Chapter 9
Strategy for Food Enhancement
Important Terms
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Apiary- Artificial hives for honey bees for the production of honey at commercial level.
Apiculture-Rearing and breeding of honey bees
Artificial insemination-The introduction of semen of a high quality bull in the vagina of
healthy females by artificial means during heat or oestrous period.
Callus- It is an unorganized mass of loosely arranged parenchymatous cells which
develop from parent tissue due to proliferation of cells.
Concentrates- Feed that is a mixture of cereals like maize, oat, barley, broken gram,
rice polish, cotton seeds, gram bran and oilseed cakes. These are rich in protein and
other nutrients, highly palatable and easily digestible.
Roughages- Feed that contain large amount of fibers but low nutrients and include hay,
fodder, silage and legumes and common fodder grasses.
Polyculture or Composite fish culture- Many types of fishes are cultured together into a
pond or water bodies. For example catla (Surface feeder), rohu (Column feeder) and
Cirrhinus mrigle (Bottom feeder) because of different ecological niches.
Domestication- It is the process of bringing a species under human management
Emasculation- It is removal of stamens from one of the parent (if bisexual) before they
release their pollen grains.
Exotic breeds- Introduced from other countries e.g. Holstein-Friesien (Holland, Jersey
(Jersey island of England), Brown Swiss (Switzerland), Red Dane (Denmark)
Fingerlings-In nursery ponds fries grow up to 40 to 100 mm in size and called as
fingerlings.
Fry- young’s from the hatching pit or hapas are called hatchlings which grow up to 40
mm size are called fry.
Germplasm collection- It is the entire collection of plants/seeds having all the diverse
alleles for all genes in a given crop
Hybridization- is a crossing of two plants differing from each other genotypically in one
or more traits.
Heterosis or Hybrid vigour-Hybrid vigour is the superiority of the hybrid over either
parent in one or more traits.
IARI- Indian Council for Agricultural Research
NSC- National Seed Corporation
Inbreeding- It involves the breeding of animals of the same breed for about 4 to 6
generation.
Outbreeding- Breeding between different breeds.
Inbreeding depression- Continuous inbreeding results into reduced fertility and
productivity which is called inbreeding depression in animals.
Out-Crossing- mating of animals within the same breed but having no common
ancestors on either side of their pedigree up to 4-6 generations.
Milch breed-The cows are high milk yielding varieties but their bullocks are not very
useful as work animals eg. Gir, Sahiwal, Red Sindhi and Deoni
Pasturage- it include all those flowering plants which provide pollens and nectar to the
honey bees
Pisciculture or fishery- Rearing and breeding of fish, shellfish and other aquatic
animals scientifically.
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25. Pure line- it represents the progeny of homozygous plant e.g. HUW- 468
26. Superovulation- It involves the stimulation of healthy breed of female animals by
injecting gonadotrophic hormones like FSH and LH to release more eggs from its
ovaries.
27. MOET-Multiple Ovulation embryo Transfer
28. Mutation breeding- The creation of mutation at will and their utilization for the
production of new crop varieties is known as mutation breeding.
29. Bio-fortification- breeding crops with higher level of vitamins and minerals or higher
protein and healthier fats- in most practical means to improve public health.
30. Single cell protein- it refers to any microbial biomass produced by uni- and multicellular
microorganisms and can be used as food or feed additives.
31. Layers- Egg laying birds
32. Broilers- Meat yielding birds
33. Somaclones- plants got during micro-propagation are genetically identical to the
original plant from where they are grown i.e. they are somaclones
34. Cybrids- somatic hybrids are formed when isolated naked protoplasts from two
different varieties are fused.
35. Atlas-66- wheat variety with high protein content
36. Interspecific hybridization-The technique of breeding involves the interbreeding of
male and female animals of different species e.g. Mule- Male donkey x mare (female
horse) and Hinny- Female donkey x stallion (male horse)
37. NDRI- National Dairy Research Institute
38. IVRI- Veterinary Research Institute of India
39. Operation flood- Dr. V. Kurien was the founder chairman of NDDB (National Dairy
Development Board established at Anand Gujrat-1965) and started operation flood
which was the world’s largest dairy development programme
40. Pen mating- One male is kept with 10-15 hens in separate pens.
41. Artificial selection- It is to choose certain individual plants for the purpose of having
better crop from a mixed population where the individuals differ in characters.
42. ICAR- Indian Council of Agricultural Research
Identical Terms:
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Roughage/ Concentrate
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Layers/ Broilers
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NDRI/ IVRI
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Cybrid/ Hybrid
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Pisciculture/ Apiculture
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Inbreeding/ OutBreeding
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Inbreeding/ Mutation Breeding
Points To Remember:
M.S. SWAMINATHAN (1925)
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Born in August 1925 in Kumbakonam in Tamil Nadu, Monkambu Sambasivan Swaminathan did his
graduation and post-graduation in Botany from Madras University.
The School of Cytogenetics and Radiation Research established at the Indian Agricultural Research
Institute (IARI) enabled Swaminathan and his team to develop short-duration high-yielding varieties of
rice including scented Basmati.
