Florida State University Libraries
Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations
The Graduate School
2004
Co-Study Art Education: A Study of
Integrated Curriculum
Jennifer Ruth Jones Doster
Follow this and additional works at the FSU Digital Library. For more information, please contact [email protected]
THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS AND DANCE
CO-STUDY ART EDUCATION:
A STUDY OF INTEGRATED CURRICULUM
By
JENNIFER RUTH JONES DOSTER
A Dissertation submitted to the
Department of Art Education
in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Degree Awarded:
Summer Semester, 2004
Copyright 2004
Jennifer Ruth Jones Doster
All Rights Reserved
The members of the Committee approve the dissertation of Jennifer Ruth Jones Doster
defended on July 2, 2004.
Tom Anderson
Professor Directing Dissertation
Emanuel Shargel
Outside Committee Member
Fanchon Funk
Committee Member
Marcia Rosal
Committee Member
Approved:
Marcia Rosal, Chair, Department of Art Education
Sally McRorie, Dean, School of Visual Arts and Dance
The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee
members.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My husband, Dr. Henry Clay Doster, gave me the enthusiasm and continuing
support needed to embark on and finish this research project. He together with my son,
Henry Jared Doster, and my mother, Ruth B. Jones, unselfishly gave me the love and
freedom necessary to achieve this goal.
Jean Warren was an integral part in the development of the Co-Study Curriculum
and her loyalty as well as her creative thinking were foundational to the completion of
this dissertation. Further, Karen Collins and Myra Crews were willing and enthusiastic
supporters of the Co-Study Curriculum process.
Dr. Tom Anderson, major professor, and committee members, Dr. Emanuel
Shargel, Dr. Fanchon Funk, and Dr. Marcia Rosal, contributed their patience and
wisdom, which were needed to bring the story of Co-Study to fruition. Also, thank you
to Dr. Penelope Orr for her insights. The presence and contributions of many others have
shaped the telling of this story. I sincerely appreciate each person who made a
contribution.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables………………………………………………………………………. viii
List of Figures……………………………………………………………………… ix
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………. x
I. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………….
Background of the Study……………………………………………………
The Role of Art……………………………………………………………..
Statement of the Purpose……………………………………………………
Statement of the Problem…………………………………………………...
Research Questions…………………………………………………………
Objectives of the Study…………………………………………………….
Significance of the Study…………………………………………………..
Overview of Methodology…………………………………………………
The Researcher……………………………………………………..
The Setting………………………………………………………….
Research Population……………………………..............................
Limitations………………………………………………………………….
Pilot Study………………………………………………………………….
Definitions of Key Terms………………………………………………......
Summary…..……………………………………………………………….
1
2
6
14
14
14
15
15
16
17
18
18
19
19
20
20
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE…………………………………………………..
Brain Based Learning………………………………………………………
Memory…………………………………………………………….
Right Brain and Left Brain…………………………………………
Learning Styles……………………………………………………..
Cognitive Developmental Theory………………………………………….
Gardner…………………………………………………………….
Vygotsky…………………………………………………………...
Learning In and Through Art………………………………………………
Facilitation of Learning…………………………………………….
Art and Cognition…………………………………………………..
Learning Theory……………………………………………………………
Behaviorism………………………………………………………..
Constructivism……………………………………………………..
Behaviorism Versus Constructivism……………………………….
Perception…………………………………………………………..
Expert Learning System……………………………………………
Summary……………………………………………………………
Philosophical Foundations………………………………………………….
22
23
30
32
34
36
37
41
43
43
49
54
55
57
59
61
63
64
65
iv
Idealism…………………………………………………………….. 67
Realism…………………………………………………………….. 70
Intuitionism………………………………………………………… 72
Alfred North Whitehead…………………………………………… 74
Pragmatism ………………………………………………………... 75
Existentialism……………………………………………………… 79
Integrated Curriculum……………………………………………………… 81
Rationale for Integrated Curriculum………………………………. 81
Describing Integrated Curriculum…………………………………. 84
Florida Curriculum Framework……………………………………. 91
Art Education and Integrated Curriculum…………………………. 92
School Improvement Research Series (SIRS)……………..………. 96
Research on Models Using Integrated Curriculum………………… 98
Polar Versus Holistic (Integrated) Curricula………………………. 105
A Definition of Integrated Curriculum…………………………….. 107
Art and Integration…………………………………………………. 108
III. RESEARCH DESIGN……………………………………………………….... 110
My Own Experience with Art and Integration…………………………….. 111
Overview of the Design of this Study……………………………………… 113
Rationale for the Research Methodology………………………………….. 114
Action Research……………………………………………………. 115
Researcher’s Qualifications and Role……………………………………… 116
Research Context…………………………………………………………... 117
Research Population……………………………………………………….. 118
Description of the Co-Study Curriculum Art Activities…………………... 118
Overview of the Treatment Procedure…………………………….. 119
Instruments Used in Data Collection……………………………………… 138
Co-Study Impact Survey…………………………………………… 140
Art Attitude Survey………………………….…………………….. 141
Student Interviews…………………………………………………. 141
Teacher Researcher Observations…………………………………. 143
Administration of the Study……………………………………………….. 143
Data Analysis and Display………………………………………………… 144
Testing of the Research Questions………………………………………… 146
Research Question #1……………………………………………… 146
Research Question #2……………………………………………… 146
Supporting Documentation………………………………………………… 147
Summary…………………..………………………………………………. 147
IV. PILOT STUDY………………………………………………………………. 148
The Co-Study Story……………………………………………………….. 148
Profile of Jean Warren…………………………………………….. 153
1998-1999 School Year……………………………………………. 163
1999-2000 School Year……………………………………………. 169
Karen Collins and Myra Crews……………………………………. 173
v
2000-2001 School Year……………………………………………. 181
2001-2002 School Year……………………………………………. 182
2002-2003 School Year……………………………………………. 188
V. RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
AND FURTHER RESEARCH………………………………………………. 199
Research Questions………………………………………………………... 200
Research Question #1…………………………………………….... 200
Research Question #2……………………………………………… 200
Research Results of Quantitative Data…………………………………….. 200
Research Question #1……………………………………………… 200
Research Question #2……………………………………………… 206
Research Results of Qualitative Data……………………………………… 211
Student Interviews…………………………………………………. 211
Relevant Student Responses to Research Question #1……. 211
Pilot Study Student Responses, Research Question #1……. 220
Relevant Student Responses to Research Question #2…….. 223
Pilot Study Student Responses, Research Question #2……. 226
Teacher Researcher Observations……….………………………….226
Relevant Observations, Research Question #1…………….. 248
Pilot Study Teacher Observations, Research Question #1… 249
Relevant Observations, Research Question #2…………….. 249
Pilot Study Teacher Observations, Research Question #2… 250
Co-Study Curriculum Support of Sunshine State Standards………. 250
Interpretation of the Findings…………………………………….... 252
Overview of Perceived Learning Through Visual Arts
Enhancement of Social Studies…………………….. 253
Overview of Attitudinal Shifts Toward Art Due
to the Co-Study Curriculum……………………….. 254
Performance Overview…………………………………….. 254
Reflective Overview by the Researcher…………………… 255
Implications for Art Educators…………………………………….. 255
Suggestions for Additional Research……………………………… 258
APPENDIX A, SURVEY INSTRUMENTS……..……..………………………… 259
A-1 Co-Study Impact Survey
A-2 Art Attitude Survey
APPENDIX B, PILOT STUDY INTERVIEWS………..………………………… 263
Pilot Study Interviews: Teachers
B-1 Interview Guide
B-1a Jean Warren (Interview #1)
B-2 Interview Guide
B-2a Jean Warren (Interview #2)
B-3 Interview Guide
B-3a Jean Warren (Interview #3)
vi
B-4
B-4a
B-5
B-5a
Interview Guide
Karen Collins
Interview Guide
Myra Crews
Pilot Study Interviews: Students
B-6 Interview Guide
B-7 Alecia
B-8 Charles
B-9 Christina
B-10 Crystal
B-11 Elizabeth
B-12 Jackson
B-13 Kellie
B-14 Michael
B-15 Samantha
APPENDIX C, PRESENT STUDY INTERVIEWS.……………………………… 377
C-1 Interview Guide
Student Interviewees
C-2 Anna
C-3 David
C-4 Ernest
C-5 James
APPENDIX D, STUDY APPROVAL FORMS…………………………………… 419
D-1 Human Subjects Committee Approval Memorandum
D-2 American History and Art Co-Study Parental
Consent Form for Minors
D-3 American History and Art Co-Study Youth
Assent Form
D-4 Bay District Schools Permission
to Conduct the Study
APPENDIX E, CONTACT & FEEDBACK INFORMATION……………………. 425
E-1 Contact & Feedback Information
REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………427
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH………………………………………………….……. 436
vii
LIST OF TABLES
1. Art Attitude Survey, Pre/Post-assessment Shifts in Attitudes Toward Art,
Doster’s Co-Study Class………………………………………………………. 209
2. Art Attitude Survey, Pre/Post-assessment Shifts in Attitudes Toward Art,
Warren’s Co-Study Class……………………………………………………… 210
3. Co-Study Impact Survey, Curriculum Component(s) Contribution
to Achieving Sunshine State Standards……………….……………………… 251
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
1. Example of Gestalt Diagram of Cultural Universals……………………………. 62
2. American History & Art Co-Study Grade Improvement………………………. 165
3. Attendance Comparison…………………………………………………………173
4. Co-Study Impact Survey, Percentage Distributions of Student Responses by
Survey Statement, Cumulative Data from Doster’s & Warren’s Classes……….202
5. Co-Study Impact Survey, Student Responses by Survey Statement…………… 205
ix
ABSTRACT
Art in elementary and secondary schools is often tagged as a superfluous class, to
be removed or restricted at the first sign of a budget crunch, and offered only after “real
learning” has taken place. The values of art are often overlooked. Art is a language that
utilizes the creative parts of the brain and has served as the core for some integrated
curricula.
Teachers have been increasingly encouraged to integrate their curricula with other
subject matter because integration is viewed as a way to deal with our era’s increased
information load, state mandates for school administrators concerning student
performance, standardized curricula and assessment, and concern over relevancy of
school to the workplace. This study focused on how art could be integrated more
effectively with other subjects, in general, and specifically with American history.
This study examined how an evolution of integrated curriculum, called Co-Study
Curriculum, used art in the delivery of American history. The research questions
addressed were: (1) Will the Co-Study Curriculum process enhance students’
perceptions of their understanding of American history?, and (2) Does the Co-Study
Curriculum process of integrating art and American history have an effect on students’
attitudes toward art?
This is a qualitative study with quantitative components; the research type is
consistent with classroom action research. The methods used for assessment included: a
post assessment survey of students’ perceptions on the impact of the Co-Study
Curriculum process and its usefulness in the classroom, a pre and post assessment of
students’ attitudes toward art, interviews of selected students, and teacher researcher
observations. Included, also, is a Co-Study Curriculum Guide that provides step-by-step
instructions for implementing the art activities used in this study. Each art activity in the
guide is aligned with the Florida Curriculum Framework, Sunshine State Standards for
Social Studies. A five-year longitudinal pilot study of the Co-Study Curriculum process
preceded this study and gave the impetus for it.
Findings from this study support the research questions, specifically, that the CoStudy Curriculum positively affected students’ perceptions of their understanding of
American history and their attitudes toward art. Implications of this study support that art
education should consider broadening its concept and educational role by offering not
only courses within its discipline but also by expanding its role through encouraging
teachers of other subject matter to collaborate and integrate art into the presentation of
their curriculum. Further, this broadened role should be taught within art education
courses at the university level.
x
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
During the last half of the twentieth century, interest in integrated curriculum has
waxed and waned but there has been a resurgence of interest over the past decade (Lake,
1994). “Curriculum integration has become incredibly popular among educators in
recent years” (Czerniak, Weber, & Sandman, 1999). Parsons (1998) stated that
integrated curriculum is part of a larger movement that includes service learning,
authentic assessment, whole-language instruction, school-university collaborations, and
school-to-work programs. All of these programs are driven by the desire to make school
meaningful to students who find schoolwork meaningless. Borrowing from Dewey that
meaning comes from purposes, Parsons further stated that integrating across the
curriculum helps provide purpose in learning for students. The facts of knowledge that
students learn in disciplines during the school day have to be related to some purpose for
remembering them. If the purposes for learning are to get grades only then the meaning
of the material to the learner will be limited.
For integration to occur, thinking must
shift to the realization that student abilities and interests are as important to curriculum
planning as the structure of the discipline itself and that information must be used or
manipulated in some manner to be retained.
A need exists to explore how art could be integrated more with other subjects
(Parsons, 2000; Lake, 1994). As a secondary school teacher, I, increasingly, have been
encouraged during teacher inservice workshops to integrate my curricula with other
subject matter. Integration is viewed as a way of dealing with our era's increased
information load, state mandates for school administrators concerning student
performance, standardized curricula and assessment, and concern over relevancy of
curricula to the workplace (Parsons, 1998). Business leaders in a highly competitive as
well as global economy are calling for a workforce capable of critical thinking, creating,
and working together to achieve common goals (H. Doster, 2003); the human resource
1
has become the competitive edge (H. Doster, 2003; Getty, 1999). Also, integration has
been emphasized as a way to prepare students for lifelong learning in an increasingly
complex and interactive world that will demand vocational upgrading and changing over
a person's lifetime (Schramm, 2000). This dissertation is a study of how a variation of
integrated curriculum, called the Co-Study Curriculum, used art to enhance learning in
American history.
Background of the Study
It is useful at first to describe briefly what is happening in our society, in general,
and education, in particular, that sets the context for this study. For educators, the last
two decades of the twentieth century focused on continuing educational reform and
restructuring which had begun in previous decades (Getty, 1999). The publication of A
Nation At Risk (1983) by the National Commission on Excellence in Education showed
American students falling behind in world competition and initiated the current reform
efforts which are aimed at curriculum, instruction, and assessment standards in all
academic areas. Another reform document, America 2000 (1991) by the U.S.
Department of Education said things were not improving (Eisner, 1994). The Goals
2000: Educate America Act (1994) mandated educational reform and established eight
national educational goals among other initiatives (Getty, 1999). The highest levels of
government, the President of the United States and the U.S. Congress, were involved in
the momentum for educational reform. Title II of the Act provided a framework within
which appropriate organizations could identify voluntary national standards for each core
subject (ArtsEdge, 2003). “The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics led the
way in the development of national standards” (Florida Curriculum Framework, 1996,
p. 5) and since then standards in other academic areas have been developed by
professional groups. Many states have enacted legislation requiring standards for
curriculum and assessment. Florida, influenced by the national standards initiatives,
developed the Florida Curriculum Framework in 1996; its Sunshine State Standards
provide new, high-level expectations for student achievement in Florida. In general,
2
standards in all academic areas at the national as well as the state level have provided
benchmarks for quality and accountability in education.
Goals 2000 identified eight academic areas targeted for reform (ArtsEdge, 2003).
Art along with English, mathematics, history, civics and government, geography, science,
and foreign language were acknowledged as core subjects. Art was finally accepted as a
basic, as important to the curriculum as traditional core subjects, and moved from being
on the periphery of the curriculum to a foundational item. Along with this shift came
debate among art educators on how to teach and assess art. In 1992, the Consortium of
the National Arts Education Associations drafted the National Standards for Arts
Education (ArtsEdge, 2003). The resulting national standards for art were based on a
consensus-building process that included gathering the broadest possible input from a
variety of sources such as state-level arts education frameworks, standards from other
nations, concerns of the arts education community as well as advice, opinions and
comments from national forums. These standards state what students should know and
be able to do in the arts. The standards are not a predetermined course of study but,
rather, competencies that art students should achieve in the classroom.
This climate of general educational reform, development of core subject content
standards, and introspection by art educators about the nature of art in education has seen
the growth and development of discipline-based art education. Discipline-based art
education (DBAE) is a comprehensive approach to art education. It exposes students to
art through its four foundational disciplines—art-making, art criticism, art history, and
aesthetics (Dobbs, 1999). Students in a DBAE art class look at the subject through these
four lenses in order to create, understand, and appreciate not only art but the artist, the
artistic process, and the function of art in cultures as well.
One of the main factors in the current round of educational reform is technology,
namely, the computer revolution and the effect it is having on our society. Our society
has drastically changed “from an industrial to an information orientation, with fierce
global competition” (Getty, 2001). In the past, our schools produced people who could
work in our factories. Now the business community’s needs have shifted. The four key
advantages of prosperous nations and companies—natural resources, capital, technology,
and human skills—are being dominated by the skilled labor factor. Capital and
3
technology are readily available and natural resources can be assembled and produced
anywhere. Competitive success is being defined by a skilled, thinking workforce. The
new workplace needs highly skilled workers who can think and solve problems as
opposed to just following directions.
Compounding this shift from manual to mental work is the dependence of the
computer and its related industries—telecommunications, software, entertainment—on
visual imagery. Traditional education has relied on verbal communication; the
information age requires visual literacy (Anderson & Milbrandt, 2005; Getty, 2001). The
culture at large is bombarded with media images—television, computer screens, video
games as well as the traditional print media—and this has created many new forms of
nonverbal communication. To fully communicate and not be held at a disadvantage,
students need to be able to interpret and understand images, symbols, and icons as well as
to create their own.
The computer revolution does not appear to be slowing down or maintaining a
steady pace; instead, it appears to be accelerating. The Internet is the closest that we have
to an information superhighway, in which individuals can access a worldwide network of
institutions and individuals. “The federal government’s vision of electronically
connecting every home, classroom, library, and workplace in the nation through the
National Information Infrastructure (NII) isn’t that far off” (Getty, 2001, para. 3). It is
estimated that within the next 25 years we will receive our information—data, text,
imagery, sound—through the NII, which is likened to a twenty-first century’s Gutenberg
press in its anticipated effect on education. Currently, the impact of art on the worldwide
web is incontestable; students readily use the language of art—images, sounds, colors,
movements—to negotiate computer technology and interactive media.
The third item of interest as background for this study is the multicultural aspect
of our society. The United States is the most multicultural country in the world (Getty,
2001). The State of Florida with significant African-American and Hispanic-American
populations is one of the most diverse states in the United States with projections that its
minorities collectively will form the majority during the early part of the twenty-first
century (Anderson & Taylor, 1993). Schools must meet the needs of a very diverse
4
population; classrooms regularly reflect a variety of racial, ethnic, religious, national,
linguistic, and cultural differences.
The melting pot terminology often used to describe America has given way to the
tossed salad or stew metaphor. The melting pot blended everyone into the same flavor
while the stew or salad allows for individual differences in taste while still contributing to
a common American culture. Not only are today’s students more diverse in the
classroom, their future workplaces will demand working with others in collaborative
projects at work, as well as, in society and on worldwide communication networks
(Getty, 2001).
The multicultural aspect has had its impact on curriculum, especially art curricula.
Art acts as a bridge to other cultures because it is one of the main ways that people
express themselves and define who they are (Getty, 2001). Through art, which expresses
the human spirit, students can learn to understand and appreciate other people and other
cultures—to develop empathy (Anderson & Milbrandt, 2005). Further, students whose
first language is not English can use art to communicate their ideas. The arts are seen “as
inclusive and democratic because each child can discover his or her own avenue of
learning, expression, and discovery” (Getty, 2001).
In summary, the background factors that influence this study are the climate of
educational reform, the changes brought about by the computer revolution, and the
increasing multiculturalism of our society. These factors are not independent but are
interwoven. Rapidly changing computer technology has impacted our basic economic
structure, moving us away from industrial manufacturing toward creating and selling
information. One of the functions of education is to meet the needs of society in the
workplace. Therefore, education must meet the needs of computer-driven technology.
Add to that the fact that the classroom and the workplace are becoming increasingly
multicultural because our population is becoming more diverse and the world is
becoming more interconnected. Educational reform initiatives are struggling to meet
these challenges by imposing standards on curriculum, instruction, and assessment. This,
it is hoped, will produce workers who are highly skilled, who can think “out of the box”,
and who exhibit more empathy and ability to work together so that business can be
competitive in the global marketplace.
5
The Role of Art
It is necessary at this point to look at the role that art could play as it is integrated
with other subject matter. What does art have to offer as a discipline with regard to
curriculum integration?
