIG6K:AIDA>HI:CIDBJH>8ID<G>AA
6HI:6@;DG9>CC:GDGDG9:G6E>OO6—6G:9:G>K:9;GDB67GD69:G
G><=IIDA>K:;DGDJGDLCH6@:6C9;GDBDJGG6I>DC6AC6IJG: ,=:H:
HE:8>;>8G><=IH6G:JH:HD;I=:;G::9DBD;68I>DCI=6IG6I>DC6A7:>C<H
G:FJ>G:>CDG9:GIDHJGK>K:6C9I=G>K:
,=:>C>I>6I>DCD;E=NH>86A;DG8:—DGI=:I=G:6ID;E=NH>86A;DG8:
—7NDI=:GH86CI=L6GIDJG67>A>INIDI=>C@DG68IG6I>DC6AAN+B>I=
D;;:GHI=::M6BEA:D;6KDI:GL=D>HI=G:6I:C:9L>I=K>DA:C8:>;I=:N
9DCDI86HII=:>G76AADI;DG6E6GI>8JA6GEDA>I>86A86C9>96I:“The fact
I=6I>;!;6>AIDKDI:;DG(:6GHDCBN@C::86EHL>AA7:H=6II:G:9>HCDI
AD<>86A G:6HDC ID 8DC8AJ9: I=6I (:6GHDC >H I=: BDHI FJ6A>;>:9
G><=I ID :M:GI I=DH: EDL:GH ;DG I=: 688DBEA>H=B:CI D; I=DH: EJGEDH:H 6H =>H
inclination and his judgment shall direct.”). +%!, 7946%CDI:6I
(6I
For Smith, as for Thomas Jefferson, these rights are not “selfevident” in the sense
D;7:>C<>BB:9>6I:ANE:G8:>K67A:—I=:N6G:>C9J8I>DCH;GDB D7H:GK67A:;68IH67DJI
human existence. On the use of the term “selfevident” in the Declaration H:: $
*&* ' & +!& & , '-&!& , *+ +!& !& , ('$!,!$
, '- , ' , '%+ "*+'& &"%!& *&#$!& "' & %+ "%+
%!+'&29 (1997) (“Jefferson was fully aware that the beliefs he had listed as
H:A;:K>9:CI IGJI=H were … not evident to everybody . . . they were valid only for
I=DH: L=D =69 69DEI:9 6 C:L K>:LED>CI ,=>H @>C9 D; K6A>9>IN L6H I=: H6B: L>I=
respect to physical science and to human rights and potentialities.”).
%'*$*! ,+& ('$!,!$ *'%7946%CDI:6I
);$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
candidate.”K:C>;I=:KDI:GG:H>HIHI=:I=G:6I>IHEG:H:C8:;DG8:H
I=:BIDI6@:>CID688DJCI6C968IJEDC8DCH>9:G6I>DCHI=6I6G:CDI
G:A:K6CI ID I=: FJ:HI>DC D; L=>8= 86C9>96I: >H BDHI FJ6A>;>:9 H
Smith puts it, the “injection of force . . . introduces a different
question for the [person] to answer,” namely, “should I obey the
coercer or not?”/=:CDI=:GE:DEA:;DG8>7AN>BEDH:I=:>GL>AADC
JH I=:N EG:K:CI JH ;GDB 68I>C< 6H DJG G:6HDC LDJA9 DI=:GL>H:
9>8I6I:
The need for government arises from the need to “safeguard the
;G::9DB I=6I >H C:8:HH6GN ;DG =JB6C L:AAbeing.” JB6C 7:>C<H
86C G:6E 8DJCIA:HH 7:C:;>IH ;GDB A>K>C< >C HD8>:IN — ;GDB DI=:G
people’s experience and insights, from the goods and services they
8G:6I: ;GDB I=:>G ;G>:C9H=>E ;GDB I=: H>BEA: EA:6HJG: D; I=:>G
8DBE6CN—7JIL:86CCDI:C?DNI=DH:7:C:;>IH>;L:6G:CDI;G::ID
68IDCI=:76H>HD;DJGDLC?J9<B:CI By enforcing “clear ground
rules” that secure individual rights to freedom of action against
;DG8:;JA>CI:G;:G:C8:7NDI=:GH<DK:GCB:CIH86CJE=DA9DJGBDG6A
G><=I ID A>K: 6C9 H::@ DJG DLC =6EE>C:HH 6C9 I=JH 86C EGDE:GAN
8A6>BBDG6A6JI=DG>INThe moral authority of government is “an
organic outgrowth of its reason for being,” and its authority is
“conditioned on its fidelity to the purpose for which it holds [its]
power.”
+:8JG>C< >C9>K>9J6A G><=IH >H 6 8DBEA:M :C9:6KDG !I >H CDI
:CDJ<= ID >9:CI>;N I=: 8DGG:8I EDA>I>86AE=>ADHDE=>86A EG>C8>EA:H
Implementing those principles requires a legal system: “a complex
C:ILDG@D;EG68I>86AB:8=6C>HBHI=6I68IJ6AAN:M:G8>H:<DK:GCB:CI
power.”/=6I I=: A6L >H >IH 8DCI:CI 6C9 =DL I=: A6L DE:G6I:H
+%!, 7946%CDI:6I
(
(6I
))-(at 110 (“For men to coexist profitably, they must coexist peaceably.”).
(6I
(6I
(6I
4
’!
>IH 69B>C>HIG6I>DC BJHI 7: >C;DGB:9 7N >IH ;JC8I>DC ,=>H B:6CH
that the “what” and the “how” of the law can never be truly
morally “neutral”— I=: EGDI:8I>DC D; >C9>K>9J6A G><=IH >H 6 BDG6A
service, and the government’s performance of that servi8:>H8:CIG6A
ID>IHBDG6A6JI=DG>IN
And yet, the ideal of the “rule of law”—<:C:G6AANG:<6G9:96H
the “gold standard of respectability” for legal systems —=6H7::C
EG6>H:9 EG:8>H:AN 7:86JH: >I >H EJGEDGI:9AN BDG6AAN C:JIG6A !I >H
CDI G:69>AN 6EE6G:CI I=6I I=: ;DGB6A G:FJ>G:B:CIH 6HHD8>6I:9 L>I=
I=:GJA:D;A6L—6BDC<I=:BI=:G:FJ>G:B:CIHI=6IA:<6AGJA:H7:
8A:6GANHI6I:9EJ7A>8AN6K6>A67A:HI67A:6C98DCH>HI:CIAN6EEA>:9—
6G:8DCC:8I:9L>I=I=:EGDI:8I>DCD;>C9>K>9J6AG><=IH+B>I=I=JH
JC9:GI6@:H ID :HI67A>H= I=: 8DCC:8I>DC 7:IL::C I=:H: ;DGB6A
requirements and the government’s substantive moral mission.
/: 86C <:I 6 H:CH: D; I=: 8DCC:8I>DC 7:IL::C I=: GJA: D; A6L
and the government’s moral function by imagining why a dictator
L=D86G:HCDI=>C<;DGG><=IH6C99:H>G:HDCANIDB6>CI6>C=>HEDL:G
LDJA9 L6CI ID :HI67A>H= 8A:6G GJA:H I=6I <DK:GCB:CI D;;>8>6AH 6G:
constrained to apply consistently. He might “like[] order and
predictability”; he might think that “regularity will produce greater
8Dmpliance from his subjects” because they know what is expected
( 6I ))"'+( *2 -, '*!,1' $/ (1979) (“Like other instruments, the
A6L =6H 6 HE:8>;>8 K>GIJ: L=>8= >H BDG6AAN C:JIG6A >C7:>C< C:JIG6A 6HID I=: :C9 ID
L=>8=I=:>CHIGJB:CI>HEJI!I>HI=:K>GIJ:D;:;;>8>:C8NI=:K>GIJ:D;I=:>CHIGJB:CI
6H6C>CHIGJB:CIDGI=: A6LI=>HK>GIJ:>s the rule of law.”). Smith critiques Raz’s
K>:L 6I A:C<I= >C ,6G6 +B>I= Neutrality Isn’t Neutral: On the Value)986%0-8= 3* 8,)
90)3*%;/+ -"-**.
Those requirements have been variously stated. Lon Fuller’s list remaiCH 6C
:HH:CI>6AHI6GI>C<ED>CI;DG6CN9>H8JHH>DCD; I=:;DGB6AG:FJ>G:B:CIH D;I=:GJA: D;
A6L))$'&-$$*%'*$!,1', $/A>HI>C<:><=IG:FJ>G:B:CIH
<:C:G6A>INEGDBJA<6I>DCDGEJ7A>8688:HH>7>A>INEGDHE:8I>K>IN8A6G>IN
>CI:GC6A 8DCH>HI:C8N DG CDC8DCIG69>8I>DC EG68I>867>A>IN DG CDC67HJG9>IN 8DCHI6C8NDGHI67>A>IN8DC<GJ:C8:DG8DCH>HI:C8N7:IL::CI=:68I>DCHD;D;;>8>6AH
6C9 EG:H8G>7:9 GJA:H DG 6 8DBEG:=:CH>K: :MEADG6I>DC D; I=: GJA: D; A6L 6H 6
EDA>I>86A >9:6A H:: *!& ,%& '& , *-$ ' $/ !+,'*1 ('$!,!+
, '*1
);$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
D;I=:B6C9H::K>DA6IDGHEJC>H=:9=6GH=AN;DG;6>A>C<IDB::II=DH:
:ME:8I6I>DCH=:B><=I8DC8AJ9:I=6I@::E>C<E:DEA:>CA>C:LDJA9
“demand[] fewer police resources.” JI I=:H: G:6HDCH ;DG
B6>CI6>C>C< HI67>A>IN 6G: :CI>G:AN 8DCI>C<:CI JEDC =>H E6GI>8JA6G
7:A>:;H6C99:H>G:H6I6CN<>K:CBDB:CI!;=>H7:A>:;H6C99:H>G:H
8=6C<: — >; =: CD ADC<:G 9:H>G:H DG9:G DG 8DC8AJ9:H I=6I
>GG:<JA6G>IN L>AA 7:II:G H:GK: ID B6>CI6>C =>H EDL:G — 8A6G>IN 6C9
8DCH>HI:C8NL>AACDIADC<HJGK>K:
N 8DCIG6HI 6 <DK:GCB:CI 9:9>86I:9 ID I=: EGDI:8I>DC D; I=:
>C9>K>9J6A G><=IH BJHI DE:G6I: I=GDJ<= 8A:6G GJA:H 6C9 I=DH: GJA:H
BJHI 7: 6EEA>:9 8DCH>HI:CIAN -C8A:6G A6LH :;;:8I>K:AN G:FJ>G:
people to “refrain from act>C<>CL6NHI=6I6G:EGDE:GANEGD=>7>I:9
as well as from acting in ways that are not,” lest they violate any
DC: D; I=: H:K:G6A B:6C>C<H I=6I 8DJA9 7: 6IIG>7JI:9 ID I=: A6L +>C8:6CNDC:D;H:K:G6AB:6C>C<H86C7:6IIG>7JI:9IDJC8A:6GA6LH
I=: L>AA D; government officials determines the extent of people’s
;G::9DB !; <DK:GCB:CI D;;>8>6AH 6G: CDI 7DJC9 ID 6EEAN GJA:H
8DCH>HI:CIAN6C986C9:K>6I:;GDBI=:GJA:H>C688DG96C8:L>I=I=:>G
EG:;:G:C8:H E:DEA: 86C 7: 9:EG>K:9 D; I=:>G ;G::9DB ;DG G:6HDCH
I=6I =6K: CDI=>C< ID 9D L>I= EGDI:8I>C< >C9>K>9J6A G><=IH A:6G
GJA:H 6C9 8DCH>HI:CI 6EEA>86I>DC D; I=DH: GJA:H 6G: C:8:HH6GN ID
H:8JG: >C9>K>9J6AG><=IH 6<6>CHI ;DG8: 768@:9 DCAN 7N L>AA — I=JH
these formal requirements provide a service that is “morally
<DDd.”
What Smith terms the “moral imperative” of the rule of law can
7:HI 7: 6EEG:8>6I:9 7N ;D8JH>C< DC I=: ;JC96B:CI6A 6AI:GC6I>K: ID
the rule of law: the rule of men, characterized by “arbitrariness in
+%!, 7946%CDI:6I
)) "' & !&&!+ &,-*$ $/ & &,-*$ *! ,+ 273 (2011) (“A tyranny
9:KDI:9 ID E:GC>8>DJH :C9H =6H CD H:A;HJ;;>8>:CI G:6HDC ID HJ7B>I >IH:A; ID I=:
discipline of operating consistently through the demanding processes of law.”). +%!, 7946%CDI:6I
(6I
4
’!
the exercise of government power.” It is difficult to9:;>C:I=:I:GB
“arbitrary” — Smith states that “[a] conclusion or decision is
6G7>IG6GN L=:C >I >H G:68=:9 DC CD E6GI>8JA6G 76H>H 6C9 ;DG CD
particular reason in a context in which reasons are called for.” Given government’s distinctive character and cl6>BH >IH JH: D;
8D:G8>K: EDL:G BJHI 6AL6NH 7: HJEEDGI:9 7N G:6HDCH — 6C9 CDI
just any reasons, but reasons that are consistent with government’s
BDG6A;JC8I>DC!;A>B>IHDC<DK:GCB:CIEDL:G6G:H:IDCAN7NI=:
L>AA D; E6GI>8JA6G EDL:G =DA9:GH B><=I B6@:H G><=I :86JH:
<DK:GCB:CIH 9:G>K: I=:>G BDG6A 6JI=DG>IN ;GDB I=:>G 86E68>IN ID
:CHJG: I=6I B><=I 9D:H CDI B6@: G><=I 6G7>IG6G>C:HH K>I>6I:H I=:>G
BDG6A6JI=DG>IN
DLI=:CID8G:6I:6A:<6AHNHI:BI=6I86CB6>CI6>CI=:GJA:D;
A6L :86JH: I=: GJA: of law depends upon “clear knowledge of
what the law is,” and because disagreements concerning what the
law is are inevitable, Smith contends that an “unequivocal arbiter”
is needed to ensure “principled resolution” of how legal power may
7: JH:9 ,=: FJ:stion arises: “Where, within an objective legal
system, should ultimate legal authority reside?” Smith contends that a written constitution that “serves as the
single, overt, definitive repository of a system’s ultimate law is the
(6IC))%073,!%', 1 +&-* , '&+!&', '&+,!,-,!'&
, $*,!'& ' !&(&& & , *! , ,' $!*,1 3=:G:>C6;I:G'&+!&', '&+,!,-,!'&] (“Arbitrariness is tDA6L6HB:G:L>AA
>HIDG:6HDC!I>H:HH:CI>6AAN>EH:9>M>I—the ruler says “because I say so.”). +%!, 7946%CDI:, at 87 (“[T]he alternative between the Rule of Law and the Rule
of Men is the alternative between the rule of reason and the rule of force.”). )) , *$!+, &D 6I "6B:H %69>HDC $>7:GIN JC9 HI6I>C<
that the “end of government” is to “establish justice” and that “[i]n a society under
I=: ;DGBH D; L=>8= I=: HIGDC<:G ;68I>DC 86C G:69>AN JC>I: 6C9 DEEG:HH I=: L:6@:G
6C6G8=NB6N6HIGJAN7:H6>9IDG:><C6H>C6HI6I:D;nature.”); , /'*#+' "%+
/!$+'&7946%CDI:, at 307 (government “should be formed to secure and enlarge
I=:C6IJG6AG><=IHD;>IHB:B7:GH6C9:K:GN<DK:GCB:CIL=>8==6HCDII=>H>CK>:L
as its principal object, is not a government of the legitimate kind.”).
+%!, 7946%CDI:6I
(
);$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
best means available” foG :CHJG>C< I=: GJA: D; A6L 7:86JH: >I 86C
render the identity of the law “firm and fixed” and “impos[e] firm,
philosophically considered limits on government power.” +=:
considers and rejects the possibility that the “common law” method
—688DG9>C< ID L=>8= ?J9<:H L=D H::@ ID >9:CI>;N 6C9 6EEAN
8JHIDB6GNGJA:H6GI>8JA6I:I=:A6L86H:7N86H: —86CB6>CI6>CI=:
GJA: D; A6L ,=: ;JC96B:CI6A EGD7A:B L>I= I=: 8DBBDC A6L
B:I=D9>HI=6II=:8DCI:CID;I=:A6L>H9>8I6I:9CDI7NG:6HDC7JI
7N :KDAK>C< HD8>6A 8DCH:CHJHAs Smith points out, “the obvious
danger is that a society’s consensus will be unjust” and will
EGD9J8: GJA:H I=6I 6JI=DG>O: G><=IH K>DA6I>DCH :86JH: ?J9<:H
6EEAN>C< I=: 8DBBDC A6L B:I=D9 H::@ DCAN ID 9>H8DK:G
=6GBDC>O:6C96EEANGJA:HI=6I:B:G<:I=GDJ<=HD8>6A 8DCH:CHJH
the development of the law is “ponderous [and] piecemeal” and the
common law “lacks a sufficiently deliberate, systematic means of
+%!, 7946%CDI:6I
(6I
,=:H: 8JHIDB6GN GJA:H 6G: CDI 8G:6I:9 7N ?J9<:H DG 6CN E6GI>8JA6G
9:8>H>DCB6@:GH—A>@: EG>8:H I=:N )1)6+) ;GDB 8DJCIA:HH 9:8:CIG6A>O:9 KDAJCI6GN
>CI:G68I>DCH )) ,D99 2NL>8@> 372)6 %=)/ %2( 8,) '3231-' 2%0=7-7 3* %; !'/$*.08) (“Although it is true that a particular salesclerk attaches
6 EG>8: I6< ID 6EEA:H >C 6 HJE:GB6G@:I >I LDJA9 7: >C688JG6I: ID HJ<<:HI I=6I I=:
salesclerk is thereby “making” or “creating” the price of apples . . . It is similarly
B>HA:69>C< ID I=ink of a particular judge ‘making’ law when she seeks to
articulate the underlying legal principles that support a given decision.”). ,=: 8DBBDC A6L >H 6C :CDGBDJHAN 8DBEA:M HJ7?:8I 9>H8JHH>DCH D; L=>8= 6G:
8DBEA>86I:97NI=:;68II=6II=:I:GB>HJH:9to refer to a variety of “closely related
but distinct phenomena.” +%!, 7946%CDI:6I+B>I=EG>B6G>ANJH:HI=:I:GB
“common law” to refeGID6 B:I=D9D;G:6HDC>C<CDIID6C=>HIDG>86A A:<6AHNHI:B
DG6=:AE;JADK:GK>:LD;I=:8DBBDCA6LI=6I<G6EEA:HL>I=HDB:D;I=:8DC;JH>DC
HJGGDJC9>C< I=: JH6<: D; I=: I:GB H:: "D=C 6HC6H %=)/ 8,) 31132 %; %2(
09-(6-:)&1-"$$!*,1
)) +%!, 7946% CDI: , at 126 (“[The common law] defers the determination of
L=6I 8DCHI>IJI:H A6L ID 6 H=>;I>C< 86HI D; 8=6G6cters… which has the effect of
bestowing legal authority on those people.”). ))-(6I
4
’!
trying to weed out error.”In the meantime, “real people suffer the
B>HJH: D; <DK:GCB:CI power.” By “crystalliz[ing] the proper
<J>9>C<EG>C8>EA:HD;6CD7?:8I>K:A:<6AHNHI:B6C9IG6CHA6I3>C<4
those principles into specific rules for administering the law’s
power” 6 LG>II:C 8DCHI>IJI>DC =DA9H I=: EGDB>H: D; HJ7?:8I>C<
<DK:GCB:CIEDL:Gto “the discipline of rational restraint.”