Swaminathan initiated collaboration with Norman Borlaug, which culminated in the ‘Green Revolution’
through introduction of Mexican varieties of wheat in India. This was highly recognized and appreciated.
He has been honoured with Padma Bhushan and several other prestigious awards, medals and fellowships
by institutions of excellence.
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Animal husbandry is the agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock.
Animal husbandry deals with the care and breeding of livestock like buffaloes, cows, pigs, horses, cattle, sheep,
camels, goats, etc., that are useful to humans. Extended, it includes poultry farming and fisheries.
Fisheries include rearing, catching, selling, etc., of fish, molluscs (shell-fish) and crustaceans (prawns, crabs, etc.).
Since time immemorial, animals like bees, silk-worm, prawns, crabs, fishes, birds, pigs, cattle, sheep and camels
have been used by humans for products like milk, eggs, meat, wool, silk, honey, etc.
It is estimated that more than 70 per cent of the world livestock population is in India and China. However, it is
surprising to note that the contribution to the world farm produce is only 25 per cent, i.e., the productivity per unit
is very low.
Hence, in addition to conventional practices of animal breeding and care, newer technologies also have to be
applied to achieve improvement in quality and productivity.
Dairy Farm Management
Dairying is the management of animals for milk and its products for human consumption.
• In dairy farm management, we deal with processes and systems that increase yield and improve quality of
milk.
• Milk yield is primarily dependent on the quality of breeds in the farm.
• Selection of good breeds having high yielding potential (under the climatic conditions of the area),
combined with resistance to diseases is very important.
• For the yield potential to be realized the cattle have to be well looked after – they have to be housed well,
should have adequate water and be maintained disease free.
• The feeding of cattle should be carried out in a scientific manner – with special emphasis on the quality
and quantity of fodder.
• Besides, stringent cleanliness and hygiene (both of the cattle and the handlers) are of paramount
importance while milking, storage and transport of the milk and its products.
• Regular visits by a veterinary doctor would be mandatory.
Poultry Farm Management
Poultry is the class of domesticated fowl (birds) used for food or for their eggs. They typically include chicken and
ducks, and sometimes turkey and geese. The word poultry is often used to refer to the meat of only these birds,
but in a more general sense it may refer to the meat of other birds too.
As in dairy farming, selection of disease free and suitable breeds, proper and safe farm conditions, proper feed and
water, and hygiene and health care are important components of poultry farm management.
Animal Breeding
Breeding of animals is an important aspect of animal husbandry. Animal breeding aims at increasing the yield of
animals and improving the desirable qualities of the produce.
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A group of animals related by descent and similar in most characters like general appearance, features, size,
configuration, etc are said to belong to a breed.
When breeding is between animals of the same breed it is called inbreeding, while crosses between different
breeds are called outbreeding.
Inbreeding:
• Inbreeding refers to the mating of more closely related individuals within the same breed for 4• 6 generations.
• The breeding strategy is as follows – superior males and superior females of the same breed are identified
and mated in pairs.
• The progeny obtained from such matings are evaluated and superior males and females among them are
identified for further mating.
• A superior female, in the case of cattle, is the cow or buffalo that produces more milk per lactation.
• On the other hand, a superior male is the bull, which gives rise to superior progeny as compared to those
of other males.
Inbreeding increases homozygosity.
• Thus inbreeding is necessary if we want to evolve a pureline in any animal.
• Inbreeding exposes harmful recessive genes that are eliminated by selection.
• It also helps in accumulation of superior genes and elimination of less desirable genes. Therefore, this
approach, where there is selection at each step, increases the productivity of inbred population.
However, continued inbreeding, especially close inbreeding, and usually reduces fertility and even productivity.
This is called inbreeding depression.
Whenever this becomes a problem, selected animals of the breeding population should be mated with unrelated
superior animals of the same breed. This usually helps restore fertility and yield.
Out-breeding:
Out-breeding is the breeding of the unrelated animals, which may be between individuals of the same breed (but
having no common ancestors), or between different breeds (cross-breeding) or different species (inter-specific
hybridization).
i.
Out-crossing: This is the practice of mating of animals within the same breed, but having no common
ancestors on either side of their pedigree up to 4-6 generations.
The offspring of such a mating is known as an out-cross. It is the best breeding method for animals that are below
average in productivity in milk production, growth rate in beef cattle, etc. A single outcross often helps to
overcome inbreeding depression.
ii. Cross-breeding: In this method, superior males of one breed are mated with superior females of another
breed. Cross-breeding allows the desirable qualities of two different breeds to be combined. The
progeny hybrid animals may themselves be used for commercial production.
Alternatively, they may be subjected to some form of inbreeding and selection to develop new stable breeds that
may be superior to the existing breeds. Many new animal breeds have been developed by this approach.
Hisardale is a new breed of sheep developed in Punjab by crossing Bikaneri ewes and Marino rams.
iii. Interspecific hybridization: In this method, male and female animals of two different species are mated.
In some cases, the progeny may combine desirable features of both the parents, and may be of
considerable economic value, e.g., the mule
Controlled breeding experiments are carried out using artificial insemination. The semen is collected from
the male that is chosen as a parent and injected into the reproductive tract of the selected female by the
breeder.