Eisner (1994) stated that what we offer in school curricula is bound by tradition
and that tradition has allowed one mode, verbal or written language, to dominate. The
arts are regarded as not as important as math, science, social studies, or language. They
are viewed as dealing with feeling rather than thinking. The perception is that the arts do
not demand any rigorous thinking by the student and they are an unimportant part of the
school program. However, Eisner argued, art as a symbol system allows the learner to
capture ideas, view their visible form, and reflect upon them. Art allows for meaningful
association of ideas and promotes creative thinking. Students who are weak in the
language mode but strong in artistic expression are held at a disadvantage in the typical
school curricula. Eisner (1994) stated:
...if the school gives its most highly prized awards to what it
regards as intellectual achievements, children who shine in the arts
will never shine as brightly as those who are excellent in
mathematics; the arts, like the children attracted to them, will
remain second-class citizens in the hierarchy of curricular values.
(p. 82)
Gardner (1990) also argued that, by definition, the visual arts are a symbol
system, akin to language, and require students to deal with visual and spatial kinds of
symbols that take form, represent ideas, express feelings, and convey meaning. Further,
art is a holistic and organic form of knowing as opposed to sequential learning. Most of
schooling deals with verbal and logical forms of symbolization and only artistic students
are given the opportunity to think and problem solve in the visual arts.
Ulich (1961) spoke to the role of art in education:
It is astonishing to see how slowly the schools all over the
world have begun to assume the obligation of educating youth
6
toward a better understanding of the role of art in the life of man
[sic].
There are two reasons. One is related to the strange fact that
the most basic and formative elements of human culture often
remain below the level of consciousness. Art is such a basic
element. For it is with us not only when we admire a picture or
listen to a symphony, but it is silently infused into everything that
surrounds us.... (pp. 188-189)
He goes on:
Strange though it may sound to the modern technical mind,
if our schools forget about this intuitive center of the human mind,
their instruction, however accurate and diligent, may bury
creativeness. (p. 196)
Lowenfeld and Brittain (1987) echoed very similar sentiments in Creative and
Mental Growth when discussing the meaning of art activities for children:
Young children use art as a means of learning, through the
development of concepts which take visible form, through the
making of symbols which capture and are an abstraction of the
environment, and through the organization and positioning of these
symbols together in one configuration. (p. 2)
Further, art is a unifying experience in that the drawing or painting represents a student
bringing together diverse elements into a new and meaningful whole. Art also cultivates
"the abilities to question, to seek answers, to find form and order, to rethink and
restructure and find new relationships..." (p. 3), qualities not measured by intelligence
tests but essential to survival. Art teaches the student to search for answers because the
art experience requires self-direction. Art teaches perceptual sensitivity and "the greater
awareness of all the senses, the greater will be the opportunity for learning" (p. 5).
Lowenfeld and Brittain (1987) described how written knowledge is transmitted
through only 26 letters and 10 numerals; "these 36 abstract figures are manipulated and
reshuffled from kindergarten through college" (p. 5). The mental growth of students
becomes an abstract process of using these tools as they are shuffled to take on different
7
configurations and different meanings. However, they are not learning itself, but only
tools with which to learn. "Being able to assemble letters in proper sequence to spell
rabbit does not constitute an understanding of a rabbit" (p. 6). Meaning comes from
engaging the five senses and thinking; "it is the interaction between symbols, the self, and
the environment that provides the material for abstract intellectual processes" (p. 6).
Therefore, a student needs a full and meaningful relationship with the environment and a
creative art experience provides this. It is incumbent on educators to develop the entire
human being—the spiritual side, the emotional side, the creative side, the social side. Art
education aids in the development of these human attributes because it is a means of
expression, a reflection of the inner workings of the student.
Art education, as an essential part of the educative process, may well mean the
difference between a flexible, creative human being and one who will not be able
to apply his learning, who will lack inner resources, and who will have difficulty
relating to his environment. In a well-balanced educational system, the total
being is stressed, so that potential creative abilities can unfold. (p. 6)
Cognitively, art also stimulates divergent thinking (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1987).
Divergent thinking is the ability to think of more than one answer to a question, or to
think of different ways of approaching a problem, or to think of anything unusual or
original. Schools, in general, promote and measure convergent thinking—a
predetermined correct response. This is true, also, of intelligence tests. Creativity and
intelligence (as usually measured) are not necessarily linked. "It has been estimated that
the most productive people in our society are not necessarily the most intelligent"
(Lowenfeld & Brittin, 1987, p. 78). The creative arts would be important in the
educational system for this reason alone, divergent thinking, because it causes the student
to look at a problem from multiple points of view and to use imagination to discover an
answer. One of the prime purposes of art in education is to develop creativity and "it
makes no difference whether this creativity will be used in the arts or sciences" (p. 79).
More recently, Anderson and Milbrandt (2005) characterized art as a vehicle in
which learning could occur holistically, crossing discipline boundaries. The average
person, when thinking of art or artists, thinks of creativity. Parents and administrators
think of creativity and personal expression as the role of the art curriculum. However,
8
the curriculum in the art room goes beyond that and promotes divergent thinking,
necessary for problem solving. They suggest the use of an art research journal for
students as one strategy for interdisciplinary study and enhancing creativity. In this
manner, art is not used as an end but as a vehicle for discovery.
Dewey (1910), in How We Think, characterized the ideal mental condition as a
balance of playfulness and seriousness at the same time. He maintained that work and
play, product and process, had split apart to the detriment of education. Too much focus
on end product, achieving results, led to dogmatism and prejudice and work became
drudgery. On the other hand, free play of the mind on a topic, or process, invites
intellectual curiosity and flexibility. Dewey contended:
To give the mind this free play is not to encourage toying with a
subject, but is to be interested in the unfolding of the subject
on its own account, apart from its subservience to a preconceived
belief or habitual aim. Mental play is open-mindedness, faith in
the power of thought to preserve its own integrity without external
supports and arbitrary restrictions. Hence free mental play
involves seriousness, the earnest following of the development of
subject-matter. (pp. 218-219)
Dewey stated "that harmony of mental playfulness and seriousness describes the artistic
ideal" (p. 220). The artist who is overly concerned with means and materials may
achieve excellent technique but the spirit is lacking. Conversely, if there is too much
animation and not enough thought to method, then the presentation of the idea is lacking.
There must be a balance between the two. This attitude toward balancing process and
product is found typically in the arts but can and should be employed in all disciplines.
In Democracy and Education, Dewey (1916) furthered this thought by comparing
the attitude of the spectator with the attitude of the participant in the learning process.
The word participant denotes concern and interest. "The ideal of interest is exemplified
in the artistic attitude” (p. 135). In other words, for learning to occur, the student must be
an interested participant in the learning process and art, by its nature, fully engages or
interests the student. For Dewey (1934), in Art as Experience, this is exemplified by the
fact that in the ancient world there was no distinction between art and life. Art was not
9
viewed as separate from life; instead, art exemplified life. To the Athenian Greeks, art
reproduced or imitated life because "it reflected the emotions and ideas that are
associated with the chief institutions of social life" (p. 7). This tight bond between art
and life led Plato to the idea of censoring certain types of art; the idea of art for its own
sake would not have been understood. Art is organized energy that conveys meaning.
"The expressions that constitute art are communication in its pure and undefiled form.
Art breaks through barriers that divide human beings, which are impermeable in ordinary
association" (p. 244). According to Jackson (1998), Dewey saw the arts as having three
major functions: (1) giving us intense, meaningful, and holistic experiences, (2) giving
us an aesthetic experience, and (3) teaching us new ways of thinking, feeling, and
perceiving.
Eisner (2001) suggested that the arts teach us ways of thinking and identified
eight key competencies of cognitive growth developed through an education in the arts:
perceiving relationships, recognizing nuance, fostering divergent thinking, acquiring
ability to shift aims in the process of development, developing ability to make decisions
in the absence of rules, increasing imagination and visualization, operating within limits
of a medium, and acquiring ability to see the world from an aesthetic point of view.
These types of thinking skills will be needed in the workplace of the 21st century and
needed by people to create meaningful lives for themselves. Eisner (2002), in The Arts
and the Creation of Mind, summed it up this way, “Through the arts we learn to see what
we had not noticed, to feel what we had not felt, and to employ forms of thinking that are
indigenous to the arts” (p. 12).
Efland (2002) suggested, however, that in spite of these understandings by a few,
the arts are on the periphery of the school curriculum. He stated that “placing the arts in
the category of the cognitive has done little to change their low standing in the school
curriculum” (p. 157). The arts are often regarded merely as modes of entertainment and
there is “a serious lack of awareness of the substantive roles the arts can play in overall
cognitive development” (p. 7). Further, art educators are not sure how to use the arts in
cognitive development or assessing their impact in that area. He stated:
…the purpose for teaching the arts is to contribute to the understanding of the
social and cultural landscape that each individual inhabits. The arts can
10
contribute to this understanding, since the work of art mirrors this world through
metaphoric elaboration. The ability to interpret this world is learned through the
interpretation of the arts, providing a foundation for intelligent, morally
responsive actions. (p. 171)
The Florida Curriculum Framework: The Arts (1996) cited The National
Standards for Arts Education: What Every Young American Should Know and Be Able to
Do in the Arts (1994) as suggesting that studying the arts helps students to better
understand the whole and helps build bridges for the students between verbal and
nonverbal experiences. In this context, the Florida Curriculum Framework recommends
connecting the arts to other subject areas for three reasons: (1) because life does not
occur in subject-matter packets, (2) making connections across subject areas is more
meaningful to students, and (3) to keep pace with an ever-expanding curriculum. The
arts can be keys to correlation and integration of subject matter. The National Standards
for Arts Education (1994) said:
Because forging these kinds of connections is one of the things the
arts do best, they can and should be taught in ways that connect
them both to each other and to other subjects. Significantly,
building connections in this way gives students the chance to
understand wholes, parts, and their relationships. (Florida
Curriculum Framework: The Arts, 1996, p. 230)
There is, however, internal disagreement in art education on how to view the role
of the arts. Some advocates of discipline-based art education (DBAE) favor the
separation of art from other disciplines and indeed the separation of art into subdisciplines. Dobbs (1998), in Learning in and through Art: A Guide to Discipline-Based
Art Education, defined DBAE as an approach to studying art through the four
foundational disciplines in art—studio art, art criticism, art history, and aesthetics. Each
discipline is regarded as a different perspective, or lens, through which to view art and art
production:
1. Studio art is the skillful creation of works of art.
2. Art criticism is methodically talking about art to increase understanding and
appreciation of art as well as to define its role in society.
11
3. Art history is understanding the social and cultural aspects of works of art.
4. Aesthetics is questioning the nature, meaning, and value of art and how to
distinguish it from other activities as well as how to evaluate it.
DBAE is a comprehensive model for art education for K-12 as well as adult education,
lifelong learning, and art museums.
Critics of DBAE focus on the idea that studying art through four disciplines
would make it like any other academic subject at the expense of art's creative growth
function. To quote Lowenfeld and Brittain (1987), "Art should not fall into the trap of
competing with academic subjects, but should have the integrity to remain basically
human" (p. 472). They stated that art provides an opportunity for growth, creative and
mental, that other subject areas cannot. Further, secondary school students should feel
that art is an area where they should not feel concern about being evaluated or performing
to someone else's standards. Gardner (1990) suggested by stating "that to attempt to
fragment [the arts] and to break them into separate concepts or subdisciplines is
especially risky" (p. 42). Art is not the simple accumulation of more facts, more skills, or
more bodies of knowledge, instead it is a creating and reflecting process that should
deepen over time as one keeps actively involved in artistic processes. The fear is that art
would be no longer be considered a whole process but, rather, four disciplines with little
regard for child development through creative play.
Yet DBAE does have characteristics notable for integrated curriculum: art
education is for all students not just those who demonstrate talent in making art; it is
written in sequential lesson units and learning experiences that derive balanced content
from all four areas; and, art may be integrated with the general curriculum through its
four disciplines. DBAE is art for all students whether gifted in art or not and integration
could occur through all and any of the four separate disciplines. Making art or talking
about art or viewing art could all be equal venues for integration with other subject
matter.
Outside the field of art, there are also misperceptions about the role of art in
schooling. Eisner (1994) stated that students perceive art as a form of play "that one can
engage in only after the real work of schooling has been finished" (p. 92). Even though
almost all elementary schools devote some time to the arts, it is often a smaller amount of
12
time than the academic subjects and, generally, taught in the afternoon. Eisner described
it this way, "In the afternoon, the arts can be used as a reward, as a break from the
demands of thinking" (p. 92). He characterized the arts as part of the null curriculum in
the secondary school, null curriculum being learning options not afforded to students.
In summary, art has been characterized as a symbol system which can be used to
visualize ideas that can be reflected upon (Eisner, 1994; Gardner, 1990; Lowenfeld &
Brittain, 1987), as a language and mode of expression (Eisner, 1994; Gardner, 1990;
Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1987), as a unifier and generator of holistic experiences (Anderson
& Milbrandt, 2005; Gardner, 1990; Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1987), as a conveyor of
emotion and feeling (Gardner, 1990; Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1987), and as a creator of
divergent thinking and outcomes (Anderson & Milbrandt, 2005; Eisner, 2001; Lowenfeld
& Brittain, 1987). Further, art creates a balance between mental thought and hands-on
activity, therefore, connecting the brain with the body and senses (Dewey, 1910). It
allows for creative play which is part of the thinking process. Art, in a larger sense, is a
human endeavor that exemplifies and conveys meaning about life and in so doing brings
people together (Dewey, 1934). However, neither people outside nor people inside the
field agree upon or fully understand the role of art in education.
There is no agreement on the vision for art education. The aims and content of art
education come from within the field as well as from without. At the two extremes, some
think art should be taught as a discrete discipline while others see it as a vehicle for
delivering an entire school's curricula. Still others fear that art will lose its integrity as a
discipline and become just a handmaiden to other subject matter. A broader view is that
art by itself has intrinsic value for students by enriching their lives as well as qualities in
its nature that develop thinking skills in students and allow it easily and successfully to
integrate with other subject matter to increase learning and understanding (Anderson &
Milbrandt, 2005). Art allows our feeling and sensing nature to join with our thinking
abilities. As the debate continues, the role of art has shifted, in the minds of many, from
being an accessory to being essential in the curriculum as we prepare our students for the
21st century. It is in this context that this study is framed.
13
Statement of the Purpose
Integrated curriculum has been defined in so many ways that it has confused
many educators as to what it is or what is expected of them in implementing it. Because
of this confusion, many have become unwilling to try integration or feel threatened by it.
A need exists to examine integrated curriculum and determine whether or not it can
become a practical part of today's art education curricula and how this integration could
occur.
Statement of the Problem
In this context, this dissertation will examine how a variation of integrated
curriculum, called the Co-Study Curriculum, used art in the delivery of American history
subject matter. What I want to know is, will the Co-Study Curriculum be an
enhancement in students’ perceptions to their understanding of American history? And
addressing the second major issue in the interdisciplinary debate, I want to know will art,
in this context, be valued for its own sake or will it lose its identity in an interdisciplinary
context? Specifically, I propose (1) to show longitudinal, empirical evidence in a pilot
study that the Co-Study Curriculum process used art to enhance learning outcomes in
American History, World History, and Chemistry at Rutherford High School between the
1997-98 and 2002-03 school years, (2) to design, implement, and assess the Co-Study
Curriculum process in American History at Rutherford High School during the 2003-04
school year, and (3) as a result of these studies to develop a Co-Study Curriculum Guide
based on selected Sunshine State Standards for American history teachers to use as
supplemental material for their course textbooks.
Research Questions
Research Question #1: Will the Co-Study Curriculum process enhance students’
perceptions of their understanding of American history?
14
Research Question #2: Does the Co-Study Curriculum process of integrating art and
American history have an effect on students’ attitudes toward art?
Objectives of the Study
The process of this study framed as objectives was to:
1. review the literature on the psychology and philosophy of learning to establish a
rationale for integrating curriculum, specifically learning in and through art.
2. review the literature to examine integrated curriculum models and determine a
working definition of integrated curriculum.
3. review the literature to examine current research models on integrated curriculum
using art paired with other subject matter.
4. construct, based on insights rising from the review of literature, and use a
variation of integrated curriculum, called the Co-Study Curriculum, in the
classroom in which art is used to enhance learning in American history as
perceived by high school students.
5. assess the results of the curriculum.
6. develop, as a result of insights gained, a teacher guide based on the Sunshine State
Standards that can assist other high school teachers who want to try the Co-Study
Curriculum in their American history classrooms.
Significance of the Study
Spurred on by the latest wave of educational reform, there are a significant
number of articles in the literature concerning integrated curriculum. These articles range
from attempting to define the topic (Czerniak, Weber & Sandmann, 1995; Lake, 1994;
Drake, 1993; Jacobs, 1989), to citing examples of application (Edens & Potter, 2001;
Luftig, 2000; Schramm, 2000; Lake, 1994), to passing judgment on its effectiveness
(Luftig, 2000; Easton, 1997; Schiller, 1995; Lake, 1994). There are also a significant
number of articles concerning art and its intrinsic qualities as a subject that makes it more
easily and effectively integrated with other subject matter (Burton, Horowitz & Abeles,
15
2000; Rettig & Rettig, 1999; Schiller, 1995; Clark, 1985). There are articles both for and
against integration, pro and con regarding breaking down the barriers between academic
disciplines (Burton, Horowitz & Abeles, 2000; Parsons, 2000). In review, integration is
being viewed as a way to bring purpose and meaning to schoolwork for disinterested
students, to manage our society’s information overload, and to accommodate business
needs for capable workers in a competitive environment; art is viewed as a vehicle
capable of effecting the integration of curriculum.
The issues that this study addresses are the viability of integrated curriculum in
the classroom and the suitability of pairing art with other subject matter for integration.
My pilot study showed increased objective test scores for students participating in the
Co-Study Curriculum process; enhanced learning outcomes were achieved in world
history, American history, and chemistry classes using art co-study methods. The present
study examines whether the Co-Study Curriculum enhances student perceptions of
learning in American history and whether that process has any effect on students’
attitudes toward art. The Co-Study Curriculum uses art skills and exercises, history
related studio projects, art criticism, and art history to enhance American history subject
matter. The rationale of this study is to make a contribution to the body of knowledge
concerning the perceived usefulness of the application of integrated curriculum in the
classroom and whether art appreciation may “get lost” or be enhanced in the process.
More specifically, the study provides information on whether or not the Co-Study
Curriculum enhanced student perceptions of learning in two American History classes at
Rutherford High School in Panama City, Florida, and whether or not art learning was
attitudinally fostered.
Overview of Methodology
The following is an overview of the methodology used in this study which is
addressed in greater detail in Chapter 3. The methodology is both quantitative and
qualitative in perspective. The research type is consistent with classroom action research.
“Classroom action research typically involves the use of qualitative, interpretive modes
of inquiry and data collection by teachers with a view to teachers making judgments
about how to improve their own practices” (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000, p. 569). This
16
classroom action research will give teachers a view of the use of the Co-Study
Curriculum process in the classroom. The methods used to assess this included: a postassessment survey of students’ perceptions on the impact of the Co-Study Curriculum
process and its usefulness in the classroom; a pre- and post-assessment survey of
students’ attitudes toward art; interviews of selected students; and, teacher researcher
observations.
The Researcher
I am a teacher certified by the State of Florida in both Art (K-12) and Social
Studies (6-12). For the past eight years, I have taught at Rutherford High School (RHS)
in Panama City, Florida. My present duties include teaching courses within both the Art
and Social Studies Departments. Over the past five years I have created, developed,
used, and tested an innovative form of integrated curriculum, called the Co-Study
Curriculum, in many of my classes at RHS. During these years I have involved other
teachers in using the Co-Study Curriculum process. They have either taught with me,
taught with each other, or taught alone. Jean Warren, a teacher in the Social Studies
Department, has collaborated with me the most during the development of the Co-Study
Curriculum process.
I began my high school teaching career in the Social Studies Department of RHS.
After two years of teaching, I transferred to the Art Department but maintained my link
with Jean Warren. We discovered that beginning with the school year 1994-95 and
through the school year of 1997-98, Rutherford High School had 39% of its students who
took American History receive a "D" or "F": 19% of those failed. State laws and county
policies require that all graduating seniors achieve a GPA of 2.0 or better. Required core
subjects, such as American History, have high potential to pull down this GPA.