DGIJC6I:AN +B>I= ;>C9H I=6I B:G>86CH 6G: 7A:HH:9 L>I= 6C
“essentially sound” written Constitution that not only rests upon
I=: 8DGG:8I EDA>I>86AE=>ADHDE=>86A EG:B>H:H 7JI 6AHD EGDK>9:H ;DG
I=:>G>BEA:B:CI6I>DCThe Constitution establishes “a government
D; A>B>I:9 EDL:GH 6JI=DG>O:9 ID H:GK: 6 HE:8>;>8 8>G8JBH8G>7:9
purpose” —I=:EGDI:8I>DCD;>C9>K>9J6AG><=IH —and its “design,
structure, and content” are all calculated to further that purpose. 'C:D;I=:EG>B6GNB:6CHI=GDJ<=L=>8=I=:DCHI>IJI>DC:CHJG:H
I=6I <DK:GCB:CI EDL:G >H G6I>DC6AAN G:HIG6>C:9 >H >IH EGDK>H>DC ;DG
6C>C9:E:C9:CIHNHI:BD;;:9:G6A8DJGIHHI6;;:97N?J9<:HL=D6G:
G:A6I>K:AN>CHJA6I:9;GDBB6?DG>I6G>6CEG:HHJG:H6C99JIN7DJC9ID
<>K::;;:8IIDI=:A6LD;I=:A6C9 In Smith’s words, judicial review
provides an “insurance mechanism against misuses of government
())%073*>8=6G9(DHC:G%=)/%;3+2-8-32&1- "$ $!*,1
(observing that “custom, being acephalous (there is no ‘customgiver’
analogous to a legislature, which is a lawgiver), tends to change very slowly” and
that there “[t]here are many dysfunctional customs.”). (
+%!, 7946%CDI:6I
(6I
(6I
(6I
)) , *$!+, &D 6I A:M6C9:G
6B>AIDC $>7:GIN JC9 (“[Constitutional] [l]imitations… can be preserved in practice no other way than
8DJGIH D; ?JHI>8: L=DH: 9JIN >I BJHI 7: ID 9:8A6G: 6AA 68IH 8DCIG6GN ID I=: B6C>;:HI
tenor of the Constitution void.”).DG68DBEG:=:CH>K:=>HIDG>86AHIJ9ND;I=:9JIND;
judicial review as a component of the judicial office (and, therefore, of “The Judicial
power” authorized by Article III), H::( !$!( %-** $/& "-!!$ -,1
);$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
power.” /=6I ?J9<:H BJHI 9D >C DG9:G ID :CHJG: I=6I I=>H
B:8=6C>HB LDG@H EGDE:GAN >H I=: HJ7?:8I D; I=: G:B6>C9:G D; =:G
7DD@
'",!.!,1!&"-!!$*.!/%!&,!&!&,
$/
*-$'
+B>I=7:<>CH=:G9>H8JHH>DCD;?J9>8>6AG:K>:L7NHJBB6G>O>C<
6C9 8G>I>8>O>C< ;>K: 9DB>C6CI 688DJCIH D; ?J9>8>6A G:K>:L
,:MIJ6A>HB(J7A>8-C9:GHI6C9>C<'G><>C6A>HBDG“publicB:6C>C<
Driginalism”),
:BD8G6I>8
:;:G:C8:
DG
“popular
constitutionalism”),(:G;:8I>DC>HB6C9%>C>B6A>HBAI=DJ<=6AAD;
I=:H:688DJCIH6G:9>HI>C8I>K:+B>I=;>C9HI=6II=:NH=6G:I=:H6B:
;JC96B:CI6AK>8:6C9CDC:D;I=:B:FJ>EH?J9<:HIDB6>CI6>CI=:
GJA: D; A6L :HI67A>H=:9 7N I=: DCHI>IJI>DC ;I:G 8G>I>FJ>C< I=:B
+B>I=6GI>8JA6I:H=:GDLC6EEGD68=ID?J9>8>6AG:K>:L
6-8-59)3*8,)31-2%28''392873*9(-'-%0):-);
,=: ;>GHI 688DJCI D; ?J9>8>6A G:K>:L +B>I= :K6AJ6I:H >H
I:MIJ6A>HB 6H 8=6BE>DC:9 7N I=: A6I: "JHI>8: CIDC>C +86A>6
Scalia’s textualism is succinctly captured in his assertion that
“words have meaning. And their meaning doesn’t change.” ';
+%!, 7946%CDI:6I
Smith’s critiques draw upon arguments that she has made at greater length in
DI=:G 6GI>8A:H >C8AJ9>C< ,6G6 +B>I= Originalism, Vintage or Nouveau: “He Said, She
Said” Law'* % $ *.,6G6+B>I= )'/0)77%98-32 ,))6-073*
9(-'-%0 -2-1%0-71 &1- "$ $!*,1 ,6G6 +B>I= Originalism’s
Misplaced Fidelity: ‘Original’ Meaning Is Not Objective '&+, '%%&, ,6G6 +B>I= #,= 6iginalism Won’t Die—31132 -78%/)7 -2 314)8-2+ ,)36-)7 3*
9(-'-%028)646)8%8-32-#"'&+,$(-('$’1
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14, 2013, at 24. Scalia’s considered appGD68= ID 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A >CI:GEG:I6I>DC >H H:I
;DGI= >CH:K:G6A :HH6NH )) CIDC>C+86A>6 6-+-2%0-71 ,))77)6:-0 - !& $
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B:6C>C< D; LDG9H >H CDI H:A;:K>9:CI 6C9 86CCDI 7: JC9:GHIDD9
L>I=DJI 6C 6EEG:8>6I>DC D; I=: G:A:K6CI 8DCI:MI ,=: C::9 ;DG
8DCI:MIH:CH>I>K: A>C<J>HI>8 6C6ANH>H >H E6GI>8JA6GAN 68JI: >C
8DCHI>IJI>DC6A A6L L=>8= >CKDAK:H I=: >CI:GEG:I6I>DC D; EGDK>H>DCH
6JI=DG:9 =JC9G:9H D; N:6GH 6<D 7N B:C L=DH: 7:A>:;H
6HHJBEI>DCH 6C9 E6II:GCH D; LDG9 JH6<: L:G: >C B6CN G:HE:8IH
FJ>I:9>;;:G:CI;GDBDJGH&DB6II:G=DLADC<DC:HI6G:H6IGI>8A:
III’s guarantee that “no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption
D; ADD9 DG ;DG;:>IJG: 9JG>C< I=: A>;: of the person attained,” the
B:6C>C<D;I=:H:LDG9HL>AACDIG:K:6A>IH:A;
/=6I 8DCI:MI BJHI ?J9<:H 8DCH>9:G >C DG9:G ID >AAJB>C6I: I=:
meaning of constitutional provisions? Scalia writes that “in their
;JAA8DCI:MILDG9HB:6CL=6II=:N8DCK:N:9IDG:6HDC67A:E:DEA:
at the time they were written.”On Scalia’s account, words have
B:6C>C<I=:>GB:6C>C< 9D:HCDI8=6C<:6C9B:6C>C<>H>9:CI>86A
ID I=: 8DCI:BEDG6C:DJH JC9:GHI6C9>C< D; I=: G:A:K6CI A>C<J>HI>8
community. In the final analysis, Scalia’s textJ6A>HB >H 6 ;DGB D;
EJ7A>8B:6C>C<DG><>C6A>HB6I=:DGND;8DCHI>IJI>DC6A>CI:GEG:I6I>DC
I=6I =DA9H I=6I 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A EGDK>H>DCH H=DJA9 7: >CI:GEG:I:9 >C
688DG96C8: L>I= I=:>G EJ7A>8AN JC9:GHIDD9 B:6C>C< 6I I=: I>B: D;
CIDC>C +86A>6 31132%; 39687 -2 % -:-0%; =78)1 ,)30) 3* !2-8)(
8%8)7 )()6%0 39687 -2 28)646)8-2+ 8,) 3278-898-32 %2( %;7 -2 %,,* '
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Consider “Go ahead, make my day,” or “I’m dying over here,” or even “I love
you.” -+ '&+,6GI!!!P8A))# !$ * %* %*!’+ '&+,!,-,!'& !'*( 1 243 (2005) (“Under England’s feudalistic treason rules I=: GDLC
could lawfully seize a traitor’s homestead from the family members due to inherit it.
The traitor’s blood was deemed corrupt . . . Article III barred the federal government
from imposing any “Corruption of Blood” in treason cases. In the NeL /DGA9 I=:
7A68@B6G@—the taint, the ‘attainder’—D;6IG:6HDC8DCK>8I>DCL6HID7:>C9>K>9J6A
not familial.”); !+$ (,*+'& , ' ' , % !& 127 (1943) (“The first
G:HIG>8I>DC 9:;>C:9 <J>AI 6H E:GHDC6A 6C9 I=: H:8DC9 9:;>C:9 EG>K6I: EGDE:GIN 6H
belonging to individuals.”).
&,'&!&+$! *1&*&**!&$/
);$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
I=:>G :C68IB:CI Thus, Smith’s critique of Scalia’s textualism
7A:C9H>CID67GD69:G8G>I>FJ:D;EJ7A>8B:6C>C<DG><>C6A>HBL=>8=
8A6>BH (GD;:HHDGH *6C9N 6GC:II +I:K:C 6A67G:H> 6GN $6LHDC
6C9$6LG:C8:+DAJB6BDC<DI=:GH6H69=:G:CIH Smith observes that Scalia’s reference to what “words mean”
8DJA9>IH:A;B:6CDC:D;6IA:6HIILDI=>C<HI=::M68IA>HID;>I:BH
G:;:GG:9ID7N6LDG9I=6II=:A6C<J6<:HE:6@:GH6II=:I>B:LDJA9
=6K: EGDK>9:9 DG I=: EG:8>H: 8G>I:G>6 I=6I I=DH: E:DEA:
:BEADN:9 ;DG 9:I:GB>C>C< L=>8= >I:BH 6 LDG9 G:;:GG:9 ID ,=:
same can be said of Professor Barnett’s definition of original public
meaning: “[T]he public or objective meaning that a reasonable
A>HI:C:G LDJA9 EA68: DC I=: LDG9H JH:9 >C I=: 3G:A:K6CI A:<6A4
EGDK>H>DC6II=:I>B:D;>IH:C68IB:CI.”/=6I>H8A:6G=DL:K:G>H
I=6IEJ7A>8B:6C>C<>H6AL6NHI>:9IDEJ7A>8JC9:GHI6C9>C<(J7A>8
B:6C>C<DG><>C6A>HIH=DA9I=6ILDG9HB:6CL=6I I=:N LDJA9=6K:
7::CJC9:GHIDD9IDB:6CL=:CI=:NL:G:LG>II:C
*:86AAI=6I?J9>8>6AG:K>:L>H6B:6CHD;B6>CI6>C>C<I=:GJA:D;
A6L:HI67A>H=:97NI=:DCHI>IJI>DC!CDG9:GID9:I:GB>C:L=:I=:G
EJ7A>8 B:6C>C< DG><>C6A>HB :FJ>EH ?J9<:H ID B6>CI6>C I=: GJA: D;
A6L L: C::9 ID 9:I:GB>C: L=:I=:G >IH 688DJCI D; 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A
B:6C>C<>H688JG6I:
DGBJA6I>DCHK6GN )))+"' & %!&&!+ %! $ *((('*, '*!!&$!+%
& , '' '&+,!,-,!'& (2013) (“[H]ow the words of the document would
=6K: 7::C JC9:GHIDD9 7N 6 G:6HDC67A: HE:6@:G D; I=: A6C<J6<: 6I I=: I>B: D; I=:
document’s enactment.”); $/*& +'$-% *'*, / &&,,
'&+,!,-,!'&$ '*!!&$!+% , 4 (2011) (“[T]he understanding of the
LDG9H 6C9 E=G6H:H 6C9 I=: <G6BB6G 6C9 HNCI6M I=6I 8=6G68I:G>O:9 I=: A>C<J>HI>8
practices of the public.”); Gary Lawson, )0)+%8-32 %2( 6-+-2%0 )%2-2+ . $
*.327, 398 (2002) (“[H]ow a fully informed public audience, knowing all that there
>HID@CDL67DJII=:DCHI>IJI>DC6C9I=:HJGGDJC9>C<LDGA9LDJA9JC9:GHI6C96
particular provision.”). %!&&!+ *((('*, 7946% CDI: 6I CDI>C< I=6I EJ7A>8 B:6C>C<
originalism is “the predominant originalist theory.”). *&1 *&,, *+,'*!&, $'+, '&+,!,-,!'& , (*+-%(,!'&' $!*,1
3=:G:>C6;I:G*+,'*!&, $'+,'&+,!,-,!'&4
4
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In Smith’s view, EJ7A>8 B:6C>C< DG><>C6A>HB G:HIH JEDC 6C
>BEDK:G>H=:9688DJCID;A6C<J6<:Language, Smith argues, “is not
about itself, nor about its speakers.”!I >H 67DJI G:6A>IN /DG9H
9:CDI: 8DC8:EIH — B:CI6A <GDJE>C<H D; :M>HI:CIH I=6I H=6G: 6
fundamental similarity. Concepts are “openended” — I=:N
encompass all existents of a particular kind, “be they known,
unknown, or at present misidentified by many or all people.” /=>A: +mith regards as “perfectly sound” originalism’s insistence
that judges not “replace the concept[s] originally expressed in a law
with a different concept,” H=: >CH>HIH I=6I ?J9<:H BJHI CDI I6@:
words to mean only “those particular referents and/or the pre8>H:
criteria for identifying a word’s referents that some set of men once
believed that a word stood for.” ,=6I>H?J9<:HBJHICDI8DC;A6I:
the meaning of the Constitution with anyone’s beliefs about that
B:6C>C< "J9<:H BJHI 7: DE:C CDI DCAN ID G:8D<C>O>C< C:L
>CHI6C8:H D; E6GI>8JA6G 8DC8:EIH — H6N >9:CI>;N>C< BDK>:H 6C9
video games as “speech” —7JI6AHDIDG:9:;>C>C<I=DH:8DC8:EIH6H
“the growth of our knowledge of the relevant phenomena
warrants.”Otherwise, we will not be ruled by law but by “thDH:
+%!, 7946%CDI:6I
))-(6I168 (“The meaning of a word depends, at the most fundamental level, on
I=:C6IJG:D;I=:I=>C<H>IG:;:GHID6C9CDIDCL=6I6<GDJED;E:DEA:I=>C@H>IG:;:GH
to.”); *&7946%CDI:at 40 (“A word is merely a visual6J9>IDGNHNB7DAJH:9ID
G:EG:H:CI 6 8DC8:EI 6 LDG9 =6H CD B:6C>C< DI=:G I=6C I=6I D; I=: 8DC8:EI >I
symbolizes, and the meaning of a concept consists of its units.”).
+%!, 7946%CDI:6I
Thus, a judge could not “read[] a law’s reference to ‘gay behavior’ to designate a
A><=I=:6GI:9 B6CC:G D; 68I>DC L=:C I=: 8DCI:MI 8A:6GAN >C9>86I:H >IH G:;:G:C8: ID
homosexual activity.” (6I
(6I
(A definition is “a statement that identifies the nature of units subsJB:9L>I=>C
a concept” and serves to “distinguish a concept from all other concepts and thus to
keep its units differentiated from all other existents.” *& 7946% CDI: 6I !BEDGI6CIAN8DC8:EIH6G:CDI>9:CI>86AIDI=:>G9:;>C>I>DCH8DC8:EI>BEA>:H6AAI=:
characteristics of a given thing, “known or yet to be discovered,” including those that
6G:CDIE6GID;>IH9:;>C>I>DC(6I
);$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
particular men who installed the laws and their beliefs about laws’
meaning.”
Smith’s criticisms of public meaning originalism may strike
B6CN 6H ?6GG>C< ,=: GJA: D; A6L G:FJ>G:H HI67>A>IN 6C9 EJ7A>8
B:6C>C<DG><>C6A>HBEGDB>H:HHI67>A>IN,=:EJ7A>c’s understanding
D;E6GI>8JA6G8DCHI>IJI>DC6AEGDK>H>DCH6II=:96I:D;I=:>G:C68IB:CI
9D:HCDI6;I:G6AA8=6C<:DK:GI>B:JI+B>I=8DCI:C9HI=6I>;I=:
B:6C>C<D;I=:A6L>H>9:CI>;>:9L>I=7:A>:;H67DJII=:A6LEJ7A>8
B:6C>C< DG><>C6A>HB <>K:H JH <DK:GC6C8: I=6I >H CD A:HH 6G7>IG6GN
CD A:HH 9:E:C9:CI JEDC B:G: L>AA I=6C I=: GJA: D; 6C 67HDAJI:
BDC6G8=:K:C>;>IB6N7:BDG:HI67A:
!HI=>H8G>I>8>HBK6A>96GC:II—ID<:I=:GL>I=DI=:GDG><>C6A>HIH
— 9>HI>C<J>H=:H 7:IL::C I=: FJ:HI>DC D; L=6I I=: A6L B:6CH 6C9
I=: FJ:HI>DC L=:I=:G I=: A6L =6H BDG6A 6JI=DG>IN 6GC:II
8DCH>9:GH 7JI JAI>B6I:AN G:?:8IH I=: EDHH>7>A>IN I=6I I=:
Constitution’s moral authority can be established on the basis of
E6HI 8DCH:CI DG 8DCI:BEDG6GN 68FJ>:H8:C8: >C I=: G:<>B: I=:
G6B:GH :HI67A>H=:9 :I:GB>C>C< L=:I=:G I=: DCHI>IJI>DC =6H
moral authority, on Barnett’s account, involves determining
L=:I=:G I=: DG><>C6A EJ7A>8 B:6C>C< D; I=: I:MI EGDK>9:H E:DEA:
with “adequate assurances that the laws it validates” are “necess6GN
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rights of those whose freedom is being restricted.” No one’s sayHD
86C6CHL:GI=6IFJ:HI>DC;DGJH
JI HD ADC< 6H I=: FJ:HI>DC L=:I=:G 6 E6GI>8JA6G :M:G8>H: D;
<DK:GCB:CI EDL:G >H 8DCHI>IJI>DC6AAN E:GB>HH>7A: IJGCH DC I=:
beliefs of men, Smith’s criticism retains its bite. For public meaning
DG><>C6A>HIHI=:B:6C>C<D;I=:DCHI>IJI>DC>H6AL6NHG:9J8>7A:ID
I=:7:A>:;HD;B:C6C9HDIDD>HI=:FJ:HI>DCL=:I=:GI=:JH:D;
I=: <DK:rnment’s monopoly on legitimate force is consistent with
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(6I
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public meaning originalist might not “ask for a laundry list of
specific human activities that exhaust the content of [a] concept,”
H=:would “ask what criteria the author, and derivatively the public
reader, had in mind for distinguishing things.” (J7A>8 B:6C>C<
originalism does not bind us to the Framers’ particular expectations
D;=DLE6GI>8JA6G8DC8:EIHLDJA97:6EEA>:97JI>I9D:H7>C9JHID
I=:>G 9:;>C>I>DCH D; I=DH: 8DC8:EIH,=JH 6H +B>I= :MEA6>CH EJ7A>8
meaning originalism “surrenders us to the rule of those particular
men who installed the laws and their beliefs about laws’ meaning,
G6I=:GI=6CIDA6LH—and to laws’ actual meaning.”/=:I=:GI=:
<DK:GCB:CI 86C 7JAA9DO: NDJG =DB: ;DG8>7AN HI:G>A>O: NDJ >BEG>HDC NDJ ;DG :C<6<>C< >C 8DCH:CHJ6A H:MJ6A >CI>B68N 8DAA:8I
NDJG&6C9:CI:G>I>CID6C6I>DC6A96I676H:>;NDJ6G:6GG:HI:9
G><=IANDGLGDC<AN DG—A:HH9G6B6I>86AAN—;>C:NDJ;DG=6K>C<
6 76G7:8J: >C NDJG ;GDCI N6G9 IJGCH DC L=6I ADC<9:69 B:C
)) 6GN + $6LHDC )*0)'8-3273*%214-6-'%0)%()66390(0)1-2+)-+,8
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“suspect[s] that in the end she will oppose only some but not all forms of originalism
6H tools for the ascertainment of meaning.” ( 6I C !; I=:G: >H 6 ;DGB D;
DG><>C6A>HBI=6I+B>I=LDJA9688:EI!7:A>:K:I=6I>ILDJA9=6K:ID7:6C8=DG:9>C
I=: 36-+-2%0'32')487H:I ;DGI= >C DJG A6L !I LDJA9 6AHD =6K: ID 9>HI>C<J>H= 7:IL::C
I=:68IJ6AC6IJG:D;I=DH:8DC8:EIH6C9I=: 92()678%2(-2+D;I=DH:8DC8:EIH=:A97N
:>I=:GG:6ADG=NEDI=:I>86A6JI=DGHDGG:69:GH6I6E6GI>8JA6GED>CI>CI>B:͒
+%!, 7946%CDI:6I
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7NI>8@:I>C<8DCK>8I>C<;>C>C<6C9:K:C?6>A>C<>IHG:H>9:CIH;DGCJB:GDJH=6GBA:HH
68I>K>I>:H
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I=DJ<=I/>AAG6I=:GI=6CG:6HDC9:I:GB>C:HL=6II=:A6L>H6C9
=DL <DK:GCB:CI EDL:G B6N 7: :M:G8>H:9 +J8= 6C >CI:GEG:I>K:
6EEGD68=>H>C86E67A:D;B6>CI6>C>C<I=:GJA:D;A6L:HI67A>H=:97N
the Constitution. It subjects us to arbitrary power that is “unleashed
from the discipline of rational restraint.”
Smith’s discussion of poEJA6G8DCHI>IJI>DC6A>HB>H7G>H@:G I=6C
=:G 9>H8JHH>DC D; EJ7A>8 B:6C>C< DG><>C6A>HB EG>B6G>AN 7:86JH:
popular constitutionalism’s incompatibility with the rule of law is
BDG: G:69>AN 6EE6G:CI (DEJA6G 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A>HB =DA9H I=6I I=:
6JI=DG>IN D; I=: DCHI>IJI>DC JAI>B6I:AN G:HIH JEDC I=: L>AA D; I=:
E:DEA:6C9I=JH8DCHI>IJI>DC6AB:6C>C<DJ<=IID7:ID6<G:6I:GDG
A:HH:G9:<G::8DCHIGJ8I:97NI=:E:DEA: ,=:=DLL=6I6C9L=N
D;I=:A:<6AHNHI:B6G:I=JHID6<G:6I:GDGA:HH:G9:<G::9:E:C9:CI
JEDCI=:L>AAD;8DCI:BEDG6GNB6?DG>I>:H
N6AADL>C<8DCI:BEDG6GNB6?DG>I>:HID9:I:GB>C:I=:B:6C>C<
D; I=: A6L EDEJA6G 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A>HB LDJA9 8DBEGDB>H: I=:
Constitution’s capacity to perform its function. It would leave the
law in a state of “continual flux, transformed by the winds of public
opinion.”,=: H6;:<J6G9H I=6I I=: DCHI>IJI>DC EGDK>9:H 6<6>CHI
I=: 67JH: D; <DK:GCB:CI EDL:G LDJA9 7: 6H JCG:A>67A: 6H
majorities’ concern for minorities’ rights is fickle. Even if popular
8DCHI>IJI>DC6A>HB EGD9J8:9 HI67>A>IN =DL:K:G I=:G: AJG@H 6 BDG:
;JC96B:CI6AEGD7A:B-C9:GEDEJA6G8DCHI>IJI>DC6A>HBI=:L>AAD;
I=:E:DEA:JAI>B6I:AN9:I:GB>C:HL=:I=:G<DK:GCB:CI EDL:GB6N
'GB><=I=6K:I=DJ<=I/=:I=:GDC:>9:CI>;>:HB:6C>C<L>I=I=:JC9:GHI6C9>C<D;
%'89%0 6JI=DGH DG G:69:GH DG ,=438,)8-'%0 6JI=DGH DG G:69:GH DC: B6@:H I=: H6B:
fundamental mistake of “seek[ing] to ascertain earlier people’s beliefs” rather than
“the actual character of the phenomena that the concepts designated by laws’ words
refer to.”+%!, 7946%CDI:6I
+%!, 7946%CDI:6I
*:8:CI 8DCIG>7JI>DCH ID I=: <GDL>C< A>I:G6IJG: DC EDEJA6G 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A>HB
>C8AJ9: *- #*%& / , ('($ '-&,!'&+ %*# ,-+ &,
,#!& , '&+,!,-,!'& /1 *'% , '-*,+ $**1 #*%* , ('($, %+$.+('(-$*'&+,!,-,!'&$!+%&"-!!$*.!/
+%!, 7946%CDI:6I
4
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7: :M:G8>H:9 DC 6CN <>K:C D886H>DC :86JH: B:G: L>AA L=:I=:G
imposed “by a large number of wellmeaning people” or by “a
small gang of malevolent, thuggish dictators” is CDI 6 HJ;;>8>:CI
BDG6A ?JHI>;>86I>DC ;DG 8DCHIG6>C>C< >C9>K>9J6A ;G::9DB EDEJA6G
constitutionalism is incapable of preserving the Constitution’s
BDG6A6JI=DG>IN
Smith’s critique of public meaning originalism might lead one
ID :ME:8I I=6I H=: LDJA9 7: HNBE6I=:I>8 ID E:G;:8I>DC>HB 6H
69KD86I:9 7N *DC6A9 LDG@>C 6C9 ID96N 7N (GD;:HHDG "6B:H
A:B>C< LDG@>C8DCI:C9HI=6I8:GI6>C8DCHI>IJI>DC6AEGDK>H>DCH
H=DJA97:JC9:GHIDD9IDG:;:GIDCDGB6I>K:8DC8:EIHG6I=:GI=6CID
I=: HE:8>;>8 8DC8:EI>DCH D; I=: G6B:GH — for example, “cruel and
unusual punishment” should be understood to refer to
EJC>H=B:CIH I=6I G:6AAN 6G: 8GJ:A 6C9 JCJHJ6A CDI B:G:AN ID
EJC>H=B:CIH I=6I I=: G6B:GH I=DJ<=I 8GJ:A 6C9 JCJHJ6A LDG@>C 6AHD 6G<J:H I=6I ?J9<:H H=DJA9 >CI:GEG:I 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A
EGDK>H>DCH >C 6 B6CC:G I=6I 7:HI ?JHI>;>:H DJG A6L 6H 6 L=DA: —
though their interpretations must still “fit” with previous legal
B6I:G>6AH : 9:EADNH I=: 6C6AD<N D; 6 8=6>CCDK:A JG<>C< I=6I
judges “transform[] the varied links in the ch6>CD;A6L>CID6K>H>DC
of government now speaking with one voice.”
(
The most systematic statement of Dworkin’s approac=>H*'&$/'*#!&$/’+
%(!* (1984), upon which Smith focuses her critique. Fleming defends Dworkin’s
6EEGD68=>C "%+ $%!& !$!,1,''-* !%(*, '&+,!,-,!'& '* %'*$
*!&+&!&+,'*!!&$!+%+
)) *DC6A9 LDG@>C ,) 6(9397 "-689) 3* -()0-8= 6-+-2%0-71 '%0-% 6-&) %2(
)6:)'* %$*.1249, 1253 (1997) (“[J]udges attempting to keep faith with
I=: I:MI ID96N BJHI HDB:I>B:H 6H@ I=:BH:AK:H L=:I=:G EJC>H=B:CIH I=: G6B:GH
LDJA9 CDI I=:BH:AK:H =6K: 8DCH>9:G:9 8GJ:A C:K:GI=:A:HH 6G: 8GJ:A 3,=:
G6B:GH 6G:4 7:HI JC9:GHIDD9 6H B6@>C< 6 8DCHI>IJI>DC DJI D; 67HIG68I BDG6A
EG>C8>EA:H CDI 8D9:9 G:;:G:C8:H ID I=:>G DLC DE>C>DCH DG I=DH: D; I=:>G
contemporaries) about the best way to apply those principles.”)