The semen may be used immediately or can be frozen and used at a later date. It can also be transported in a
frozen form to where the female is housed. In this way desirable matings are carried.
Artificial insemination helps us overcome several problems of normal matings.
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To improve chances of successful production of hybrids, other means are also used. Multiple Ovulation Embryo
Transfer Technology (MOET) is one such programme for herd improvement.
In this method, a cow is administered hormones, with FSH-like activity, to induce follicular maturation and
super ovulation – instead of one egg, which they normally yield per cycle; they produce 6-8 eggs.
The animal is either mated with an elite bull or artificially inseminated.
The fertilized eggs at 8–32 cells stages, are recovered nonsurgically and transferred to surrogate mothers.
The genetic mother is available for another round of super ovulation.
This technology has been demonstrated for cattle, sheep, rabbits, buffaloes, mares, etc.
High milk yielding breeds of females and high quality (lean meat with less lipid) meat-yielding bulls have been bred
successfully to increase herd size in a short time.
Bee-keeping
Bee-keeping or apiculture is the maintenance of hives of honeybees for the production of honey. It has been an
age-old cottage industry.
Honey is a food of high nutritive value and also finds use in the indigenous systems of medicine. Honeybee also
produces beeswax, which finds many uses in industry, such as in the preparation of cosmetics and polishes of
various kinds.
Bee-keeping can be practiced in any area where there are sufficient bee pastures of some wild shrubs, fruit
orchards and cultivated crops.
There are several species of honeybees which can be reared. Of these, the most common species is Apis indica.
Beehives can be kept in one’s courtyard, on the verandah of the house or even on the roof. Bee-keeping is not
labour-intensive.
The following points are important for successful bee-keeping:
Knowledge of the nature and habits of bees,
Selection of suitable location for keeping the beehives,
Catching and hiving of swarms (group of bees),
Management of beehives during different seasons, and
Handling and collection of honey and of beeswax.
Fisheries
Fishery is an industry devoted to the catching, processing or selling of fish, shellfish or other aquatic animals. A
large number of our population is dependent on fish, fish products and other aquatic animals such as prawn, crab,
lobster, edible oyster, etc., for food.
Some of the freshwater fishes which are very common include Catla, Rohu and common carp.
Some of the marine fishes that are eaten include – Hilsa, Sardines, Mackerel and Pomfrets.
In order to meet the increasing demands on fisheries, different techniques have been employed to increase
production. For example, through aquaculture and pisciculture we have been able to increase the production of
aquatic plants and animals, both fresh-water and marine.
We now talk about ‘Blue Revolution’ as being implemented along the same lines as ‘Green Revolution’
PLANT BREEDING
Traditional farming can only yield a limited biomass, as food for humans and animals. Better management
practices and increase in acreage can increase yield, but only to a limited extent.
Plant breeding as a technology has helped increase yields to a very large extent.
Green revolution was dependent to a large extent on plant breeding techniques for development of high-yielding
and disease resistant varieties in wheat, rice, maize, etc.
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Plant breeding is the purposeful manipulation of plant species in order to create desired plant types that are better
suited for cultivation, give better yields and are disease resistant.
Conventional plant breeding has been practiced for thousands of years, since the beginning of human civilization;
recorded evidence of plant breeding dates back to 9,000-11,000 years ago.
Classical plant breeding involves crossing or hybridization of pure lines, followed by artificial selection to produce
plants with desirable traits of higher yield, nutrition and resistance to diseases. With advancements in genetics,
molecular biology and tissue culture, plant breeding is now increasingly being carried out by using molecular
genetic tools.
Traits or characters that the breeders have tried to incorporate into crop plants would be
• Increased crop yield and improved quality.
• Increased tolerance to environmental stresses (salinity, extreme temperatures, drought),
• Resistance to pathogens (viruses, fungi and bacteria) and
• Increased tolerance to insect pests
The main steps in breeding a new genetic variety of a crop are –
I. Collection of variability: Genetic variability is the root of any breeding programme. In many crops preexisting genetic variability is available from wild relatives of the crop. Collection and preservation of
all the different wild varieties, species and relatives of the cultivated species (followed by their
evaluation for their characteristics) is a pre-requisite for effective exploitation of natural genes
available in the populations. The entire collection (of plants/seeds) having all the diverse alleles for all
genes in a given crop is called germplasm collection.
II. Evaluation and selection of parents: The germplasm is evaluated so as to identify plants with desirable
combination of characters. The selected plants are multiplied and used in the process of
hybridization. Purelines are created wherever desirable and possible.
III. Cross hybridization among the selected parents: The desired characters have very often to be combined
from two different plants (parents), for example high protein quality of one parent may need to be
combined with disease resistance from another parent. This is possible by cross hybridizing the two
parents to produce hybrids that genetically combine the desired characters in one plant. This is a very
time-consuming and tedious process since the pollen grains from the desirable plant chosen as male
parent have to be collected and placed on the stigma of the flowers selected as female parent.