Therefore, we felt that any improvement in students' abilities to achieve higher grades in
required subjects should enable them to meet better the state and local requirements for
graduation. Suspecting the potential for art integration with other subject matter, we
began exploring ways to collaborate and bring our two subjects together.
Further, from personal observation in past history classes we had taught, we both
observed that 10% to 15% of our students were apathetic in the classroom. Behaviors
included sleeping through class, talking incessantly with other students, and wandering
17
around the classroom when possible; these students were definitely not “on task”. We
also had observed through written work and from interaction with the students that 10%
to 15% had low reading and writing skills. Some of these students were in both groups;
they were not on task because of their poor skills. Others were not focused on the subject
or lacked the self-discipline to maintain a consistent level of work. To try to improve
grades as well as to engage more students, we decided to reinforce American history
content with art skills, exercises, and history-related studio projects along with art
criticism and art history.
The Setting
Jean Warren and I felt that Rutherford High School was open to new and
innovative curriculum experiments, partially because of its constitution. RHS is one of
four high schools in Bay District Schools, Panama City, Florida. It is the second oldest
high school, established in 1961, and the most culturally diverse and economically
disadvantaged Bay County high school with 1,750 students of which 37% are minority.
The Rutherford School Improvement Plan for 1994-95 depicted the school as "the most
willing to face change and challenge because its students don't fit the traditional mold"
(SACS Report, 1995). In that school year, the Communications Technology Academy
began with a $450,000 state grant for a publishing and broadcasting center that was
housed in a new two-story media center and business building. The integrated
curriculum of ComTech was mirrored later in the development of Personal Education
Plans (PEPs) for students. PEPs were small, theme-based curriculum programs for
students centered on occupations. Teachers spent Wednesday afternoons planning
together and integrating curriculum for their PEP. Both the PEPs and Block 8 scheduling
(90 minute class periods) began in 1995. Given this history of innovation and integration
in curriculum, a need to improve the number of students passing American History, and
sufficient class time, Jean and I began collaborating during the second semester of 1998.
Research Population
The population for the study was students enrolled in two classes of American
History and Art Co-Study at Rutherford High School for the 2003-04 school year.
American History is a required subject generally taken during the eleventh grade year.
Students receive one credit toward graduation for this year-long course. American
18
History and Art Co-Study used the same textbook and complied with the same standards
as did the other regular American History courses at RHS. The co-study students were
enrolled in an average (regular) class and represented a wide range of socio-economic
levels. The difference between American History and Art Co-Study and American
History was the use of art to enhance history content. Jean Warren, a veteran American
history teacher, taught one of the classes and I taught the other. Students were either
assigned by RHS Guidance Department or elected to take this class. Data from the
classes was collected, analyzed, interpreted, and evaluated separately.
Limitations
The quantitative and qualitative assessment of the Co-Study Curriculum process
is framed by the fact that I am directly involved with the subjects as a teacher of this
process and present in the classroom. Although not intentional and guarded against, there
could be bias in observation and data interpretation. Another limitation is that this study
is specific to two classes at Rutherford High School during a particular time period; the
two classes contained 50 students total. There was internal marketing at the school to
announce the class as well as normal registration procedures but there was no selective
process based on social, cultural, racial or academic factors associated with the
enrollment of students. Students were enrolled on the basis of interest or placed in the
class by the Guidance Department. There was not enough time or resources to include
other schools in this study. So while there are implications for practice in other locations
and the theory of interdisciplinary art education, the results strictly cannot be claimed to
be generalizable.
Pilot Study
Chapter 4 is a narrative detailing the highlights of a pilot study that was
previously conducted on the Co-Study Curriculum process. It is both qualitative and
quantitative in perspective; the quantitative is descriptive and evaluative in nature. The
evaluative research judges the merit of the program from performance data collected
19
between 1998 and 2000 from co-study classes at Rutherford High School and includes
teacher observations. The descriptive data describes the effectiveness of the Co-Study
Curriculum process through surveys of student participants in the same co-study classes.
During subsequent years of the pilot study, 2001through 2003, the research
strategy was solely qualitative in perspective. Interviews of teachers and students
involved in the Co-Study Curriculum collaborations and classes were the primary method
used while additional methods included surveys and observations. This strategy was
consistent with case study research, common in education, which focuses on a program
studied in depth for a defined period of time (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). It, also, is
compatible with classroom action research.
The entire pilot study, from 1998 to 2003, sets the foundation for the present
study conducted during the first semester of the 2003-04 school year.
Definitions of Key Terms
The Co-Study Curriculum: The Co-Study Curriculum is a variation of integrated
curriculum in which art—studio art, art criticism, and art history—is used to enhance
learning outcomes in core subjects. To date, the Co-Study Curriculum has been paired
with American history, world history, and chemistry.
Integrated Curriculum: Integrated curriculum occurs when one or more subjects
are combined and this combination reveals a broader understanding than could be
attained through either of the individual subject disciplines alone (J. Doster, 2001).
Summary
The purpose of this study was to determine whether the Co-Study Curriculum
process would enhance students’ perceptions of their understanding of American history
and affect their attitudes toward art. The primary means for determining this relationship
included surveys, interviews, and observations. A previous pilot study laid the
foundation for the present study.
20
This concludes the introduction to the dissertation. Chapter 2 deals with a
comprehensive review of the literature which is the knowledge base upon which this
study is built.
21
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The topic of integrated curriculum is a large, unwieldy one because it deals not
only with the philosophy of knowledge and the psychology of learning but also with
current brain research, the physiology of learning. There are two foci in the approach to
the literature: looking at (1) integrating two disciplines, and (2) using one of the
disciplines as the vehicle for the other.
Even though discrete, academic disciplines have
been studied since ancient Greek times, there is renewed interest in integrated curriculum
fueled by new research on the brain and learning (Snyder, 2001). Coupled with this is the
role and importance of art in education in a field in which even art educators have trouble
defining what art is due to its complex and pivotal role in learning and understanding.
The Co-Study Curriculum is a form of integrated curriculum that uses art as a vehicle for
other subject matter. My pilot study has predisposed me to believe that this type of
integration and format are learning enhancements. In this chapter, I will review the
literature regarding:
1. brain based learning
2. cognitive developmental theory
3. learning in and through art
4. learning theory
5. philosophical foundations
6. integrated curriculum
I will do this to establish a rationale for integrating curriculum and using art to enhance
learning, to explain current practices in the classroom, to determine a definition of
integrated curriculum, and to view models of integrated curriculum and current research
on art paired with other subject matter.
22
Brain Based Learning
“Because half of the human brain is devoted directly or indirectly to vision,
understanding the process of vision provides clues to understanding fundamental
operations in the brain” (Sur, 1996). Scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology are just beginning to understand the cognitive processes in vision. Areas
previously thought to process simple visual information are known now to handle
complex visual images. When an image enters the brain’s cortex from the eye’s retina,
the brain is already trying to understand the context and relationship of the images not
just their spatial orientation. In other words, the brain is not trying just to place an object
vertically or horizontally but trying to decide if it is a pencil or a finger. “Our work is the
first and most important step in showing that right in the earliest stages of the visual
cortex, where visual input first enters the brain, there are groups of cells that break down
these stimuli and respond to them. That leaves open the question of how higher-order
visual cortex areas further process these kinds of stimuli” (Sur, 1996).
Learning theories do not address actively the role of the body’s physical organ
used in learning. However, most people believe that the brain is somehow implicated in
learning (Driscoll, 2000). The physiology of learning is a growing field made possible by
new technology used in medicine. Neuroscience is the study of the human nervous
system, the brain, and the biological basis of consciousness, perception, memory, and
learning (Kasschau, 2001). The physical part of learning is housed in the nervous system
and brain and neuroscience links what we know about cognitive behavior with the actual
physical processes that support it. Educators do not have to be neuroscientists to benefit
from this ongoing and rapidly changing research. Neuroscience should give teachers
practical tools to use in the classroom as well as an appreciation for the complexities of
learning.
The brain is a multifaceted organism and Caine and Caine (1994) use the analogy
of a city to illustrate its complexity. The brain, as a city, has many physical structures
(buildings) connected by roads and wires; people are the element that keep the city
running by transferring information and material from one area to another. Some people
work in clusters (neighborhoods) and others work alone. At any given time, people are
23
working at simultaneous functions within the city. In the brain, many things are
happening at once, in parallel, therefore, the brain is a parallel processor. The parts of the
brain are interconnected and dependent on each other, just as systems—electricity, water,
sewage—in a city interrelate. Plus, the brain stays busy and each part influences the
others. A child is born with a definite organization to its brain and ways of interacting
with the environment. After birth, the brain appears to grow in spurts followed by
periods of rest. Many neural connections are made during the early years of life.
Another important discovery is that experience causes the physical structure of
the brain to change, referred to as brain plasticity (Caine & Caine, 1994). Environmental
stimulation causes the brain to grow physiologically and growth can be targeted for
certain areas of the brain. The brain has the ability to grow and change with use. Further,
plasticity is maintained throughout a lifetime.
Brain research supports psychologists’ belief that there are critical periods in
cognitive development, that we are continually being shaped by and shaping our
environment, and that enriched environments produce more highly developed brains
(Caine & Caine, 1994). It appears, also, that the brain needs variety in its functioning. It
needs periods of rest and activity as well as different intensities or states, such as
meditation, creativity, and rationality. The student does not need a steady diet of bland
and boring, narrow approach to teaching. For example, Rettig and Rettig (1999) stated
that recent brain research supports the necessity for art education in the curriculum.
People have two minds—a feeling mind (the oldest) and a thinking mind (the rational);
sometimes the two minds work together and, sometimes, against one another in
determining how we learn. The emotional center emerged from the most primitive root,
the brain stem. Over a million years later, the emotional centers evolved the thinking
brain. The fact that the thinking brain grew from the emotional one reveals a lot about
the relationship of thought and feeling. The emotional brain is the first to receive input.
While we are thinking about a logical response, we have already had an emotional one;
therefore, emotions affect learning and memory. Having an emotional experience while
learning information enhances the learning outcome. Therefore, art as an emotion-laden
activity increases learning.
24
This thought is taken further by Kovalik (1994) who cited the work of MacLean
on the triune brain. According to MacLean, the brain has three parts which constantly
monitor its surroundings: the brain stem, the limbic system, and the cerebral cortex.
Caine and Caine (1994) used the analogy of three brothers living together under one roof
to explain the three layers of the brain. The oldest brother (reptilian or R-complex brain)
housed in the brain stem takes charge of maintenance. Security, comfort, food, and waste
disposal are handled in an automatic and systematic way. This brother does not use
language and resists changing his ways. The middle child is the emotional (limbic
system) one. While having deep feelings, he monitors his emotions as well as organizes
events and helps remember new information. When threatened, he decides whether to
fight or flee. He, occasionally, has to keep peace in the family. Sometimes he has to
keep the older brother from dominating the family and, also, he has to act as a nurturer
for his younger bother. The younger brother (neocortex) is the intelligent one: he uses
language, handles language and images for learning, is creative, composes music,
critically analyzes, has abstract thoughts, synthesizes, and plans for the future. He is
where cognitive learning takes place. The brothers live together, support each other, and
are involved in each others’ lives to some extent. They can be, however, at odds with
each other. When the household is threatened, the older brothers take charge because of
their experience. They both know that safety and survival are their top priorities.
As mentioned, all three layers of the brain interact with one another (Caine &
Caine, 1994). This means that what we are teaching our students—concepts, emotions,
and behaviors—are interrelated, and influence and shape each other. The extent of the
interconnectedness is unknown but “the limbic system mediates both emotion and
memory” (p. 63). An emotional tie becomes necessary for learning; it lends a sense of
reality to what we are thinking and doing and personalizes information. Therefore,
student involvement is essential to learning. It is the thought plus the feeling that is
remembered and both must have value to the learner. The emotions of the learner affect
the capacity to grasp content and, conversely, information devoid of emotion is difficult
to understand. A learner needs a way to be able to personally relate to information.
Without that the subject being taught has no meaning to the student.
25
Educators need to understand the environment that allows for optimal brain
functioning (Caine & Caine, 1994). They define it as:
The optimal state of learning is roughly equivalent to that of an athlete
who performs at the peak while maintaining a deep sense of relaxation,
allowing the body to perform without inappropriate tension. We call this
state relaxed alertness.
This state of relaxed alertness is met by two conditions: (1) students are generally rested,
relaxed, and feel secure enough to take risks, and (2) students are intrinsically motivated.
Students become intrinsically motivated in an environment of creativity and challenge—
helping them to find meaning in what is being studied and helping them to be creative.
Optimal conditions include open-ended outcomes, maximizing personal meaning for
students, and students taking ownership of the learning process. Art is a natural vehicle
for creating these conditions.
Caine & Caine (1994) summarized brain based learning in twelve principles. The
following ones have implications for integrated curriculum and art in the classroom.
1. The brain is processing information in a parallel fashion which means that thoughts,
emotions, and imagination operate simultaneously with other ways of information
processing. The lesson for educators here is that no one teaching style will accommodate
all learners; multiple methods need to be employed in the classroom.
2. Searching for meaning is innate to the brain as well as the need to act on our
environment. Students need meaningful lessons in the classroom that allow them
choices, challenges, and activity in their completion.
3. The brain seeks to understand patterns and create patterns in its search for meaning;
this is called patterning. The brain resists meaningless information imposed on it.
Information appears meaningless if it is isolated bits of information. Integration of
information helps the student to make meaning; integrated curriculum allows the student
to see patterns.
4. Emotions play a critical role in patterning. The affective and cognitive domains are
not independent because emotions cannot be switched on and off. Both students’ feelings
and attitudes are involved in learning.
26
5. The left brain and right brain organize information differently. The tendency is for
one to reduce information into parts and the other to work with it as a whole. These
tendencies are separate but simultaneous and interactive. Looking at parts and wholes
facilitates learning.
6. The brain learns from what it is directly focused on as well as what is on the periphery
of its perception. Visual peripherals such as charts and works of art aid learning.
7. The brain is always learning at both a conscious and unconscious level. It is
constantly processing at an unconscious level, especially the peripheral information it has
perceived. Students need more processing of their experiences in order to understand
what they have learned at both a conscious and unconscious level.
8. The brain has at least two types of memory systems. One is for rote learning and the
other is spatial that allows for instant memory of experiences. Understanding and recall
are best in the spatial memory system. This system is invoked through experiential
learning.
9. Each person’s brain is unique. Physically, we all have the same systems but they are
integrated differently for each one of us. Teaching should allow for students to express
visual, tactile, emotional, and auditory preferences for taking in and giving out
information.
One methodology that is brain based in nature is integrated curriculum (Caine &
Caine, 1994). Integrated curriculum is a way to contribute to meaningfulness and to
provide a rich learning environment. Integration can be achieved by one teacher
combining the content of two classes or two teachers each representing a different
discipline. “The curriculum can be further integrated with art and music” (p. 127).
Teaching two disciplines together allows students’ brains to search for patterns and
connections. Topics under study can be examined through different disciplines. For
example, a study of history can be viewed through the lenses of geography, politics,
economics as well as art and music. This type of redundancy, repackaging of information
through different disciplines, aids understanding.
Kovalik (1994) stressed the importance of maintaining a non-threatening learning
environment when the triune brain goes to school. The cerebral cortex (neocortex)
operates more slowly and needs a safe environment in which to function. It needs
27
challenging and creative lessons to keep it occupied and away from thoughts of peer
ridicule, fears of a low grade, or threat by another classmate. School is an extremely
social place and this can interfere with learning. Any real or perceived threat to the
cerebral cortex shifts the brain to the limbic system or reptilian system and reduces
learning. The limbic system’s role in learning is that of comparison and memory. It
compares new information to old and then directs it to appropriate storage areas in the
brain. For example, visual images are stored in the visual cortex and words in the
language center. The limbic system has high rates of blood flow during visual
processing. Life-threatening events cause us to “downshift” to the reptilian brain which
is action-oriented and takes care of problems immediately. The brain stem, responsible
for survival, has no language or visual memory; it is reactive. It is up to the teacher to
maintain a classroom atmosphere that allows students to stay “upshifted” to the part of
the brain that processes language and enables them to learn academic subjects, to reason,
to plan, to deal with symbols, and to develop our culture.
Another cornerstone for a brain based curriculum is an enriched environment
(Kovalik, 1994). An enriched environment awakens the entire nervous system and
stimulates all 19 senses—sight, hearing, touch, taste, smell, balance, vestibular,
temperature, pain, eidetic imagery, magnetic, infrared, ultraviolet, ionic, vomeronasal,
proximal, electrical, barometric, and geogravimetric. Kovalik cited the work of Rivlin
and Gravelle (1984), Deciphering Your Senses, as the scientific evidence underpinning
this assertion. Engaging all 19 senses maximizes brain growth. Typical teaching is full
of lecture and print media and almost every course has an assigned textbook. As
discussed earlier, the brain was designed to look for pattern among the complexities of
real life. The assigned textbook is artificially simple. Our brain grows as we experience,
therefore, we must offer experiences in the classroom not just printed sources. An
enriched environment excites the brain to action. Involving fewer senses makes the task
of learning more difficult.
Kovalik summarized other brain research occurring over the last 25 years and
supported by high-tech equipment, such as CAT scans and MRIs, in the following
manner: intelligence is a function of experiences which cause physiological growth in
the brain (the enlargement of neurons and the growth of dendrites); there are at least
28
seven intelligences functioning from different parts of the brain; when functioning, the
brain uses a pattern-seeking process which is not logical and sequential when making
meaning; and, most useful information is embedded in a mental program for later
practical use and, if not, is largely forgotten. The learning environment must be one in
which the students can remain "upshifted" in the cerebral cortex for maximum learning to
occur. Kovalik (1994) cited the work of Hart for the concept that the brain is not
naturally logical while learning (although it can use information, once learned, in a
logical manner). Also, the brain does not operate in a linear fashion. Hart characterized
the brain as a pattern-seeking device that learns by sifting through massive amounts of
input which is processed in a "multi-path, multi-modal way" (Kovalik, 1994, p. 46).
Further, recognition of patterns is what constitutes insight and facilitates the transfer of
knowledge to new situations, which is creativity. Consequently, "logical, sequential
curricula delivered in logical ways are highly brain-antagonistic" (Kovalik, 1994, p. 49).
Educators concerned with brain based learning should organize curriculum
around real experiences and integrated, whole ideas which help to grow the brain (Caine
& Caine, 1994). Kovalik (1994) stated that "the curriculum of the 21st century must be
based in reality, not in subject areas 'disciplines' and textbooks" (p. xvii) because "the
mind is genetically designed to learn from the natural complexities of the natural world"
(p. 49). Reality is defined as “the slice of life directly experienceable by students at,
around, or through their school’s location or outreach capacity” (p. xvii). Curriculum
organization "musts" compatible with brain research and recommended by Kovalik are:
curriculum must be personalizable for and by individual students; concepts, skills, and
attitudes and values must be learned by "being there" physically, e.g., studying real frogs
in a real pond; allowances must be made for students' unique ways of learning; the
amount of talking must be reduced and exploring increased. All curricula should stress
problem solving and decision making.
These recommendations for curriculum organization fit well with learning
theories that stress the need for students to actively construct knowledge through handson activities, discussion, experiments, and open-ended objectives. Art, as a subject or as
a process, is a perfect vehicle for hands-on activities and, also, contributes to brain
development in other ways. The teaching of drawing as patterns and designs stimulates
29
the brain to see and recognize patterns. Art allows for the unique learning styles of
students and open-ended objectives promote exploration and expression on an individual
basis.
Memory
There are different theories that attempt to make predictions about memory of
“concrete concepts”, the type of information taught in classrooms (Preston, 1996).
Preston examined four studies of line drawings and words. The studies suggested that
concrete items containing more information are easier to remember than those with less
information. Therefore, drawings are more easily remembered than words because they
contain more information than printed or spoken words. This may be true especially for
young children who have limited vocabularies. For them, drawings may be much more
informative. Generally, spoken vocabularies are smaller than written ones, hence, spoken
words would be less informative than printed words. Remembering concrete concepts is
ranked in this order: first, line drawings; second, printed word; and last, spoken word.
Line drawings were processed faster in the brain than words and facilitated non-linear
thinking. Memory tasks for both printed and spoken words were inferior to drawings.
Early studies on memory by biological researchers focused their efforts on
information storage (Driscoll, 2000). Since that time research efforts have broadened to
understand the biology of learning and memory. Given that learning involves a change in
the brain, it follows that memory, also, changes the brain in some fashion. The exact
nature of the change is not known but the process has been studied. It has been
determined that there are different types of memory.