$/’+%(!*7946%CDI:6I
(
);$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
Smith accepts Dworkin’s distinction between concepts and
8DC8:EI>DCH +=: 6AHD 6<G::H L>I= =>B I=6I DJG DCHI>IJI>DC —
>C9::96CN8DCHI>IJI>DC—sets forth a “vision of government” and
I=6I 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A >CI:GEG:I6I>DC BJHI 7: >C;DGB:9 7N 6C
understanding of the “philosophy that is in the law.” ,=: 9:K>A
6A6H>H>CI=:9:I6>AHHI=:8=6>CCDK:A6C6AD<NHJ<<:HIHLDG@>C
JC9:GHIDD9?J9>8>6AG:K>:LID7:68G:6I>K::C9:6KDG,D7:HJG:=>H
>9:6A ?J9<: — “Hercules” — >H 8DCHIG6>C:9 7N EG:K>DJH A:<6A
materials, but he also strives to make our legal system the “best” it
can be, and “draw[s] on his own convictions about justice and
fairness and the right relation between them” in order ID 9D HD
Dworkin argues that “[v]ery different, even contrary, conceptions of
68DCHI>IJI>DC6AEG>C8>EA:L>AAD;I:C;>IA6C<J6<:EG:8:9:CI6C9
practice,” I=6I ?J9<:H L>AA >C:K>I67AN =6K: ID 8=DDH: 7:IL::C
6K6>A67A:8DC8:EI>DCH6C9I=6II=:NDJ<=IID9DHDDCI=:76H>HD;
“their own views about political morality.”,=JH+B>I=:MEA6>CH
Dworkin’s approach deprives the law of any “fixed identity,” and
:BEDL:GH ?J9<:H ID 68I 6H A6LB6@:GH 'C8: 6<6>C L: =6K: I=:
GJA:D;B:C—=:G:I=:GJA:D;E:G;:8I>DC>HI?J9<:H
,=: ;>C6A 688DJCI D; ?J9>8>6A G:K>:L +B>I= :M6B>C:H —
B>C>B6A>HB — >H CDI EG>B6G>AN 8DC8:GC:9 L>I= 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A
>CI:GEG:I6I>DC H 9:;>C:9 6C9 9:;:C9:9 7N (GD;:HHDG 6HH
+JCHI:>CB>C>B6A>HB>H6B:6CH7NL=>8=?J9<:HD;;JC96B:CI6AAN
9>;;:G>C< K>:LH 67DJI 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A >CI:GEG:I6I>DC 86C G:HDAK:
8DCHI>IJI>DC6A 86H:H L>I=DJI JC9JAN >CI:G;:G>C< L>I= 9:BD8G6I>8
9:8>H>DCB6@>C< DG JCC:8:HH6G>AN EGD9J8>C< HD8>6A 8DC;A>8I
Minimalism holds that judges should “favor decisions that are
C6GGDL >C I=: H:CH: I=6I I=:N 9D CDI L6CI ID G:HDAK: >HHJ:H CDI
+%!, 7946%CDI:6I
(6I:BE=6H>H699:9
*'&$/'*#!&*'%’+$/
(6I:BE=6H>H699:9
$/’+%(!*7946%CDI:6I
4
’!
before the Court” and “shallow, in the sense that they avoid the
A6G<:HII=:DG:I>86A8DCIGDK:GH>:H6C986C6IIG68IHJEEDGI;GDBI=DH:
L>I= 9>K:GH: E:GHE:8I>K:H DC I=: BDHI 8DCI:CI>DJH FJ:HI>DCH”!I
purports to be “neutral,” because it takes no stand on how to arrive
6I I=: G><=I 6CHL:GH ID 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A FJ:HI>DCH — >I H::@H DCAN ID
(in Smith’s phrasing) minimize the “judicial footprint.” %>C>B6A>HB 6AHD =DA9H >IH:A; DJI 6H BD9:HI 8D<C>O6CI D; I=: ;68I
that, as Sunstein puts it, “no one, and no court, has a monopoly on
wisdom.”
%>C>B6A>HB G:HIH JEDC 6 B>HJC9:GHI6C9>C< D; I=: ;JC8I>DC D;
?J9>8>6A G:K>:L !I >H CDI I=: ;JC8I>DC D; I=: ?J9>8>6A G:K>:L ID
EGDBDI: 9:BD8G6I>8 9:8>H>DCB6@>C< DG HD8>6A =6GBDCN 7JI ID
6H8:GI6>C I=: B:6C>C< D; I=: DCHI>IJI>DC 6C9 =DA9 <DK:GCB:CI
D;;>8>6AH688DJCI67A:ID>I,DEG>DG>I>O:C6GGDLC:HH6C9H=6AADLC:HH
>C9:8>H>DCB6@>C<>HIDI=L6GII=6I;JC8I>DCH+B>I=ED>CIHDJI
I=: G:68= D; HDB: JC8DCHI>IJI>DC6A A6LH >H FJ>I: 7GD69 6C9 DC:
86CCDI B>C>B>O: I=: ?J9>8>6A ;DDIEG>CI I=6I G:HJAIH ;GDB I=:>G
>CK6A>96I>DCL>I=DJI8DBEGDB>H>C<I=:G><=IHD;I=DH:7JG9:C:97N
I=:BThus, in practice, minimalism is not “neutral” —>I>CK>I:H
?J9<:HID6AADL<DK:GCB:CID;;>8>6AHID:M:G8>H:8D:G8>K:EDL:GI=6I
is not authorized by the Constitution. “The only scope that a court
should be concerned with,” Smith writes, “is whether the power
:M:G8>H:9 7N I=: <DK:GCB:CI >C 6 E6GI>8JA6G 68I>DC ;6AAH L>I=>C >IH
scope of authority.”
%>C>B6A>HB >H CD BDG: BD9:HI I=6C >I >H C:JIG6A DG 6AA I=6I
Sunstein emphasizes the importance of “giv[ing] many minds an
6HH +JCHI:>C * 2%/)7 %2( 988)6*0-)7 )40= '$-% $ *. +%!, 7946%CDI:6I
++ +-&+,!& '&+,!,-,!'& ' %&1 %!&+ / 1 , '-&!&
'-%&, '+&’, %& / , !, %&, '* 3=:G:>C6;I:G %&1
%!&+4
+%!, 7946%CDI:6I
(6I
);$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
opportunity to contribute” to the resolution of contested issues,
B>C>B6A>HBA>@:E:G;:8I>DC>HBJAI>B6I:ANG:EA68:HI=:GJA:D;A6L
L>I= I=: GJA: D; ?J9<:H Judges’ “projections of social harmony”
take precedence over “the identity and meaning of the law,” and,
I=JH I=: G><=IH D; >C9>K>9J6AH L=DB I=: A6L H6;:<J6G9H -C9:G
B>C>B6A>HB?J9<:H7:8DB:A:<>HA6IDGH6C9I=:A6L>IH:A; 7:8DB:H
“an ongoing construction project, with the courts themselves part of
the construction crew.”
;I:G 86CK6HH>C< 6C9 8G>I>FJ>C< I=: 9DB>C6CI 688DJCIH D;
?J9>8>6A G:K>:L +B>I= >9:CI>;>:H I=: ;JC96B:CI6A K>8: I=6I :K:GN
DC: D; I=:B H=6G:H +J7?:8I>K>INThe dominant accounts “treat[]
the convergence of a number of people’s beliefs or desires about a
law as if that were the law.” Public meaning originalism’s
>BEDK:G>H=:9688DJCID;A6C<J6<:G:HJAIH>CI=:>9:CI>;>86I>DCD;I=:
A6L L>I= I=: 7:A>:;H 6C9 9:H>G:H D; ADC<9:69 >C9>K>9J6AH
Democratic deference’s misunderstanding of the Constitution’s
;JC8I>DC G:HJAIH >C I=: >9:CI>;>86I>DC D; A6L L>I= I=: 7:A>:;H 6C9
desires of living majorities. Perfectionism’s elevation of political
E=>ADHDE=N67DK:A6LBakes judges’ beliefs and desires sovereign.
Minimalism’s failure to grasp the function of judicial review does
the same by allowing judges’ political prognostications to trump the
A6L I=:N 6G: 8=6G<:9 L>I= >CI:GEG:I>C< 6C9 6EEAN>C< AA D; I=:H:
688DJCIH6AADLB:G:L>AAID9:I:GB>C:L=:I=:G<DK:GCB:CIEDL:G
B6N7:JCA:6H=:9AAD;I=:H:688DJCIH:C67A:I=:GJA:D;B:C
%&1%!&+7946%CDI:6I
+%!, 7946%CDI:6I
(
(at 25 (defining “subjectivism” as “the belief that a thing’s nature is depend:CI
upon the consciousness of the person(s) considering it”). (6I
4
’!
2863(9'-2+&.)'8-:)):-);
The implications of Smith’s diagnosis are alarming.
88DJCIH D; ?J9>8>6A G:K>:L I=6I B6@: I=: :C?DNB:CI D; DJG G><=IH
8DCI>C<:CI JEDC I=: L>AA D; B:C EG:K:CI I=: DCHI>IJI>DC ;GDB
;JA;>AA>C<>IHBDG6A;JC8I>DC6C98DBEGDB>H:>IHBDG6A6JI=DG>IN/:
C::9 6C 6AI:GC6I>K: 6EEGD68= ID ?J9>8>6A G:K>:L I=6I >H 8DCH>HI:CI
with the nature of language; the Constitution’s DK:G6G8=>C<
;JC8I>DC6C9I=:E6GI>8JA6G;JC8I>DCD;?J9>8>6AG:K>:L
Smith’s approach is spare by design, owing to the fact that
“objective review is not, in its essence, different in kind from
objectivity in any other sphere.” $>@: 6AA D7?:8I>K: >CFJ>GN >I
8DCH>HIH D; 6 AD<>8<J>9:9 8DCI:MIH:CH>I>K: :;;DGI ID >9:CI>;N I=:
C6IJG: D; I=: D7?:8I — >C I=>H 86H: I=: DCHI>IJI>DC :86JH: I=:
B:6C>C<D;LDG9H>HCDIH:A;evident and the Framers’ terminology
>H9>;;:G:CI;GDBDJGH>C>BEDGI6CIG:HE:8IH?J9<:HBJHIH8GJI>C>O:
G:A:K6CI =>HIDG>86A :K>9:C8: 8DC8:GC>C< LDG9 JH6<: :86JH: I=:
DCHI>IJI>DC >H 9:H><C:9 ID >BEA:B:CI 6 E6GI>8JA6G EDA>I>86A
E=>ADHDE=N ?J9<:H BJHI 9G6L JEDC 6C JC9:GHI6C9>C< D; I=6I
E=>ADHDE=N>CDG9:GID<G6HEI=:B:6C>C<D;8DCHI>IJI>DC6AI:GBH
,=:NB6NCDI=DL:K:G9:E6GI;GDBI=:DG><>C6A8DC8:EIH>C9>86I:9
7NI=DH:I:GBH>C;6KDGD;8DC8:EIHI=6I7:II:G6A><CL>I=I=:>GDLC
EDA>I>86A 6C9 BDG6A 8DCK>8I>DCH DG L=>8= I=:N 7:A>:K: ID 7: BDG:
consistent with the Constitution’s over6G8=>C< EDA>I>86A
(6I
( 6I 170 (although “meaning is not settled by the calendar,” the calendar can
“help us to ascertain word usage prevalent in a given time (for instance, to learn
whether a certain population used the phrase “domestic violence” to refer to strife on
I=:HIG::IHor to strife between family members in the home).”). ( at 233 (“The Constitution did not emerge in a vacuum. It is ‘backlit by the
Declaration,’ having been motivated by substantive aspirations and given the
HE:8>;>8;DGBI=6I>I=6H6H6B:6CHD;G:6lizing those aspirations.”). );$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
E=>ADHDE=NThey must be guided at all points by “the objective
meanings of terms, as best as [they] can discern them.” JI I=:G: >H BDG: ID ?J9>8>6A G:K>:L I=6C 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A
>CI:GEG:I6I>DC!C8DCHI>IJI>DC6A86H:HCDA:HH I=6C>C DG9>C6GN8>K>A
DG 8G>B>C6A 86H:H 8DJGIH :BEADN EGD8:9JG6A B:8=6C>HBH I=6I
H>IJ6I:G:HEDCH>7>A>IN;DG8DB>C<;DGL6G9L>I=EGDD; 'C:D;I=:H:
mechanisms is the presumption, which “imposes on the party
6<6>CHI L=DB >I >H 9>G:8I:9 I=: 7JG9:C D; <D>C< ;DGL6G9 L>I=
evidence to rebut or meet the presumption.” ,=: EG:HJBEI>DC
8DB:H >C ILD ;DGBH EGD9J8I>DC 6C9 E:GHJ6H>DC 'C8: I=:
7:C:;>8>6GN D; 6 EGD9J8I>DCH=>;I>C< EG:HJBEI>DC 9:BDCHIG6I:H 6
76H>8;68II=:DEEDC:CIBJHIEGD9J8:HDB::K>9:C8:9>HEJI>C<I=:
EG:HJB:9 ;68I DG I=: ;68I >H 9:8>9:9 6<6>CHI I=: DEEDC:CI ,=:
7:C:;>8>6GN D; 6 EGD9J8I>DCH=>;I>C< EG:HJBEI>DC =DL:K:G
8DCI>CJ:H ID 7:6G I=: G>H@ D; CDCE:GHJ6H>DC DC I=: B:G>IH >; I=:
DEEDC:CI EGD9J8:H HJ;;>8>:CI :K>9:C8: 'C8: I=: 7:C:;>8>6GN D; 6
E:GHJ6H>DCH=>;I>C< EGD9J8I>DC B6@:H 6 I=G:H=DA9 H=DL>C<
=DL:K:G I=: DEEDC:CI 7:6GH 7DI= I=: 7JG9:C D; EGD9J8>C<
:K>9:C8:ID9>HEJI:I=6IH=DL>C<6C9I=:G>H@D;CDCE:GHJ6H>DCDC
I=:B:G>IH(G:HJBEI>DCHH:GK:7DI=IDG:<JA6I:I=:69?J9>86I>DCD;
8A6>BH6C9IDB>C>B>O:I=:=6GB;JA8DCH:FJ:C8:HD;:GGDG>C86H:H
D; JC8:GI6>CIN ,=JH I=: EG:HJBEI>DC D; >CCD8:C8: >C 8G>B>C6A
cases reflects the conviction that it is “better to let ten guilty men go
free than to convict one innocent man.” !C BDHI 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A H:II>C<H I=: <DK:GCB:CI G:8:>K:H I=:
7:C:;>ID;6C:;;:8I>K:AN8DC8AJH>K:EG:HJBEI>DCD;8DCHI>IJI>DC6A>IN
)) +%!, 7946% CDI: at 199 (“That our Constitution may not consistently
JE=DA9 >IH DLC <J>9>C< E=>ADHDE=N =DL:K:G 9D:H CDI <>K: ?J9<:H I=: A>8:CH: ID
correct the law and subject the law to a different Constitution, as revised by them.”). (6I
*'.!
DG 6C >AAJB>C6I>C< EG>B:G DC :K>9:CI>6GN EG>C8>EA:H 6C9 6 EGDEDH6A ;DG JH>C<
I=:B ID >C;DGB 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A 69?J9>86I>DC H:: 6K>9 $ 6><B6C %(-732-%2
%0%2'-2+ ,)36=3*3278-898-32%0(.9(-'%8-32&/-$*.
4
’!
when its actions are challenged. Under the “rationalbasis test” —
I=: 9:;6JAI HI6C96G9 D; G:K>:L 6EEA>:9 ID <DK:GCB:CI 68I>DCH I=6I
9DCDI>BEA>86te any of a handful of rights deemed “fundamental”
by the Supreme Court or involve “suspect classifications” —E:DEA:
challenging the government’s actions must demonstrate that the
government’s actions are not “rationally related to legitimate
<DK:GCB:CI >nterests.” ,=: DJGI =6H =:A9 I=6I JC9:G
G6I>DC6A76H>H G:K>:L I=: <DK:GCB:CI C::9 CDI EGD9J8: 6CN
:K>9:C8: 6I 6AA >C HJEEDGI D; >IH 68I>DCH 6C9 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A
challengers must “negative every conceivable basis which might
support [the government’s actionH4 L=:I=:G DG CDI I=: 76H>H =6H 6
foundation in the record.” ,=: DJGI =6H ;JGI=:G HI6I:9 I=6I
?J9<:H6G:CDIG:FJ>G:9ID9:I:GB>C:L=6I:C9HI=:<DK:GCB:CI>H
68IJ6AAN H::@>C<>C6AAN I=: DJGI =6H B69: EA6>C I=6I >I C::9
not require an “empirical” connection between the government’s
68I>DCH 6C9 6 8DCHI>IJI>DC6AAN A:<>I>B6I: <DK:GCB:CI >CI:G:HI —
only a “theoretical” connection. $DL:G 8DJGIH =6K: >CI:GEG:I:9
I=:H: >CHIGJ8I>DCH ID G:FJ>G: I=:B ID 9>HG:<6G9 G:A:K6CI :K>9:C8:
concerning the government’s IGJ: :C9H 6C9 :K:C ID 6HH>HI I=:
/6H=>C<IDC K AJ8@H7:G< -+ ,=: 9>HI>C8I>DC 7:IL::C
G6I>DC6A76H>H G:K>:L 6nd “heightened” judicial scrutiny in cases involving
;JC96B:CI6AG><=IH6C9HJHE:8I8A6HH>;>86I>DCH86C7:IG68:9768@ID6C:CDGBDJHAN
influential footnote (“Footnote Four”) in !2-8)(8%8)7:%630)2)63(9'87 -+
!C DDICDI: DJG I=: DJGI :MEA6>C:9 I=6I L=>A: G:<JA6IDGN A:<>HA6I>DC
LDJA9 <:C:G6AAN 7: HJ7?:8I ID G6I>DC6A76H>H G:K>:L BDG: :M68I>C< ?J9>8>6A H8GJI>CN
might be applied when legislation “appears on its face to be within a specific
EGD=>7>I>DCD;I=:DCHI>IJI>DCHJ8=6Hthose of the first ten amendments,” interferes
with the political process, or targets “discrete and insular minorities.” (6IC
DG6CDK:GK>:LD;I=:8DCHI>IJI>DC6AI=:DGN7:=>C9DDICDI:DJG6C9I=:=>HIDG>86A
8DCI:MI >C L=>8= >I IDD@ H=6E: H:: #JGI $6H= ,)3278-898-32%032:)28-323*
,)6-+-2%0)%2-2+3*8,));96-7469()28-%0)%0'* %$*.
K:68=DBBJC>86I>DCH-+
(
%>CC:HDI6KADK:G$:6;G:6B:GN-+
);$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
government by articulating justifications for the government’s
68I>DCHI=6I=6K:CDHJEEDGI>CI=:G:8DG9
H +B>I= G:8D<C>O:H BD9:GC G6I>DC6A76H>H G:K>:L >H I=:
antithesis of objective review. The Court’s formulations D; I=:
G6I>DC6A76H>HI:HI9:H8G>7:67JG9:CI=6I>HAD<>86AAN>BEDHH>7A:;DG
8DCHI>IJI>DC6A 8=6AA:C<:GH ID 86GGN — CD DC: 8DJA9 G:;JI: :K:GN
8DC8:>K67A: ?JHI>;>86I>DC ;DG G:HIG>8I>C< I=:>G ;G::9DB !; ?J9<:H
make no effort to identify the government’s trJ::C9HI=:N86CCDI
9:I:GB>C: L=:I=:G I=: <DK:GCB:CI >H 68IJ6AAN EJGHJ>C< 6
8DCHI>IJI>DC6AAN A:<>I>B6I: >CI:G:HI /=:C ?J9<:H G6I>DC6A>O: I=:
government’s actions by offering justifications without support in
I=:G:8DG9I=:N9>HIDGIG:6A>INID=:AE<DK:GCB:CID;;>8>6AH>BEDH:
)) )+ Powers v. Harris, 379 F.3d 1208, 1217 (10th Cir. 2004) (“[W]e are not
bound by the parties’ arguments as to what legitimate state interests the statute seeks
to further.”); +I6GA><=I+J<6G!C8K+DID9HI>G:BE=6H>H
added) (“K:C>;Soto’sHI6I:9?JHI>;>86I>DC;DG:C;DG8>C<%6G@:I*:<JA6I>DC&D>H
>CHJ;;>8>:CI I=>HDJGI>H 3&0-+%8)(837))/398other conceivable reasons.”); JG@:
%DJCI6>C 869 !C8 K -C>I:9 +I6I:H 9 9 >G :BE=6H>H
added) (internal citations omitted) (“It is our job to try to divine what Congress left
JCHI6I:936C94;)6)7368833963;28%0)287%2(8,37)3*'3927)0ID9>H8:GCI=:G6I>DC6A>IN
of the classification in question.”)
)) CI=DCN : "6H6N "-+,! & !,+ +-**'-&!&+ 6G<J>C< ;DG 6
presumption of liberty on the grounds that “falsify[ing] the hypothesis that [a given
act] is objectionable” is “very difficult and costly if the set of potential objections is
A6G<: 6C9 AD<>86Aly impossible if the set is not finite”). As Timothy Sandefur has
argued (drawing upon De Jasay’s insight), the requirement that challengers in
G6I>DC6Abasis cases negative every “conceivable basis” for restricting their freedom
EJIH I=:B >C EG:8>H:AN I=>H EDH>I>DC )) ,!%', 1 +&-* , *! , ,' *& $!.!& )) %073 .! **!%& , $'!$ $( !&-,!'& !&
( 1+!+ 66 (describing Sir Isaac Newton’s approach to hypotheses that were
JCHJEEDGI:9 7N D7H:GK6I>DC6A :K>9:C8: G:?:8I>C< I=:B DJI D; =6C9 6GG>B6C
explains that “the attempt to refute an arbitrary assertion is a fundamental error,”
because “such claims can always be shielded by further arbitrary assertions”). In a
;JIJG:6GI>8A:!=DE:ID>CK:HI><6I: I=:EG6<B6I>8:E>HI:BDAD<NI=6IJC9:G<>G9HI=:
G6I>DC6A76H>HI:HI6C9=DL>I9>;;:GH;GDBI=::E>HI:BDAD<N D;&:LIDC$D8@:6C9
the Framers. For an extended discussion of pragmatism’s influence upon American
A:<6A I=DJ<=I >C I=: A6I: I= 6C9 :6GAN I= 8:CIJGN—L=:C I=: G6I>DC6A76H>H I:HI
IDD@ GDDI—H:: $'-!+ %&& , %,( 1+!$ $- +,'*1 ' !+ !&
%*!