IV. Selection and testing of superior recombinants: This step consists of selecting, among the progeny of the
hybrids, those plants that have the desired character combination. The selection process is crucial to
the success of the breeding objective and requires careful scientific evaluation of the progeny. This
step yields plants that are superior to both of the parents (very often more than one superior
progeny plant may become available). These are self-pollinated for several generations till they reach
a state of uniformity (homozygosity), so that the characters will not segregate in the progeny.
V. Testing, release and commercialization of new cultivars: The newly selected lines are evaluated for their
yield and other agronomic traits of quality, disease resistance, etc. This evaluation is done by growing
these in the research fields and recording their performance under ideal fertilizer application
irrigation, and other crop management practices. The evaluation in research fields is followed by
testing the materials in farmers’ fields, for at least three growing seasons at several locations in the
country, representing all the agro climatic zones where the crop is usually grown.
India is mainly an agricultural country. Agriculture accounts for approximately 33 per cent of India’s GDP and
employs nearly 62 per cent of the population.
The development of several high yielding varieties of wheat and rice in the mid-1960s, as a result of various plant
breeding techniques led to dramatic increase in food production in our country. This phase is often referred to as
the Green Revolution.
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Wheat and Rice: During the period 1960 to 2000, wheat production increased from 11 million tones to 75 million
tonnes while rice production went up from 35 million tonnes to 89.5 million tonnes.
This was due to the development of semi-dwarf varieties of wheat and rice.
Nobel laureate Norman E. Borlaug, at International Centre for Wheat and Maize Improvement in Mexico,
developed semi-dwarf wheat. In 1963, several varieties such as Sonalika and Kalyan Sona, which were high yielding
and disease resistant, were introduced all over the wheat-growing belt of India.
Semi-dwarf rice varieties were derived from IR-8, (developed at International Rice Research Institute (IRRI),
Philippines) and Taichung Native-1 (from Taiwan). The derivatives were introduced in 1966.
Later better-yielding semi dwarf varieties Jaya and Ratna were developed in India.
Sugar cane: Saccharum barberi was originally grown in north India, but had poor sugar content and yield. Tropical
canes grown in south India Saccharum officinarum had thicker stems and higher sugar content but did not grow
well in north India.
These two species were successfully crossed to get sugar cane varieties combining the desirable qualities of high
yield, thick stems, high sugar and ability to grow in the sugar cane areas of north India.
Plant Breeding for Disease Resistance
A wide range of fungal, bacterial and viral pathogens, affect the yield of cultivated crop species, especially in
tropical climates. Crop losses can often be significant, up to 20-30 per cent, or sometimes even total.
In this situation, breeding and development of cultivars resistant to disease enhances food production. This also
helps reduce the dependence on use of fungicides and bactericides.
Resistance of the host plant is the ability to prevent the pathogen from causing disease and is determined by the
genetic constitution of the host plant. Before breeding is undertaken, it is important to know about the causative
organism and the mode of transmission.
Some of the diseases caused by
Fungi are rusts, e.g., brown rust of wheat, red rot of sugarcane and late blight of potato;
By bacteria – black rot of crucifers; and by viruses – tobacco mosaic, turnip mosaic, etc.
Methods of breeding for disease resistance:
The conventional method of breeding for disease resistance is that of hybridization and selection.
Its steps are essentially identical to those for breeding for any other agronomic characters such as high yield. The
various sequential steps are:
Screening germplasm for resistance sources,
Hybridization of selected parents,
Selection and
Evaluation of the hybrids and testing and release of new varieties.
Crop
Wheat
Brassica
Cauliflower
Cowpea
Variety
Himgiri
Pusa Swarnim (Karan Rai
Pusa Shubhra
Pusa Snowball K-1
Pusa Komal
Resistance To Diseases
Leaf and Stripe Rust, Hill Burnt
WhiteRust
Black Rot and Cyrl Blight Black Rot
Bacterial Blight
Conventional breeding is often constrained by the availability of limited number of disease resistance genes that
are present and identified in various crop varieties or wild relatives.
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Inducing mutations in plants through diverse means and then screening the plant materials for resistance
sometimes leads to desirable genes being identified. Plants having these desirable characters can then be either
multiplied directly or can be used in breeding.
Other breeding methods that are used are selection amongst somaclonal variants and genetic engineering.
Mutation is the process by which genetic variations are created through changes in the base sequence within
genes resulting in the creation of a new character or trait not found in the parental type. It is possible to induce
mutations artificially through use of chemicals or radiations (like gamma radiations), and selecting and using the
plants that have the desirable character as a source in breeding – this process is called mutation breeding.
In mung bean, resistance to yellow mosaic virus and powdery mildew were induced by mutations.
Several wild relatives of different cultivated species of plants have been shown to have certain resistant characters
but have very low yield. Hence, there is a need to introduce the resistant genes into the high-yielding cultivated
varieties.
Resistance to yellow mosaic virus in Bhindi (Abelmoschus esculentus) was transferred from a wild species and
resulted in a new variety of A. esculentus called Parbhani kranti.
Plant Breeding for Developing Resistance to Insect Pests
Insect resistance in host crop plants may be due to morphological, biochemical or physiological characteristics.