The most common is the type requiring memorization and effort and is
represented by traditional information-processing models. Kasschau (2001) stated there
are three processes involved in this type of memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Encoding is the process of transforming information so that the nervous system can
process it. The senses are used to encode a memory. There are three types of memory:
sensory, short-term, and long-term. Sensory memory is virtually everything that is heard
or seen in an instant and is held in the mind for only a fraction of a second. A healthy
adult can hold about seven unrelated items in short-term memory and it will last about 20
seconds unless rehearsed. Maintenance rehearsal, repeating in the mind or out loud, will
30
keep the items in short term memory for a longer period of time. The short-term memory
capability can be enlarged if the items to be held are chunked. A chunk can consist of
many other items. The brain will remember seven singular items or seven chunks of
items. Even so, short-term memory is still temporary. To transfer items to long-term
memory, they must be rehearsed with intent to learn. Long-term memory is vast and can
last, perhaps, a lifetime. Memory requires storing many thousands of bits of information
that can be retrieved when the need arises. The key to retrieval seems to be organization.
"Techniques to improve memory are based on the efficient organization of the things you
learn and on chunking information into easily handled packages" (Kasschau, 2001).
As maintenance rehearsal helped in short-term memory, elaborate rehearsal aids
in long-term memory. In elaborate rehearsal, new information is linked to already
learned information or to a strong emotional experience.
If an input is analyzed and indexed under many categories, each
association can serve as a trigger for the memory. If you associate
the new information with strong sensory experiences and a variety
of other memories, any of these stimuli can trigger the memory.
The more senses and experiences you use when trying to memorize
something, the more likely it is you will be able to retrieve it—a
key to improving memory (Kasschau, 2001, p. 287).
For curriculum, this would mean activating as many senses as possible when trying to
memorize or retain information. In other words, combining art with other subject matter
could promote retention of the subject matter as the visual sense is engaged in the
learning process.
Caine and Caine (1994) called memorization a taxon memory system. In order
for information to get into taxon memory there must be repeated practice and rehearsal.
This system is linked to extrinsic reward so that students memorize for tests in order to
get a good grade as opposed to seeking to understand ideas. Taxon memory creates
habits, is resistant to change, and accounts for why stored knowledge does not
automatically transfer to other situations. The items stored there are somewhat isolated,
devoid of meaning, and waiting to be called when needed.
31
Caine and Caine (1994) stated that we have another type of memory system—
called locale—that is spatial in nature. It is a natural system that does not need rehearsal
and allows for instant memory of experiences. The locale memory system is motivated
by novelty, has unlimited capacity, recalls where we were in space as well as what we
were doing. It is why we remember "where and what we had for dinner last night..."
(p. 93). Facts and skills that are embedded in natural, spatial memory are understood and
remembered. They are not memories of facts out of context but memories existing in
time and space forming a mental map. Experiential learning and use of the senses
activate spatial memory. For curriculum, this necessitates using real-life activities, such
as demonstrations, projects, field trips, stories, metaphors, drama, and visual imagery.
The two memory systems work together. The taxon system has information in
“parts” while the locale system has the whole story. The locale system uses the
information stored in the taxon system; both interact to generate meaning. There must be
strong connections between the two systems for the information to flow from the taxon to
the locale system. If the strong connections are not there, the stored information cannot
be called up except in limited ways. The students have memorized facts but are unable to
apply them within a context. It becomes the difference between memorization and
understanding. Connections should be made between the two memory systems and this
is accomplished through experiential learning. For curriculum, this necessitates using
real-life activities, such as demonstrations, projects, field trips, stories, metaphors, drama,
and visual imagery.
Right Brain and Left Brain
The brain is physically divided into two hemispheres and the two lobes of the
brain house different processes (Plotnik, 1999). The left hemisphere houses and is
responsible for
Verbal: language-related abilities such as speaking, understanding language,
conversing, reading, writing, spelling,
Mathematical: mathematical skills such as adding, subtracting, multiplying,
dividing, solving complex problems in calculus, physics, and
Analytic: processing information by analyzing each separate piece that makes up
a whole.
32
The right hemisphere houses and is responsible for
Nonverbal: a childlike ability to read, write, spell and understand speech,
Spatial: solving spatial problems such as arranging blocks to match a geometric
design, and
Holistic: processing information by combining parts into a meaningful whole.
The hemispheres of the brain appear to interact together and pass information
back and forth quickly. Occasionally, a hemisphere will work alone. Kasschau (2001)
further described the right brain as adept at visual relationships and that perceptual tasks
seem to be more suited for the right hemisphere. "The right side is better at recognizing
patterns. Thus music and art are better understood by the right hemisphere. Creativity
and intuition are also found in the right hemisphere" (p. 163). Brain research is
inconclusive at this time about the role that hemisphericity plays in learning because both
lobes are involved in all activities (Caine & Caine, 1994). However, most individuals
prefer one or the other mode of thinking but some people are more whole-brained and
equally adept at both.
The two hemispheres use contrasting methods for information processing
(Edwards, 1986). Even though both specialize and have their own particular capabilities,
they are able to work together in a cooperative manner while maintaining their
differences. “Both thinking modes are involved in high-level cognitive functioning”
(p. 10). However, the right brain is less easily described and understood and is relegated
to minor status by the left brain. The left brain has trouble verbalizing the function of the
right brain and it remains unnoticed in everyday activities.
Curriculum in schools, in general, favors left brain thinking and subjects focus on
logical thinking, analysis, and accuracy. Right-brained subjects, such as art and music,
focus on aesthetics, feeling, and creativity. They are not given as much importance in the
curriculum. Often they are electives and not required subjects. There is a general neglect
of the arts in elementary and secondary classrooms (Eisner, 1994). At the elementary
level, “few well-thought-out and competently taught art programs exist” (p. 106). At the
secondary level, “the arts are taught in about half of all secondary schools and only 20
percent of the school population enrolls for as little as 1 year” (p. 106). To offer a more
whole-brained experience, instructional techniques should incorporate more patterning,
33
metaphors, analogies, role playing, visuals, and kinesthetic movement in reading,
calculation, and analytical activities.
Learning Styles
Nature is common to all people so everyone has the biology of the brain in
common, how it functions and how it can be stimulated for growth and development.
However, people are different because of their environments and how they have been
nurtured. A spin-off from the hemispheric research was the identification of an area
called learning styles. Split-brain research and, from that, hemispheric speculations
acknowledge that there are differences in styles of learning; reading styles, learning and
creative/perceptual styles, and management styles inventories originally developed from
left brain/right brain theory.
Learning styles are based on the fact that people perceive and process information
differently and this diversity must be addressed in the classroom in order to improve
student performance (Miller, 2001). Teachers who understand this and present
information in a variety of ways to accommodate learner’s preferences help to improve
student motivation. Several theories regarding learning styles have been proposed over
the last thirty years. They all address some aspect of learning but look at it from different
angles, such as, information processing, personality, or perceptions.
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple intelligences, which will be discussed in the
cognitive developmental theory section, is probably the best known (Miller, 2001). Other
models include the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator which types personalities and how they
acquire information and Witkin’s Bipolar Construct of Field Dependence and Field
Independence which measures the extent to which a learner is influenced by a
surrounding field. Both of these have been used extensively over many years. Other
models focus on modality preferences, i.e., the modes (senses) that people prefer to use
when taking in and giving out information. People are classified as visual, auditory, or
kinesthetic learners. Another popular classification arranges learners as: (1) concrete and
abstract perceivers, and (2) active and reflective processors (Hwang & Henson, 2002).
Concrete perceivers absorb information through doing, acting, sensing, and feeling;
abstract perceivers do so by analyzing, observing, and thinking. Active processors create
meaning from information by immediately using it; reflective processors make sense of
34
experience by reflecting and thinking on it. Traditionally taught curriculum favors
abstract perceivers and reflective processors.
While learning style theories abound, there are areas of consensus: learning styles
are not measurements of intelligence; they are unique to the individual; we learn in more
than one way but have a preference; teachers have distinctive teaching styles; matching
teaching and learning styles improves student achievement and motivation; schools are
learning style biased because they favor one type of learner; students learn best through
actual experience and high levels of interaction; and learning increases if the student is
enjoying the process (Miller, 2001). It is important to consider both the content and
context in curriculum development.
To offer a student the best possible learning experience and accommodate
learning styles, teachers need to emphasize intuition, feeling, sensing, and imagination as
ways of knowing and introduce a wide variety of experiential elements such as sound,
music, visuals, movement, experience, and discussion. Caine and Caine (1994)
concurred "that traditional education favors an all-too-narrow approach to learning"
(p. 37). Learning styles is another area in which integrated curriculum and art can meet
the needs of the learner. Hands-on activities allow the concrete perceiver and active
processor a way to learn in his or her own style. For example, a concrete perceiver could
learn physical geography by drawing a map rather than observing one; the act of drawing
would help the student to absorb the information. Art history and art criticism could
allow a concrete perceiver to gain a sense or feeling about a historical time period;
looking at and talking about artwork from the American Revolution could aid in
understanding about that epochal struggle. These same activities would be appropriate,
also, for visual and kinesthetic learners.
In summary, there are many implications of brain based learning for learning and
instruction. Rettig and Rettig (1999) summarized brain research and its implications for
curriculum as follows: experience is the factor that causes neural growth; emotion is key
because the brain remembers or recalls a concept better if it is learned in an emotional
setting; using as many senses as possible is important because the greater the number of
senses used, the greater the memory; encouraging self-direction by students is necessary
so that they will help create the environment they are interacting with, making learning
35
personally meaningful and enabling storage in memory; enabling social learning is good
because students working in groups learn from one another and solve problems together;
and, encouraging students to look for patterns and connections in what they have learned
is essential.
Neuroscientists have made great strides in trying to understand the structures and
functions of the brain. Although trying to understand the neurobiology of the brain and
its relation to memory and cognition is a huge undertaking, it is sure to have a great
impact on learning theory and curriculum as more research is done. This section
explored the physical structure of the brain and how it functions in learning. We realized
through brain research that the brain changes and grows as we learn, therefore, learning
and development cannot be separated. Because schooling is a developmental process,
teachers need to understand the changes that are occurring in students as they mature. It
is important to understand how to facilitate growth at different ages and stages of
development. With that in mind, I turn now to cognitive developmental theory.
Cognitive Developmental Theory
Efland (2002) stated that Piaget designed the prototype for cognitive
developmental studies. Piaget described learning as a developmental process that occurs
through a series of steps as children are becoming aware of their surroundings and
adapting to them. He believed that children develop in a universal way, everywhere,
regardless of culture. In his theory of intellectual development, children think very
differently from adults; they are not small, inexperienced adults (Lowenfeld & Brittain,
1987). Children travel through four stages—sensory-motor, preoperational, concrete
operations, and formal operations—during their maturation. At each of these four stages,
they deal with information differently. They start by learning motor skills and directing
their behavior toward the attainment of goals; then, they progress to learning language;
next, they think logically; and finally, they reason and think abstractly. The child has
evolved from lower to higher forms of thinking in the process.
If teachers wanted to apply Piaget’s principles, they would have a child centered
orientation in their classrooms with learning centers, thematic curriculum, and
36
opportunities for student exploration. There would be a variety of resources on hand for
the learner who is always in the process of trying to understand things. Learning does not
have to occur with formal instruction but can result with the student interacting with the
environment.
Lowenfeld & Brittain (1987) stated, “Although Piaget’s stages are for intellectual
development, it is not surprising to find the same stages in art” (p. 45). Children are able
to be taught art skills only at the appropriately developmental time. Conversely, their
drawings reflect their developmental stage in thinking. Children are always trying to
make sense of the world, to make meaning. Expressive art activities foster emotional
growth and provide students a meaningful way to organize and display their
understandings of their environment and give themselves meaningful feedback. The
activity of art allows students time to see what they have learned—displayed in their final
product—and to process it.
Gardner
Gardner (1994), in The Arts and Human Development, found fault with Piaget's
theory because the end result of the developmental stages was intellectual and scientific.
Piaget's focus on cognitive development led him to identify the mental processes that
culminated in scientific thought. Children grew up to be either a normal personality or,
even better, a scientific thinker. There was no consideration given for the arts as an
intellectual endeavor and a problem solving activity. Until Gardner, little attention was
paid to the feelings and emotions of the learner. Learning theories focused on cognitive
processing and developmental stages with little regard for the affective domain. Gardner
focused his attention on the feelings and emotions of the learner and artistic development.
As a potential piano performance major at one time, Gardner felt that unique to the arts is
the intertwining of feeling and knowing. Not all decisions are made rationally, reasoning
through the mind, or empirically, figured out from observation. Many important and lifealtering decisions, especially artistic ones, are made on "hunches" or intuition. Gardner
characterized the arts as communication of subjective knowledge through symbols which
cannot be translated. It is an integrated, holistic communication. This communication is
presented in a sensory medium and is apprehended by the intellect as well as by one’s
feelings. The observer of art may be more or less involved while contemplating the
37
messages embedded within the symbols. This understanding of art as communication
differentiates it from mere play or science and is better known as aesthetic development
and the artistic process.
Gardner’s developmental theory has two broad stages: the presymbolic or
sensorimotor stage and the symbol use stage (Gardner, 1994). The presymbolic period is
during the first year of life. In this period, Gardner categorized human knowing into
three systems to better explain how people become involved in the arts and how the arts
integrate feelings and thought. The three systems are making, perceiving, and feeling.
These systems are present at birth, unfold, and begin to interact during the sensorimotor
period. The motor actions of the person constitute the making system and are the
performance capability of the person. The perceiving system involves the senses, the
person’s sensitivity to the environment and ability to discriminate and make distinctions.
The feeling system is emotional and registers the effects of experience on the person.
In the symbol use stage, information gathered is starting to be used on a symbolic
plane (Gardner, 1994). The three developing systems of making, perceiving, and feeling
are fully interacting by age three and the learner is immersed in symbol making. What
started as three separate systems is now the interaction of three systems. Gardner stated
that the existence and interaction of the three knowing systems is the same for both
animals and people. What makes us different from animals is that we have the ability to
use and understand symbols—to advance to the symbol use stage. The greatest
development and progress in the aesthetic realm is made right after infancy because that
is the time of symbol development. Small children show the capacity to use and
comprehend symbols in language, dreaming, sounds, and gestures. Gardner stated that
children perceive artistic works as organic wholes—through feelings and all of the
senses—but do not have the experience to interpret them. Developmentally, by age
seven or eight children are fully capable of making art at all levels. This does not mean
that the child is an accomplished artist; it means that the capacity is there and must be
nurtured to grow. Therefore, after the age of seven, it is necessary for students to have
training in art because natural evolution has stopped. Students will not continue to grow
in the artistic realm without instruction. To Gardner, the artistic process offers great
opportunity for the learner to problem solve, to manipulate information so that it can be
38
embodied within a symbol. For this to happen, schools will have to include the arts as an
integral part of the learning process or students will not experience much growth in the
aesthetic realm after the second grade.
Further, Gardner (1990) discussed the different kinds of knowledge that children
in a school environment must learn. Looking at the natural development of the child is
not enough; formal schooling and its effects must also be considered. “A synthesis of
information drawn from developmental and educational studies suggests the existence of
at least five different kinds of knowledge that any individual who grows up in a schooled
environment must ultimately attempt to master and integrate” (p. 25). The first is
intuitive which begins at birth and is the knowledge the child gains by interacting with
the world. Second, beginning by the second year of life, the child learns symbolic
knowledge. Children start to begin to use the first-order symbolic systems of their
culture such as words, pictures, gestures, and musical patterns. Then, school age children
learn notational systems—the more formal symbolic codes—which refer to the first order
symbol systems, such as, written language refers to oral language, written musical notes
for musical sounds. The fourth form of knowledge is various concepts, principles, and
formal bodies of knowledge (disciplines) that researchers and scholars have organized;
the fifth is the skilled knowledge of vocations, leisure activities, art forms, and religious
procedures of a culture.
There is a lack, however, of integration between the various forms of knowledge.
The linking of intuitive and first-order symbolic knowledge seems to occur readily. The
more formal ways of knowing, though, do not easily link to intuition and first-order
symbols. The most promising way to integrate these forms of knowing is by allowing
students to encounter the forms of knowing happening together in a natural situation,
watching adults moving back and forth among the forms, and engaging the students in
projects that call on them to use the various forms. Further, Gardner said the visual arts
deal with visual-spatial kinds of symbols—thinking in terms of forms, what they
represent and feelings they express, and how they can be composed and combined.
These things are not easily understood or grasped with verbal or logical symbols, the
ones used most often in school. "It is because this form of knowing is so precious, and
yet so threatened with being overwhelmed by the more typical scholastic modes of
39
symbolization, that I call for the protection of artistic forms of symbolization" (p. 42).
Artistic knowing is less sequential and more holistic and "we might do well to allow this
form of understanding to infiltrate other areas of the curriculum" (p. 43).
Gardner, in disagreeing with Piaget that the end point of development was
scientific thinking, developed his theory on cognitive learning in the arts and his view of
learning in a formal school setting. Eventually, he included other end points for human
development in his multiple intelligences theory, a pluralized definition of the intellect
(Gardner, 1983). Based on recent advances in cognitive science, developmental
psychology, and neuroscience, he proposed that intelligence is composed of several
faculties (originally seven) that can work alone or in concert with others. These faculties,
he labeled intelligences, are as follows: musical, bodily-kinesthetic, linguistic, logicalmathematical, spatial, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Gardner (Connections, 1997) in
1995 added an eighth intelligence, the naturalist intelligence (the ability to understand,
relate to, and function in the natural world). These are all ways that people have of
perceiving and understanding the world. Because they are distinct faculties, or
intelligences, they are a set of skills that can be used for problem solving. Traditional
schooling relies heavily on the verbal-linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences.
Gardner suggested a more balanced curriculum that includes the arts, self-awareness,
communication, and physical education. Instructional methods should appeal to all of the
intelligences. Teachers could start by including role playing, musical performance,
cooperative learning, reflection, visualization and story telling. Art instruction could
allow students to cut through cultural, educational, and ability differences because it
enables more than one intelligence to be engaged in the learning process.
Gardner's writings on art and intelligence add to the importance of experiential
learning and the arts in the intellectual growth and development of human beings. He
underscores the need for student understanding of concepts and the ability to apply
memorized information to a real-life problem. Teachers need to teach understanding, not
just the memorization of factual information.
Both Gardner and Piaget are looking at the development of an individual person
who is trying to make sense of the world. Piaget primarily focused on the individual
while Gardner also considered development in a social context. Because students are not
40
educated in isolation but rather as part of a group, other theories of cognitive
development look at the person as part of a culture. The following is a discussion of a
social learning theory that states what children learn and how they think is derived from
their culture.
Vygotsky
For Vygotsky, a contemporary of Piaget’s, children learn from the world around
them. Their social world is the basis for their concepts, ideas, attitudes, and skills;
learning results from interactions with others, especially adults who convey the
knowledge to them (Efland, 2002). Language is the main vehicle for transmitting the
body of knowledge existing in the culture.
Vygotsky divided the study of development into two phases. The first is
characterized by the use of lower-order mental processes, elementary attention,
perception, and memory, to interact with adults as they are being socialized into
the surrounding culture, including language and customs. The second stage is
characterized by the use of higher mental processes acquired through the
acquisition of the tools of culture. (pp. 32-33)
Children do not automatically evolve from the lower-order to the higher-order mental
processes; cultural learning is what bridges the gap between the two.
Not only was Vygotsky interested in the process of development but also the
beginnings of skill development (Driscoll, 2000). He called the gap between the current
capabilities of a child and the projected capabilities, the zone of proximal development.
This zone is the most widespread of Vygotsky’s educational ideas (Efland, 2002). It is a
social space between the actual developmental level of the child and the level that will be
attained with assistance by the teacher. Instruction leads the way for learning and is
ahead of the development of the student. Therefore, instruction plays a pivotal role and
can enhance or retard development. The teacher must meet the learner at his or her level
of development and build upon the child’s experiences.