4
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I=:>G L>AA %D9:GC G6I>DC6A76H>H G:K>:L LDJA9 7: 6 ;DGBJA6 ;DG
6G7>IG6GN <DK:GCB:CI 68I>DC JC9:G 6CN HNHI:B D; A6LH 7JI >I >H
“flagrantly illogical” as a means of implementing a Constitution
that “creates a government as the instruB:CI 9:H><C:9 ID EGDI:8I
individuals’ rights.” It “sabotages our legal system’s ability to
;JA;>AAI=:EJGEDH:;DGL=>8=>IL6H8G:6I:96C9I=6I>IH8DCHI>IJI>DC
is designed to uphold.” +B>I=86AAH;DGI=:L=DA:H6A:676C9DCB:CID;I=:G6I>DC6A76H>H
I:HI, arguing that its “presumption” of constitutionality should be
G:EA68:9 L>I= 6 EG:HJBEI>DC D; A>7:GIN G6L>C< ;GDB I=:
scholarship of Professor Barnett, Smith contends that “[b]ecause
DJGH >H 6 <DK:GCB:CI D; A>B>I:9 EDL:GH 6JI=DG>O:9 ID H:GK: 6
HE:8>;>8 EJGEDH: I=: ;JC96B:CI6A EG:HJBEI>DC H=DJA9 7: I=6I
>C9>K>9J6AH 6G: :CI>IA:9 ID 68I ;G:: D; 6AA <DK:GCB:CI >CI:G;:G:C8:
DI=:GI=6CI=6IL=>8=>H9>G:8IANG:FJ>G:9ID:C67A:I=:<DK:GCB:CI
to fulfill its mission.”+B>I=HIG:HH:HI=6II=>HEG:HJBEI>DC>HCDI
DCAN 8DGG:8I 6H 6 B6II:G D; EDA>I>86A E=>ADHDE=N 7JI 6H 6 B6II:G D;
law: It is “the only positioning of presumptions that is consistent
with the design, structure, and content of the U.S. Constitution.”
DLH=DJA9I=:EG:HJBEI>DCD;A>7:GIN7:>BEA:B:CI:9+B>I=
advocates “exacting judicial inspection” of the constitutionality of
the government’s actions in every case involving a burden upon
8DCHI>IJI>DC6AAN EGDI:8I:9 ;G::9DB 'C8: 6 8=6AA:C<:G B6@:H 6
I=G:H=DA9 H=DL>C< I=6I I=:>G ;G::9DB =6H 7::C 7JG9:C:9 I=:
government would need to offer a “clear demonstration of the
Constitutional authority for its actions” and would bear the risk of
CDCE:GHJ6H>DC DC I=: B:G>IH ,=>H EDHIJG: >H 8DCH>HI:CI L>I=
what constitutional litigator Clark Neily calls “judici6A
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engagement.”"J9>8>6A:C<6<:B:CI>C8DCHI>IJI>DC6A86H:H8DCH>HIH
D;6C>BE6GI>6A:K>9:C8:76H:9:;;DGIID6HH:HHI=:8DCHI>IJI>DC6A>IN
of the government’s true ends and means. Judicial engagement is
CDI 8DC8:GC:9 L>I= L=:I=:G G:6HDC67A: E:DEA: 8DJA9 =6K:
HJEEDGI:9 I=: 8=6AA:C<:9 68I>DCH 7JI L=:I=:G I=: <DK:GCB:CI >H
68IJ6AANEJGHJ>C<68DCHI>IJI>DC6A:C9HI=GDJ<=B:6CH86A8JA6I:9ID
68=>:K:I=DH::C9H
+B>I=>H6L6G:I=6I;DAADL>C<I=:8DJGH:H=:=6H8=6GI:9LDJA9
require uprooting “longHI6C9>C< L>9:AN 688:EI:9 6C9 9::EAN
entrenched” practices, and she spends some time addressing the
concern that adopting her proposals would carry “dramatic
repercussions on ordinary life.” >GHI H=: G:B>C9H JH D; I=:
stakes: Whether the government’s “use of its uC>FJ: 8D:G8>K:
power” is grounded in reason or mere will. ,=: 9>;;:G:C8:
7:IL::C I=: GJA: D; A6L 6C9 I=: GJA: D; B:C >H I=: 9>;;:G:C8:
between a government that has “genuine moral authority” and a
<DK:GCB:CII=6IA68@HHJ8=6JI=DG>IN+:8DC9+B>I=:BE=6H>O:H
that she is not advocating an immediate “radical and total
reversal”of longstanding legal practices but “a gradual, orderly
period of transition” to a jurisprudence that reliably secures the rule
D; A6L :HI67A>H=:9 7N I=: DCHI>IJI>DC +B>I= :BE=6H>O:H I=6I
?J9<:HH::@>C<ID;68>A>I6I:HJ8=6IG6CH>I>DCBJHI7:8A:6GCDIDCAN
67DJI L=6I I=:N 6G: 9D>C< 7JI 67DJI L=N I=:N 6G: 9D>C< >I
“directly address[ing] those factors that may make their rulings
H::B JC?JHI>;>:9 9J: ID I=: 9>HIDGI>on of law’s nonD7?:8I>K:
)) +)2)6%00= $*# &!$1 ,*%+ ' &%&, '/ '-* '-*,+ + '-$
&'*, '&+,!,-,!'&’+ (*'%!+' $!%!, '.*&%&,6GI>8JA6I>C<
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applications in the past.” This will serve to “demonstrate the
K6A>9>IN D; I=:>G GJA>C<H 6C9 ID 7: 8A:6G >C I=: <J>96C8: I=6I I=:N
provide for future applications of the law.” ,G6CH>I>DC>C< 6L6N
;GDBCDCD7?:8I>K:A6LL>AAG:FJ>G:?J9<:HCDIDCANID7:H8GJEJADJH
in their reasoning but also to “conscientiously, sometimes
courageously” assert the authority of their office.
!C I=: 8DC8AJ9>C< 8=6EI:G D; =:G 7DD@ +B>I= HJ88>C8IAN
summarizes her account of judicial review. “People ar: G><=I ID
argue about judicial review,” Smith states, for our freedom turns on
L=:I=:G ?J9>8>6A G:K>:L >H E:G;DGB:9 8DGG:8IANC9 L: 86CCDI
JC9:GHI6C9 =DL ID E:G;DGB ?J9>8>6A G:K>:L JCA:HH L: JC9:GHI6C9
L=6I I=: DCHI>IJI>DC >H 9:H><C:9 ID 688DBEA>H= 6C9 L=6I GDA:
?J9>8>6AG:K>:LEA6NH>C;JGI=:G>C<I=6IB>HH>DC'C8:L:=6K:9DC:
HD L: 86C 6EEG:8>6I: I=: >BEDGI6C8: D; 9>HI>C<J>H=>C< 7:IL::C
L=6I I=: A6L >H 6C9 L=6I E6GI>8JA6G E:DEA: 7:A>:K: >I ID 7: 6C9
:CHJG>C<I=6II=:<DK:GCB:CIDE:G6I:HL>I=>CA:<6AA>B>IH/:=6K:
6 DCHI>IJI>DC I=6I <:IH I=: L=6I =DL 6C9 L=N D; <DK:GCB:CI
fundamentally right. If we are to “enjoy [our] rights,” judges must
ensure that “it is the law that actually governs.”
Smith’s6EEGD68=ID?J9>8>6AG:K>:L9:E:C9HJEDC68DC8:EIJ6A
I=:DGN D; A6C<J6<: >H >C;DGB:9 7N 6C >C9>K>9J6A>HI EDA>I>86A
E=>ADHDE=N6C9:BEADNH6?J9>8>6AEG:HJBEI>DCD;A>7:GIN68=D;
I=:H: I=G:: 8DBEDC:CIH 8DJGIH D7?:8I>DCH 'C: B><=I 8DCI:C9 I=6I
(6I
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,=6I>HDC:I=6I=DA9HI=6II=:EGDE:G;JC8I>DCD;<DK:GCB:CI>HI=:EGDI:8I>DCD;
G><=IH I=6I >C9>K>9J6AH EDHH:HH >C9:E:C9:CIAN D; <DK:GCB:CI DG 6CN HD8>6A
DG<6C>O6I>DC6C9I=6II=:B:G:L>AAD;DI=:G>C9>K>9J6AHCDI?JHI>;N7JG9:CHDCI=DH:
G><=IH
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:K:C>;Smith’sI=:DGND;A6C<J6<:>H8DGG:8II=:DCHI>IJI>DC9D:H
CDI :B7D9N I=6I I=:DGN +>B>A6GAN DC: B><=I 6G<J: I=6I I=:
DCHI>IJI>DC>HCDI9:H><C:9ID>BEA:B:CI6C>C9>K>9J6A>HIEDA>I>86A
E=>ADHDE=N >C6AAN DC: B><=I 8=6AA:C<: Smith’s 8A6>B I=6I 6
?J9>8>6AEG:HJBEI>DCD;A>7:GIN>H8DBB6C9:97NI=:DCHI>IJI>DC
'",!'&, '&+,!,-,!'&'+&',&,%+1&
*&’+!&,*'-,!'&,''",!.!+,(!+,%'$'1
Smith’s reliance upon a conceptual theory of language invites
8G>I>8>HB H>B>A6G ID I=6I L=>8= =6H 7::C A:K:A:9 6I LDG@>C 7N
EJ7A>8B:6C>C<DG><>C6A>HIH,=JH(GD;:HHDG#:>I=/=>II>C<IDC=6H
6G<J:96<6>CHILDG@>CI=6IH8=DA6GH86CCDIH6NI=6I6E6GI>8JA6G
I:GB >C I=: DCHI>IJI>DC C:8:HH6G>AN G:;:GH ID 6C DE:C:C9:9
8DC8:EI DG 6 C6GGDL 8DC8:EI>DC L>I=DJI :C<6<>C< >C 6C =>HIDG>86A
inquiry. Scholars, writes Whittington, “must be guided by the
>CI:CI>DCHD;I=:DJC9:GHDC686H:7Ncase basis.”!C68G>I>FJ:
of Dworkin’s concept8DC8:EI>DC9>HI>C8I>DC/=>II>C<IDCD;;:GH6C
illustration: “Suppose I yell out, ‘Lookout for the tiger’ as a creature
crouches behind you.”/:LDJA97:B>H>CI:GEG:I>C<I=:H:LDG9H
if we were to construe them to mean, “Take notice of the true tiger
the next time you visit the zoo.”!C 8DCI:MI I=:N 6G: EGDE:GAN
8DCHIGJ:96H6C>CHIGJ8I>DCIDADD@DJI6II=6I8G:6IJG:7:=>C9NDJ
)) #:>I= /=>II>C<IDC Dworkin’s “Originalism”: The Role of Intentions in
3278-898-32%0 28)646)8%8-32 *. ('$ %>8=6:A %8DCC:AA 6C9
6GN $6LHDC =6K: B69: H>B>A6G 6G<JB:CIH 6<6>CHI LDG@>C 6C9 "6B:H A:B>C<
G:HE:8I>K:AN )) %>8=6:A %8DCC:AA ,)14368%2')3*91-0-8=-29(-'-%0):-);
Comment on Dworkin’s Moral Reading of the Constitution '* % $ *. 1281 (1997) (asserting that interpreters must “seek the level of generality at which the
E6GI>8JA6GA6C<J6<:was understood by its Framers”); Reflections, 7946%CDI:6I
(“[I[t is an empirical question whether a particular concept is meant to funct>DC>C>IH
EG:HJBEI>K: 8D<C>I>K: ;6H=>DC 7N G:;:GG>C< ID 6 L=DA: H:I D; 68IJ6A @CDLC 6C9
JC@CDLC:CI>I>:HDG6IIG>7JI:HD;:CI>I>:HDGIDH:GK:6BDG:A>B>I:98D<C>I>K:GDA:7N
referring only to a specific subset of those entities or attributes”). /=>II>C<IDC7946%CDI:6I
(
4
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argues, “The Framers may have intended their words to refer to
either broad concepts or specific conceptions or applications.”
,=:G: >H 8DBE:AA>C< :K>9:C8: I=6I I=: G6B:GH :B7G68:9 6
8DC8:EIJ6A I=:DGN D; A6C<J6<: ,=:>G LG>I>C<H 9>H8ADH: I=:
influence of John Locke’s epistemology, as set forth in his Essay
DC8:GC>C< JB6C-C9:GHI6C9>C<!C=>HHH6N$D8@:8DCI:C9:9
I=6IIGJI=H67DJIBDG6A>IN6C9EDA>I>86AH8>:C8:CDA:HHI=6C IGJI=H
67DJI <:DB:IGN DG E=NH>8H 8DJA9 7: 9:G>K:9 I=GDJ<= G6I>DC6A
>CK:HI><6I>DC6C9I=6ILDG9HL>I=I=::M8:EI>DCD;EGDE:GC6B:H
HIDD9;DG8DC8:EIH—“not particularly for this or that single thing,
7JI ;DG HDGIH 6C9 ranks of things.”(GD;:HHDG (=>A>E 6B7JG<:G
notes that James Madison directly borrowed Locke’s arguments
8DC8:GC>C< A6C<J6<: ;GDB I=: HH6N >C :9:G6A>HI DAADL>C<
Locke, Madison described language as a “vehicle for ideas” and
6G<J:9 I=6I 6AI=DJ<= 67HDAJI: EG:8>H>DC >C A6C<J6<: L6H
unattainable, the Constitution’s language had been made as precise
6H EDHH>7A: <>K:C I=: C6IJG: D; I=: :CI:GEG>H: +JGK:N>C< I=:
evidence, Hamburger concludes: “To the extent that Americans
:C<6<:9 >C E=>ADHDE=>86A I=DJ<=I 67DJI A6C<J6<: >C8AJ9>C<
8DCHI>IJI>DC6AA6C<J6<:I=:N7:<6CL>I=I=:G:B6G@67A:6G<JB:CIH
in Locke’s Essay.”
But if Smith’s theory of language is correct, it actually does not
B6II:G L=:I=:G I=: G6B:GH 688:EI:9 >I — A6C<J6<: >H 7N C6IJG:
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For a thorough exploration of the Framers’ epistemology, H::%'*,'& / !,
, ( !$'+'( 1', %*!&*.'$-,!'&
++17946%CDI:6I7@!!!8=P
))(=>AA>E 6B7JG<:GThe Constitution’s Accommo(%8-323*3'-%0,%2+)%! $ *. 3=:G:>C6;I:G 3'-%0 ,%2+)4 6B7JG<:G :MEA6>CH I=6I
“Locke's ideas dominated eighteenthcentury views on epistemology and language.”
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3'-%0,%2+)7946%CDI:6I
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8DC8:EIJ6A Thus, while Whittington’s words are properly
8DCHIGJ:96H6C>CHIGJ8I>DCIDADD@DJI;DG6E6GI>8JA6G8G:6IJG:I=:
term “tiger” would encompass other creatures of the kind that
/=>II>C<IDC E:G=6EH >C8DGG:8IAN 7:A>:K:9 I=6I 8G:6IJG: ID 7:
!C9::9 JCA:HH =: =69 EG:K>DJHAN :C8DJCI:G:9 I=6I E6GI>8JA6G
creature, Whittington could not have identified it as a “tiger” at all
if the word “tiger” did not refer to a broader concept. Similarly, the
Framers may well have intended the term “cruel and unusual
EJC>H=Bent” to refer to a limited set of punishments, but they
LDJA9CDI=6K:7::C67A:ID8A6HH>;NI=DH:E6GI>8JA6GEJC>H=B:CIH
as “cruel and unusual” without a broader concept that encompasses
6AA EJC>H=B:CIH D; 6 8:GI6>C @>C9 !; LDG9H C:8:HH6G>AN G:;:G ID
DE:Cended concepts, Whittington’s claim that we must be guided
by the Framers’ intentions on a case7N86H:76H>H>HH>BEANLGDC<
While offering a full defense of Smith’s theory of language is
7:NDC9I=:H8DE:D;I=>H:HH6N! L>AAD;;:G6EG:A>B>C6GNH@:I8=D;
L=N ! 7:A>:K: >I ID 7: 8DGG:8I /=:C L: 8DBBJC>86I: L>I= DI=:G
E:DEA: L: >BEA>8>IAN 6HHJB: I=6I I=: LDG9H L: 6G: JH>C< G:;:G ID
HDB:I=>C<DI=:GI=6CDJGDLCJC9:GHI6C9>C<D;I=DH:LDG9H!;DJG
LDG9H G:;:GG:9 DCAN ID DJG DLC B:CI6A 8DCI:CI 8DBBJC>86I>DC
LDJA9 7: >BEDHH>7A: — we cannot read other people’s minds and
I=JH 86CCDI 9:I:GB>C: EG:8>H:AN =DL DI=:G E:DEA: JC9:GHI6C9
E6GI>8JA6G LDG9H !; DJG LDG9H G:;:G ID HDB:I=>C< DI=:G I=6C DJG
B:CI6A 8DCI:CI I=:N BJHI G:;:G ID I=>C<H I=6I 6G:
B>C9>C9:E:C9:CI +>C8: I=DH: I=>C<H 6G: CDI 6AL6NH >BB:9>6I:AN
E:G8:>K67A:—I can speak about “dogs” to another English speaker
>CI=::ME:8I6I>DCI=6IH=:L>AAJC9:GHI6C9L=6I!6BG:;:GG>C<ID
6AI=DJ<= L: =6K: 7DI= :C8DJCI:G:9 9>;;:G:CI 9D<H — L: BJHI
6HHJB: I=6I LDG9H G:;:G ID 6AA B>C9>C9:E:C9:CI I=>C<H D; 6
E6GI>8JA6G @>C9 G:<6G9A:HH D; L=:I=:G L: =6K: E:GHDC6AAN
:C8DJCI:G:9 I=:B /: =6K: 6AA :C8DJCI:G:9 E:DEA: L=D @CDL
BDG:67DJIE6GI>8JA6GHJ7?:8IHI=6CL:9D6C9L=D8DGG:8IJHL=:C
L: JH: 6 LDG9H >BEGDE:GAN +=DJA9 L: 7: JC9:G I=: >BEG:HH>DC
that cuttlefish are “fish,” for instance, a zoologist may inform us
I=6I8JIIA:;>H=6G:>C;68IBDAAJH@H6C9L:L>AA<:C:G6AAN688:EII=:
8DGG:8I>DC>CHI:69D;>CH>HI>C<I=6I>I>H6;>H=IDJHDG8D>C>C<6C:L
4
’!
I:GB>C6AANL:=6K:G:9:;>C:9LDG9HDCI=:76H>HD;>C8G:6H:9
@CDLA:9<: L>I=DJI 9>H86G9>C< I=DH: LDG9H — “death” offers a
E6GI>8JA6GAN JH:;JA :M6BEA: <>K:C I=: ;G:FJ:C8N L>I= L=>8= L:
:C8DJCI:G >I >C I=: A6C<J6<: D; I=: A6L Smith’s theory of
A6C<J6<:=6H <G:6I:MEA6C6IDGNEDL:G—>IB6@:HH:CH: D;I=:L6N
>CL=>8=L:JH:A6C<J6<:
'C:B><=ID7?:8I6II=>HED>CII=6I!6BB6@>C<I=>C<HIDD:6HN
Few doubt that “death” names a mind>C9:E:C9:CIG:6A>IN6C9I=6I
6CN9:;>C>I>DCD;9:6I=H=DJA9H::@ID86EIJG:I=6IG:6A>IN!I>HBDG:
9>;;>8JAI ID 9:;>C: =><=level abstractions, like “freedom . . . of the
press,” that are many steps removed from direct, immediate
E:G8:EI>DCH 9:E:C9 JEDC 6 CJB7:G D; >CI:GG:A6I:9 8DC8:EIH 6C9
6G:;G6J<=IL>I=8DCIGDK:GHN
/=>A: 6H8:GI6>C>C< I=: C6IJG: D; =><=A:K:A 67HIG68I>DCH >H
8DC8:9:9AN 9>;;>8JAI >I >H CDI >BEDHH>7A: DCH>9:G I=: KD8>;:GDJH
9:76I: I=6I 7GD@: DJI 7:IL::C :9:G6A>HI HJEEDGI:GH 6C9
*:EJ7A>86CDEEDC:CIHD;I=:+:9>I>DC8ID; ,=:8IB69:
>I68G>B:EJC>H=67A:7NJEIDILDN:6GH>CEG>HDC6C96;>C:D;ILD
thousand dollars, to engage in criticism of “the government of the
United States, or either house of the Congress, or the President” that
))
8JIIA:;>H=
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'CA>C:
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9>8I>DC6GN
8JIIA:;>H= A6HI 688:HH:9 %6G )) %>8=6:A + %DDG: %896%0%; ,)36=3*28)646)8%8-32 + $! $ *.
277, 294 (1985) (explaining that while people once defined “death” as the cessation of
=:6GI 6C9 AJC<;JC8I>DC ID96N >I >H 9:;>C:9 6H I=: 8:HH6I>DC D;7G6>C ;JC8I>DC DG 6H
nonrevivability. As Moore points out, if “death” means only what a particular
A>C<J>HI>8 8DBBJC>IN JC9:GHI6C9H >I ID B:6C 6I 6 <>K:C I>B: 6 8DBBJC>IN I=6I
688:EI:9I=:;DGB:GJC9:GHI6C9>C<LDJA9=6K:ID8DC8AJ9:I=6I69GDLC:9E:GHDC
whose heart has stopped beating is “dead.” If, however, we regard “death” as
G:;:GG>C<ID6G:6AI=>C<I=:C6IJG:D;L=>8=>H>C9:E:C9:CID;6CNE:GHDCDG<GDJE
of people’s understanding of that thing, “fact will not outrun diction.”). -+'&+,6B:C9!
The definitive account remains James Morton Smith’s *'%’+ ,,*+ , $!&&+!,!'&$/+&%*!&!.!$$!*,!+
);$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
was “false, scandalous, and malicious,” “with intent to defame.” Following the Sedition Act’s passage, Virginia and Kentucky
69DEI:9 G:HDAJI>DCH 9G6;I:9 7N "6B:H %69>HDC 6C9 ,=DB6H
":;;:GHDCG:HE:8I>K:AN8DC9:BC>C<>I6H>C8DBE6I>7A:L>I=6BDC<
other constitutional provisions) the First Amendment’s guaraCI::D;
;G::9DB D; I=: EG:HH :9:G6A>HIH 9G6L>C< JEDC +>G />AA>6B
Blackstone’s authoritative volume on the common law,
DBB:CI6G>:H DC I=: $6LH D; C<A6C9 6G<J:9 I=6I I=: (G:HH
A6JH:76GG:9DC<G:HH ;GDBG:HIG6>C>C<I=:EJ7A>86I>DCD;HE::8=
7JI9>9CDIEGD=>7>IDC<G:HH;GDB>BEDH>C<8G>B>C6AEJC>H=B:CIH
6;I:GI=:;68I>;I=:HE::8=EGDK:9>C?JG>DJH
!C 6 G:EDGI LG>II:C >C A6I: 6C9 6EEGDK:9 7N I=: .>G<>C>6
A:<>HA6IJG:>C"6CJ6GN%69>HDCD;;:G:96C>AAJHIG6I>DCD;=DL
I=: B:6C>C< D; :K:C =DIAN 8DCI:HI:9 67HIG68I>DCH 86C 7: 8A6G>;>:9
I=GDJ<= D7?:8I>K: 6C6ANH>H Addressing the argument that “the
68IJ6A A:<6A ;G::9DB D; I=: EG:HH JC9:G I=: 8DBBDC A6L BJHI
determine the degree of freedom which is meant by the terms,”
%69>HDC =DC:9 >C DC I=: 9>HI>C8I>DC 7:IL::C I=: ;JC96B:CI6A
“nature of the British government” and that of the United States. A68@HIDC:L6H9:H8G>7>C<EG:HH ;G::9DBJC9:G6<DK:GCB:CII=6I
reposed “absolute sovereignty” in the legislature.(6GA>6B:CIL6H
“unlimited in its power,” “omnipotent” — 6AA EGDI:8I>DCH ;DG I=:
,=:+:9>I>DC8I+I6I:ME>G:9
)),=DB6H":;;:GHDC#:CIJ8@N*:HDAJI>DCH 6)46-28)(-2, '-&*+’
'&+,!,-,!'& ( #JGA6C9 * $:GC:G :9 $>7:GIN JC9 "6B:H
%69>HDC .>G<>C>6 *:HDAJI>DCH 6)46-28)( -2 , '-&*+’ '&+,!,-,!'&
)) "D=C %6GH=6AA *:EDGI D; I=: %>CDG>IN DC I=: .>G<>C>6 *:HDAJI>DCH 6)46-28)(-2, '-&*+’'&+,!,-,!'&137 (“[T]he liberty of the press is a term
L=>8==6H69:;>C>I:6C96EEGDEG>6I:H><C>;>86I>DC!IH><C>;>:H6A>7:GINIDEJ7A>H=
;G::;GDBEG:K>DJHG:HIG6>CI.”).