Hairy leaves in several plants are associated with resistance to insect pests, e.g., resistance to Jassids in cotton and
cereal leaf beetle in wheat.
In wheat, solid stems lead to non-preference by the stem sawfly and smooth leaved and nectar-less cotton
varieties do not attract bollworms.
High aspartic acid, low nitrogen and sugar content in maize leads to resistance to maize stem borers.
Breeding methods for insect pest resistance involve the same steps as those for any other agronomic trait such as
yield or quality and are as discussed above.
Sources of resistance genes may be cultivated varieties, germplasm collections of the crop or wild relatives.
Some released crop varieties bred by hybridization and selection, for insect pest resistance
Crop
Brassica
(rapeseed Mustard)
Flat Bean
Okra (Bhindi)
Variety
Pusa Gaurav
Insect Pest
Aphids
Pusa Sem2
Pusa Sem3
Pusa Sawanni
Pusa A-4
Jassids, aphids and fruit borer
Shoot and Fruit Borer
Plant Breeding for Improved Food Quality
More than 840 million people in the world do not have adequate food to meet their daily food and nutritional
requirements. A far greater number– three billion people – suffer from micronutrient, protein and vitamin
deficiencies or ‘hidden hunger’ because they cannot afford to buy enough fruits, vegetables, legumes, fish and
meat.
Diets lacking essential micronutrients – particularly iron, vitamin A, iodine and zinc – increase the risk for disease,
reduce lifespan and reduce mental abilities.
Biofortification – breeding crops with higher levels of vitamins and minerals, or higher protein and healthier fats –
is the most practical means to improve public health.
Breeding for improved nutritional quality is undertaken with the objectives of improving –
(i) Protein content and quality;
(ii) Oil content and quality;
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(iii) Vitamin content; and
(iv) Micronutrient and mineral content.
In 2000, maize hybrids that had twice the amount of the amino acids, lysine and tryptophan, compared to existing
maize hybrids were developed.
Wheat variety, Atlas 66, having high protein content, has been used as a donor for improving cultivated wheat.
It has been possible to develop an iron-fortified rice variety containing over five times as much iron as in
commonly consumed varieties.
The Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi has also released several vegetable crops that are rich in
vitamins and minerals, e.g.,
Vitamin A enriched carrots, spinach, and pumpkin;
Vitamin C enriched bitter gourd, bathua, mustard, tomato;
Iron and calcium enriched spinach and bathua; and
Protein enriched beans – broad, lablab, French and garden peas.
SINGLE CELL PROTEIN (SCP)
Conventional agricultural production of cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits, etc., may not be able to meet the
demand of food at the rate at which human and animal population is increasing.
The shift from grain to meat diets also creates more demand for cereals as it takes 3-10 Kg of grain to produce 1 Kg
of meat by animal farming.
More than 25 per cent of human population is suffering from hunger and malnutrition.
One of the alternate sources of proteins for animal and human nutrition is Single Cell Protein (SCP).
Microbes like Spirulina can be grown easily on materials like waste water from potato processing plants
(containing starch), straw, molasses, animal manure and even sewage, to produce large quantities and can serve as
food rich in protein, minerals, fats, carbohydrate and vitamins. Incidentally such utilization also reduces
environmental pollution.
It has been calculated that a 250 Kg cow produces 200 g of protein per day. In the same period, 250g of a microorganism like Methylophilus methylotrophus, because of its high rate of biomass production and growth, can be
expected to produce 25 tonnes of protein.
The fact that mushrooms are eaten by many people and large scale mushroom culture is a growing industry makes
it believable that microbes too would become acceptable as food.
TISSUE CULTURE
It was learnt by scientists, during 1950s, that whole plants could be regenerated from explants, i.e., any part of a
plant taken out and grown in a test tube, under sterile conditions in special nutrient media. This capacity to
generate a whole plant from any cell/explants is called totipotency.
It is important to stress here that the nutrient medium must provide a carbon source such as sucrose and also
inorganic salts, vitamins, amino acids and growth regulators like auxins, cytokinins etc.
By application of these methods it is possible to achieve propagation of a large number of plants in very short
durations. This method of producing thousands of plants through tissue culture is called micropropagation.
Each of these plants will be genetically identical to the original plant, from which they were grown, i.e., they are
somaclones.
Another important application of the method is the recovery of healthy plants from diseased plants. Although the
plant is infected with a virus, the meristem (apical and axillary) is free of virus.
Hence, one can remove the meristem and grow it in vitro to obtain virus-free plants. Scientists have succeeded in
culturing meristems of banana, sugarcane, potato, etc.
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Scientists have even isolated single cells from plants and after digesting their cell walls have been able to isolate
naked protoplasts (surrounded by plasma membranes). Isolated protoplasts from two different varieties of plants
– each having a desirable character – can be fused to get hybrid protoplasts, which can be further grown to form a
new plant.
These hybrids are called somatic hybrids while the process is called somatic hybridization.
Imagine a situation when a protoplast of tomato is fused with that of potato, and then they are grown – to form
new hybrid plants combining tomato and potato characteristics. Well, this has been achieved – resulting in
formation of Pomato; unfortunately this plant did not have all the desired combination of characteristics for its
commercial utilization.