It follows that certain teaching strategies are going to be more effective than
others in the zone of proximal development (Driscoll, 2000). Because interaction is the
key to learning, children should have problem solving experiences with parents and
teachers. Children need a more advanced partner in the learning process who helps the
41
students construct knowledge and challenges them to go beyond their actual level of
development. Eisner (2002) characterized the process this way:
This process, one that parents around the world have negotiated successfully for
millennia, is what the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky has called the zone of
proximal development. This zone is the space within which tasks need to be set
to be, on the one hand, challenging and, on the other, capable of being
successfully negotiated by the child with a helper, peer, or adult. No challenge,
no growth. No success, no growth. Finding the child’s zone of proximal
development is the way to keep growth moving. (p. 73)
Lesson plans should emphasize interaction between learners and learning tasks. Teachers
are there to direct and guide students through the learning process which has been
individualized to meet the needs of the learner. With the help of the teacher, children can
perform at a level higher than what they could achieve on their own. Working with
adults is more effective in skill development but working with other students allows
children to see another’s perspective. Children’s play allows them to stretch their
capabilities and start to develop abstract thought.
In summation, for Vygotsky, learning occurs within a child’s culture which
largely determines the child’s individual development. It is a process by which children
acquire knowledge and develop skills. In other words, the culture provides the leaner
with what to think (knowledge) and teaches the learner how to think (the process for
thinking). Children learn from their culture with the help of adults and peers and the tool
of language. Cognitive development results from problem solving experiences shared
with other people. The method of acquiring skills is based on recognizing the gap
between what a child can do on his own and what he can do with help (the zone of
proximal development) and narrowing that gap. Therefore, the child cannot be
understood in isolation but rather in a social context of school, home, family, personality,
attitudes, and aptitudes.
Efland (2002) outlined themes in Vygotsky’s work that are being studied today:
the idea that learning occurs in a social context; that language is the tool for the
acquisition of culture; and, that learning is a form of enculturation. He outlined three
implications for learning in the arts based on the Vygotsky social learning theory. First,
42
for art educators, this translates into studying art in a social context and not in isolation.
For example, studying mask making would mean discussing the function of masks in a
particular culture and, then, the student creating a mask that fulfills the function of that
social context. The second is to realize that human beings use symbols, such as language
and art, to create their culture and to advance. The third is that through the use of
symbols, a child learns his or her culture as well as transmits it. Learning in the
classroom should be centered on cultural practices rather than on domains of knowledge.
Learning In and Through Art
At this point I have examined brain research and how the brain functions while
learning as well as theories of how cognitive functions develop as a human being grows
from infancy toward adulthood. I turn now to the role of art in brain functioning and in
the developmental process. First, can art facilitate learning? Further, does art have any
intrinsic qualities that make it suitable as a learning vehicle for other subject matter?
Second, does art make a contribution to cognitive development?
Facilitation of Learning
To answer the first question, I examined the literature regarding the nature of art
and its ability to act as a facilitator of learning based on the principles of brain based
learning stated earlier on pages 34-35. I will state each principle and follow it with
supporting opinion for art as a facilitator of learning.
1. The brain processes information in a parallel fashion which means that thoughts,
emotions, and imagination operate simultaneously with other ways of information
processing (Caine & Caine, 1994). The lesson for educators here is that no one teaching
style will accommodate all learners; multiple methods need to be employed in the
classroom.
Art as a facilitator of learning. The teacher has to orchestrate the learning
experience with multiple perspectives in mind—the thoughts, the emotions, the
imagination, and the background of the student. Efland (2002) stated that, often, the
justification for art in the curriculum has been that it allows students to have an aesthetic
experience. Viewing art and making art is an aesthetic experience which engages the
43
senses and emotions of the learner as the object is viewed or made. Along with feelings
and emotions, art stimulates imagination—the ability to form mental images and to
manipulate them into new configurations. Art facilitates learning by engaging not only
thought but also the emotions and imagination of the learner.
2. The search for meaning is innate to the brain as well as the need to act on our
environment (Caine & Caine, 1994). Students need meaningful lessons in the classroom
that allows them choices, challenges, and activity in their completion.
Art as a facilitator of learning. The search for meaning is a survival mechanism
in our brains (Caine & Caine, 1994). The brain registers and responds to both familiar
and unfamiliar stimuli, on a continuous basis, in an effort to make meaning of what it
senses. Efland (2002) stated that imagination allows the combination and reorganization
of previous experiences into new ideas. Imagination is a necessary component for
creating metaphors which allows connections to be established between items that appear
unrelated. Efland sees art as the vehicle for allowing students to create metaphors and,
therefore, understanding and meaning. He was adamant that the arts are the only places
where imagination is explored openly and that the principal function of art is the creation
of metaphor.
Before a metaphor can become active in the learner’s mind—as a metaphor—he
or she must understand the underlying reality or context where the metaphoric
nature of the image or expression is active.
Let me emphasize this point once more—the arts are places where the
constructions of metaphor can and should become the principal object of study,
where it is necessary to understand that the visual images or verbal expressions
are not literal facts. (Efland, 2002, p.153)
Efland suggested that not all visual images as metaphor are beneficial. The advertising
community has learned the strength of using visual imagery, emotions, and imagination
to create demand for products.
3. The brain seeks to understand patterns and create patterns in its search for meaning;
this is called patterning (Caine & Caine, 1994). The brain resists meaningless
information imposed on it. Information appears meaningless if it is isolated bits of
44
information. Integration of information helps the student to make meaning; integrated
curriculum allows the student to see patterns.
Art as a facilitator of learning. Learners are continuously patterning, i.e.,
perceiving and creating meanings (Caine & Caine, 1994). This is an ongoing process that
cannot be stopped but can be channeled, directed, reinforced, and enhanced. Gardner
(1994) placed the ability to see patterns in the perceiving system and called it gestalt
perception. Infants display gestalt perception when they identify their mother’s face from
all of the other facelike configurations they see. Gestalt perception continues throughout
life and is evidenced by a person making increasingly fine distinctions and classifications
in different areas of knowledge; “human beings particularly excel in the ability to form
new, complex, and unexpected gestalts” (p. 67). Artists have sensitivity to configurations
and the ability to create new ones and viewing art stimulates gestalt perception.
Efland (2002) stated that the arts lend themselves to the role of integrating
knowledge because their interpretation depends upon understanding the social and
cultural context in which they were generated. The arts act as a bridge between different
disciplines in the curriculum.
A work of art is an expression of the artist’s vision made possible by the actions
of his or her imagination. Moreover, the expressive content of a work of art
reflects the larger situation surrounding the work, namely, the social and cultural
influences and sources of motifs initially perceived and felt by the artist. Acts of
interpretation enable individuals to discern the work in relation to the cultural and
social worlds it mirrors. Moreover, the relation between artwork and culture is
reciprocal. That is, the work of art becomes meaningful when it is seen in the
context of the culture, and the culture becomes understandable as read through its
arts. (Efland, 2002, p. 164)
He also stated that integration could be viewed on a second level wherein the discipline
knowledge is integrated into the learner’s everyday knowledge. The arts, because they
are imaginative in nature, facilitate the transfer of new knowledge into the learner’s
existing view of the world.
45
4. Emotions play a critical role in patterning (Caine & Caine, 1994). The affective and
cognitive domains are not independent because emotions cannot be switched on and off.
Both students’ feelings and attitudes are involved in learning.
Art as a facilitator of learning. The emotional impact of experiences can be felt
long past the time of the event, and the feelings and emotions involved will determine
future learning (Caine & Caine, 1994). Eisner (2002) stated that art can teach educators
that the intrinsic satisfaction of the learner is important. Students are in the habit of
learning for extrinsic rewards, such as a good grade on a project or passing score on a
standardized test. Observations of students engaged in the arts show them to be highly
focused in a world unto themselves. Artistic activity generates a desire to pursue the
process of creating; the journey is just as important as the destination. Using art activities
in the classroom increases intrinsic motivation and satisfaction in the learning process
such that students will pursue a learning activity voluntarily. They will choose to learn
now and in the future when the teacher and the classroom are but a memory.
5. The left brain and right brain organize information differently (Caine & Caine, 1994).
The tendency for the left hemisphere is to reduce information into parts and the tendency
for the right hemisphere is to work with it as a whole. These tendencies are separate but
simultaneous and interactive. Looking at both parts and wholes facilitates learning.
Art as a facilitator of learning. People have great difficulty in learning when both
hemispheres are not engaged in the learning process (Caine & Caine, 1994). According
to Eisner (1994), schools are not addressing the full range of intellectual processes by
using both hemispheres equally. The two hemispheres perform different functions and
these functions can grow or atrophy depending upon whether or not they are used.
Schools are neglecting the right hemisphere, the affective processes which have been
regarded as minor and not as important as the linguistic left brain. However, the right
hemisphere houses much of the visualization process, is the seat of metaphoric and poetic
thought, and seeks to form structure in intellectual activity. Schools are neglecting the
intellectual processes inherent in the right hemisphere of the brain and emphasizing the
use of the left hemisphere, the seat of speech. Schools and teachers should plan activities
that engage right brain learning and add subjects to the curriculum which do the same.
Eisner called the subjects left out of the curricula in most schools the null curriculum.
46
Law, anthropology, the arts, communication, economics: these are just a few of
the fields that constitute the null curriculum. I identify these fields and subject
matters for purposes of exemplification and to highlight the point that what we
offer the young in schools is largely bound by tradition. One could hope for
more. (Eisner, 1994, p. 106)
6. The brain learns from what it is directly focused on as well as what is on the periphery
of its perception (Caine & Caine, 1994). Visual peripherals such as charts and works of
art aid learning.
Art as a facilitator of learning. The brain absorbs information from the entire
context in which the learning occurs (Caine & Caine, 1994). Therefore, peripheral
information is important and the teacher should organize information that is outside the
learner’s focus. DiPaolo (1985) stated that the subconscious mind is affected by the
physical, tangible setting. “The vital dynamic of creating the physical setting is to
remember that the spiritual and mental aspects of the child are being reached at the same
time” (p. 27). Room displays should be selected with thought and care. Addiss and
Erickson (1993) recommended a built-in review of previously studied artworks to be a
part of the classroom environment. “A permanent visual display in the art room or
elsewhere in the school can be used as a reference to aid students in recalling works and
cultures studied in earlier grades” (p. 139).
7. The brain is always learning at both a conscious and unconscious level (Caine &
Caine, 1994). It is constantly processing at an unconscious level, especially the
peripheral information it has perceived. Students need to spend more time processing
their experiences in order to understand what they have learned at both a conscious and
unconscious level.
Art as a facilitator of learning. Caine & Caine (1994) declared “much of the
effort put into teaching and studying is wasted because students do no adequately process
their experiences” (p. 92). Eisner (2002) concurred:
Another development that the arts can teach education is the importance of taking
one’s time to relish the experience that one seeks. Experience is not so much
something that you take; it is more like something you make. Experience, the
medium of education, is a made process, and it is made by the ways in which
47
people attend to aspects of the world they care about. If there is any lesson that
the arts teach, it is the importance of paying close attention to what is at hand, of
slowing down perception so that efficiency is put on a back burner and the quest
for experience is made dominant. There is so much in life that pushes us toward
the short term, toward the cursory, toward what is efficient and what can be
handled in the briefest amount of time. The arts are about savoring. (p. 207)
8. The brain has at least two types of memory systems (Caine & Caine, 1994). One is
for rote learning and the other is spatial that allows for instant memory of experiences.
Understanding and recall are best in the spatial memory system. That system is invoked
through experiential learning.
Art as a facilitator of learning. The taxon system devoted to rote memorization is
used for the remembering of mainly unrelated facts and skills (Caine & Caine, 1994).
Because these bits of information (e.g., multiplication tables) are isolated and not learned
in a context, they need practice and rehearsal to be retained. The more senses used in the
process of practicing and rehearsing, the easier it is to memorize them (Kasschau, 2001).
Therefore, art can enhance rote memorization when visuals are incorporated in the
memorizing process. Preston (1996) noted that studies show memory for line drawings is
superior to that of memory for printed and spoken words.
Spatial memory (local memory) is superior, unlimited in scope and depends upon
experience for activation (Caine & Caine, 1994). Learning your native language requires
multiple interactive experiences and is an example of how the learning process is
enhanced when the information to be learned is embedded in ordinary experiences.
Vygotsky’s notions about social learning go hand-in-hand with embedding information to
facilitate the activation of spatial memory. Teachers using an activity curriculum that
includes visual imagery of certain experiences or best performances could activate spatial
memory. “Success depends on using all of the senses and immersing the learner in a
multitude of complex and interactive experiences” (Caine & Caine, 1994, p. 94).
9. Each person’s brain is unique (Caine & Caine, 1994). Physically, we all have the
same systems but they are integrated differently for each one of us. Teaching should
allow students to express visual, tactile, emotional, and auditory preferences for taking in
and giving out information.
48
Art as a facilitator of learning. Because learning alters the brain as we learn, we
become more unique through learning (Caine & Caine, 1994). This calls for a
multifaceted approach to teaching. The discussion earlier regarding learning styles
focused on many different models but all share in common that the mind is complex,
learners are diverse in nature, and there is a need to address diversity in the classroom
(Miller, 2001). Two models have implications for art education. Gardner’s (1983)
Theory of Multiple Intelligences is one. The learner, with at lest seven intelligences,
needs to develop each one to a level of competency. The spatial intelligence corresponds
to an aptitude for the visual arts. These intelligences interact with each other in complex
ways. Students need to be able to learn in and through and express their knowledge in
and through the different modes.
Another learning style theory deals with the manner in which students like to take
in and give out information and is called the visual-auditory-kinesthetic model or
modality preference model (Miller, 2001). Miller cited a study by Specific Diagnostic
Studies which found that 29% of elementary and high school students learn best through
the visual mode and 37% through the tactile/kinesthetic mode. Another study she cited
by Barbe, Milone, and Swassing found similar results: 30% visual, 30% mixed, 25%
auditory, and 15% kinesthetic. Both studies showed similar results in preferred visual
learning but there were large differences on kinesthetic between the two. Regardless, the
studies underscore the fact that people learn in different ways and these needs have to be
addressed in the classroom for optimal learning to occur. Those students who are visual
and kinesthetic and have well-developed spatial intelligence need and benefit from visual
learning in the classroom.
We have completed a review of the nine principles of brain based learning
addressed in this literature review and gave supporting arguments for each (also from the
literature review) as to why the visual arts should have an integral place in the
curriculum. The art activities mentioned as valuable for learning were drawing and
viewing artwork. At this point, I turn to look at the role of art in developing cognition.
Art and Cognition
Efland (2002) saw three problem areas for the arts as subjects in general
education: they are viewed as nice but frivolous; they are not recognized as fostering
49
cognitive development; and, art educators themselves are unsure how to use the arts to
develop cognitive abilities in children. Eisner (1994) concurred when describing the
placement of the arts in a typical elementary school curriculum as usually in the
afternoon when “the arts can be used as a reward, as a break from the demands of
thinking” (p. 92). Efland (2002) listed the following ways that art can help in the
development of cognitive abilities:
1. Art allows the student to make meaning of the world through art of the past, art of the
present, and his or her own art. He characterized art as “sources of powerful revelations
about local culture, the cultures of others, and other historical times” (p. 8).
2. Art allows the student to see the context in which the art was made, to understand the
storyline behind the art. This is important because life and learning occurs within a
context and is often discussed through narrative form.
3. Art establishes linkages between various disciplines to which it is related. Art is made
within and should be viewed and discussed within its cultural context.
Lowenfeld & Brittain (1987) discussed art as way of understanding and
documenting development in a child. Seven means of observing growth in a child’s
artwork were outlined:
1. Drawings provide the opportunity for emotional growth depending on how intensely
involved the child was in their creation. There is a direct relationship between intensity
of involvement and emotional growth.
2. Intellectual growth is shown in drawings by how aware children are of their
surroundings, how much knowledge is used, and how they relate to their environment.
3. Physical growth is evidenced by visual and motor coordination.
4. Perceptual growth is documented by an increasing variety of sensory experiences.
5. Social growth can be seen if the child is devoting a large percentage of his or her
subject matter to social activities.
6. Aesthetic growth shows up in work that has a feeling of unity, a working together of
all of the elements in the artwork.
7. Creative growth is shown through the individuality of each child’s artwork.
Lowenfeld & Brittain (1987) stated that although adults consider children’s
artwork to be “free and spontaneous” it is really an attempt by them to make sense of
50
their environment and display it meaningfully. Adults should not be concerned with
attempts to correct the drawing of children, but rather just give them the time and space
in which to explore. They are using art to learn; drawings can stimulate and encourage
growth. Lowenfeld and Brittain (1987) furthered the case for art as cognitive growth
with the following:
Although the early symbols by children tend to be isolated and somewhat
randomly distributed on the drawing surface, within a year’s time the symbols
begin to relate one to another and are usually drawn in reference to a continuous
baseline…This manipulation of symbols that still retain their meaning although
they are moved up or down, left or right requires a method of thinking that is akin
to algebraic reasoning. This type of thought process cannot be imposed from
without, but develops through the child’s manipulation of mental images. It is
becoming more and more evident that the manipulation of forms and shapes
relevant to the child’s own experiences is a necessary prerequisite for the
utilization of words and numbers. It is amazing that anyone would consider art an
educational frill; it is a fundamental catalyst in the thinking process and
development of cognitive ability in children. (p. 54)
Silver (2000), in a study of children with language impairment due to brain
damage, wanted to know if handicapped children could “bypass verbal weaknesses and
capitalize on visual strengths” in cognitive development (p. 3). Three main art
procedures were chosen to test art being used to develop conceptual, sequential, and
spatial skills.
Drawing from the imagination was used to test the ability to associate and
represent concepts. The subjects were given stimulus items (pen and ink drawings of
people and objects) to choose from and asked to draw a picture that tells a story with the
chosen items. Drawing from the imagination encourages subjects to put different items
together in a meaningful association. In the second test, subjects worked with paint and
clay in order to assess if they could order sequentially. Mixing paint colors and working
in clay involve sequencing, recalling, and predicting outcomes. In the third test subjects
drew from observation in order to see if they could perceive and represent concepts of
51
space. Still lifes were staged for the subjects to draw. From his original study in the
1970s, Silver (2000) found the following:
Drawings can serve as instruments for identifying and evaluating cognitive skills
that are usually associated with language: the ability to associate and to represent
concepts, the ability to order sequentially, and the ability to perceive, to predict,
and to represent spatial relationships. (p. 236)
Silver (2000) also outlined the roles that art can play in cognition. The art
experience can:
1. take over some of the language function of organizing experiences and perceptions
and represent thinking,
2. accommodate those who prefer thinking in the right hemisphere of the brain, the
visual-spatial mode,
3. help association areas of the brain (centers in the brain where information is integrated
and relayed) establish patterns for language to follow or reinforce patterns set by
language,
4. teach vocabulary as children ask the name of something they have drawn,
5. activate and reinforce vocabulary as children write and talk about their art,
6. aid the transfer of learning to new situations by drawing about something learned
previously,
7. aid imaginary play by letting the child draw about imaginary experiences,
8. assist in the development of abstract thinking by drawing about hypothetical events or
being able to discern similarities and differences of objects, and
9. help recall by structuring or “chunking” bits of information to be stored.
Eisner (2002) described curriculum as a “mind-altering device” (p. 13). The tasks
that students are given and the materials with which they work help to form the way they
think. Different disciplines of knowledge, because of the way they are organized and the
methods that are used in learning them, make different demands on the student. One
develops an intelligence for a domain as one becomes skilled in it. Art making requires
enhanced perception, fertile imagination, judgment, and technical expertise in its
execution. Eisner (2002) eloquently described it this way:
52
A major aim of arts education is to promote the child’s ability to develop his or
her mind through the experience that the creation of perception of expressive form
makes possible. In this activity, sensibilities are refined, distinctions are made
more subtle, the imagination is stimulated, and skills are developed to give form
feeling. (p. 24)
Eisner stated (2002) that art is often viewed as having little to do with complex
forms of thought. He said that, in fact, the opposite is true:
Yet the tasks that the arts put forward—such as noticing the subtleties among
qualitative relationships, conceiving of imaginative possibilities, interpreting the
metaphorical meanings the work displays, exploiting unanticipated outcomes in
the course of one’s work—require complex cognitive modes of thought. (p. 35)
Further, art activities that ask students to conceptualize their own end art product, to
problem solve, to reflect on their thoughts while making art, and to engage in art criticism
particularly promote cognitive development.