"6B:H %69>HDC *:EDGI DC I=: .>G<>C>6 *:HDAJI>DCH 6)46-28)( -2 , '-&*+’'&+,!,-,!'&3=:G:>C6;I:G*:EDGI4
(6I
(
4
’!
rights of the people “[were] not rated against the parliament, but
against the royal prerogative.”N 8DCIG6HI >C I=: -C>I:9 +I6I:H
“the people, not the government, possess the absolute sovereignty”
and the “[t]=: A:<>HA6IJG: CD A:HH I=6C I=: :M:8JI>K: >H JC9:G
limitations of power.”It is thus “natural and necessary,” wrote
Madison, that a “different degree of freedom in the use of the press
should be contemplated.” %69>HDC 6AHD 8DCI:C9:9 I=6I C6GGDLAN 9:;>C>C< I=: (G:HH
A6JH: 6H 6 EGD=>7>I>DC 6<6>CHI EG>DG G:HIG6>CIH LDJA9 EG:K:CI I=:
8A6JH:;GDBE:G;DGB>C<L=6I6AAH>9:HG:8D<C>O:9ID7:>IH;JC8I>DC
—C6B:ANEGDI:8I>C<HDB:B:6HJG:D;EG::M>HI>C<;G::9DBIDEJI
“what sentiments [one] pleases before the public.” !; EG>DG
restraints and punishments after the fact have a “similar effect”
upon people’s willingness to publish their sentiments, Madison
G:6HDC:9G:69>C<I=:(G:HH A6JH:IDEGD=>7>IDCANEG>DGG:HIG6>CIH
would render the Press Clause a “mockery.”
Madison’s case has long since “carried the day in the court of
history.” 1:I ;G::9DB D; I=: EG:HH >H 6C 67HIG68I 8DC8:EI I=:
8DCIDJGH D; L=>8= 6G: HI>AA =DIAN 9>HEJI:9 DI= :9:G6A>HIH 6C9
Republicans distinguished between “liberty” and “licentiousness,”
6C9 I=:G: L6H 7GD69 6<G::B:CI I=6I ;G::9DB D; I=: EG:HH 9>9 CDI
H=>:A9 HE::8= I=6I L6H >C?JG>DJH ID DI=:GH Further, Blackstone’s
(
(
(
/!$$!% $#+,'& '%%&,*!+ '& , $/+ ' &$& 6)46-28)(-2, '-&*+’'&+,!,-!'&
*:EDGI7946%CDI:6I
&:L1DG@,>B:HK+JAA>K6C-+
))(=>AA>E 6B7JG<:G%896%0-+,87%896%0%;%2(1)6-'%23278-898-327
1$ $"CDI>C<I=6I:K:CI=:BDHIE6HH>DC6I:8G>I>8HD;I=:+:9>I>DC
Act “accepted that the First Amendment right of speech and press . . . was limit:97N
the obligation to avoid injury to individuals”). );$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
K>:LH L:G: :CDGBDJHAN >C;AJ:CI>6A 6C9 6I I=: I>B: I=6I I=:
DCHI>IJI>DCL6HG6I>;>:9CDHI6I:=699:E6GI:9;GDBA68@HIDC:
-C9:GHI6C9>C< L=N I=: :9:G6A>HIH L:G: LGDC< G:FJ>G:H 6C
6EEG:8>6I>DCD;I=:9>;;:G:C8:H7:IL::CI=:8=6G68I:GD; I=: G>I>H=
<DK:GCB:CI 6C9 I=: <DK:GCB:CI D; I=: -C>I:9 +I6I:H !I 6AHD
G:FJ>G:H 9>HI>C<J>H=>C< 7:IL::C E6GI>8JA6G L6NH >C L=>8= I=:
;G::9DB D; I=: EG:HH 86C 7: 7JG9:C:9 6C9 I=: C6IJG: D; I=6I
;G::9DB ,=6I >H ID H6N >I G:FJ>G:H 6II:CI>DC ID 8DCI:MI 6C9
JCL6K:G>C<;D8JHDCI=:D7?:8ID;>CFJ>GN
As Smith acknowledges, “objectivity is more difficult, and is
certainly more contested” L=:CDC:86CCDIEA68:6E6GI>8JA6GD7?:8I
JC9:G 6 B>8GDH8DE: &DC:I=:A:HH I=: 7JG9:C BJHI 7:
H=DJA9:G:9 !; L: G:H><C DJGH:AK:H ID I=: EGDEDH>I>DC I=6I I=:
Constitution’s terms have no determinable meaning; or that they
B:6CDCANL=6IG:6HDC67A:A>HI:C:GHLDJA9=6K:JC9:GHIDD9I=:B
ID B:6C 6I I=: 96I: D; :C68IB:CI DG I=6I I=:N B:6C L=6I:K:G
8DCI:BEDG6GNB6?DG>I>:HDG?J9<:HI=>C@I=6II=:NB:6CI=:GJA:D;
B:CL>AA7:6AAI=6IL:=6K:
'",!'&+%!, '&-++, '&+,!,-,!'&/!,
$*,!'&'!&(&&
, Much of Smith’s criticism of Dworkin focuses upon his
:C9DGH:B:CID;I=:EGDEDH>I>DCI=6I?J9<:HH=DJA99G6LJEDCI=:>G
DLCBDG6A6C9EDA>I>86AK6AJ:H>C9:I:GB>C>C<I=:B:6C>C<D;A6L
JI >; I=: DCHI>IJI>DC >H CDI 9:H><C:9 ID >BEA:B:CI 6C
>C9>K>9J6A>HI EDA>I>86A E=>ADHDE=N +B>I= 8DJA9 7: 688JH:9 D;
>CK>I>C<I=:H6B:@>C9D;?J9>8>6AA6LB6@>C<I=6IH=:8DC9:BCH>C
)) $6LG:C8: *DH:CI=6A -678 1)2(1)28 2:)78-+%8-327 %2( 8,) 2)7'%4%&0)
6%+1%8-713*8,)31132%;3*6))4))',!&$"
)) , '%($, !$$ ' *! ,+ , *,+ ,+ +'-*+ & '*!!&+
&:>A D<6C:9
+%!, 7946%CDI:6I
4
’!
Dworkin’s account. Has Smith accurately described the
Constitution’s “vision of government”?
/=>A: >I =6H D;I:C 7::C D7H:GK:9 I=6I I=: G6B:GH 9>;;:G:9
6BDC<HI I=:BH:AK:H 8DC8:GC>C< K6G>DJH HJ7?:8IH I=:N H=6G:9 I=:
H6B: ;JC96B:CI6A JC9:GHI6C9>C< D; I=: EGDE:G ;JC8I>DC D;
<DK:GCB:CI DG I=: G6B:GH 6H ;DG $D8@: <DK:GCB:CI L6H 6
B:6CH D; EGDI:8I>C< I=: C6IJG6A G><=IH D; I=: >C9ividual “to
9>HEDH:6C9DG9:G6H=:A>HIH=>HE:GHDC68I>DCHEDHH:HH>DCH6C9
his whole property,” the enjoyment of which is “very unsafe,
very insecure” in the “state of nature” (that is, absent
<DK:GCB:CI $D8@: 6C9 I=: G6B:GH 6AHD G:8D<C>O:9 I=6I
6G7>IG6GN<DK:GCB:CI>HCD>BEGDK:B:CIJEDCI=:HI6I:D;C6IJG:—
under the rule of men, as in the state of nature, “the weaker
individual is not secured against the violence of the stronger.” “Natural” in the sense of being derived from observatioC6A :K>9:C8: 8DC8:GC>C<
=JB6C C6IJG: 6C9 I=: G:FJ>G:B:CIH D; =JB6C A>;: ,=: 8DCI:CI 6C9 6EEA>86I>DC D;
rights is dictated by a person’s possession of reason and their dependence upon
G:6HDC:968I>DCID<J>9:I=:>G8DC9J8I))++17946%CDI:6I7@!!8=P
(“A person is an intelligent thinking being that can know itself as itself the same
I=>C@>C<I=>C<>C9>;;:G:CII>B:H6nd places.”); +'& ,*,!+7946%CDI:6IP
63 (“The Freedom then of Man, and Liberty of acting according to his own Will, is
<GDJC9:9 DC =>H =6K>C< *:6HDC L=>8= >H 67A: ID >CHIGJ8I =>B >C I=6I $6L=: >H ID
<DK:GC=>BH:A;7N6C9B6@:=>B@CDL=DL;6G=:>HA:;IIDI=:;G::9DBD;=>HDLC
will.”). +'&,*,!+7946%CDI:6IP
(6IP$D8@:8DJCI:96BDC<I=:9:;>8>:C8>:HD;I=:HI6I:D;C6IJG:I=:A68@D;
an “established, settled, known law, received and allowed by common consent to be
I=: HI6C96G9 D; G><=I 6C9 LGDC< 6C9 I=: 8DBBDC B:6HJG: ID 9:8>9: 6AA
controversies between them”; “a known and indifferent judge, with authority to
determine all differences according to the established law”; and “power to back and
HJEEDGII=:H:CI:C8:L=:CG><=I6C9ID<>K:>I9J:execution.” (6IP
, *$!+, &D 6I "6B:H %69>HDC $>7:GIN JC9 $D8@:
6G<J:9 I=6I G><=IH 6G: 0)77H:8JG: JC9:G 6G7>IG6GN <DK:GCB:CI I=6C I=:N 6G: >C I=:
state of nature because the government’s monopoly on force makes rightHK>DA6I>DCH
>C:H86E67A: )) +'& ,*,!+ 7946% CDI: 6I P E:DEA: JC9:G 6G7>IG6GN
government are in a “a worse condition than the staI:D;C6IJG:L=:G:>CI=:N=696
A>7:GINID9:;:C9I=:>GG><=I6<6>CHII=:>C?JG>:HD;DI=:GH6C9L:G:JEDC:FJ6AI:GBH
D; ;DG8: ID B6>CI6>C >I L=:I=:G >CK69:97N 6 H>C<A: B6C DG B6CN >C8DB7>C6I>DC
);$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
G6B>C<:G6 EDA>I>86A I=DJ<=I 6C9 EJ7A>8 9>H8DJGH: >H EDH>I>K:AN
H6IJG6I:9 L>I= $D8@:6C I=:B:H I=: EG>DG>IN D; C6IJG6A G><=IH I=:
>CH:8JG>IN D; C6IJG6A G><=IH >C I=: HI6I: D; C6IJG: I=: C::9 ;DG
<DK:GCB:CIIDEGDI:8II=:L:6@6<6>CHII=:HIGDC<6C9I=:C::9ID
:CHJG:I=6II=:<DK:GCB:CI9D:HCDI:M:G8>H:6G7>IG6GNEDL:G
,=: B:G>86C DCHI>IJI>DC >H CDI 6 IG:6I>H: >C EDA>I>86A
E=>ADHDE=N 7JI 6 EA6C ;DG 8DCHI>IJI>C< 6 E6GI>8JA6G <DK:GCB:CI
&DC:I=:A:HH>I>H9:H><C:9ID>BEA:B:CI6EDA>I>86AE=>ADHDE=N6C9
I=6I EDA>I>86A E=>ADHDE=N >H :K>9:CI >C >IH 9:H><C 8DCI:CI 6C9
structure. The Constitution’s preamble announces that it is
designed to “secure the blessings of liberty” —CDIID<G6CII=:B—
6C9:K:CI=:JC6B:C9:9DCHI>IJI>DC8DCI6>C:96CJB7:GD;
:MEA>8>I H6;:<J6G9H ;DG >C9>K>9J6A G><=IH ,=: H:E6G6I>DC D;
/=:G:6H 7N HJEEDH>C< I=:N =6K: <>K:C JE I=:BH:AK:H ID I=: 67HDAJI: 6G7>IG6GN
EDL:G 6C9 L>AA D; 6 A:<>HA6IDG I=:N =6K: 9>H6GB:9 I=:BH:AK:H 6C9 6GB:9 =>B ID
make a prey of them when he pleases.”).
))+)2)6%00=+',, '-$+ ** ,'+-*, + *! ,+ , $*,!'&
' !&(&& & '&+,!,-,!'&$ !&,*(*,,!'& 86CK6HH>C<
:K>9:C8: ;GDB I=: ;G6B>C< 6C9 G6I>;>86I>DC 9:76I:H I=: :9:G6A>HI (6E:GH I=:
CI>:9:G6A>HI (6E:GH 6C9 LG>I>C<H 6C9HE::8=:H ;GDB A:69>C< >CI:AA:8IJ6A ;><JG:H
during the framing era and concluding that “there w6H 6 8DCI>CJ>IN D; $D8@:6C
A>7:G6A >9:6AH 7:IL::C I=: G:KDAJI>DC6GN E:G>D9 6C9 I=: 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A E:G>D9 L>I=
regard to the fundamental purpose of the state”). )))+-+ '&+, art. I, § 8, cl. 8 (emphasis added) (“The Congress shall have
(DL:G,DEGDBDI:I=:(GD<G:HHD;+8>:C8:6C9JH:;JAGIH7N7)'96-2+;DGA>B>I:9
,>B:HIDJI=DGH6C9!CK:CIDGHI=::M8AJH>K:*><=IIDI=:>GG:HE:8I>K:/G>I>C<H6C9
Discoveries.”); -+ '&+, art. I, § 10, cl. 1 (emphasis added) (“No State shall . . .
E6HH6CN$6L-14%-6-2+the Obligation of Contracts . . . .”). Although Article IV,
Section 2’s guarantee that “[t]he citizens of each state shall be entitled to all
(G>K>A:<:H 6C9 !mmunities of Citizens in the several States” is generally regarded
today solely as a “comity clause” that prohibits states from discriminating against
DJID;staters, Professor Richard Aynes has observed that this “is not an obvious
reading of the text.” )) *>8=6G9 $ NC:H 32786-'8-2+ 8,) %; 3* 6))(31 978-')
-00)6 ,) 3968))28, 1)2(1)28 %2( 8,) 0%9+,8)6397) %7)7 6))(31
3278-898-32%0%; !#&, $ *.627, 637 n.55 (1994). The terms “privileges”
and “immunities” were used by Bla8@HIDC:6C97NB:G>86CHI6I:HB:C6C9?JG>HIH
6;I:G I=: B:G>86C *:KDAJI>DC ID G:;:G ID C6IJG6A 6C9 8JHIDB6GN HJ7HI6CI>K: G><=IH
:C?DN:9 7N 8>I>O:CH )) +)2)6%00= G>8 * A6:NH Blackstone’s Commentaries and the
6-:-0)+)7361192-8-)73*!2-8)(8%8)7-8->)273()78 6-&98)8363*)7736-)+%2
4
’!
A:<>HA6I>K: :M:8JI>K: 6C9 ?J9>8>6A EDL:GH I=: 9>K>H>DC D; I=:
C6I>DC6AA:<>HA6IJG:>CIDILD=DJH:H6C9I=:9>HIG>7JI>DCD;EDL:G
7:IL::C I=: ;:9:G6A <DK:GCB:CI 6C9 I=: HI6I:H 6BDC< DI=:G
components of the Constitution’s structure, serve to pG:K:CI 6CN
<DK:GCB:CI6A:CI>IN;GDB6II68@>C<>C9>K>9J6AG><=IHJCDEEDH:9 N 8G:6I>C< 6C >C9:E:C9:CI ?J9>8>6GN I=6I >H 8DBEDH:9 D; ?J9<:H
who are obliged to give effect to “this Constitution,” G6I=:GI=6C
merely deferring to government officials’ will, I=: DCHI>IJI>DC
protects the “rights of individuals.”,=:G:6HDCI=6IG:;:G:C8:HID
EG::M>HI>C< G><=IH >C I=: DCHI>IJI>DC L:G: ;:L 6C9 ;6G
+& !' $ *. ,=: G6B:GH D; I=: DJGI::CI= B:C9B:CI 6K:GG:9
that the Privileges and Immunities Clause “protected residents as well as migrants
6C9 EGDI:8I:9 8:GI6>C 67HDAJI: G><=IH—‘the right of personal security, ‘personal
liberty,’ and ‘the right to acquire and enjoy property.’” )) %! $ #&, -*,!+
&' +,, + $$*! , '-*,&, %&%&,&, !$$' *! ,+ 'C I=: H:E6G6I>DC D; EDL:GH 6C9 ;:9:G6A>HB H:: , *$!+, &D 6I (James Madison) (Liberty Fund, 2001) (emphasis added) (“In the compound republic
D; B:G>86 I=: EDL:G HJGG:C9:G:9 7N I=: E:DEA: >H ;>GHI 9>K>9:9 7:IL::C ILD
9>HI>C8I <DK:GCB:CIH 6C9 I=:C I=: EDGI>DC 6AADII:9 ID :68= HJ79>K>9:9 6BDC<
9>HI>C8I6C9H:E6G6I:9:E6GIB:CIH :C8:69DJ7A:H:8JG>IN6G>H:HIDI=: 6-+,873*8,)
4)340).”). Timothy Sandefur notes that this is “a deliberate echo of the Declaration’s
reference to “securing rights.” '&+!& ' , '&+,!,-,!'&H946%CDI:6I
'C 7>86B:G6A>HB H:: , *$!+, &D 6I "6B:H %69>HDC $>7:GIN
Fund, 2001) (“The people can never willfully betray their own>CI:G:HIH7JII=:NB6N
EDHH>7AN 7: 7:IG6N:9 7N I=: G:EG:H:CI6I>K:H D; I=: E:DEA: 6C9 I=: 96C<:G L>AA 7:
:K>9:CIAN <G:6I:G L=:G: I=: L=DA: A:<>HA6I>K: IGJHI >H AD9<:H >C I=: =6C9H D; DC:
7D9N D; B:C I=6C L=:G: I=: 8DC8JGG:C8: D; H:E6G6I: 6C9 9>HH>B>A6G 7D9>:H >H
required in every public act.”). The device of an extended republic was employed to
guard against the possibility that factions “united and actuated by some common
>BEJAH: D; E6HH>DC DG D; >CI:G:HI 69K:GH: ID I=: G><=IH D; DI=:G 8>I>O:CH DG ID I=:
permanent and aggregate interests of the community” would enact schemes of
DEEG:HH>DC)), *$!+,&D6I"6B:H%69>HDC$>7:GINJC9
(“Extend the sphere, and you take in a greater variety of parties and interests; you
B6@: >I A:HH EGD767A: I=6I 6 B6?DG>IN D; I=: L=DA: L>AA =6K: 6 8DBBDC BDI>K: ID
>CK69:I=:G><=IHD;DI=:G8>I>O:CHDG>;HJ8=68DBBDCBDI>K::M>HIH>IL>AA7:BDG:
9>;;>8JAI;DG6AAL=D;::A>IID9>H8DK:GI=:>GDLCHIG:C<I=6C9ID68I>CJC>HDCL>I=
:68=DI=er.”).
-+'&+,6GI.!8A:BE=6H>H699:9
)), *$!+,&D6IA:M6C9:G 6B>AIDC$>7:GINJC9
);$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
between is that the Constitution’s advocates (the “Federalists”) did
CDI 7:A>:K: I=6I I=:N L:G: 8G:6I>C< 6 <DK:GCB:CI I=6I =69 I=:
EDL:GID9:EG>K:E:DEA:D;>C9>K>9J6AG><=IH>CI=: ;>GHIEA68:6C9
L:G:8DC8:GC:9I=6I:CJB:G6I>C<G><=IHLDJA98G:6I:6EG:I:MI;DG
K>DA6I>C< G><=IH I=6I L:G: CDI :CJB:G6I:9 'EEDC:CIH D; I=:
proposed Constitution (the “Anti:9:G6lists”) were equally
8DBB>II:9IDH:8JG>C<>C9>K>9J6AG><=IH7JI7:A>:K:9I=6IG><=IHCDI
:MEG:HHANG:H:GK:9>CI=:DCHI>IJI>DCLDJA9CDI7:H:8JG:
-AI>B6I:ANI=::9:G6A>HIHEGDB>H:96>AAD;*><=IH>CDG9:GID
cement the Constitution’s ratificatioC 6AI=DJ<= I=:N 8DCI>CJ:9 ID
G:<6G9 >I 6H JCC:8:HH6GN,=: >AA D; *><=IH H:GK:9 ID B6@: I=:
)))+, ,+!&, +.*$ +,, '&.&,!'&+'&, '(,!'&'
, *$'&+,!,-,!'&"AA>DI:9DGC:AA-C>K$>7G6GNHI6I:B:CI
D;"6B:H/>AHDC3=:G:>C6;I:G ,+] (“There are two kinds of government—I=6I
L=:G:<:C:G6AEDL:G >H>CI:C9:9ID7:<>K:CIDI=:A:<>HA6IJG:6C9I=6IL=:G:I=:
EDL:GH 6G: E6GI>8JA6GAN :CJB:G6I:9 !C I=: A6HI 86H: I=: >BEA>:9 G:HJAI >H I=6I
CDI=>C<BDG:>H>CI:C9:9ID7:<>K:CI=6CL=6I>HHD:CJB:G6I:9 JCA:HH>IG:HJAIH
;GDBI=:C6IJG:D;I=:<DK:GCB:CI>IH:A;>C6<DK:GCB:CIA>@:I=:EGDEDH:9DC:
I=:G: 86C 7: CD C:8:HH>IN ;DG 6 7>AA D; G><=IH;DG DC BN EG>C8>EA: I=: E:DEA: C:K:G
part with their power.”); , *$!+, &D 6I A:M6C9:G 6B>AIDC
(Liberty Fund, 2001) (“[B]ills of rights, in the sense and in the extent in which they
6G:8DCI:C9:9;DG6G:CDIDCANJCC:8:HH6GN>CI=:EGDEDH:98DCHI>IJI>DC7JILDJA9
:K:C7:96C<:GDJH,=:NLDJA98DCI6>CK6G>DJH:M8:EI>DCHIDEDL:GHL=>8=6G:CDI
<G6CI:96C9DCI=>HK:GN688DJCILDJA96;;DG968DADJG67A:EG:I:MIID8A6>B BDG:
I=6CL:G:<G6CI:9DGL=N9:8A6G:I=6II=>C<HH=6AA CDI7:9DC:L=>8=I=:G:>HCD
power to do?”); ,+149 (statement of James Iredell) (“A bill of rights . . . would
7:96C<:GDJH&DB6CA:I=>H>C<:CJ>IN7:L=6I>IL>AA8DJA9:CJB:G6I:6AA
I=:>C9>K>9J6AG><=IHCDIG:A>CFJ>H=:97NI=>HDnstitution.”).
)) (=>AA>E
6B7JG<:G 6-:-%0 -+,87 &',* % $ *. (“Both Federalists and Anti:9:G6A>HIH 6<G::9 I=6I I=: G><=IH D; B:G>86CH L:G:
>CCJB:G67A:!CE6GI>8JA6GI=:N6<G::9I=6II=:N=698DJCIA:HHC6IJG6AG><=IHID
:6I HA::E H=6K: 6C9 9D 6CN CJB7:G D; DI=:G I=>C<H D; L=>8= =JB6C 7:>C<H L:G:
86E67A:3JI4CI>:9:G6A>HIH6HHJB:9I=6IDCANHJ8=G><=IH6HL:G:A>HI:9LDJA9
really be protected from that government.”).
H%69>HDCEJI>II=:>C8AJH>DCD;the Bill of Rights served “the double purpose
D; H6I>H;N>C< I=: B>C9H D; L:AAB:6C>C< DEEDC:CIH 6C9 D; EGDK>9>C< 699>I>DC6A
guards in favor of liberty.” )88)6*631%1)7%(-73283 ,31%7)**)6732:8
-2 , ((*+ ' "%+ %!+'& *D7:GI *JIA6C9 =6GA:H D7HDC
:9H
4
’!