-IMPORTANT DIAGRAMMES WHICH CAN BE USED FOR PUTTING QUESTIONS-
IMPROVED BREED OF CATTLE-JERSEY
IMPROVED BREED OF CHICKENS-LEGHORN
VARIETIES FOR INSECT PEST RESISTANCE
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INTERSPECIFIC HYBRIDIZATION- MULE
INDIAN HYBRID CROP- WHEAT
CROP VARIETIES FOR DISEASE RESISTANCE
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INDIAN HYBRID CROP- GARDEN PEA
ONE MARKS QUESTIONS
1
Differentiate between milch breed and draught breed of cattle.
2
Name two high milk yielding cross breeds of cows.
3
What are the two main components of cattle feed?
4
Who is the father of White revolution?
5
Give two advantages of exotic breeds over the indigenous breeds of fowl.
6
What is laying period?
7
Name two high yielding cross breeds of fowl.
8
What is pisciculture?
9
Give one term for composite fish culture.
10
What is fish meal?
11
Give the term for rearing of honey bee for increased product of honey and bee wax.
12
Name the most suitable species of honey bee for apiculture.
13
What do you mean by pasturage?
14
Give one example of each of indigenous and exotic milch breeds of cow.
15
Name one bacterial and one viral disease of the cattle.
16
Define artificial insemination.
17
How do roughage and concentrate differ from each other?
18
Differentiate between layers and broilers.
19
Write the full form of NDRI.
20
Why Italian bee (Apis mellifera) is preferred for bee keeping than Indian bee?
21
Name the variety of wheat, which is resistant to leaf stripe rust and hill blunt.
22
Name the variety of brassicas, which is resistant to white rust.
23
Name the varieties of cauliflower which are resistant to black rot and curl blight black rot.
24
Name the variety of cowpea which is resistant to bacterial blight.
25
Name the variety of chili which is resistant to chilly mosaic virus TMV and leaf curl.
26
What is somatic hybridization?
27
What are Somaclones?
28
Define bio-fortification.
29
What is SCP (Single cell protein)?
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30
31
32
33
34
Give examples of some micro-organisms working for SCP.
Define anthesis.
How Heterosis may be lost?
What is the importance of bagging in hybridization and other breeding programmes?
What is the major advantage of producing plants by micropropagation?
SOLUTIONS ONE MARKS QUESTIONS
1
Milch breeds provide milk and draught breeds are used in agriculture operations.
2
Karan Swiss and Frieswal
3
Roughages and Concentrates
4
Dr. V. Kurien
5
Exotic breeds consume less feed and lay more eggs.
6
The period from sexual maturity till the end of egg laying.
7
B-77 and HH-260
8
Rearing and management of fishes.
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Polyculture
10
Fish meal is derived from no-oil type fishes and rich in proteins (55-70%)
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Apiculture
12
Apis mellifera
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Total period for which the plants provide pollens and nectar to the honey bees.
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Indigenous breed- Sahiwal
Exotic breed- Brown swiss
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Bacterial Disease- Anthrax
Viral disease- Foot and mouth disease
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Introducing the collected semen of a good bull into the vagina of healthy cow.
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Roughages- contains fibers but less nutrients e.g. fibers
Concentrates-are rich in protein e.g. cereal grains
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Layers are the egg laying birds.
Broilers are meat yielding birds.
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National dairy research Institute
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It is docile, high honey yielding, prolific egg producing, less swarming and good defense mechanism
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Himgiri
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Pusa Swarnim (Karan Rai)
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Pusa subhra and Pusa snowball K-I
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Pusa Kamal
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Pusa Sadabahar
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Isolated protoplasts from two different varieties of plants can be fused to get hybrid protoplasts, which can
be further grown to form a new plant. These hybrids are called as somatic hybrids and the process is called
somatic hybridization.
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Plants got during micro-propagation (tissue culture) are genetically identical to the original plant from
where they are grown i.e. they are Somaclones.
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Bio-fortification- breeding crops with higher level of vitamin and minerals or higher protein and healthier
fats- in most practical means to improve public health.
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Single cell protein refers to any microbial biomass produced by any uni- or multi-cellular organisms and can
be used as food or feed additives.
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Spirullina maxima
Methylophilus methylotrophus
Candida untilis
Paecilomyces varioti
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Blooming of flowers is called anthesis.
By inbreeding Heterosis may be lost
Bagging prevents unwanted pollen to come in contact with emasculated flowers.
For rapid clonal multiplication and for production of virus free plants
TWO MARKS QUESTIONS
1
What do you understand by crop improvement?
2
Name the various methods of crop improvement.
3
What characters should be present in improved seed?
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How polyploidy breeding is useful in crop improvement?
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What do you understand by mutation breeding?
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Which part of the plant is best suited for making virus free plants and why?
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Why buffalo’s milk is preferred?
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Which method is commonly used for improving the cattle breeds and why?
9
List the advantage of composite fish culture.
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Define the term selection. What are the two methods of selection?
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Define hybrid. Explain the procedure of producing a hybrid.