Efland (2002) stated that artistic and aesthetic development was shortchanged by
the early psychologists. Piaget certainly was enamored with the place of science in
human development. Art was relegated to being an affective process only. He summed
up the debate over whether or not art is just an affective process, dealing with the
emotions only, or does it require both cognitive and affective modes of thinking by
saying that “graphic or artistic development is accounted for by the development of
cognition as a whole” (p. 51). Further, Eisner (2002) stated:
Indeed, if we place in chronological sequence all the theories that have attempted
to explain why children draw the way they do, a familiar pattern emerges, namely,
the theories of drawing development tend to parallel the changing theories of
cognitive development that emerged throughout the last half of the twentieth
century.
As cognitive developmental theories became more inclusive, they should
be able to account for the development of graphic ability as well, suggesting that
graphic development is explained by cognitive development or, better yet, that it
is evidence of such development! (pp. 50-51)
53
In summation, art, as a subject or as a process, is naturally suited to help the brain
grow and develop. It is emotion laden, engages more than one of the senses, and forces
the student to pull from internal ideas within the mind and heart. The student artist has
the opportunity to sift through ideas, look for the patterns and connections, and then,
focus them into a unified, meaningful whole. After looking at evidence that art facilitates
learning and can play a foundational role in cognitive development, it is now time to
focus attention on what is happening in the classrooms across America. To do this
requires looking at the dominant learning theories subscribed to by educators.
Learning Theory
Driscoll (2000) stated that the study of learning is derived from two sources:
philosophy and psychology. The relatively new science of psychology, since the late
1800s, is the second source of modern learning theories. "The second source in which
modern learning theory is rooted concerns the nature and representation of mental life"
(p. 13). How does the mind work and how does it process knowledge? Psychologists are
deeply divided on how people learn (Kolesnik, 1976). "When a teacher turns to
psychology for information about the nature of learning, he [sic] is offered a choice of
literally dozens of systematic theories" (p. 14).
Driscoll (2000) stated that learning theories abound but all share some underlying
assumptions. They refer to learning as a persisting change in human performance or
performance potential and that a change in performance or performance potential must
come about as a result of the learner's experience and interaction with the world.
Learning theories must answer the question of what brings about this change—what is
needed for this change to occur, by what process does this change occur, and what does
the change look like.
Bigge & Shermis (1999) stated that the two most prominent families of
contemporary learning theory are the behaviorists and cognitivists. The cognitivists are
the forerunners of constructivist theory. Kolesnik (1976) stated that nearly every method
of teaching and pattern of curriculum organization are found in one or the other or a
combination of these two systems.
54
Behaviorism
The behaviorists are concerned only with observable behavior and simplified
learning to a simple stimulus and response system (Kolesnik, 1976). Most behavior can
be understood in terms of conditioning: classical and operant. Pavlov's famous
experiment when a dog "learned" to drool at the sound of a buzzer is classical
conditioning. Classical conditioning is used often for language learning and factual
information learning. Skinner is best known for operant conditioning. The basic
principle of operant conditioning is that behavior is shaped by consequences. Skinner
emphasized the importance of positive, negative, or neutral consequences following a
behavior because these would determine whether or not the behavior was repeated.
People learn new behaviors or modify existing ones depending on whether events in their
environments reward or punish these behaviors. This had a great impact on educational
practice; it is where we get the notion of positive reinforcement for appropriate behavior
and negative consequences for inappropriate behavior. Also, it is the genesis of
behavioral objectives in lesson planning. Further, behaviorists had a major impact on
those who studied personality; many were interested in what causes a person to act in a
specific way. The behavioral approach does not try to understand the causes of behavior.
Rather, it is concerned with predicting and controlling it. Behavior is controlled from
without, not within.
Behaviorists believe that reality is objective and that it can be perceived by
everyone in the same way (Utah, 1999). The differences among people are accounted for
by the type and amount of experiences that the person has had. The expert has
accumulated more experiences; the novice can become an expert with the correct amount
and type of experiences. In the same way, the physical reality of the world can be
understood as we gain more experience about it and replace outmoded theories with new
ones. We come closer to understanding the absolute truth of the physical world and its
natural laws in this manner.
To the behaviorist, learning is a combination of behaviors that has been reinforced
(Utah, 1999). The behaviorists believe that people will learn better with training and
instruction than through trial and error. Learners' behavior can be shaped through
stimulus-response. Students acquire knowledge through memorization and practice.
55
Books and lectures contain the truth, as defined by the experts, and knowledge can be
transferred to the novice through reading, listening, and observing. Teachers lecture and
demonstrate; students read. New information is received and internalized by students
who memorize, practice, and rehearse to become like the experts.
In behavioral thought, associations or connections form between events and
actions (Driscoll, 2000). In this way, learners make cause and effect relationships in their
minds. For example, babies learn to link crying with hunger and then the baby cries for
food. Instructional materials shape student behavior, step-by-step, to a predetermined
outcome. Information is delivered in a logical and sequential manner, taking the student
through each step in the assignment. Information is in smaller units which can be
systematically built. Students proceed at their own pace, are able to go back in the
sequence to relearn information, and receive regular feedback. This style correlates well
with individualized, self-paced computer instruction. Evaluation is based on the correct
answer given by the student to the prompt.
Behaviorism emerged during the early 1900s in the United States during a time of
great growth in science and technology (Utah, 1999). The principles which drove the
Industrial Revolution, like standardization of parts and assembly lines, spread to other
segments of society including education. Behaviorism's emphasis on objective, scientific
observable behaviors fit in well with modern society. Although it has limitations due to
the fact that human beings are complex and reinforcement is multi-faceted, behaviorism
was dominant in psychology in the first half of the twentieth century. Efland (2002)
concurred, “Throughout the 1950s, psychological behaviorism dominated the educational
scene and its influence on schooling still persists” (p. 14). Further, there is an inherent
bias against the arts in psychology because of its preoccupation with trying to function as
an empirical science.
The influence of behaviorism is seen in the widespread use of standardized testing
(Efland, 2002). However, behaviorism never really explained higher-order thinking
abilities or the feelings and emotions connected to making art. Despite this it still had a
significant impact on art educators. There was a split for art educators between factual
learning of knowledge and skills (behaviorist theory) and understanding the expressive
nature of art (psychoanalytic theory). Bloom’s taxonomy furthered the separation by
56
dividing instructional objectives into cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. Art
received the label of a non-cognitive subject because of its affective nature. There was “a
prevalent tendency among art educators to divorce graphic development from overall
cognitive development” (p. 49). This is reflected in most school curricula that place the
sciences in the cognitive domain and the arts are regarded in a lesser light.
Constructivism
The roots of constructivism are found in cognitive psychology and the work of
Piaget that focused on student thinking and learning processes (Driscoll, 2000). Piaget's
theory challenged the behaviorist's theory that the environment determines behavior. He
underscored the thought that children actively participate in gaining knowledge by saying
that children do more than just respond to their surroundings; they are actively involved
in making sense of the world, forming their own guesses of how the world works. Piaget
hypothesized about human thinking through observation and interviews with his own
children. Behaviorists found that Piaget ignored two of their basic premises—the focus
on observable behavior and the carefully controlled experiment—and dismissed his
theories.
Since the 1970s, constructivism has become an ever increasingly popular learning
theory in the United States and challenges the dominant behavioral theory as overly
simplistic and mechanical (Utah, 1999). Constructivists said that behaviorism with its
emphasis on observable behaviors could not account fully for complex learning such as
language. Further, not all learning was observable; internal mental representations,
thinking, and memory were important and could be inferred from experiments in which
people were interviewed and observed as they learned.
Constructivism as a philosophy of learning is founded on the premise that we
construct an understanding of the world by reflecting upon our personal experiences.
Constructivists assume that we cannot know the physical world directly and, instead, we
construct an interpretation of it (Applefield, Huber, Moallem, 2000). Our internal,
personal system of understanding reflects our experiences with the world and may, or
may not, directly correspond to external reality. Our constructed knowledge does not
have to correspond directly with external reality to be useful; useful knowledge meets the
needs of the learner. Knowledge is open to challenge or modification by alternative
57
theories whose viability is tested. Viability, or usefulness of knowledge, replaces the idea
of truth.
Knowledge is subjective because it is constructed and we each have our own view
of the world based on our unique experiences (Applefield, Huber, Moallem, 2000). We
build knowledge by accumulating unique experiences; any new experience is assessed
and interpreted through our previous experiences. We continually revise our personally
built cognitions as we gain new information. Because new learning is filtered through
knowledge built upon prior unique experiences, Kolesnik (1976) stated that "two students
are likely to respond quite differently to the very same stimuli because of what they have
already learned, what they hope to achieve, what they feel they are capable of achieving,
because of differences in the way their minds work, or because of other differences which
distinguish one person from another" (p. 16). Constructivists, therefore, say that
knowledge cannot be directly transferred to another person, from expert to novice, by
lecturing or reading because each person's unique background interprets the information
differently (Utah, 1999). Individuals may agree on many points but each person's prior
knowledge assures that no two people will have the exact same understanding.
Learners have an organized way, a schema, of perceiving cognitively (Utah,
1999). Learners organize their learning into schemata which are interrelated. For
example, a dog schema may be related to another schema about animals, in general.
When we encounter a dog, we use our dog schema to act appropriately. When we
encounter a new type of animal, we use our dog schema to make sense about the new
animal. Thus, we are actively organizing our knowledge gained through experience and
reflection into interrelated complex patterns. Experiences and reflection on experiences
challenge us to examine our beliefs and, maybe, reconfigure them. Books and lectures
provide only words, not knowledge, which can help us to rethink what we know.
Applying constructivist principles to learning entails supporting the active
construction of knowledge by allowing students to represent or model complex processes
(Colburn, 2000). In this way, understanding becomes more concrete. Hands-on
activities, discussion, experiments, open-ended objectives, among others, encourage
exploration and ground knowledge in the real world. In this manner, students learn
underlying principles rather than simply memorizing facts and procedures. Meaning
58
entails understanding wholes as well as parts; learners are searching for meaning. The
knowledge constructed by students is an interpretation of the physical world. Openended materials allow more than one right answer with advantages and drawbacks to
each solution visible to the learner.
Constructivism has gained momentum in the United States during the postmodern
era of the 1980s as reliance on industry, science, and technology, which dominated the
early part of the 20th century, came into question (Utah, 1999). The Industrial Age skills
of uniformity, punctuality, and efficiency were viewed as no longer appropriate in an
information society (Getty, 1999). Instead, business called for workers who were more
team-oriented and able to create solutions to complex and challenging problems. This is
the basis of reform movements that emphasized processes of thinking about and
understanding of principles rather than just memorizing content (Utah, 1999).
Behaviorism Versus Constructivism
These two competing learning theories are the basis for teaching in public schools
across America (Utah, 1999). The activities and materials selected and the instruction
and assessment used is directly influenced by teachers, administrators, or policymakers
beliefs in learning theory. The instructional focus of the behaviorists is to shape the
behavior of the learner. This is done through a sequence of steps that leads to a
predetermined outcome. The role of the teacher and the material is to promote this
sequential process until learning occurs which is shown by student response that is quick
and accurate. In opposition to behaviorism, the constructivists use activities and
materials that promote the building of knowledge. They think curricula should not be
standardized but customized for the students' prior knowledge. Teachers draw from
many sources to supply materials that represent complex processes helping to make these
processes more concrete and understandable. Students are encouraged to explore and
experiment; learning is a discovery process. Assessment is open-ended and multiple
answers are acceptable. The role of the teacher is more of a guide, or facilitator.
Bigge & Shermis (1999) stated that the greatest difference between the two views
centers on the learner. For the behaviorist, the human being is passive or reactive and,
for the constructivist, the human interacts with his or her environment and needs to have
a personal involvement with the subject matter in order to fully learn and utilize it.
59
According the Kolesnik (1976), the teacher in the behaviorist mode becomes classroom
manager and director of the learning process and the curriculum is systematic and
carefully planned so that the teacher figures out what kind of responses the student should
make. Teaching is programming the student. In the constructivist approach, the role of
the teacher is broader in that (s)he organizes the learning situation and guides rather than
tells the learner (Applefield, Huber & Moallem, 2001). In this way, students discover
and generalize relationships for themselves. Constructivists place the major emphasis on
perception and the discovery, or inquiry, method of teaching. “The overriding goal of the
constructivist educator is to stimulate thinking in learners that results in meaningful
learning, deeper understanding and transfer of learning to real world contexts” (p. 13).
Applefield, Huber & Mahnaz concluded that there has been a paradigm shift in
instruction away from behaviorism and toward constructivism during the last two
decades. This is evidenced by best practices for teachers, articles in the literature, and
current textbooks.
Art lends itself very well to a constructivist classroom. According to Efland
(2002):
The function of the arts throughout human history has been and continues to be
the task of “reality construction.” The arts construct representations of the world,
which may be about the world that is really there or about imagined worlds that
are not present, but that might inspire human beings to create an alternative future
for themselves…Therefore, the purpose for teaching the arts is to contribute to the
understanding of the social and cultural landscape that each individual inhabits.
(p. 171)
Eisner (2002) agreed, “The course of children’s development in the creation of visual
images is characterized by the gradual emergence and refinement of forms of thinking”
(p. 111).
Studio art, which is the making or constructing of a finished piece of artwork, is a
good example of the use of constructivism in the classroom. A student making art
employs the emotions (feeling), the hands (kinesthesia), the head (thinking) and is fully
engaged. The teacher provides the art supplies, the environment, the topic or theme, the
initial thoughts and factual content of the unit under study, maybe some examples, and
60
the learner uses these separate elements to create a unique, unified, observable product.
Sometimes, in the behaviorist mode, the teacher guides the student in the learning of an
art skill, e.g., how to shade the apple the student has drawn to make it more lifelike.
Skills are used by the learner to help construct the artwork. The end product is a holistic
expression of the learner's understanding made visual. The learner, then, has the
opportunity to view his or her creation and reflect upon the creation itself and the act of
creating which produced it. Thirty students in the same class will produce 30 different
answers to the same question. Eisner (2002) stated “…the arts teach that there can be
more than one answer to a question and more than one solution to a problem; variability
of outcome is okay” (p. 196). The teacher has the opportunity to share these "answers" to
all members of the class, to facilitate group discussion, to allow students to connect to
each other's thoughts. Students see that they are different from each other but alike
because they have all had a shared experience in the classroom. “What we see in the
features of children’s artwork over time are the fruits of learning” (p. 111).
Perception
Lefrancois (1972) stated that Gestalt psychology—because of its concern with
perception, awareness, and insight—is considered the forerunner of cognitive psychology
and, hence, the cognitive constructivists. Driscoll (2000) and Kolesnik (1976) agreed
that cognitive and cognitive constructivist theories are derived from early Gestalt theory.
Gestalt began as a countermovement by German theorists interested in perception
during the early 1900s as association learning theory was being articulated by
Ebbinghaus, Thorndike, and Pavlov (Driscoll, 2000). Gestalt theory came to the attention
of American psychologists through Kohler who wrote a paper concerning ape behavior.
"According to Kohler, the most outstanding characteristic of the problem-solving
behavior of the ape is that he employs insight rather than trial and error to solve
problems" (Lefrancois, 1972, p. 188). Even when the ape tried several approaches, the
activity did not lead to solving the problem. Instead, the solution came after the ape was
sitting or lying down, perhaps contemplating the problem. He assumed the ape had
gained a small insight from each trial and error attempt. He concluded that humans also
use insight to solve problems and this is the basis of Gestalt psychology.
61
Gestalt psychology is "ordinarily defined as the sudden perception of
relationships among elements of a problem situation" (Lefrancois, 1982, p. 189).
Learning results in the formation of memory traces that form a gestalt which is better
than the original perception. People solve problems through insight that involves
perception of relationships. The other primary belief of gestaltists is that behavior cannot
be understood in terms of its parts. They believe that the whole is greater than the sum of
its parts. Evidence of the perception of wholes (gestalts) is seen in daily activities, such
as, listening to music which is heard as bars and passages and not individual notes.
"Perception is the psychological process by which we organize and coordinate and thus
interpret or derive meaning from our sensory experiences" (Kolesnik, 1976, p. 75). As
previously mentioned, these sensory experiences do not occur as independent and
isolated events. Instead, they are in a setting, relate to other stimuli, and are part of a
pattern. To understand the experience, it has to be related to the total of which it is a part.
Art and
Architecture
Religion
Conflict
and War
Economics
and Industry
Language
and Education
CHINA
Government and
Political Science
Family and Social
Organization
Philosophy
Geography
History
Figure 1: Example of Gestalt diagram of Cultural Universals
62
Gestalt principles were applied to education in the form of integrated curriculum
in 1932 when some "elementary school systems initiated a new approach to the unified
curriculum, called the Unit Approach. Much later, in the form of Core Curriculum, it
began to influence secondary education" (Linskie, 1977, p. 140). In this method, the
teacher was able to have a focus (gestalt) and explore with students different facets of a
concept. In the 1930s, some attempt at unification in knowledge was attempted in higher
education. The concept of cultural universals was put forth as "a Gestalt of all those
facets of social organization that are common to all societies regardless of time or
geography" (Linskie, 1977, p. 141). The cultural universals are generally listed as: art
and architecture, economics and industry, family and social organization, government
and political science, language and education, geography, history, philosophy, religion,
conflict and war (Linskie, 1977).
Additionally, "a second circle can be superimposed on the cultural universals.
This could show the curriculum areas and specific learning skills appropriate to the
development of a particular segment" (Linskie, 1977, p. 142). For example, math is
helpful in interpreting economics. This learning process allows for the gestalt to be
enlarged as much as awareness creates more interest. In this manner, the students and
teacher can go as deep into the knowledge as the learners are ready and able to explore.
The gestalt diagram of cultural universals claims art to be a foundational item for
civilization. Art should be studied for that reason alone and in context with the other
universals. It will be understood and appreciated more when studied within the context
of other facets of society and, hence, other disciplines. The fields of art history and art
criticism lend themselves to this type of inquiry.
Expert Learning System
This learning theory focuses on the process of learning (H. Doster, 1991) and has
implications for art being used in the process. The Expert Learning System moves
learners through a schema of cognitive experiences that permit optimum information
retention while also providing a sequential development of the learner's critical
assessment abilities. Level I, Reception, allows the learner to acquire core information
through existing learning patterns, for example, audio, visual, kinesthetic. A Gatekeeper
(learning facilitator who monitors and evaluates student's progress and authorizes
63
advancement) insures that adequate information has been received before the learner is
advanced to Level II, Manipulation. In Level II, acquired information is reviewed and
enhanced so that it can be more permanently stored within existing perceptions. Again, a
Gatekeeper insures that the learner has sufficiently understood and stored the core
information within a more life-oriented reality. Also, in Level II, the learner is
encouraged to manipulate the core information through different learning behaviors not
previously used. For example, a learner who is dominantly a visual is encouraged to use
audio and/or kinesthetic learning modes. Level III, Application, moves the learner from
reception and manipulation into conceptual and practical levels of application. Here, the
learner considers how the core information can be practically used in daily behavior.
Eventually, before leaving Level III, the learner transitions from conceptual to practical
and is mentored and coached as initial applications are attempted. Also, the Level III
learning environment places additional emphasis on the learner expanding his/her
cognitive skills into all three learning modes: audio, visual, kinesthetic. Art has a role in
the visual and kinesthetic modes. Finally, in Level IV, Exploration, critical assessment
skills are addressed. Here, the learner builds upon the earlier levels such that application
of the core information is now expanded into innovation and creative usage.
Expert Learning System is a process type of learning in which skills are first
presented to the learner (received), then, understood (mentally manipulated), and finally
practiced (applied) (H. Doster, 1991). During reception, the teacher is a presenter.
During manipulation, the teacher is a prompter. During application, the teacher is a
facilitator. During the fourth stage, exploration, the teacher is an observer. Doster
showed how curriculum in Level I (Reception) is mostly subject centered. As the learner
advances through the levels, the curriculum becomes more student centered. In Level III,
the learner applies the new knowledge through hands-on experiences that converts it into
useful skills and attitudes. Experiential learning and the role of art in helping the student
to visualize is of the utmost importance in Level III. It is at this point that the learner is
able to use the information in a practical and useful way.
Summary
I have explored the two major learning theories used by teachers in the classroom.