Constitution’s mission of rightsEGDI:8I>DC BDG: :MEA>8>I ,=: ;>GHI
:><=I EGDK>H>DCH D; I=: >AA D; *><=IH 699G:HH:9 CI>:9:G6A>HI
8DC8:GCH67DJII=:;6>AJG:ID:CJB:G6I:G><=IH7NB6@>C<EA6>CI=6I
G><=IH I=6I L:G: CDI :CJB:G6I:9 L:G: CDI I=:G:7N ;DG;:>I:9 ID I=:
;:9:G6A <DK:GCB:CI I=: &>CI= B:C9B:CI 699G:HH:9 :9:G6A>HI
8DC8:GCH 67DJI I=: 96C<:GH D; :CJB:G6I>DC &JB:GDJH
EGDK>H>DCH 6G: 9:8A6G6IDGN D; >C9>K>9J6A G><=IH I=6I EG:8:9:
government. The First Amendment promises that “the freedom of
speech, and of the press” shall not be “abridg[ed]”; the Second
Amendment promises that the “right of the people to keep and bear
arms shall not be infringed”; the FifI=B:C9B:CI<J6G6CI::HI=6I
people will not be “deprive[d]” of “life, liberty, or property”
without “due process of law”; the Ninth Amendment refers to
Gights “retained” by the people.
There were, however, faults in the Constitution’s structure that
CDIDCANEG:K:CI:9>I;GDB;JA;>AA>C<>IHB>HH>DC7JIC:6GANA:9ID>IH
8DAA6EH:,=:>CHI>IJI>DCD;8=6II:AHA6K:GN:;;:8IJ6I:9I=:L=DA:H6A:
9:EG>K6I>DC D; >C9>K>9J6A G><=IH AI=DJ<= I=: DCHI>IJI>DC C:K:G
:MEG:HHAN 6;;>GB:9 I=: G><=I ID =DA9 EGDE:GIN >C HA6K:H I=:
G6B:GH;DJC98=6II:AHA6K:GN6BDC<JH6C9I=:DCHI>IJI>DC9>9
CDI67DA>H=>IThe Constitution’s accommodation of an institution
I=6I 8DCIG69>8I:9 >IH 8DG: B>HH>DC 6C9 >IH ;6>AJG: ID :MEG:HHAN
*6C9N 6GC:II ,)-28,1)2(1)288)%27#,%88%=7 ,0 $ *. :BE=6H>H >C DG><>C6A 3=:G:>C6;I:G ,)-28,1)2(1)28] (“While the rest of
I=: >AA D; *><=IH L6H 6 G:HEDCH: ID CI>;:9:G6A>HI D7?:8I>DCH 838,)3278-898-32 I=:
&>CI=B:C9B:CIL6H6G:HEDCH:ID:9:G6A>HID7?:8I>DCH838,)-003*-+,87.”).
)) '& *& * , * +',, + 27 (1978) (“The pattern that
:B:G<:H 3>C I=: DCHI>IJI>DC4 >H DC: D; 68@CDLA:9<>C< I=: A:<>I>B6I: EG:H:C8: D;
HA6K:GN >C B:G>86C A>;: L=>A: 6II68=>C< 6 8AJHI:G D; A>B>I6I>DCH ID I=:
acknowledgment.”).
))(,*+'&7946%CDI:, at 136 (“[T]he words slave and slavery are not used . .
. . The phrase is a ‘person held to service DG A67DG +A6K:H I=:C L:G: 6I A:6HI
E:GHDCH 6C9 6G: 6AHD 8DJCI:9 6H E:GHDCH >C 6EEDGI>DC>C< D; I=: DJH: D;
*:EG:H:CI6I>K:H JI I=: 7GJI: ;68I G:B6>C:9 I=6I I=:N L:G: HA6K:H 6C9 I=:
Constitution did not pronounce them free by right.”). );$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
EGD=>7>IHI6I:H;GDB6G7>IG6G>AN9:EG>K>C<E:DEA:D;I=:>GG><=IHA:;I
CDI DCAN I=: G><=IH D; HA6K:H 7JI I=DH: D; ;G:: 7A68@H 6C9 L=>I:
67DA>I>DC>HIH 6I I=: B:G8N D; AD86A ING6CCN C9 I=:C I=: L6G
86B:
,=:*:8DCHIGJ8I>DCB:C9B:CIHL:G:CDI9:H><C:9ID6AI:GI=:
Constitution’s mission but to remove aCN9DJ7I67DJII=:C6IJG:D;
I=6I B>HH>DC 6C9 ID B6@: EDHH>7A: >IH ;JA;>AAB:CI ,=:N L:G:
;DGBJA6I:97N*:EJ7A>86CHL=D7:A>:K:9I=6II=:DCHI>IJI>DCL6H
9:H><C:9 ID >BEA:B:CI I=: EDA>I>86A E=>ADHDE=N H:I ;DGI= >C I=:
:8A6G6I>DC D; !C9:E:C9:C8: 7JI L=D =69 8DB: ID 6EEG:8>6I: I=:
;A6LH >C >IH 9:H><C,=: EG:8>H: I:GBH D; +:8I>DC >AAJB>C6I: I=:
Declaration’s influence. As “all men” are “created equal,”
according to the Declaration, and possess “unalienable rights,” so
too “all persons born or naturalized in the United States” are
As Paterson observes, “[t]he existence of slavery necessarily impairs the exercise
D; I=:>G G><=IH 7N ;G:: B:C !; I=: HI6I: EDL:G B6@:H 6 B6C 6 HA6K: D; 8DJGH: >I
67G>9<:H=>H;G::9DBD;HE::8=6C96HH:B7ANA:6K:H=>BCDH:8JG>IND;E:GHDC6C9
no right to property; to it can hardly be forbidden to do those things to anybody.”
(,*+'&7946%CDI:6I,=:IGJI=D;I=>H>CH><=IL6H7DGC:DJI>CI=:N:6GH
EG:8:9>C<I=:>K>A/6G ))-*,!+7946%CDI:, at 40 (“Beginning in the 1830s,
HDJI=:GC HI6I:H E6HH:9 A6LH 67G>9<>C< ;G::9DBH D; HE::8= 6C9 I=: EG:HH 6H I=:N
applied to slavery. Advocating abolition and denying a master’s right to property in
HA6K:HL:G:B69:8G>B:HCI>HA6K:GNEJ7A>86I>DCHL:G::A>B>C6I:9;GDBB6>AH>CI=:
+DJI= 6C9 HDJI=:GC HI6I:H HDJ<=I ID :MIG69>I: CDGI=:GC:GH G:HEDCH>7A: ;DG
6CI>HA6K:GNEJ7A>86I>DCH/=6I8DJA9CDI7:688DBEA>H=:97NA6LL6H:C;DG8:97N
mobs.”). ))-*,!+7946%CDI:at 215, 218 (finding that “[b]y 1866 leading Republicans
>C DC<G:HH 6C9 >C I=: 8DJCIGN 6I A6G<: H=6G:9 6 A>7:GI6G>6C B:6C>C< D; I=:
DCHI>IJIion,” according to which states had no authority to deprive people of
natural rights or discriminate on the basis of race, and that “[f]or many Republicans,
I=: 3DJGI::CI=4 6B:C9B:CI B:G:AN 9:8A6G:9 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A A6L EGDE:GAN
understood.”); Daniel A. Far7:G "D=C %J:C8= ,) ()303+-'%0 6-+-27 3* 8,)
3968))28, 1)2(1)28 '&+, '%%&, ;>C9>C< I=6I I=:
Declaration of Independence was “the most important source of antislavery
Republicanism” and contending that the Fourteenth Amen9B:CI L6H 9:H><C:9 ID
“empower[] the national government to protect the natural rights of its citizens”). )) +)2)6%00= *D7:GI " *:>CHI:>C 3140)8-2+ 8,) 3278-898-32 ,) )'0%6%8-32 3*
2()4)2()2')-003*-+,87%2(3968))28,1)2(1)28,%($*.
4
’!
citizens, according to Section 1, and possess all the “privileges” and
“immunities” of citizenship.+D IDD 6G: I=:N :FJ6AAN :CI>IA:9 ID
“the protection of the laws,” given that the essential purpose of
<DK:GCB:CI 688DG9>C< Io the Declaration, is to “secure [natural]
rights.”Finally, as the Declaration recognizes “life, liberty, and
the pursuit of happiness” among, “unalienable rights” so, too, the
Due Process of Law Clause recognizes preexisting rights to “life,
A>7:GIN 36nd] property” of which no “person” can be arbitrarily
“deprived.”
Smith’s claim that the Constitution is designed to implement an
>C9>K>9J6A>HI EDA>I>86A E=>ADHDE=N >H I=JH 688JG6I: ,=: :HH:CI>6A
“why” of our governing document has remained constant, ev:C6H
the “what” and “how” have been altered in light of what
“experience hath shewn.” '",!'&, (*+-%(,!'&'$!*,1
-&'&+,!,-,!'&$$1*&!2+, "-!!*1
Smith’s account of the function of judicial review is consistent
L>I=A:M6C9:G 6milton’s seminal argument for judicial review in
:9:G6A>HIDG+B>I=6H;DG 6B>AIDC?J9>8>6AG:K>:LH:GK:H6H6
means of ascertaining constitutional meaning and “guard[ing] the
Constitution and the rights of individuals.”+B>I=6C9 6B>AIDC
=DA9 I=6I I=: DCHI>IJI>DC =6H 6 9:I:GB>C67A: B:6C>C< 6C9 I=6I
?J9<:H H=DJA9 7: <J>9:9 7N I=:>G >C9:E:C9:CI 6HH:HHB:CI D; I=6I
meaning rather than allow the political branches to be “the
constitutional judges of their own powers.” (6I
(
(
$*,!'&' !&(&&7946%CDI:
, *$!+,&D6IA:M6C9:G 6B>AIDC$>7:GINJC9
(6I
);$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
But Hamilton’s discussion of ju9>8>6A G:K>:L >C :9:G6A>HI H::BH ID 8DCI:BEA6I: I=6I <DK:GCB:CI 68I>DCH LDJA9 :C?DN 6
EG:HJBEI>DC D; 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A>IN 6C9 6H (GD;:HHDG "D=C %8>CC>H
=6H 9:BDCHIG6I:9 B6CN DJC9>C<:G6 ?JG>HIH :MI:C9:9 HJ8= 6
EG:HJBEI>DC +B>I= 7N 8DCIG6HI 8A6>BH I=6I I=: DCAN
presumption that is consistent with the Constitution’s “design,
structure, and content” is a presumption of liberty. In light of this
9>H8G:E6C8N +B>I= 8DJA9 7: 688JH:9 D; 8DCH>9:G67AN DK:GHI6I>C<
=:G86H:
'C:86C9:I:8I>C:9:G6A>HII=:B6G@HD;L=6I%8>CC>H=6H
termed the “duty of clarity”: a judicial duty to invalidate acts of
<DK:GCB:CI DCAN L=:C 6 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A K>DA6I>DC >H HJ;;>8>:CIAN
8A:6G,=JH 6B>AIDCHI6I:HI=6I?J9<:HBJHI8DCH>9:G<DK:GCB:CI
actions “void” if there is an “irreconcilable variance” between those
:C68IB:CIH 6C9 I=: DCHI>IJI>DC — I=: >BEA>86I>DC 7:>C< I=6I
<DK:GCB:CI 68I>DCH L>I= G:8DC8>A67A: K6G>6C8:H H=DJA9 7:
8DCH>9:G:9 K6A>9 %8>CC>H =6H 699J8:9 HJ7HI6CI>6A :K>9:C8:
I=6I DJC9>C<:G6 ?JG>HIH 8DCH>9:G:9 I=:BH:AK:H 9JIN7DJC9 ID
6EEANIG>:96C9IGJ:>CI:GEG:I>K:B:I=D9H>CDG9:GID9:I:GB>C:I=:
Constitution’s precise meaning and only invalidate the
government’s actions if they manifestly contradicted that
B:6C>C<!C86H:HD;JC8:GI6>CIN8DC8:GC>C<8DCHI>IJI>DC6A>INI=:
duty of clarity would require judges to uphold the government’s
68I>DCH
88DG9>C< ID %8>CC>H I=: 9JIN D; 8A6G>IN >H 6
constitutional duty. McGinnis argues that “[t]he judicial Power”
K:HI:9 >C I=: ;:9:G6A 8DJGIH I=GDJ<= GI>8A: !!! 86CCDI 7:
))"D=C ' %8>CC>H ,)98=3*0%6-8= &D &/ - + ' $ (J7 $ $$
, '*1
+*!+
=IIE
E6E:GHHHGC8DB
HDA
E6E:GH8;B67HIG68I5>9
, *$!+,&D6IA:M6C9:G 6B>AIDC$>7:GINJC9,=6I>H
“one that cannot be reconciled by the=6GBDC>O>C<>BEJAH:D;A:<6A>CI:GEG:I6I>DC6I
the time.” McGinnis, 7946%CDI:6I
%8>CC>H7946%CDI:6I
4
’!
understood except in the context of “a historical background of
?J9>8>6A 9JIN I=6I >H I=: 76H>H D; ?J9>8>6A G:K>:L ?JHI 6H I=:
DCHI>IJI>DCBJHI7:JC9:GHIDD9BDG:<:C:G6AAN6H8G:6I:9L>I=>C
6A:<6A;G6B:LDG@6C9IG69>I>DCG6I=:GI=6C6L=DAANH:A;8DCI6>C:9
expression of new principles.”Because “[t]hose who framed the
DCHI>IJI>DC 6C9 G:C9:G:9 ?JHI>8: >C I=: :6GAN *:EJ7A>8 9>9
JC9:GHI6C9 ?J9>8>6A 9JIN 6H G:FJ>G>C< 8A6G>IN 7:;DG: I=: ?J9>8>6GN
was to displace other law,” McGinnis concludes that the duty of
8A6G>IN >H 6C :HH:CI>6A 8DBEDC:CI D; ?J9>8>6A G:K>:L JC9:G GI>8A:
!!!
McGinnis’ conclusion is only as persuasive as the theory of
language that it rests upon. On McGinnis’ account, if “those who
framed the Constitution and rendered justice in the early republic”
I=DJ<=I I=6I I=: 9JIN D; 8A6G>IN L6H 6C :HH:CI>6A 8DBEDC:CI D;
?J9>8>6A G:K>:L 6C9 >; I=: 9JIN D; ?J9>8>6A G:K>:L >H >C8DGEDG6I:9
into the Constitution through “The judicial Power,” then the duty of
8A6G>IN>H6C:HH:CI>6A8DBEDC:CID;?J9>8>6AG:K>:L6C9>I:CI:GHI=:
DCHIitution through “The judicial Power.” Perhaps it would be
7:II:G >; I=: G6B:GH =69 >C8DGEDG6I:9 6 9>;;:G:CI 8DC8:EI >CID I=:
Constitution, but, as McGinnis puts it, “[f]ollowing the preexisting
8DC8:EI >C >IH 6IIG>7JI:H >H I=: 7:HI L: 86C 9D ID 6EEGDM>B6I: I=:
concept at the time: one has to take the bitter with the sweet”
If Smith’s theory of language is correct, however, we must
make an independent effort to ascertain the nature of “The judicial
Power.” The Framers’ understanding of that concept is not>9:CI>86A
ID >IH B:6C>C< /: 86C 9>HI>C<J>H= 7:IL::C I=: ?J9>8>6A 9JIN ID
decide “all cases . . . arising under this Constitution and Laws of the
United States” in accordance with “the Supreme Law of the
(6I
(
%8>CC>H7946%CDI:6I
-+'&+,6GI!!!P8A
);$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
Land” 6C9 6CN E6GI>8JA6G EG68I>8:H I=6I I=: G6B:GH 6HHD8>6I:9
L>I= I=: E:G;DGB6C8: D; I=6I 9JIN — ?JHI 6H L: 86C 9>HI>C<J>H=
between “the freedom of the press” and the prohibition of prior
G:HIG6>CIH/:BJHI8DCH>9:GL=6IEDH>I>DC>C<D;EG:HJBEI>DCH>H>C
fact most consistent with the Constitution’s deH><C 8DCI:CI 6C9
HIGJ8IJG: 6H L:AA 6H I=: E6GI>8JA6G ;JC8I>DC D; ?J9>8>6A G:K>:L >C
6H8:GI6>C>C< 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A B:6C>C< 6C9 :C;DG8>C< 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A
A>B>I6I>DCH DC <DK:GCB:CI EDL:G +B>I= 8=DDH:H =:G :M6BEA:H
L:AAI=:&>CI=B:C9B:CII=:,:CI=B:C9B:nt, and Article I’s
&:8:HH6GN 6C9 (GDE:G A6JH: ,=: &>CI= B:C9B:CI G:;:GH ID
C6IJG6A G><=IH I=6I EG:8:9: <DK:GCB:CI — G><=IH I=6I 6H L: =6K:
H::C I=: DCHI>IJI>DC >H 9:H><C:9 ID H:8JG: ,=: ,:CI=
B:C9B:CIB6@:HEA6>CI=6II=:C6I>DC6A<DK:GCB:CI:HI67A>H=:9
7N I=: DCHI>IJI>DC EDHH:HH:H CD EDL:GH I=6I 6G: CDI :MEG:HHAN
delegated to it by “We the People.” ,=: A6HI >C9>86I:H I=6I
DC<G:HH >H6EJ7A>86<:CI:CIGJHI:9L>I=6A>B>I:9H:ID;EDL:GH
and that Congress has a fiduciary duty to “carry[] into Execution”
those powers (as Professor Robert Natelson has put it) “in good
;6>I= L>I= G:6HDC67A: 86G: 6C9 L>I= >BE6GI>6A>IN 6C9 ADN6AIN
towards its constituents.” -C9:GI=:DCHI>IJI>DCI=::M:G8>H:D;
G><=IH9D:HCDIC::9ID7:?JHI>;>:9—I=::M:G8>H:D;;:9:G6AEDL:G
9D:H 6C9 I=6I EDL:G BJHI 7: L>:A9:9 L>I= 86G: ?J9>8>6A
EG:HJBEI>DC D; A>7:GIN ;GDB ;:9:G6A EDL:G 6C9 :M68I>C< ?J9>8>6A
scrutiny of the government’s ends and means when the
government’s actions are challenged in court follow logically
/=6ID;HI6I:EDL:G(GD;:HHDG6GN$6LHDC=6H6G<J:9I=6I6
EG:HJBEI>DC D; >C9>K>9J6AA>7:GIN DJ<=I ID 6EEAN>C I=: 8DCI:MI D;
-+'&+,6GI.!P8A
))+)2)6%00= ,)-28,1)2(1)287946%CDI:
)) +)2)6%00= #JGI , $6H=
,) 6-+-2%0 )%2-2+ 3* %2 1-77-32 ,) )28,
Amendment, Popular Sovereignty and “Expressly” Delegated Power & ',* % $
*.
*D<:G &6I:AHDC ,) +)2'=6-+-273*8,))')77%6=%2(634)60%97) +
/*+$*.
4
’!
8=6AA:C<:HID;:9:G6AEDL:G 7JI6EG:HJBEI>DCD;8DCHI>IJI>DC6A>IN
DJ<=I ID 6EEAN >C I=: 8DCI:MI D; 8=6AA:C<:H ID HI6I: EDL:G :
reasons that “because state governments do not draw their legal
power from the Federal Constitution,” they need not (unlike the
federal government) justify their actions “by reference to an
affirmative grant of power in the Constitution.” ,=JH=:6G<J:H
“[A]n opponent of state power who is invoking a ‘thou shalt not’
contained in the Federal Constitution has the burden of proof.” AI=DJ<= I=: EDL:GH D; I=: ;:9:G6A <DK:GCB:CI 6C9 HI6I:
governments are (as James Wilson put it) “so many emanations of
power from the people,”$6LHDC>H8DGG:8II=6IHI6I:<DK:GCB:CIH
need not point to “affirmative grant[s] of power” in the
DCHI>IJI>DC ID ?JHI>;N 6HH:GI>DCH D; EDL:G DK:G >C9>K>9J6AH !I
9D:H CDI ;DAADL =DL:K:G I=6I I=DH: 6HH:GI>DCH D; EDL:G H=DJA9
G:8:>K:I=:7:C:;>ID;6EG:HJBEI>DCD;8DCHI>IJI>DC6A>INL=:CI=:N
are challenged in court. The Fourteenth Amendment’s Due Process
of Law Clause, which limits “State” power, indicates that
>C9>K>9J6AH=6K:G><=IHI=6IEG:8:9:7DI=HI6I:6C9;:9:G6AEDL:G
&Done can be “deprived” of “life, liberty, or property” that they do
CDI EDHH:HH >C I=: ;>GHI >CHI6C8: ,=JH 6CN I>B: 6 HI6I: H::@H ID
:;;:8IJ6I: HJ8= 6 9:EG>K6I>DC >I H::@H ID I6@: HDB:I=>C< ;GDB
E:DEA: I=6I 7:ADC<H ID I=:B — 6C JCA6L;JA 68I JCA:HH >I >H
consistent with “due process of law.” In so acting, state
<DK:GCB:CIH>BEA>8>IAN6HH:GII=6II=:>G68I>DCH6G:8DCH>HI:CIL>I=
due process of law, and, as Lawson observes, “He who asserts must
prove” is a “basic principle of epistemology, and of rational
thinking.” +B>I= >H 8DGG:8I EG:HJBEI>DC >C ;6KDG D;
6GN$6LHDC3-7836=3)68%-28=3)+-8-1%'=363&0)16-+-2%0-71%2(
8,)-1-873*)+%0 ,)36=$$*.
(6I
(6I
)) '*'& + /'' , *,!'& ' , %*!& *(-$! 6I
FJDI>C<"6B:H/>AHDC
(
);$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
<DK:GCB:CI EDL:G L=:I=:G I=6I EDL:G >H 6HH:GI:9 7N I=: ;:9:G6A
government or by a state government, is “flagrantly illogical,” not
B:G:AN 6H 6 B6II:G D; EDA>I>86A E=>ADHDE=N 7JI 6H 6 B6II:G D;
8DCHI>IJI>DC6AA6L
Smith’s 688DJCI D; ?J9>8>6A G:K>:L >H GD7JHI 6<6>CHI I=:DG:I>86A
D7?:8I>DCHJI7:86JH:I=:;JC8I>DCD;?J9>8>6AG:K>:L>HIDB6>CI6>C
I=: GJA: D; A6L I=: ;JC96B:CI6A FJ:HI>DC DC: BJHI 6H@ D; 6CN
EGDEDH:96EEGD68=ID?J9>8>6AG:K>:L>H“DoesI=>HBD9:D;G:K>:L
9Dthat?”!C6GI>8JA6I>C<I=:8DBEDC:CIHD;D7?:8I>K:G:K>:LL>I=
:M8:EI>DC6A 8A6G>IN+B>I= <>K:HJHI=:IDDAHID6EEAN =:G6EEGD68=
ID I=G:: FJ:HI>DCH I=6I HI6C9 >C C::9 D; G:HDAJI>DC 6C9 L=>8=
>BEA>86I: I=: G><=IH D; 8DJCIA:HH B:G>86CH L=:I=:G :8DCDB>8
EGDI:8I>DC>HBHI6C9>C<6ADC:8DCHI>IJI:H6“legitimate<DK:GCB:CI
interest” ;DG I=: EJGEDH:H D; G6I>DC6A76H>H G:K>:L =DL G><=IH
I=6I 6G: CDI :CJB:G6I:9 >C I=: Constitution’s I:MI H=DJA9 7:
>9:CI>;>:9 6C9 EGDI:8I:9 6C9 L=:I=:G 6C9 ID L=6I :MI:CI
D88JE6I>DC6A HE::8= — I=: HE::8= D; IDJG <J>9:H E=NH>8>6CH
I=:G6E>HIH K:I:G>C6G>6CH >CI:G>DG 9:H><C:GH 8DCHJAI6CIH6C9 DI=:GH
L=D:6GCI=:>GA>K>C<I=GDJ<=KD86I>DCHI=6I8DCH>HI6ABDHI:CI>G:AN
D; HE:6@>C< — >H EGDI:8I:9 7N I=: Constitution’s ;G:: HE::8=
<J6G6CI::H
“L!,!%,”'.*&%&,!&,*+,+
88DG9>C<IDI=:HI6C96G9;DGBJA6I>DCD;I=:G6I>DC6A76H>HI:HI
government actions must be rationally related to a “legitimate
<DK:GCB:CI >Cterest” to pass constitutional muster. If there are
A:<>I>B6I: >CI:G:HIH I=:G: BJHI 6AHD 7: >AA:<>I>B6I: >CI:G:HIH 6C9
+%!, 7946%CDI:6I
4
’!