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Why does a beekeeper keep beehives in the crop fields during flowering periods?
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Following are the steps in MOET programme for herd improvement in which a cow has been administered
hormones with FSH like activity. Arrange the steps A to D in their correct sequence
a. Transfer to a surrogate mother
b. It is either mated with an elite bull or artificially inseminated
c. Fertilized eggs at 32 cell stage are recovered non surgically
d. It produces 6-8 eggs instead of one egg which they normally yield per cycle
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What determine the good quality of eggs?
SOLUTION TWO MARKS QUESTIONS
1
The technique of combining the desirable characteristics in one plant and then multiplying such individuals
to the extent that is easily available for common use to farmers is known as crop improvement.
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Selection, Hybridization, Polyploid breeding, Induced mutation, Tissue culture
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i. High purity
ii. High germination percentage
iii. Free from weeds
iv. Free from diseases
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Many crop plants are natural polyploids, e.g. wheat, rice, sugarcane, cotton etc. The allopolyploids are used
to get fertile hybrids between different species and genera.
By induced polyploid many disease resistant varieties and other desirable characters have been introduced
in some plant varieties.
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The mutation can be defined as sudden, stable discontinuous and inheritable variations which appear
genotype. The creation of mutation at will and their utilization for production of new crop varieties is known
as mutation breeding.
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Apical and axillary meristem of plant is free from virus. Meristem should be grown in vitro to obtain virus
free plants.
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Milk of buffalo contains more fat, tocopherol, proteins, calcium and phosphorus but low in having
potassium, sodium and cholesterol
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Best method of improving cattle breed is artificial insemination because of the following reasons
i. Several (300) cows can be inseminated by the semen of a single bull of good variety
ii. Avoid the transportation of animals
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iii. Semen can be stored at freezing temperature for long period
iv. It gives high rate of successful fertilization
i. All the niches (ecological zones) are completely exploited
ii. No competition occurs between different species of fishes
iii. These fish help in the growth of each other
Selection- it is the differential reproduction of individuals in a population. It is achieved by preserving
favourable variants and eliminating undesirable plants. It is the oldest method of plant improvement among
cultivators; rather it forms the basis of all other methods.
Selection is of two kindsi. Mass selection- The plants are selected on the basis of their phenotypes and seeds composited
without progeny testing. The seeds are collected and mixed before sowing.
ii. Pure line selection- It is the collection of plants descended as a result of self pollination from a
single homozygous individual for particular character.
Hybrid- A progeny obtained by crossing of two varieties, species or genera having desired genes thus
showing the required characters.
Process of hybridizationi. Removal of undehisced anthers from the bisexual flower of plant to be used as female. This is
called emasculation.
ii. The emasculated flowers are covered by butter paper to avoid pollination by undesirable pollen
grains. It is called bagging.
iii. Now pollen grains from known seeds of desirable plants are used to pollinate these emasculated
flowers.
iv. They are collected, multiplied and desirable characters are determined.
i. To increase the chance of pollination
ii. To increase the yield of honey
D-B-C-A
Main consideration to determine the good quality of eggs areEgg number, Egg weight, egg size, egg shape, shell colour, shell quality and nutritive importance
THREE MARKS QUESTIONS
1
What is meant by term breed? What are the objectives of animal breeding?
2
Name the methods employed in animal breeding. According to you which one of the method is best? Why?
3
Explain what is meant by biofortification.
4
Name the five hybrid varieties of crop plants which has been developed in India?
5
Define the following termsi. Hybridization
ii.Genetic engineering
iii. Interspecific hybridization iv.Inbreeding
v. Inbreeding depression
vi. Disease Resistance
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Briefly discussed the various steps involved in the development of improved varieties of crops.
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Explain the process of Heterosis and how it is differ from the inbreeding depression?
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Describe the advantage of SCP.
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Discuss the various steps for the production of SCP.
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Write the application of tissue culture.
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Differentiate between the indigenous, exotic and hybrid varieties of fowls.
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Discuss the social organization in a bee colony.
SOLUTIONS THREE MARKS QUESTIONS
1
A breed is a group of animals similar in most of general characters (Like appearance, morphological features,
Size, Configuration, etc) and related by descent.
Main objectives-
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i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
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To develop pure line of cattle by inbreeding
To tide over the problem of inbreeding depression by out crossing
To combine the good qualities of two different breeds by cross breeding
To combine the desirable characters of two different species by interspecific hybridization so that
highly economically hybrids are produced.
i. Methods- Inbreeding, Out breeding, Out crossing, Cross breeding and Interspecific hybridization
ii. Out of the various methods of animal breeding, best method is of out crossingiii. Because it not only increases the milk production and growth rate of beef cattle but also overcomes
the problems of inbreeding depression.
A diet lacking essential micronutrients like iron, vitamin A, iodine and zinc enhances the risk of diseases,
reduced life span and even affects the mental abilities.
Bio-fortification is breeding crops with higher levels of vitamins and minerals or higher protein and healthier
fats.