Teachers using behaviorist methods and behavioral objectives know in advance what the
64
student should learn. This is necessary for certain tasks. However, these types of
objectives do not promote creative thinking and multiple solutions. Eisner (1994) put
forth the need to expand objectives beyond behavioral and include problem solving
objectives. Problem solving objectives prompt the learner to work through a process to
solve a problem; the answers will be varied. Further, he added a third “objective” he
called expressive outcomes. Expressive outcomes result after learners engage in activity
learning. His point was that our educational aims are too narrow and too restrictive; we
have relegated the “cognitive subjects” to behavioral objectives and the arts to expressive
outcomes. This approach to learning is insufficient In fact, all subjects need instruction
in skills (behavioral objectives), open-ended questions (problem solving objectives), and
activities (expressive outcomes), at the correct time.
The behaviorists and the cognitive constructivists are both right but neither has
the whole truth. The Expert Learning System allows for the use of all types of objectives
in the learning process at the appropriate time it is needed. Gestalt psychology
underscores the role of insight, perception, the sudden “aha” of understanding and links it
with the integration of disciplines. Both the Expert Learning System and Gestalt
psychology support the role of art and the integration of disciplines. The reality in the
classroom, though, is an “either-or” approach to one style or another—behaviorist or
constructivist. Further, this support is based on not only psychological premises but
philosophical ones as well. Philosophy through its questioning of the nature of
knowledge provides a foundation to modern learning theory. In fact, it is the original
source of learning theory. All learning theory has philosophical foundations and it is
important to be able "to identify curricula and methods in their relationship to particular
philosophical positions" (Gutek, 1988, p. 10). At this point in the review of literature, I
will turn my attention to the philosophical foundations underpinning learning theory.
Philosophical Foundations
Teachers’ philosophies about life and learning impact the curricula they devise
for their classes. People’s beliefs and assumptions, personal philosophies, guide their
everyday behaviors and it is important for all teachers to understand what their personal
65
philosophies are so that they will understand the reasons for their curriculum decisions.
“Teachers’ beliefs about how students learn shape the instructional decisions they make
in the classroom” (Utah, 1999). For example, their orientations determine whether their
students learn through disciplinary or interdisciplinary approaches to subject matter and
this is key to whether or not they will use integrated curriculum in their classroom.
Philosophy has a particular subject matter and deals with it by using a particular
method. The subject matter is questions and the methodology is critical thinking. The
main questions are: What exists? (metaphysics), What do we know? (theory of
knowledge or epistemology), and What is moral? (ethics). These form the main branches
of philosophical study; a fourth branch, logic, is a large part of the critical thinking
methodology. The branch of most concern, here, is epistemology. Kattsoff (1953)
described epistemology as the branch which "investigates the origin, structure, methods,
and validity of knowledge" (p. 71). Its fundamental questions are: How do we know?
What is the origin of our knowledge? How do we know we know? How do you
distinguish between fact and opinion? The questions can be divided into two types:
source questions (philosophical epistemology) which are closely related to psychology
and semantic problems which concern the relationship between the objects of knowledge
and knowledge (meaning). Kattsoff advised us to notice that the questions of
metaphysics and epistemology are closely related because "how we know about reality
may condition what we know" (p. 71). He further stated that answering the questions of
philosophy leads to formulating systems of belief because philosophers, generally, do not
look at the problems of philosophy separately. The questions and answers are
"interrelated and hang together" (p. 100). These systems can be differentiated on the basis
of their answers to philosophical questions. Historically, different positions have been
taken about what we can know and how we can know it. This second aspect of
philosophy, how we can know, pertains to the instrument of knowledge. Butler (1968)
put forth five possible instruments of knowledge: sense-perceptual, reason, intuition,
authority, and revelation. Some of these positions are outlined in the following sections,
namely, sense-perceptual, reason, and intuition. Authority and revelation will not be
addressed as they do not have any relationship to curriculum organization for public
schooling in contemporary America. Authority is regarded as knowledge coming from
66
an "indisputable authority" outside of the learner. This authority could be governmental
or religious and sees no difference between what is good for the authority and what is
good for the individual. The instrument of religious knowledge is revelation, divine truth
revealed, and is not relevant as an instructional strategy in the classroom.
Idealism, realism, and intuitionism are three traditional approaches to the field of
epistemology. They have had a long history in western civilization and remain vital
philosophies that guide educational processes and curriculum designing (Gutek, 1988).
Idealists view the human mind as the main vehicle for knowing and unlocking the truth.
Realists believe that knowledge is external to the learner and (s)he is capable of knowing
through sensory perception. Intuitionism is the concept that people can learn through a
sudden insight or awareness that conveys truth without a reasoning procedure. Also,
according to Gutek (1988), three additional approaches explored are based on more
contemporary ideas. Alfred North Whitehead (1929) was a philosopher who believed
that all knowledge was related and connected and advocated a holistic view of learning.
Pragmatists, too, wanted the learner to make connections between subject matter and they
advocated experiential learning for the student. Existentialists also emphasized that
education is a process of self discovery, individualized to the learner, and happens within
a social context. These six positions are examined below.
Idealism
During the third great period of ancient Greek philosophy, Plato developed a
system of thought which was concerned with all of the problems of philosophy (Thilly,
1957). Stumpf (1966) stated that Plato explained knowledge in his theory of forms or
ideas. Forms are eternal patterns of which the objects we see are only copies. The minds
of humans learn through (1) recollection (visible things remind humans of their
acquaintance with the forms as a soul before birth), (2) dialectic (discussion and
reasoning by dialogue), and (3) desire (to know and understand). Gutek (1988) stated
that Plato's epistemology of reminiscence implied that every human being possessed a
soul which prior to birth lived in a spiritual world of perfect ideas. The knowledge of
perfect forms was locked in the mind and could be brought to consciousness by the
learner who was willing and ready to learn, seeking truth, and discarding false beliefs.
67
Eisner (1994) characterized Plato's teachings as "individualized" to the student, as shown
by Plato telling the story of Socrates using the parable of the cave (sixth book of Plato's
Republic) to explain the nature of knowledge to his student who had not understood an
abstract explanation. The parable was more concrete and used vivid imagery to describe
the cave in order to meet the learner at his level. The educational implication is that the
teacher must recognize and tailor the curriculum to the level of abstraction the student is
capable of understanding.
Gruber (1973) stated that Plato recommended a state-controlled system of
education with "censorship of art, literature, and music so that society would reflect the
true, the beautiful, and the good" (p. 4). Thilly (1957) characterized the curriculum as
including the narration of myths, gymnastics, reading and writing, poetry and music, and
mathematics. The curriculum was chosen for specific objectives: selected myths carried
correct ethical content; gymnastics developed not only body but soul; poetry and music
aroused the senses of beauty, harmony, and proportion and encouraged philosophical
thought; and, mathematics focused the mind on the abstract and the real. Those who
progressed in school would eventually study the discrete subjects in their interrelations
and learn to survey them as a whole. At age fifty, worthy students would devote
themselves to the study of philosophy.
Stumpf (1966) stated that Plato's problem with artists' images is that they are at
least two steps removed from true reality. For example, suppose an artist paints a
woman's portrait. The levels of reality are: (1) the Idea of Woman, (2) this Idea in the
person of this woman, and (3) the portrait of the woman. For Plato, art imitates nature;
artwork is imitation, twice removed. However, the image, the painting, has the power to
shape people's thoughts and will stimulate ideas of illusion in the viewer when the image
is taken as a perfect version of something real. To counter this, the viewer must fully
understand that the artist is creating this image through his/her own way of seeing. Even
though art is removed from reality, it still has the power to shape our beliefs and is
dangerous to rational thought.
Gutek (1988) stated that under idealist epistemology the main goal of education is
to encourage students to be truth-seekers. Learning is an unfolding in which students
expand mental awareness that leads to self-definition and a comprehension of the
68
universe. Education is general, rather than specific vocational training, and is taught
through the subject-matter disciplines. However, all of these are derived from and lead
ultimately to the "One Unifying and Integrating Concept, Idea, or Cause" (p. 26). "The
highest degree of knowledge is that which sees the relationships of these various subject
matters and is able to relate them into an integrated unity" (p. 24). Learning is a
discovery process related to the learner's interests and willingness to put forth effort for
intuitive and introspective self-exploration. "Students are exposed to valuable lessons
based on worthy models or exemplars from history, literature, religion, biography, and
philosophy" (p. 29). Also, students should study the great works of art and literature
which have endured over time. According to Gutek, idealism "has encouraged a
hierarchical view of people, society, and knowledge" and "the position of a person in
society and a subject in the curriculum is in ranked order based on the ability to abstract
or to be abstracted" (p. 19).
Butler (1968) characterized idealist-inspired education as ideal-centered. "It is
not wholly child-centered, subject matter-centered, nor society-centered; it is idealcentered" (p. 200). The teacher is central to the educative process because (s)he
personifies reality for the child, specializes in knowledge of the pupil and is a friend,
exemplifies the art of living and commands respect, appreciates and capably
communicates subject matter, and awakens in the pupil the desire to learn. The above is
important because the pupil learns to respond by imitation when given a worthy model.
The teacher promotes interest in the content and is looking for an active response by the
learner. Curriculum should be designed around an ideal; selected activities, experiences,
life-situations, and studies that promote this ideal should be the content. Courses of study
in conventional liberal and vocational education should be supplemented with activities,
projects, and exercise. The various content subjects and added activities are used to teach
about life, understanding it, and living it fully.
In summation, people who conclude that reason is the instrument of knowledge
embrace the position of rationalism. Kattsoff (1953) stated that “the rationalist believes
that truth and falsity lie in our ideas and not in things” (p. 130). Plato is considered a
rationalist (epistemologically) and an idealist (metaphysically). Perception has its place
in the knowledge process but is secondary. Sensory experience provides some of the raw
69
materials for knowledge but reason interprets, relates, and unifies the results of
experience to yield meaning and significance. Efland (2002) argued, “In favoring the
‘ideal forms’ as the supreme source of true knowledge, Plato argued for the lesser status
of the arts” (p. 1). Knowledge of the rational mind was pure and not to be distorted by
the senses. Perception was two steps removed from the ideal and not to be trusted. Even
though Plato argued against the arts, he actually gave strength to the idea that art can
shape our sense of what is real. According to Dewey (1934), Plato went further than this
and said that art can take us beyond perception and into rational thought. In Dewey’s
words:
…the object of art is to educate us away from art to perception of purely rational
essences. There is a ladder of successive rungs leading from the sense upwards.
The lowest stage consists of beauty of sensible objects; a stage that is morally
dangerous because we are tempted to remain there. From thence we are invited to
mount to the beauty of the mind, thence to the beauty of laws and institutions,
whence we should ascend to the beauty of the sciences and then we may move on
to the one intuitive knowledge of beauty absolute. (p. 291)
In other words, although art as imitation of life is deceitful and dangerous, artistic beauty
can lead the viewer away from sensory phenomena toward reason and truth. Dewey
(1934) quotes Plato:
…the rhythmic and harmonious elements of art, like a breeze blowing in a goodly
place, may from earliest childhood lead us peacefully into harmony with the
beauty of reasonableness; one so nurtured will, beyond others, welcome reason
when its time comes and know it as his own. (p. 291)
Art can act as a facilitator of learning.
Realism
Aristotle, the student of Socrates, is considered the founder of realism. Gutek
(1988) stated that the basis of realism lies in methods used by Aristotle to study the
world. "While Plato was concerned with an abstract world of perfect forms or ideas,
Aristotle used methods of common-sense observation to investigate a public world of
natural and social phenomena" (p. 36). For realists, we live in a world of real existence
with many things (such as people and objects) which exist outside of us. "Human beings
70
can know these objects through their senses and their reason" (p. 41). Knowledge begins
with sensation, from sensing objects and their qualities; cognition, or knowing, involves
the mind and the sensation. As we gain experience (sensory data), we put it into a
structure (we abstract it). Subsequently, the "abstracts" are conceptualized into groupings
(or classes). These classifications are the basis of bodies of knowledge.
People who conclude that the sense-perceptual experience is the starting point for
all of our knowledge are embracing a position in epistemology known as empiricism.
Empiricists, generally, are considered realists metaphysically (Butler, 1968). For the
empiricist, reason by itself cannot yield any knowledge. Reason is subordinated but not
excluded; its function is to coordinate the findings of experience. The authority for the
empiricist is the scientific method which is a means for testing experience.
Gutek (1988) stated that the epistemology of realism has been referred to often as
a “spectator theory of knowledge” meaning that we are observers of reality. Further, he
concluded that the spectator theory of knowing appears to be passive and this has many
educational implications. Education should train the observer in using the instruments
and technology with which to observe, and, thus, enabling the observer to make accurate
classifications. The function of school is to transmit the bodies of knowledge and inquiry
skills. This is, primarily, an intellectual endeavor and the role of the expert scientist and
scholar (found in the university) is to do research. The student studies subject matter as
defined by the curriculum of undergraduate college and the secondary school system.
The method of instruction is the teacher imparting the skill or subject matter to the
student through lecture, discussion, and experiment. The teacher is the "expert" and the
student is ready to receive the knowledge. The teacher must know his or her topic and
evaluate the level of the learner in order to transmit the correct amount of information.
Curriculum in the realist sense must come from a tested body of knowledge
taught by a professional. Students are capable of receiving information and relating
objects to one another. Curriculum beyond content becomes a means of forming
desirable habits, such as, symbolic habits (use of words), habits of study, research skills,
critical thinking, group discussion, application of principles, and evaluation. Content
courses should include the natural sciences, social studies, and areas of self-improvement,
such as, psychology, the arts, philosophy, and, possibly, religion. Values, also, should be
71
taught with the opportunity for making value judgments. Gutek (1988) concluded that
most of contemporary education is based on some form of realist philosophy.
Aristotle’s ideas concerning art were more sympathetic toward art than Plato’s
(Addis and Erickson, 1993). Art was created through skill and knowledge and given life
by the spirit of the artist. Aristotle favored idealistic art over the naturalistic art of Plato
and thought that art should serve a moral purpose. Influenced by this, a goal of early
twentieth century art historians was to enrich people’s lives and help their moral
development. According to Dewey (1934), Aristotle classified all art as representational
using that term in its broadest sense to mean that art represents the full range of feelings
and emotions of human life. For Aristotle, imitating or representing life does not mean
the obvious physical dimension; it means the essence of life. The world unseen, its
forces and universal laws, are more real than the scenery of the physical world. Further,
“the more a work of art embodies what belongs to experiences common to many
individuals, the more expressive it is” (p. 285). Art becomes a form of knowledge, a
mode of learning. A person’s understanding of the inner workings of things can increase
through the aesthetic experience of making or viewing art. In Dewey’s words:
Tangled scenes of life are made more intelligible in esthetic experience: not,
however, as reflection and science render things more intelligible by reduction to
conceptual form, but by presenting their meanings as the matter of a clarified,
coherent, and intensified or “impassioned” experience. (p. 290)
Art can act as a communicator about and a clarifier of human experience.
Intuitionism
At this point, reasoning (the idealist/rationalist view) and sense-perceptual
experience (the realist/empiricist view) have been addressed as ways of knowing. The
last view of the three traditional approaches to the field of epistemology to be covered is
that of intuition. "...Another aspect of epistemology has to do with the degree of
directness or indirectness there is in the knowing process" (Butler, 1968, p. 25).
Intuitionism is a flash of insight or an immediate awareness which conveys truth.
Intuition is "regarded as jumping ahead of reason and discerning understandings at which
reason later arrives by its own slower means" (p. 24).
72
Thilly (1957) characterized Bergson, a twentieth century French philosopher, as
the most interesting and popular figure in the movement questioning the scientific mode
of thought. Dissatisfaction with the mechanistic view of the universe led to questioning
the ability of science to understand reality. The kinds of instruments we use to acquire
knowledge determine the limitations of our knowledge (Kattsoff, 1953). Bergson labeled
this discrepancy as discursive knowledge (knowledge about) and intuitive knowledge
(knowledge of). Discursive knowledge is knowledge about something and is acquired
through the use of symbols. The symbols attempt to tell us about something "by acting as
translations for that something. This depends upon taking a point of view, a frame of
reference, and describing the event relative to it" (Kattsoff, 1953, p. 136). In this manner
we obtain knowledge about an aspect of an event but do not experience the whole event.
Intuitive knowledge is of the event—immediate, direct, and absolute.
Intuition does not depend on analytic thinking in a step-by-step manner. Instead,
intuition takes form as a holistic view. "Intuition overcomes the eternal nature of
symbolic knowledge, which is basically analytic in character, and gives one the simple,
absolute whole without any expression, translation, or symbolic representation" (Kattsoff,
1953, p. 136). What intuition tells us cannot be communicated because that would
translate it into symbols (language). In this sense, intuition is a form of experience rather
than a method of acquiring knowledge. Knowledge comes after the intuitive experience
is translated into a description from a certain point of view. This means that the intuitive
experience is not knowledge but it does allow for a form of experience not provided by
the senses. Experience would include both sense-perception and intuition. Bruner
(1960), in The Process of Education, concurred that "intuitive thinking, the training of
hunches, is a much-neglected and essential feature of productive thinking not only in
formal academic disciplines but also in everyday life" (p. 14). He stated that analytic
thinking follows a slower, step-by-step progression whereas intuitive thinking jumps
around, perceives a totality of the problem, and the thinker does not know how (s)he
arrived at an answer. Bruner advocated the need "to discover how we may develop the
intuitive gifts of our students from the earliest grades onwards" (p. 59). He stated that
schooling has devalued intuition, and that curriculum designers need to discover how to
develop the intuitive gifts of students because it may be important for students to have an
73
intuitive grasp of subject matter before studying its discrete elements. To apply this in
the classroom, using a graphic organizer (drawing or mapping the concept) would allow
students to see a holistic picture of subject matter, therefore, prompting an intuitive grasp
of the concept before studying its discrete elements.
Alfred North Whitehead
Whitehead, another 20th century philosopher, reacted, along with Bergson, to the
analytic mode of thought (Stumpf, 1966). "His main theme was that 'connectedness is
the essence of all things'. What science tends to separate, philosophy must try to see as
an organic unity" (p. 395). Whitehead was "appalled at the lack of organic interrelation
among the parts of the usual educational curriculum" (Johnson, 1962, p. 117). In his
mind, learning was a seamless robe and a unity of various worthwhile experiences
(Whitehead, 1929). Whitehead felt that schools should not teach too many subjects and
what they did teach should be taught thoroughly. The result of teaching small parts of a
large number of subjects was passive reception on the part of the learner of disconnected
ideas. Instead, students should feel the joy of discovery. A few important main ideas
should be taught and they should be looked at from all angles. The disconnected ideas of
the modern curriculum destroyed its vitality.
Whitehead (1929) stated that education and knowledge should pertain to the
utilization of it in everyday life; education was the art of utilizing knowledge. Students
did not see connections between discrete disciplines and life. He proposed a national
system of education in England "which will combine the elements of a literary, a
scientific, and a technical curriculum" (Hendley, 1986, p. 87). This triad, he thought,
tailored to meet the needs of individual students, was the best secondary school
curriculum to produce a balance of intellect and character in the learner: the literary
component transmits values, the scientific component develops thinking, and the
technical area imparts skills needed by the great majority of people (Johnson, 1962).
Hendley (1986) stated that the technical component would provide creative experience as
well as putting theory into practice. Whitehead liked to call this connecting "headwork
and handiwork", coordinating thought and action (Hendley, 1986, p. 88). Whitehead’s
(1929) ideas on curriculum included the following: the mind is continuously active and
interacting with the environment; knowledge learned must be applied at once to be
74
retained; information should be discovered by the student as opposed to being handed to
him/her; the needs and interests of the students should be the starting points of any
educational program; and, students should learn from firsthand experience rather than
secondhand information from textbooks. Art appreciation, for instance, should have a
prominent place in the curriculum because works of art convey values and a sense of
enjoyment to the viewer. Handicrafts allow expression by the body. Manual dexterity
and realizing thoughts in materiality were thought to be especially important in art,
science, and technology.
Pragmatism
Whereas idealism and realism date back to ancient Greece, pragmatism was
developed in twentieth century America. This philosophy deals less with the way we
know and more with the process we use. It is the most original contribution of American
thought to philosophy (Stumpf, 1966). Gutek (1988) stated that the formulation of
pragmatism coincided with the progressive reform movement of the industrializing
United States. Dewey methodically implemented it into American institutions (Stumpf,
1966).