I=:G: BJHI 7: HDB: 9:;>C>I>DC D; A:<>I>B68N I=6I 86C 7: JH:9 ID
9>HI>C<J>H=7:IL::CI=:ILD@>C9HD;>CI:G:HIH JI I=: +JEG:B: DJGI =6H C:K:G :MEA>8>IAN 9:;>C:9
8DCHI>IJI>DC6A A:<>I>B68N,=: DJGI =6H =:A9 >C 8:GI6>C 8DCI:MIH
I=6I <DK:GCB:CI 68I>DCH 9:H><C:9 DCAN ID 7:C:;>I I=: EDA>I>86AAN
EDL:G;JADG7JG9:CI=:EDA>I>86AANEDL:GA:HH6G:>AA:<>I>B6I:7JI>I
=6H 9DC: HD L>I=DJI :MEA6>C>C< EG:8>H:AN L=N I=: DCHI>IJI>DC
;DG7>9H HJ8= 68I>DCH JGI=:G I=: DJGI =6H JE=:A9 L>I=DJI
B:6C>C<;JA H8GJI>CN :8DCDB>8 G:<JA6I>DCH I=6I L:G: E6I:CIAN
9:H><C:9DCANID7:C:;>II=:EDA>I>86AANEDL:G;JA
The Court’s failure to define constitutional A:<>I>B68N 6C9 >IH
=::9A:HHAN 9:;:G:CI>6A 6EEGD68= ID :8DCDB>8 G:<JA6I>DCH =6H A:9
HDB: ADL:G 8DJGIH ID G:68= I=: G:B6G@67A: 8DC8AJH>DC I=6I B:G:
:8DCDB>8 EGDI:8I>DC>HB — I=: JH: D; G:<JA6IDGN EDL:G HDA:AN ID
EGDI:8I :CIG:C8=:9 :8DCDB>8 >CI:G:HIH ;GDB 8DBE:I>I>DC — >H
8DCHI>IJI>DC6AAN A:<>I>B6I: !C (DL:GH K 6GG>H 6C9 +:CH6I>DC6A
+B>A:HK%JAA:CI=:,:CI=6C9+:8DC9>G8J>IDJGIHD;EE:6A
9:I:GB>C:9I=6I:K:C>;:8DCDB>8G:<JA6I>DCH=6K:CDG:A6I>DCH=>E
ID EGDI:8I>C< EJ7A>8 =:6AI= DG H6;:IN I=:N 86C 7: JE=:A9 >; I=:N
)) *! , ,' *& $!.!& 7946% CDI: , at 133 (“No reasonable min9 86C
B6@: H:CH: D; I=: G:FJ>G:B:CI I=6I A6LH G:A6I: ID 6 A:<>I>B6I: HI6I: >CI:G:HI JCA:HH
one has some idea of what state interests are or are not legitimate.”). Nollan v. California Coastal Comm’n, 483 U.S. 825, 834 (1987) (“Our cases have not
:A67DG6Ied on the standards for determining what constitutes a ‘legitimate state
interest’ . . . .”). )))+-C>I:9+I6I:HK/>C9HDG+I $6LG:C8:K,:M6H -+ *DB:G K K6CH -+ %:IGDEDA>I6C $>;: !CH D K
/6G9-+>IND;A:7JGC:KA:7JGC:$>K>C<IG-+
DDE:GK:GC6A>AADINHH:HHDG-+2D7:AK/>AA>6BH
-+:E6GIB:CID;<G>8JAIJG:K%DG:CD-+
)))+Racing Ass’n of Central Iowa v. Fitzgerald, 539 U.S. 103 (2003); Nordlinger
K 6=C -+ %>CC:HDI6 K ADK:G $:6; G:6B:GN D -+ >IND;&:L'GA:6CHKJ@:H-+/>AA>6BHDCK$::'EI>86A
-+
9I=>G
99>G')68()2-)(&D:7
);$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
7:C:;>I:CIG:C8=:9>CHI6I::8DCDB>8>CI:G:HIH,=:DE>C>DCH>C7DI=
86H:H :BE=6H>O:9 I=6I :8DCDB>8 G:<JA6I>DCH 6G: D;I:C 9G>K:C 7N
H=::G ;6KDG>I>HB !C (DL:GH =>:; "J9<: :6C:AA ,68=6 <A>7AN
observed, “While baseball may be the natiDC6A E6HI>B: D; I=:
8>I>O:CGN 9>H=>C< DJI HE:8>6A :8DCDB>8 7:C:;>IH ID 8:GI6>C >CHI6I:
>C9JHIG>:H G:B6>CH I=: ;6KDG:9 E6HI>B: D; HI6I: 6C9 AD86A
governments.” +:C>DG"J9<:J>9D6A67G:H>LG>I>C<;DG=>BH:A;
6C9 ILD DI=:G ?J9<:H >C +:CH6I>DC6A +B>A:H :8=D:9 I=>H 8NC>86A
observation: “Much of what states do is to favor certain groups over
others on economic grounds. We call this politics.”
,=:H:9:8>H>DCH6G:G:B6G@67A:6C9EGD;DJC9ANIGDJ7A>C<,=:N
6G: G:B6G@67A: 7:86JH: I=: +JEG:B: DJGI =6H 8DCH>HI:CIAN
6;;>GB:9 I=6I B:G>86CH EDHH:HH 6 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A G><=I ID :6GC 6C
=DC:HI A>K>C< >C I=: D88JE6I>DC D; I=:>G 8=D>8: — 6 G><=I I=6I >H
:;;:8I>K:AN ;DG;:>I >; >I 86C 7: G:HIG>8I:9 H>BEAN 7:86JH: EDA>I>86AAN
EDL:G;JA :8DCDB>8 >CI:G:HIH G:H:CI 8DBE:I>I>DC ,=:N 6G:
3;)6796I
)27%8-32%0 1-0)7 9 6I 98 7)) C:G<N *:H:GK:H GE !C8 K #6CH6H
(DL:G $><=I D -+ 9>HI>C<J>H=>C< 7:IL::C A:<>I>B6I: HI6I:
>CI:G:HIH6C9“providing a benefit to special interests”). The Sixth, Ninth, and Fifth
>G8J>IH=6K:=:A9I=6I:8DCDB>8EGDI:8I>DC>HBHI6C9>C<6ADC:9D:HCDI8DCHI>IJI:6
A:<>I>B6I:>CI:G:HI))G6><B>A:HK>A:H9I=>G%:GG>;>:A9K
$D8@N:G9I=>G+I"DH:E=77:NK6HI>AA:9I=
>G
)))+DCC:8I>8JIK 677:GI-+J: (GD8:HHD; $6LA6JH:
protects “liberty right to choose and follow one’s calling”); Examining Bd. of Eng’rs
K'I:GD-+DJGI::CI=B:C9B:CIH:8JG:HG><=IIDLDG@;DG6
A>K>C<>C68DBBDCD88JE6I>DC8>I>C< 69%<-+6IG::C:K%8AGDN
U.S. 474, 492 (1959) (“[T]he right to hold specific private employment and to follow a
8=DH:C EGD;:HH>DC ;G:: ;GDB JCG:6HDC67A: <DK:GCB:CI6A >CI:G;:G:C8: 8DB:H L>I=>C
the ‘liberty’ and ‘property’ concepts of the Fifth Amendment.”); Schware v. Bd. of
6G M6B D; +I6I: D; &% -+ 39 (1957) (Fourteenth Amendment’s
J: (GD8:HH D; $6L 6C9 FJ6A (GDI:8I>DC A6JH:H 76G HI6I:H ;GDB 6G7>IG6G>AN
excluding people from “any occupation”); Meyer v. Nebraska, 262 U.S. 390, 399
(1923) (“liberty” protected by the Fourteenth Amendment includes right “to engage
>C 6CN D; I=: 8DBBDC D88JE6I>DCH D; Aife”); Truax v. Raich, 239 US 33, 41 (1915)
(“[T]he right to work for a living in the common occupations of the community is of
I=:K:GN:HH:C8:D;I=:E:GHDC6A;G::9DB6C9DEEDGIJC>INI=6I>IL6HI=:EJGEDH:D;
4
’!
EGD;DJC9AN IGDJ7A>C< 7:86JH: G:<JA6I>DCH HJEEDGI:9 7N B:G:
EGDI:8I>DC>HB 8DCHI>IJI: ;DG8: 768@:9 DCAN 7N I=: L>AA D; I=:
EDA>I>86AANEDL:G;JA—EG:8>H:ANI=:@>C9D;6G7>IG6GNEDL:GI=6II=:
DCHI>IJI>DCL6H9:H><C:9IDH6;:<J6G9B:G>86CH6<6>CHI!;"J9<:
6A67G:H> >H 8DGG:8I >C =>H 6HH:HHB:CI I=6I B:G: EGDI:8I>DC>HB >H
EDA>I>8H 6H JHJ6A 6C9 >; ?J9<:H 6G: 8DCI:CI ID 688:EI B:G:
EGDI:8I>DC>HB 6H 6 7GJI: ;68I D; B:G>86C EDA>I>86A A>;: 8DJCIA:HH
B:G>86CH6G:>CI=:>GEJGHJ>ID;6A>K:A>=DD9IGJANJC9:GI=:GJA:
D;B:C
Following Smith’s approach, the Court could resolve the
question of mere protectionism’s legitimacy in a way that is
informed by the Constitution’s political philosophy and its specific
<J6G6CI::H D; 9J: EGD8:HH D; A6L D>C< HD LDJA9 G:FJ>G: IG68>C<
the term “due process of law” in the Fifth and Fourteenth
Amendments back to its roots in the “law of the land clause” in
%6<C66GI6L=>8=*:KDAJI>DC6GN:G6A6LN:GH6C9I=: 6JI=DGHD;
I=: DJGI::CI= B:C9B:CI JC9:GHIDD9 ID G:;:G ID 6 CDGB6I>K:
8DC8:EID;A6L88DG9>C<IDI=>H8DC8:EICDI:K:GN<DK:GCB:CI
68I>DC>H7>C9>C<A6L—IDFJ6A>;N6HA6L6C68ID;8D:G8>K:EDL:G
the [Fourteenth] Amendment to secure.”); DenIK/:HI.>G<>C>6-+
(“liberty” protected by the Fourteenth Amendment’s Due Process of Law Clause
encompasses “the right of every citizen of the United States to follow any lawful
calling.”). )) )+,>BDI=N+6C9:;JG 2)*)27)3*9&78%28-:)9)63')7768,)631-7)3*
%;*9090) *."$(-('$’16G<J>C<I=6I7DI=8A6JH:HG:HI
upon the premise that “law and arbitrary command, justice and mere force
genuinely differ,” and that they are properly understood to prohibit the latter); *N6C
/>AA>6BH ,)2)%2(20=9&78%28-:)9)63')770%97) 1$ $" (2010) (contending that while the Fifth Amendment’s guarantee of due process of
A6L DCAN G:;:GH ID EGD8:9JG6A G><=IH I=: 9G6;I:GH D; I=: DJGI::CI= B:C9B:CI
understood due process of law as “a guarantee of general and impartial laws”);
G:9:G>8@ %6G@ :9>8@H 2 6-+-2%0-78 )*)27) 3* 9&78%28-:) 9) 63')77 %+2%
%68%-+,)6%;3278-898-32%0-71%2(8,)-*8,1)2(1)28 %'*1 $" (2009) (finding that “the colonists understood Chapter 29 [of Magna CaGI646C99J:
process as general protections against arbitrary and oppressive government,” and
I=6II=:>;I=B:C9B:CI:B7D9>:HI=>HJC9:GHI6C9>C<
);$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
=6H ID EDHH:HH 8:GI6>C 8=6G68I:G>HI>8H EJ7A>8 DG>:CI6I>DC 7:>C<
6BDC< I=:B,=JH I=: <DK:GCB:CI 8DJA9 CDI A6L;JAAN 7JG9:C
people’s natural rights merely to serve the interests of politically
EDL:G;JA >C9>K>9J6AH DG <GDJEH 7JI DCAN ID 7:II:G EGDBDI: I=:
<:CJ>C: EJ7A>8 <DD9 7N H:8JG>C< I=: A>;: A>7:GIN 6C9 EGDE:GIN D;
6AA ,=: J: (GD8:HH D; $6L A6JH:H 9>G:8IAN H:GK: I=:
Constitution’s mission by ensuring that people are not deprived of
their life, liberty, or property through “mere will exerted as an act
of power.”
!; DC: @::EH >C B>C9 I=: B>HH>DC D; I=: DCHI>IJI>DC 6C9 I=:
8DC8:EI D; 9J: EGD8:HH D; A6L I=: FJ:HI>DC L=:I=:G B:G:
EGDI:8I>DC>HB >H A:<>I>B6I: >H ;6>GAN HIG6><=I;DGL6G9 M:G8>H:H D;
G:<JA6IDGNEDL:GI=6I6G:9:H><C:9DCANIDH:GK:DCANI=:>CI:G:HIH
D; I=: EDL:G;JA G6I=:G I=6C ID H:GK: I=: <:CJ>C: EJ7A>8 <DD9 6G:
:HH:CI>6AAN6G7>IG6GNG:<6G9A:HHD;L=6I;DGBI=6IEDL:GI6@:HL=D
7:C:;>IH DG L=D >H 7JG9:C:9 ,=:N 6G: I=: EGD9J8I D; B:G: L>AA
rather than any reason that is consistent with the government’s
'&+!& ' , '&+,!,-,!'& 7946% CDI: 6I ,=: BDHI :MEA>8>I
6GI>8JA6I>DCD;I=>H8DC8:EID;A6L>C6+JEG:B:DJGIDE>C>DC>H8DCI6>C:9>C"JHI>8:
Samuel Chase’s opinion in %0()6:900, 3 U.S. (3 Dall.) 386, 388 (1798) (“An Act of
I=:$:<>HA6IJG:;DG!86CCDI86AA>I6A6L8DCIG6GNIDI=:<G:6I;>GHIEG>C8>EA:HD;I=:
social compact, cannot be considered a rightful exercise of legislative authority.”).
AI=DJ<= "JHI>8: "6B:H !G:9:AA ;6BDJHAN 9>H6<G::9 (GD;:HHDG :9>8@H =6H H=DLC
I=6I Iredell’s view was “largely rejected by state constitutional decisions of the
period, which generally held that the ‘law of the land’ signified natural and
8JHIDB6GNG><=IHI=6I8DCHIG6>C:9A:<>HA6I>K:68I>DC6C98DJA9CDI7:6AI:G:97NI=:
:M:G8>H:D;DG9inary legislative power.” Gedicks, 7946%CDI:6I
$D8@:6CA>7:G6AH>9:CI>;>:9I=:EJ7A>8<DD9L>I=I=:EG:H:GK6I>DCD;C6IJG6AG><=IH
)) , +1+,% ' $!*,1 7946% CDI: , at 27 (“For these liberals, to say that a
<DK:GCB:CI DJ<=I ID ;JGI=:G I=: EJ7A>8 <DD9 B:6CH I=6I 6 <DK:GCB:CI DJ<=I ID
protect the natural rights of its citizens in normal circumstances.”). Thus, Madison
G:8DBB:C9:9I=6I69:8A6G6I>DC7:6;;>M:9ID I=:DCHI>IJI>DCL=>8= G:69>CE6GI
“That a government is instituted, and ought to be exercised for the benefit of the
E:DEA:L=>8='327-787-2I=::C?DNB:CID;A>;:6C9A>7:GINL>I=I=:G><=ID;68FJ>G>C<
6C9JH>C<EGDE:GIN6C9<:C:G6AAND;EJGHJ>C<6C9Dbtaining happiness and safety.”
"%+%!+'&/*!,!&+"68@&*6@DK::9:BE=6H>H699:9
(6I
4
’!
G><=IHEGDI:8I>C< ;JC8I>DC :86JH: B:G: EGDI:8I>DC>HB >H 6G7>IG6GN
6C97:86JH:I=:DCHI>IJI>DC<:C:G6AAN6C9I=:J:(GD8:HHD;$6L
A6JH: >C E6GI>8JA6G 6G: 9:H><C:9 ID H6;:<J6G9 B:G>86CH 6<6>CHI
6G7>IG6GNEDL:GB:G:EGDI:8I>DC>HB>H>AA:<>I>B6I:
“F-&%&,$”*!
,+
H9>H8JHH:967DK:I=:+JEG:B:DJGI=6H;DGBDG:I=6C=6A;6
8:CIJGy distinguished between “fundamental” rights — 7JG9:CH
JEDC L=>8= G:8:>K: =:><=I:C:9 ?J9>8>6A H8GJI>CN — 6C9 6AA DI=:G
G><=IH L=>8= G:8:>K: G6I>DC6A76H>H G:K>:L BDC< I=: =6C9;JA D;
“fundamental” rights that the Supreme Court has deigned to
G:8D<C>O: 6Ge most of the rights listed in the Constitution’s first
:><=I 6B:C9B:CIH 6C9 6 HB6II:G>C< D; JC:CJB:G6I:9 G><=IH
>C8AJ9>C<I=:G><=IID7D9>AN>CI:<G>INI=:G><=IIDB6GGNI=:G><=I
IDIG6K:AI=:G><=IID8=DDH:L=:I=:GID=6K:8=>A9G:C6C9I=:G><=I
to guide the upbringing of one’s children. There is a glaring constitutional problem with the Court’s
“fundamental rights” jurisprudence: it is incompatible with the
&>CI= B:C9B:CI ,D G:A:<6I: JC:CJB:G6I:9 G><=IH ID
H:8DC98A6HH8DCHI>IJI>DC6AHI6IJHJCA:HH6C9JCI>AI=:N6G:;DJC9ID
H6I>H;N 8G>I:G>6 9:A>C:6I:9 7N I=: DJGI >H C:8:HH6G>AN ID 9>HE6G6<:
JC:CJB:G6I:9 G><=IH JGI=:G 7:86JH: I=: G6I>DC6A76H>H I:HI >H HD
D;I:CCDI6B:6C>C<;JAI:HID;6CNI=>C<7JII=:?J9>8>6A>B6<>C6I>DC
I=:8DC8AJH>DCI=6I6E6GI>8JA6G<DK:GCB:CI68I>DC9D:HCDI7JG9:C
6 ;JC96B:CI6A G><=I ;G:FJ:CIAN EG:8>E>I6I:H I=: 9:C>6A D;
JC:CJB:G6I:9G><=IH
,D699>CHJAIID8DCHI>IJI>DC6A>C?JGNI=:DJGI=6H6GI>8JA6I:9
several tests of “fundamentality” over the years, and it >HCDI8A:6G
)),GDM:AKG6CK>AA:-+>H:CHI69IK6>G9-+
+=6E>GD K ,=DBEHDC -+ $DK>C< K .>G<>C>6 -+ *D8=>CK6A>;DGC>6-+
))*+,'*!&, $'+,'&+,!,-,!'&7946%CDI:6I
);$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
L=6I I:HI >H I=: I:HI DG 6 I>B: I=: DJGI G:A>:9 JEDC A6C<J6<:
from Justice John Marshall Harlan’s dissent in Poe v. Ullman, >C
which Harlan explained that “[d]ue process has not been reduced to
6CN;DGBJA6>IH8DCI:CI86CCDI7:9:I:GB>C:97NG:;:G:C8:ID6CN
8D9:>I=6HG:HE:8I:9I=:76A6C8:L=>8='JG&6I>DC7J>A9JEDC
EDHIJA6I:H D; G:HE:8I ;DG I=: A>7:GIN I=: >C9>K>9J6A =6H HIGJ8@
between that liberty and the demands of organized society.” Harlan’s Poe dissent served as the foun96I>DC ;DG 6 ;DGB D;
8DBBDC A6L 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A>HB L=>8= H6L I=: DJGI >9:CI>;N>C<
JC:CJB:G6I:9 ;JC96B:CI6A G><=IH 7N 6C6AD<N ID G><=IH >I =69
EG:K>DJHAN G:8D<C>O:9 ,=: DJGI 9>HI>C<J>H=:9 7:IL::C
unenumerated “personal” liberties (which it did recognize 6H
“fundamental” and apply heightened scrutiny to on occasion) and
unenumerated “economic” liberties (which never received
=:><=I:C:9 H8GJI>CN L>I=DJI B6@>C< 6CN 8DCH>9:G:9 :;;DGI ID
?JHI>;NI=:9>HI>C8I>DC
%DG:G:8:CIANI=:DJGI>C/6H=>C<IDCKAJ8@H7:G<HDJ<=I
ID;6H=>DC6BDG:8DCH>HI:CI6EEGD68=7NI:I=:G>C<I=:G:8D<C>I>DC
of unenumerated fundamental rights to “history and tradition” and
G:FJ>G>C< I=6I G><=IHclaims be given a “careful description.” This
6EEGD68= EGD9J8:9 G:A6I>K: 8DCH>HI:C8N 7JI 6I 6C >CIDA:G67A: 8DHI
-+
3)-+6I 6GA6C"9>HH:CI>C<
)) #:C?> 1DH=>CD ); -68, 3* 6))(31 '7:G<:;:AA K
D9<:H *. $
*. 49 (2015) (discussing Harlan’s—later, the Court’s—“open:C9:9
common law approach”). )) +JO6CC6 +=:GGN 634)68= -7 8,) ); 6-:%'=
,) 31-2+ 3278-898-32%0
):3098-32 *. $ *. 1473 (2015) (finding “no successful sustained
defense of the bifurcated standard of review [distinguishing between “personal” and
“economic” rights] that =6H H:GK:9 6H I=: ;G6B:LDG@ ;DG DJG 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A
?JG>HEGJ9:C8:;DGI=:E6HIH:K:CINfive years.”). ))%073-C>I:9+I6I:HK6GAIDC
-+ 42 (Scalia and Thomas, J.J., concurring) (“[T]he [Court’s] picking and
choosing among various rights,” together with the “categorical and inexplicable
:M8AJH>DC D; HDcalled ‘economic rights’… unquestionably involves policymaking
rather than neutral legal analysis”).
-+
4
’!