Wheat- Sonara-64 and Sonalika
Rice- Pusa Basmati I, Jaya, Padma
Maize- Pusa composite 3, Ganga 5, Jamuna, Jaggannath
FIVE MARKS QUESTIONS
1
What is apiculture? How is it important in our lives?
2
Enumerate various methods of breeding. What are advantages of artificial insemination over natural
breeding?
3
What are single cell proteins? Write the advantages and process of production of SCP.
4
What is the role of tissue culture, Somaclones and somatic hybridization for improvement of crops?
SOLUTIONS FIVE MARKS QUESTIONS
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i. APICULTURE- is the process of rearing of honey bees in the artificial bee hives called apiaries, for
the increased production of honey and bee wax at the commercial level.
ii. Apiculture is of great importance to the human beings in the following ways
a. Increases production of honey-having high nutritive value as it contains levulose (42%),
dextrose (23%), maltose (10%), minerals, vitamins and water.
b. Honey has medicinal importance as it is used as laxative, antiseptic and sedative. So it is
used in gastrointestinal and liver disorders.
c. Honey is used in manufacturing of cakes.
d. Bee wax has industrial importance and is used in cosmetics, paints and ointments,
polishes, etc.
e. Honey bees are chief pollinating agents so also help in improving the plant yield.
f. It provides additional income-generating activity to the farmers.
HIGH ORDER THINKING QUESTIONS- STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCEMENT IN FOOD PRODUCTION
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A farmer in order to continue and enhance the benefits used to cross the siblings of the domesticated cattle from his
reserves. This he was doing for the past few generations. He was surprised to notice that the breed which used to give him
good returns has reduced its productivity.’ What does this tells you about the exploitation of scientific tech. Was he going
wrong somewhere or there was some other reason for reduced profits?
2
It is estimated that more than 70% of the world livestock population is in India and China.
Yet they contribute only 25% of the world’s farm produce .What does it indicates. How can we improve it?
3
As the population is continuously increasing and land for agriculture is decreasing. So how we can overcome food scarcity
problem. Suggest two measures.
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Genetic variability is the root of any breeding program. How can these naturally occurring genetic variations are used for
benefit to mankind and the biosphere in general.
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5
Following are the steps in a particular process. Name the process and fill in the steps that are given as blanks.
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SCP- One of the alternate source of protein for animal and human beings. Expand this term and how it could ease the
pressure on agriculture and dairy farming.
Fill in the blanks 1, 2, and 3.
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‘Three Billion people in the world suffer from the problem of hidden hunger. What does this signifies concerning food
availability. Biofortification is the latest concept that is considered to be the possible solution to the problem.’ Comment?
Totipotency is the capacity to generate a whole plant from any vegetative single cell. This characteristic of plant cell is used
to produce thousands of plantlets through tissue culture.
What is the technical term for this method? Are these plants genetically identical to the original plant? What terminology
can be given to these plants?
MOET is a programme for heard improvement. Expand this term and arrange the following step in correct sequence.
a) Produce 6-8 egg.
b) A cow is administered hormones with FSH like activity.
c) Mating the animal with an elite bull.
d) Transferred to surrogate mothers.
e) Fertilized eggs at 8-32 cell stages are recovered non surgically.
Besides conventional breeding technique for disease resistant varieties, now a day a new breeding technique is practiced.
How it is advantageous over the conventional technique or what is the drawback of this technique?
250 g of micro-organism due to its high rate of biomass production can be expected to produce 25 tons of protein. Write
scientific name of this organism. How can it decide the future of mankind in the space?
Atlas 66 has been used as donor for improving cultivated wheat. Why?
HIGH ORDER THINKING QUESTIONS- SOLUTIONS
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Continued inbreeding – accumulation of homozygotes- inbreeding depression – loss of productivity.
The per unit productivity is very low. So in addition to conventional practice of animal breeding & care, new technologies
also have to be an applied.
Sea food fisheries
Use DNA modulation technique for better prospects in agriculture.
Out breading-unrelated animals of a variety
Cross breading-between different breeds
Inter-specific hybridization between different species
a) Evaluation and selection of parents
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b) Selection and testing of superior recombinants.
Single cell protein-Microbes like spirulina can be gown easily on materials like waste water from potato processing plants,
molasses, animal manure, even sewage in large quantities & serve as food as it is rich in nutrients & specially proteins
(microbial components).
250g of microbe Methylophilus methylotrophus can yield 25 tones of proteins.
1. Pusa Gaurav 2. Jassids 3. Pusa Sawarnim
Breeding crops with higher levels of vitamins and minerals or higher protein & healthier fats is the most practical means to
reduce incidence of hidden hunger.
Micro propagation. Yes, Somaclones
[ b,a,c,e,d ]
Conventional breeding is often constrained by the availability of limited number of disease resistant gene. New techniques
involving :- genetics, molecular biology, tissue culture have resulted in introduction of identification of the desired gene in
the nature, its introduction in the cultivated variety, its multiplication by culturing procedures.
Its disadvantage being the leakage of introduced gene in the wild or the possible unforeseen ill effects.
Methylophilus Methylotrophus. Less load of food on the space ship, production of food as and when required outside the
dimensions of biosphere.
Due to its high protein content.
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