The Court’s requirement that rightsclaims be given a “careful
description” was interpreted as a requirement to describe rights
8A6>BHC6GGDLAN,=>H>CIJGCB69:>IBDG:9>;;>8JAIID6G<J:I=6I
rights were grounded in “history and tradition” and led to the
G:?:8I>DCD;B:G>IDG>DJHG><=IH8A6>BH
(:G=6EH CD 86H: BDG: K>K>9AN >AAJHIG6I:H I=: 9::E ;A6LH >C I=:
AJ8@H7:G<;G6B:LDG@7:II:GI=6C7><6>AAA>6C8:K>H:C768= 7><6>AAA>6C8:6GDH:;GDB6HJ>I7N6CDG<6C>O6I>DCD;I:GB>C6AAN
>AA E6I>:CIH 6C9 I=:>G HJEEDGI:GH — 6C DG<6C>O6I>DC ;DJC9:9 7N
G6C@ JGGDJ<=H L=DH: 96J<=I:G 7><6>A 9>:9 D; 86C8:G 7:;DG:
I=: DD9 6C9 GJ< 9B>C>HIG6I>DC 6EEGDK:9 6 9GJ< I=6I B><=I
=6K: H6K:9 =:G A>;: !C 7><6>A AA>6C8: I=: -+ >G8J>I DJGI D;
EE:6AH;DGI=:>HIG>8ID;DAJB7>6=:A9I=6II:GB>C6AAN>AA86C8:G
E6I>:CIH =6K: CD ;JC96B:CI6A G><=I ID IGN EDI:CI>6AAN A>;:H6K>C<
:ME:G>B:CI6A9GJ<HI=6I=6K:E6HH:976H>8H6;:INI:HIH7JI=6K:CDI
N:I7::C;JAAN6EEGDK:97NI=:"J9<:,=DB6HG>;;>I=LG>I>C<
for the court, defined the claimed right narrowly: “[A] right of
688:HH ID:ME:G>B:CI6A9GJ<HI=6I=6K:E6HH:9A>B>I:9H6;:INIG>6AH
7JI =6K: CDI 7::C EGDK:C H6;: 6C9 :;;:8I>ve.” ,=JH C6GGDLAN
defined, the claimed right was obviously not “deeply rooted” in the
nation’s “history and traditions.” Yet Judge Griffith’s definition —
?JHI>;>:97N6E:G8:>K:9B6C96I:;GDBI=:+JEG:B:DJGIID6KD>9
“expanding the substantive rights EGDI:8I:9 7N I=: J: (GD8:HH
Clause” — ;6>A:9 ID 86EIJG: I=: C6IJG: D; I=: G><=I 6I HI6@: (G:K:CI>C< I:GB>C6AAN >AA E6I>:CIH L=D 6G: HJ;;:G>C< ;GDB 9>H:6H:H
;DG L=>8= CD <DK:GCB:CI6EEGDK:9 IG:6IB:CI >H 6K6>A67A: ;GDB
EGD8JG>C<6CJC6EEGDK:9B:9>8>C::;;:8I>K:AN9:EG>K:HI=:BD;I=:
G><=IIDEG:H:GK:I=:>GA>;:,=:G><=IIDH:A;preservation is “deeply
)) *6C9N 6GC:II '698-2=%2( %! $ *. 9>H8JHH>C< I=>H
EGD7A:B>CI=:8DCI:MID;%-',:32>%0)79
9
&-+%-000-%2')96I
(6I
);$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
rooted,” not only in our nation’s history and traditions but in the
EDA>I>86AE=>ADHDE=>86A ;DJC96I>DC JEDC L=>8= I=: DCHI>IJI>DC
G:HIH,=:7><6>AAAiance court’s failure to recognize and enforce
I=:G><=IIDH:A;EG:H:GK6I>DC>H:CDJ<=ID96BCAJ8@H7:G<
Smith’s approach would enable the Court to extricate our
jurisprudence from this morass. The phrase “due process of law”
=6H 6 ;>M:9 9:I:GB>C67A: B:6C>C< — as do the terms “life,”
“liberty,” and “property.” Identifying the nature and referents of
I=:8DC8:EIH>C9>86I:97NI=:H:I:GBHBJHI7:<>CL>I=:M6B>C6I>DC
D; I=: =>HIDG>86A JH6<: D; I=: I:GBH 7JI >I BJHI CDI HIDE I=:G: H
I=:DJGI=6H9DC:in the context of cases construing “the freedom
of speech,” which it has held to encompass far more activities of a
E6GI>8JA6G @>C9 I=6C I=: G6B:GH 8DJA9 =6K: >B6<>C:9 I=: DJGI
BJHI 6AHD 9D HD >C >CI:GEG:I>C< DI=:G 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A EGDK>H>DCH !I
BJHI 8DCH>9:G I=: 7GD69:G 8DCI:MI >C L=>8= I=DH: LDG9H L:G:
)) &:AHDC $JC9 ,) )'32( 1)2(1)28 30-8-'%0 -&)68= %2( 8,) -+,8 83 )0*
6)7)6:%8-32 $ $ *. 103, 117 (1987). (“[I]n liberal theory, the right to
H:A;defense is the most fundamental of all rights”). For Locke, the duty of
H:A;EG:H:GK6I>DCL6HI=:HDJG8:D;6AADI=:GG><=IH))+'& ,*,!+7946%CDI:
, at § 6 (“Every one . . . is bound to preserve himself, and not to quit his Station
L>AA;JAANHD7NI=:A>@:G:6HDCL=:C=>HDLC(G:H:GK6I>DC8DB:HCDI>C8DBE:I>I>DC
DJ<=I=:6HBJ8=6H=:86CIDEG:H:GK:I=:G:HID;%6C@>C96C9B6NCDIJCA:HH>I
7:ID9D"JHI>8:DC6C';;:C9:GI6@:6L6NDG >BE6>GI=:A>;:DGL=6II:C9HID I=:
Preservation of the Life, the Liberty, Health, Limb or Goods of another.”). ))%073
A:M6C9:G 6B>AIDC900"-2(-'%8-32-2, /'*#+'$0&* %!$,'&
$D9<: :9 9:H8G>7>C< H:A;preservation as “the first principle of our
nature.”). In the wake of the Supreme Court’s decision in &)6+)*)00:3(+)7+I
I=: 8DCI>CJ:9 HIG:C<I= D; 09'/7&)6+ >H K:GN BJ8= >C FJ:HI>DC !C &)6+)*)00
I=:DJGIED>CI:9AN9:8A>C:9ID6EEANI=:09'/7&)6+;G6B:LDG@>C9:I:GB>C>C<I=6I
the Fourteenth Amendment’s Due Process of Law and Equal Protection Clauses
G:FJ>G:HI6I:HIDG:8D<C>O:B6GG>6<:H7:IL::CE:DEA:D;I=:H6B:H:M+DB:H8=DA6GH
=6K:>CI:GEG:I:9&)6+)*)006H6G:IJGCIDI=:8DBBDCA6L6EEGD68=6HHD8>6I:9L>I=
Justice Harlan’s 3) 9>HH:CI )) )+1DH=>CD7946% CDI: 6I 6G<J>C< I=6I
&)6+)*)00“reinvigorate[ed] the analysis of Justice Harlan’s dissent in 3).”); Laurence
,G>7:59%0-+2-8=4)%/-2+87%1) *. $ *.16 (2015) (“&)6+)*)00
=6H9:;>C>I>K:ANG:EA68:93I=:AJ8@H7:G<;G6B:LDG@4L>I=I=:BDG:=DA>HI>8>CFJ>GN
[of Harlan’s 3)dissent]”). 4
’!
LG>II:C>CIDDJGA6L—HE:8>;>86AANI=::8A6G6I>DC>C;JH:9G:69>C<
D; I=: DCHI>IJI>DC I=6I 6C>B6I:9 +:8I>DC D; I=: DJGI::CI=
B:C9B:CI,=:J:(GD8:HH D;$6LA6JH:A>@:I=: :8A6G6I>DC
D;!C9:E:Cdence, speaks only of “liberty,” not of “economic” liberty
and “personal” liberty — I=JH 9>9 ?JG>HIH >CI:GEG:I>C< I=:
Fourteenth Amendment’s Due Process of Law Clause in the years
;DAADL>C<I=:>K>A/6GEGDE:GAN8DCH>9:GI=:G><=IIDHE:6@;G::AN
I=:G><=IIDLDGH=>E6C9I=:G><=IID:6GC6A>K>C<ID7:>CHI6C8:HD;
I=: H6B: 8DC8:EI The essence of this “liberty” is freedom of
68I>DC — as Smith puts it, the freedom “to act by [one’s] own
judgment, free from others’ use of force” —6C9>I>H7GD69:CDJ<=
ID86EIJG:I=:>CCJB:G67A:68I>K>I>:HL:8=DDH:ID:C<6<:>CI=6I9D
CDI K>DA6I: I=: G><=IH D; DI=:GH Smith’s approach offers a
EG>C8>EA:9 B:6CH D; >9:CI>;N>C< 6C9 EGDI:8I>C< JC:CJB:G6I:9
rights that is faithful to the Constitution’s commands. '-(,!'&$+( DG 9:869:H I=: +JEG:B: DJGI =6H A:;I I=: 8DCHI>IJI>DC6A
status of “occupational speech” unresolved.,=: DJGI =6H ADC<
>CH>HI:9 I=6I G:<JA6I>DCH I=6I 6G: IG><<:G:9 7N I=: 8DBBJC>86I>K:
8DCI:CI D; HE::8= 6G: 6AL6NH HJ7?:8I ID HIG>8I H8GJI>CNJI I=:
)) Meyer v. Nebraska, 262 U.S. 390, 399 (1923) (liberty “denotes not merely
;G::9DB ;GDB 7D9>AN G:HIG6>CI 7JI 6AHD I=: G><=I D; I=: >C9>K>9J6A ID 8DCIG68I ID
:C<6<: >C 6CN D; I=: 8DBBDC D88JE6I>DCH D; A>;: ID 68FJ>G: JH:;JA @CDLA:9<: ID
B6GGN :HI67A>H= 6 =DB: 6C9 7G>C< JE 8=>A9G:C ID LDGH=>E D9 688DG9>C< ID I=:
9>8I6I:H D; =>H DLC conscience,” among other activities “essential to the orderly
pursuit of happiness by free men”).
+%!, 7946%CDI:6I
))+)2)6%00=(6JA+=:GB6C''94%8-32%04))',%2(8,)-6781)2(1)28 *.
$*.
)))+Police Dep’t of Chicago v. Mosley, 408 U.S. 92, 95 (1972) (“above all else,
I=: >GHI B:C9B:CI B:6CH I=6I <DK:GCB:CI =6H CD EDL:G ID G:HIG>8I :MEG:HH>DC
because of its message, its ideas, its subject matter, or its content”); Holder v.
JB6C>I6G>6C $6L (GD?:8I + I HIG>8I H8GJI>CN G:FJ>G:9
);$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
BDHI :MEA>8>I <J>96C8: I=6I I=: DJGI =6H <>K:C 8DC8:GC>C<
D88JE6I>DC6A HE::8= >H HI>AA 6 I=G::"JHI>8: 8DC8JGG:C8: ;GDB I=6IHJ<<:HIHI=6ID88JE6I>DC6AHE::8= 9D:HCDI>BEA>86I:I=: >GHI
B:C9B:CI !C :K6AJ6I>C< A>8:CH>C< A6LH ;DG HE:6@>C<
EGD;:HH>DCH 6C9 G:<JA6I>DCH D; EGD;:HH>DC6A HE::8= I=6I I6G<:I
HE::8= 67DJI E6GI>8JA6G HJ7?:8IH —G:HIG>8I>DCH I=6I 6G: 8:GI6>CAN
8DCI:CI76H:9 — ADL:G 8DJGIH =6K: HEA>I DC L=>8= HI6C96G9 D;
G:K>:L ID 6EEAN +DB: ;:9:G6A 8DJGIH D; 6EE:6AH =6K: HJ7?:8I:9
G:HIG>8I>DCH DC D88JE6I>DC6A HE::8= ID =:><=I:C:9 H8GJI>CN DC I=:
grounds that “speech is speech, and it must be analyzed as such for
purposes of the First Amendment” DI=:GH =6K: 8DC8AJ9:9 I=6I
such restrictions only burden professional “conduct” and haK:
6EEA>:9G6I>DC6A76H>HG:K>:L
,=: IGJI= >H I=6I D88JE6I>DC6A HE::8= >H 7DI= HE::8= 6C9
EGD;:HH>DC6A 8DC9J8I ,=: 8DC9J8I ;DG L=>8= I=DH: >C HE:6@>C<
EGD;:HH>DCH 6G: 8DBE:CH6I:9 >H L:AA HE::8= — HE:6@>C<
EGD;:HH>DC6AH 6G: E6>9 ID E:GHDC6AAN 8DBBJC>86I: >C;DGB6I>DC
>9:6H DG 69K>8: ID DI=:G E:DEA: ,=: 9:8>H>DC ID 8=DDH: 7:IL::C
8=6G68I:G>O>C< D88JE6I>DC6A HE::8= 6H HE::8= DG 8DC9J8I >H
C:8:HH6G>AN 6G7>IG6GN — 6C9 I=>H 6G7>IG6GN 9:8>H>DC 86C B:6C I=:
9>;;:G:C8:7:IL::CB:6C>C<;JA6C9B:6C>C<A:HH?J9>8>6AG:K>:L
DCH>9:G I=: 86H: D; *DC >C:H 6 A>8:CH:9 ,:M6H K:I:G>C6G>6C
L=D =6H EGDK>9:9 86G: ;DG 6C>B6AH H>C8: 6C9 =6H H>C8: EGDK>9:9 >C9>K>9J6A>O:9 K:I:G>C6GN 69K>8: I=GDJ<= =>H L:7H>I: ID
where “the conduct triggering coverage under the statute consists of communicating
a message.”).
))$DL:K+-+/=>I:"8DC8JGG>C<>CI=:G:HJAI,=:
8DC8JGG:C8: LG>II:C 7N "JHI>8: NGDC /=>I: =6H C:K:G 7::C 8>I:9 7N 6 +JEG:B:
DJGIB6?DG>IN
)) /DAAH8=A6:<:G K DK:GCDG D; ADG>96 &D /$ I=
>G :8 9L6G9H K >HIG>8I D; DAJB7>6 9 >G +IJ6GIK6BC>IO9I=>G#>C<KDK:GCDGD;I=:+I6I:D;&:L
":GH:N99>G')68()2-)(+I
)) >C:H K AA9G:9<: 9 I= >G ')68()2-)(&D &DK:B7:G(>8@JEKGDLC9I=>G
4
’!
=JC9G:9HD;E:DEA:G >C:HL=DA6JC8=:9=>HL:7H>I:6;I:G6<:
6C9 9>H67>A>I>:H B69: >I 9>;;>8JAI ID G:B6>C >C EG68I>8: =6H C:K:G
7::C 688JH:9 D; >C8DBE:I:C8: &DC:I=:A:HH >C I=: ,:M6H
D6G9D;.:I:G>C6GN%:9>86AM6B>C:GH;>C:9=>BHJHE:C9:9
=>H K:I:G>C6GN A>8:CH: ;DG 6 N:6G 6C9 ;DG8:9 =>B ID G:I6@: I=:
?JG>HEGJ9:C8: EDGI>DC D; I=: K:I:G>C6G>6CA>8:CH>C< :M6B G:AN>C<
JEDC 6 A6L I=6I EGD=>7>IH K:I:G>C6G>6C8A>:CIE6I>:CI G:A6I>DCH=>EH
;GDB6G>H>C<HDA:ANK>6:A:8IGDC>8B:6CH >C:H8=6AA:C<:9I=:A6L
JC9:G I=: >GHI 6C9 DJGI::CI= B:C9B:CIH 8A6>B>C< I=6I >I
K>DA6I:9 7DI= =>H G><=I ID HE:6@ ;G::AN 6C9 =>H G><=I ID :6GC 6C
=DC:HIA>K>C<
,=:>;I=>G8J>IDJGID;EE:6AH6EEA>:9G6I>DC6A76H>HG:K>:L
6C9 JE=:A9 I=: A6L "J9<: (6IG>8@ ><<>C7DI=6B LG>I>C< ;DG 6
I=G::?J9<: E6C:A IG:6I:9 the law as a “contentC:JIG6A G:<JA6I>DC
of the practice of a profession” that did not implicate the First
B:C9B:CI,=:8DJGI8DC8AJ9:9I=6II=:,:M6HA6LL6HG6I>DC6A
because “it is reasonable to conclude that the quality of care will be
=><=:G6C9I=:G>H@D;B>H9>6<CDH>H6C9>BEGDE:GIG:6IB:CIADL:G
>; I=: K:I:G>C6G>6C E=NH>86AAN :M6B>C:H I=: 6C>B6A >C FJ:HI>DC
before treating it.” !I 8>I:9 CD G:8DG9 :K>9:C8: I=6I DCA>C:
K:I:G>C6GN69K>8:=6GBHDGI=G:6I:CHID=6GB6C>B6AH>C,:M6HDG
6CNL=:G: :AH: 6I G6I:H 7:NDC9 L=6I LDJA9 7: :ME:8I:9 >C 6
7G>8@6C9BDGI6G H:II>C< &DIL>I=HI6C9>C< I=>H A68@ D; :K>9:CI>6GN
HJEEDGI I=: 8DJGI ;6>A:9 ID :K:C 8DCH>9:G I=: EDHH>7>A>IN I=6I I=:
law was not designed to protect Texans’ pets at all, but, rather, the
;>C6C8>6A>CI:G:HIHD;7G>8@6C9BDGI6GK:I:G>C6GNEG68I>8:H
-2)796I
(6I
A strong possibility, given the poor fit between the government’s stated end of
protecting animals’ health and the manner in which the act operated. Texas’s law
69DEI:9a 2003 amendment to the American Veterinary Medical Association’s Model
.:I:G>C6GN (G68I>8: 8I ,=: .% >H I=: A6G<:HI EGD;:HH>DC6A JB7G:AA6 <GDJE ;DG
K:I:G>C6G>6CH >C I=: -C>I:9 +I6I:H )) (6JA +EG69A:N )0)1)(-'-2) ,) %; -7 8,)
-1-8 ,-$ " , !&,$$ (*'( EG:9>8I>C< I=6I 6H I=: JH: D;
);$36/!2-:)67-8=3962%03*%;-&)68= 3.DA
Were Smith’s approach followed, judges would not be forced to
B6@: 6G7>IG6GN 8A6HH>;>86I>DCH L>I= EDI:CI>6AAN 9:K6HI6I>C<
8DCH:FJ:C8:H :86JH: 6AA 7JG9:CH DC 8DCHI>IJI>DC6AAN EGDI:8I:9
;G::9DB LDJA9 7: HJ7?:8I:9 ID :M68I>C< ?J9>8>6A H8GJI>CN ?J9<:H
LDJA9 in every case seek to determine whether the government’s
68I>DCHL:G:86A8JA6I:9IDEGDI:8II=:EJ7A>8;GDB;DG8:DG;G6J9DG
H>BEANID>BEDH:I=:6:HI=:I>8>9:DAD<>86ADG:8DCDB>8EG:;:G:C8:H
D;I=:EDA>I>86AANEDL:G;JAJEDCDI=:GH
N L6N D; 6 <G69J6A IG6CH>I>DC ID I=>H HI6IJH FJD I=: DJGI
8DJA9:MI:C9I=:AD<>8D;>IH9:8>H>DC>C*::9K,DLCD;>A7:GIID
G:HIG>8I>DCHDCD88JE6I>DC6AHE::8=!C*::9I=:DJGI8A6G>;>:9I=6I
6A6LG:HIG>8I>C<HE::8=>H8DCI:CI76H:9—6C9I=:G:;DG:HJ7?:8IID
HIG>8I H8GJI>CN — >; >I :>I=:G ;68>6AAN 8A6HH>;>:H HE::8= 76H:9 DC >IH
8DBBJC>86I>K: 8DCI:CI DG >; >IH IGJ: EJGEDH: >H ID I6G<:I
8DBBJC>86I>K: 8DCI:CI $>8:CH>C< G:HIG>8I>DCH I=6I G:FJ>G:
speakers to seek the government’s permission before they can talk
67DJIE6GI>8JA6GHJ7?:8IH6C9G:<JA6I>DCHI=6I8DCIGDAL=6IA>8:CH:9
EGD;:HH>DC6AH B6N H6N 67DJI E6GI>8JA6G HJ7?:8IH 6G: C:8:HH6G>AN
8DCI:CI76H:9 — L=:I=:G E:DEA: B6N HE:6@ 9:E:C9H JEDC L=6I
I=:N H6N ,=JH I=:N H=DJA9 7: HJ7?:8I:9 ID I=: H6B: A:K:A D;
H8GJI>CNI=6IHE::8=G:HIG>8I>DCHI6G<:I>C<6CNDI=:G@>C9D;E:68:;JA
:MEG:HH>DC G:8:>K: MI:C9>C< *::9 ID D88JE6I>DC6A HE::8= LDJA9
ensure consistent protection for speaking professionals’ right to
HE:6@;G::AN6C9ID:6GC6A>K>C<
I:A:B:9>8>C:—I=:JH:D;I:A:8DBBJC>86I>DC6C9>C;DGB6I>DCI:8=CDAD<NID:K6AJ6I:
diagnose, and treat patients (in Hines’ case, animals)—<GDLH>IL>AA“aggravate the
selfish interests of those who support trade protectionism.”).
+I
)) ))( -+ 6I 2228 (“Because strict scrutiny applies either when a law is
8DCI:CI76H:9 DC >IH ;68: DG L=:C I=: EJGEDH: 6C9 ?JHI>;>86I>DC ;DG I=: A6L 6G:
content based, a court must evaluate each question.”).
$>8:CH>C< H8=:B:H I=6I G:FJ>G: E:DEA: ID H:8JG: I=: <DK:GCment’s permission to
HE:6@ 67DJI HE:8>;>:9 HJ7?:8IH ;DG E6N 6G: 6AHD EG>DG G:HIG6>CIH DC HE::8= ))
Nebraska Press Ass’n v. Stuart, 472 U.S. 539, 559 (1976) (describing prior restraints as
the “the most serious and least tolerable infringement of First Amendment rights”).
4
’!
"J9<:HA>@: I=:G:HID;JH9DCDI=6K:68=D>8:67DJIL=:I=:G
I=:N G:AN JEDC 6 E=>ADHDE=N ID <J>9: I=:B >C I=:>G LDG@ — 6
;G6B:LDG@;DG68FJ>G>C<DG<6C>O>C<6C9>CI:<G6I>C<D7H:GK6I>DCH
:ME:G>:C8:6C9@CDLA:9<: !I>H>BEDHH>7A:;DG=JB6C7:>C<HID
;JC8I>DCDC6BDB:CIIDBDB:CI76H>H6C9?J9<:H86CCDIEGD8::9
“one case at a time,” treating each case or controversy as if it were
JII:GANJCA>@:6CNDI=:G JI6E=>ADHDE=NI=6I>HCDI<GDJC9:9>C
reality leaves one unequipped to accomplish one’s goals in the real
world. We should not be surprised, then, that the Supreme Court’s
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Smith’s efforts to build her account of judicial review on a
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leaves the enjoyment of Americans’ most cherished rights “very
unsafe, very insecure.” Objectivity in constitutional interpretation
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with the law of the land when they burden Americans’ freedom. !C6LDG9D7?:8I>K:G:K>:LLDG@H
)) NC *6C9 ,-03734,= #,3 ))(7 8 6)46-28)( -2 ( !$'+'( 1 / '
&+ !, (1982) (“[W]ithout abstract ideas you would not be able to deal with
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infant, to whom every object is a unique, unprecedented phenomenon.”). ))&!$17946%CDI:6I58 (“Any time you seek to bend another person to
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on these shores, “THE LAW IS KING.”,=:GJA:D;A6L=6H7::C
86AA:9 our “political religion”— 7JI >IH K6AJ: >H CDI 6 B6II:G D;
faith but a “provable, rational conviction.”'JG DCHI>IJI>DC =6H
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government operates through “reflection and choice” rather than
“accident and force,” and to secure and enlarge individual
;G::9DBSmith’s book is both a reminder that our law is on the
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to obey a law they may not agree with.”). ,=DB6H (6>C: 31132 )27) 6)46-28)( -2 , '%+ (!& '$$,
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Address to the Young Men’s Lyceum of Springfield, Illinois (Jan. 27, 1838),
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