There was a strong conviction that there must be a close connection between
thinking and doing. Dewey (1938) framed it as an “organic connection between
education and personal experience; or, that the new philosophy of education is committed
to some kind of empirical and experimental philosophy” (p. 25). "Pragmatism,
particularly of the experimentalist variety, is impatient with all preoccupations in
epistemology which follow the traditional patterns" (Butler, 1968, p. 26). Pragmatists
felt that cloistered philosophers had spent too much time at an unsolvable and
unimportant problem: We will never know how we know and we should focus our
attention on practical social values that will make the world a better place.
Pragmatists believed that "experience is the proving ground in which the worth of
things is made plain" (Butler, 1968, p. 377). Dewey (1938) concurred that “all genuine
education comes about through experience” but he quickly followed that with the idea
that not all experiences are equal, or genuine educational experiences (p. 25). One does
not automatically equal the other. Further, Dewey felt that many traditional educational
practices were “mis-educative” because they did not foster further growth. This reliance
75
on experience is not a new thought but its translation into school practice by Dewey was
new, as exemplified by his emphasis on the experiential curriculum.
Stumpf (1966) stated that pragmatism sought to mediate between the everwidening gulf between empiricism and rationalism and sought to combine what was
significant in both of them. Empirically, the pragmatists agreed that we could not know
the whole of reality, that we know things from many perspectives, and that an approach
to education must be pluralistic. In line with the rationalists, pragmatists concurred that
morals, religion, and values constitute a significant aspect of human experience. Above
all, however, thoughts needed to terminate in some sort of action. Gutek (1988) stated
that Dewey argued against an Aristotelian dualistic view of the universe because that had
led to a distinction between theory and practice. "These metaphysical dualisms had an
impact on life and education in that they created distinctions between theory and practice,
between liberal and vocational education, between fine and applied arts, and between
thought and action" (p. 90). Dewey (1916) stated that the dualism was, partially at least,
a product of the social class structure in ancient Greece. Translated into educational
terms, there was "a division between a liberal education, having to do with the selfsufficing life of leisure devoted to knowing for its own sake, and a useful, practical
training for mechanical operations, devoid of intellectual and aesthetic content" (p. 261).
"In its positive formulations Dewey's own theory of experience and inquiry is designed to
ensure that knowledge and action are not isolated from one another through false
intellectual or social dichotomies" (Cahn, 1977, p. 179).
Stumpf (1966) stated that one tendency of the nineteenth century was to see the
world and humankind as part of a mechanical or biological process and the mind to be an
observer or reflector and not a creative instrument. These assumptions of science
threatened the human aspects of humankind, i.e., moral and religious convictions which
gave people a sense of purpose. Scientists had rejected idealism as lacking in objective
evidence. The opposite tendency, inherited from past idealist philosophy, was to see the
mind as having enormous powers so that entire comprehensive, systematic philosophies
could be constructed with just mind. The either-or proposition was be a scientist and
renounce all subjective moral and religious thought or accept both science and moral and
religious claims while ignoring the contradictions. Pragmatism allowed the two ends of
76
the continuum to work together because it asked what difference it would make if a
person accepted one theory or another.
Its most influential proponent, Dewey, was leader of the progressive education
movement (Butler, 1968). Dewey not only philosophized about education but engaged in
the actual task of educating children at his Laboratory School in Chicago established in
1896. Dewey was responsible for making the case that education is a social institution.
Previous philosophers treated education in primarily individualistic terms, i.e., as a
process that occurs within individuals as opposed to the way a culture reproduces itself.
Pragmatists say that we "must approach education as first and foremost a social
phenomenon. It is a means by which society renews itself..." (p. 406). Dewey (1916)
stated that societal attitudes just cannot be given to the young; a person has to receive this
information through an educative process that requires activity by the learner. Education
is a social function and the school’s learning activities must have social meaning and
relevance to society and not be just a transaction between teacher and student.
Dewey's philosophy of education stated that traditional views concerning
knowledge and learning were wrong (1916). The error lay in likening the learner to a
spectator who passively recognized what is there and whose objective was to be certain
about it. This makes objects independent of our knowing them and, thus, knowing them
is just recognition. In contrast, Dewey stated that knowing is a kind of action because the
mind is a problem solver; intelligence is creative and all knowledge is based on
experience. True knowledge and understanding result from doing. “Men have to do
something to the things when they wish to find out something; they have to alter
conditions” (p. 275). "The spirit of education should be experimental, because the mind
is fundamentally a problem-solving instrument, and it is therefore more important to try
alternative means for successfully solving problems than to pursue neat theoretical
formulations" (Stumpf, 1966, p. 418).
Dewey's progressive education moved the educational process away from its
formality and toward more child centeredness (Butler, 1968). Curriculum in the old
education was one of imposition: imposing adult standards on children, imposing set
subject matter considered central to the learning process, and imposing methods. The
new education allowed expression and cultivation of individuality, greater freedom of
77
activity, and direct contact with the world through such activities as creative and
constructive projects and discussion. Dewey felt that all thinking and learning is a
discovery process and new information has to be tested against current social practices
(Cahn, 1977).
Dewey (1910) felt that formal schooling had become abstract because it was
separated from the student's interests, needs, and experiences. Abstract concepts dulled
the curriculum; he realized that learning is emotional as well as cognitive. He proposed
that instruction should be organized around human work valued by the society in order
for it to relate to life after school. "This view of curriculum construed knowledge to be
interdisciplinary and instrumental" (Gutek, 1988, p. 107). For Dewey, education required
attention and effort by the learner and it is the role of the teacher to teach indirectly
(Fishman & McCarthy, 1998). Classes should be structured so that teachers and students
identify problems and investigate and discover solutions to these problems. In this
manner, the learner will establish a connection with subject matter. Eisner (1994) stated
that educators who are progressive tend to emphasize individual differences among
students and believe that students "should be given ample opportunity to formulate their
own educational aims" (p. 143). "The teacher is not to 'stuff the duck' but rather to
facilitate the achievement of aims born out of the interaction children have with the
stimulating resources the teacher provides" (p. 143).
Driscoll (2000) stated that the epistemological traditions are still being debated
today in educational and psychological literature. She argued that either knowledge is
external to the learner or an internal construction of the learner. Those who think that
knowledge is external and separate from the learner are called objectivists. Their theory
concludes that the external knowledge is pure truth and must be transferred into the mind
of the learner. "Empiricism and realism characterize this orientation" (Driscoll, 2000,
p. 14). On the other hand, the opposite position is that of the interpretists (or
interpretivists) who think that all knowledge is within. Understanding of reality is
actively constructed by the learner from within, using frames of reference. Their
constructed views organize the world around them. "Rationalism and idealism
characterize this orientation" (Driscoll, 2000, p. 14). Objectivism and interpretism are
often discussed as polar opposites, with pragmatism somewhere between them on the
78
continuum. The pragmatists believe that absolute knowledge is an unreachable goal.
Instead, they emphasize using workable hypotheses until more knowledge is discovered.
This provisional knowledge can be obtained through empirical or rational processes.
Reality is understood through internal and external cues and signs utilizing a combination
of experience and reason.
Existentialism
The last segment of the discussion on philosophy and learning concerns another
20th century body of philosophical thought: existentialism. The questions existentialists
ask are (Double, 1999): How should we live in the world? What does it mean to be alive
and to be human? The answers include that it is one’s personal interpretation of the
world that matters; the individual defines truth, reality, and goodness. Accompanying
this is the idea that it takes personal experience and individual action to find one’s
personal truth. This process is not necessarily systematic or rational but it is full of
personal choice and commitment. Those choices define the person and result in a unique
creation; we are continually forming our own personal existence.
According to Stumpf (1966):
Existentialism was bound to happen. The individual had over the centuries been
pushed into the background by systems of thought, historical events, and
technological forces. The major systems of thought had rarely paid attention to
the uniquely personal concerns of individuals. (p. 454)
In a similar vein as the pragmatists, the existentialists found traditional philosophy too
remote and academic. It was not providing answers to immediate, real, personal
questions about life and living.
Feldman (2003) examined three characteristics of existentialist thought and their
impact in the classroom:
1. People are situated in a web of relationships which include their entire past history—
attitudes, beliefs, actions, culture, and physical environment. They bring this with them
to the present learning experience.
2. The individual self emerges through experience and the learner constructs his or her
own meanings during the learning experience.
79
3. People are free to choose their course of action even though the choices are finite.
Students construct their knowledge through what they have chosen to study. It is
important that teachers realize the significance of the relationship between the students
and the teacher and how each affects the other. Both need to understand “that each is an
individual human being who is situated, whose self emerges through experience, and who
has freedom to choose” (p. 10).
Further, education should provide the experiences that allow students to create
themselves and would cast students as active participants in the learning process
(Feldman, 2003). An integral part of the learning experience is the way that students are
treated by the teacher, specifically, and the classroom environment the teacher has
created, in general. This environment, shaped by the teacher, should convey to students
that they are respected, seen as individuals, are cared for and have choices, even within
guidelines. Students should realize that no action is a choice, too.
Existentialism is concerned with being human and having human relationships.
Therefore, education is significant in terms of how it is affecting those who are going
through its process. It is the role of the school to aid people in discovering who they are
and how they fit into society. Existentialist thought emphasizes self-discovery and is
very individualized; in this respect, it is akin to pragmatism. Further, an existentialist
classroom should develop the affective side of the person and his or her capacity to
appreciate and respond emotionally. The arts would be fundamental for this type of
classroom environment.
At this point I have examined the literature regarding brain research and cognitive
developmental theories, learning theories and their philosophical foundations. A
comprehensive search through the theoretical literature shows support for integrating
curriculum, in general, and art, in particular, with other subject matter to enhance
learning. Further this support is based on biological, psychological, and philosophical
premises. It is important, at this point, to review the historical application as well as more
recent application of integrated curriculum in the classroom.
80
Integrated Curriculum
In this portion of the literature review, I will examine curriculum organization and
why subjects are taught, generally, as discrete disciplines and provide a rationale for
integrated curriculum. I will define integrated curriculum and describe how it differs
conceptually, discuss its roots in progressivism, and view early models of integrated
curricula as well as present day models that incorporate art.
Rationale for Integrated Curriculum
The United States, unlike a lot of nations, does not have an official national
curriculum that schools must follow. Because there is no federal constitutional right to
an education, education is the responsibility of the states. Each state operates its own
school system and gives more or less freedom to its school districts to devise their
curricula (Dobbs, l998). Despite lack of centralization, there is much uniformity among
school curricula in America (Oliver, 1977). Reading, writing, and arithmetic are taught
in some form in the educational career of a student; other required subjects usually
include social studies, health/P.E., science, and, maybe, the fine arts. Beyond these
basics, other subjects are included depending on the political and social climate of the
times. The federal government can influence education by offering targeted funds to
specific areas.
Curriculum, although central to every school, is not a tangible object; it is an
abstract concept. Curricula are planned, designed, developed, implemented, evaluated,
improved, and revised (Oliver, 1977). But what are they? Definitions range from
everything that goes on within a school to a set of subjects, a program of studies, a set of
materials, or a sequence of courses. For this paper, curriculum is defined as the sum total
of formal studies and learning experiences that are offered by a school. This includes not
only subjects studied in the classroom but also independent study, guest lecturers, field
trips, service projects in the community, participation in school athletics, band, choir, and
plays.
Once goals are set for the school and content is selected, planners must decide the
best way to organize curriculum for maximum learning to occur (Oliver, 1977). Will the
curriculum be organized around subjects or around students? Subject centered and
81
student centered are the two ends of the curriculum organization continuum. All other
forms of organization, including integration, fall within these two extremes.
Traditionally, the curriculum has been organized around subject matter (Oliver,
1977). “Current school curricula tend to be tightly compartmentalized into subjects”
(Efland, 2002, p. 102). This pattern of organization dates back to antiquity, from ancient
Greece and Rome. Oliva (1982) stated that subject matter is the oldest and most widely
accepted form of curriculum organization dating back to the Seven Liberal Arts. Today,
subject matter is generally organized on the basis of separate disciplines taught at
separate times (Oliver, 1977). Many educators feel that teaching these relatively few
bodies, called disciplines, conveys to the student the essential knowledge in our
civilization.
Scholars have traditionally organized knowledge within the major disciplines
recognized today (science, mathematics, social studies, and language arts). Some
consider academic disciplines a powerful way for organizing knowledge.
(Czerniak, Weber & Sandmann, 1999, p. 4)
This type of curriculum organization is based on several assumptions: that
children handle discipline knowledge in the same manner as an adult scholar, that the role
of the school is to transmit cultural heritage, that the heritage can be grouped into
subjects, and that this grouping enables the students to deal with the culture as they meet
it. Learning is based chiefly on language activities and adults select and organize what is
to be presented to the learner. Students must absorb and memorize using considerable
drill to retain content.
Conceptually, there are three major concerns with this arrangement (Oliver,
1977). First, there is the interdisciplinary controversy. When subjects are taught in this
manner, there is no apparent relationship between classes. Math, science, English, and
social studies are taught in one hour (or more) time periods with no correlation between
these successive areas of instruction. Some declare that these "watertight compartments"
are not lifelike and actually hinder learning by failing to foster interrelationships. Second
is the fact that students are learning theory with little or no practical application. Without
practical application, theory is much less meaningful. For example, students apparently
learn mathematical formulas but then fail to utilize them in practical situations or later
82
science classes. The knowledge does not automatically transfer into later application. A
third concern is that the subject content is not related to life outside the school. Often
available resources in the community are overlooked. For instance, local political
elections could be used as a teaching tool but often are not used by the teacher who is
already a month behind in her government class. Beane (1992) echoed the same
sentiment:
More and more educators are coming to realize that one of the fundamental
problems in schools is the “separate subject” approach to knowledge and skills.
Among other things, it has little, if any, support in curriculum research; it presents
the world to young people in terms of the specialized interests of academic
scholars; it reflects a Eurocentric view of knowledge organization; and it is an
artifice of real-life uses of content and skill. (p. 46)
Further, Czerniak, Weber & Sandmann (1999) summarized the following
concerns with the subject centered curriculum and literature that favors integrating
curriculum:
1. Making connections between disciplines appears to have common sense because
people’s lives in the real world are not partitioned into separate subjects. “Almost every
national reform effort is currently stressing the need to integrate or make connections
among the curriculum” (p. 1). They cited English, mathematics, social studies, and
science teachers associations.
2. Integrated curriculum helps to move the curriculum closer to the needs and interests of
the students. They cited organizations that specialize in appropriate instructional
practices for teachers of elementary and middle school age children and who advocate
integrative and exploratory curriculum.
3. “It is also argued that the integration of content areas can help students learn to think
critically and help develop a common core of knowledge necessary for success in the
next century” (p. 1). They cited articles which concluded that curriculum integration
helps students to form deeper understandings, to see the larger picture, and to form
connections among ideas.
4. Support for integrated curriculum is based upon psychological and human
development theories. They cited articles about constructivist learning theory that
83
supports the importance of students making connections between prior knowledge and
new experiences and about brain research which supports thematic teaching and the idea
that “people process information through patterns and connections” rather than through
fragments of information (p. 1).
Lake (1994), in an article in the School Improvement Research Series (SIRS)
published by the Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, reviewed 53 documents
which dealt with multiple aspects of integrated curriculum. She described the following
reasons as most cited for the resurgence in discussion and implementation of integrated
curriculum in the classroom: the explosion of knowledge, increasing state mandates,
concerns over relevancy of the curriculum to the real world, lack of connections among
the disciplines, teachers feeling frustrated by overwhelming curricula and other demands
by the school, global interdependence, the fast pace of life, and business demands for
workers who are creative problem solvers. A shift was underway from memorization and
recitation of isolated facts and toward having an understanding of concepts and
connections between concepts. Integration was viewed, also, as a way to make education
more meaningful and, thus, alleviate concerns over national achievement levels and high
dropout rates.
Although there is a lot of enthusiasm for integrating curriculum there is a “paucity
of research supporting an integrated curriculum over traditional curriculum” (Czerniak,
Weber & Sandmann, 1999, p. 2). There is little empirical research supporting integrated
curriculum and schools wishing to try integration face some critical issues, one of which
is describing integrated curriculum.
Describing Integrated Curriculum
What is integrated curriculum? The term integrated curriculum has been tossed
around lightly by educators and has come to mean any organization of curriculum that is
not strictly subject centered (Oliver, 1977). Broadly speaking, integration is the blending,
fusion, or unification of disciplines. According to Beane (1992), the questioning and
search for better curriculum organization is a desire to make connections:
To understand this, we might begin by viewing the separate subject curriculum as
something like a set of jigsaw puzzle pieces with no picture to guide us in putting
them together, and no guarantee that they make a picture. Not only would putting
84
the pieces together be a difficult task, but it would border on the irrelevant, since
most people would agree that the purpose of the pieces is to make a picture and
that the pieces themselves have no real meaning apart from the picture they make.
(p. 46)
In integration "... the basic consideration is of ways to bring into a broad organization
those subject-matter elements which have certain relationships" (Oliver, 1977, p. 243).
Oliva (1982) stated that curriculum designers should concern themselves with the
problem of integrating subject matter. This idea is echoed also by Oliver (1977) who
stated that the term is "not as important as the conditions characterizing the extent of the
transition toward less subject-defined boundaries" (p. 243). Educators, generally
speaking, support the concept of integrating subject matter but the integration of
disciplines is optional for curriculum planners and can be a controversial topic (Oliva,
1982). Whether or not they choose to integrate depends upon their philosophy of the
nature of knowledge, the psychology of learning, and the purposes of schooling. Even
though integration of subject matter is viewed as being more relevant to the learner, our
schools typically and traditionally act as though integration of curriculum is not
important. Czerniak, Weber & Sandmann (1999) stated the following obstacles to
integration: the time and structure of the school day, teachers not prepared or taught how
to integrate subject matter, the pressure of state standardized tests which are discipline
based, and standards for disciplines that are separate and not integrated. Beane (1992)
stated that integrated curriculum has to be built from the ground up by interested and
willing teachers who have administrative support with scheduling and resources.
Because the momentum is clearly with discrete disciplines, the tenacity of subject matter
curriculum has been shaken only briefly by experiments like the activity curriculum and
the core curriculum.
During the first half of the twentieth century, reaction against the very tight
structuring in the subject centered approach was to swing to the other extreme, i.e., to
center the curriculum on the students rather than the subjects (Oliver, 1977). Dewey
(Doll, 1982) developed a curriculum that emphasized the life activities of children.
Dewey (1938) thought that learning should be a pleasurable emotional experience, more
vivid and valuable, with the learner pursuing an active role. Radical progressive
85
education proponents (Ornstein, 1977) argued that education is life, life is always
changing, therefore curriculum should not be fixed; they let the child be the source of
curriculum construction. They thought that subject matter should be taught for
immediate use. The teacher had to determine only what interested the students and build
upon that. Learners would develop their own ways of learning inside of a flexible
curriculum. People learn only what they experience; the learner would desire, see, do,
and obtain satisfaction from the learning experience. Students learned with their heads,
their hearts, and their hands; the whole child must be educated. According to Oliver
(1977):
This program seemed to meet the criticisms against subject
organization: it was related to pupil interest; learners were to be
active, rather than passive; activity was built around psychological
problems, rather than logical topics; the program was flexible,
rather than rigid, democratic rather than authoritarian; it cut across
subject lines; it was community related. (p. 238)
In practice, however, this curriculum organization left teachers and parents feeling
uncomfortable. Even the students felt uncertain. There was no plan, no structure, and all
concerned felt the lack. Although Dewey was one of the chief advocates for meeting the
needs of children in school, he did not agree with the lack of planning by the radical
progressives (Ornstein, 1977). Dewey's view was more of a balance between the student
and the subject and he criticized educators who overlooked the importance of subject
matter.
Between these two extremes of curriculum organization, looking only at subjects
or looking only at students, many other plans have been tried which incorporate
principles from both camps (Oliver, 1977). By and large, most curricula are still
organized around subjects. However, curriculum integration, blurring the lines between
discrete disciplines, has come in and out of favor since Dewey's time and is, once again, a
hotly debated topic (Synder, 2001).
Oliva (1982) stated that there have been two major responses made over the years
designed to reduce the separateness of disciplines. One is the correlation of subject
86
matter and the other is integration. Oliver (1977) called integrated curriculum "fused" (or
broad fields), added core curriculum and placed them all on a continuum.
Subject
Correlated
Integrated (Fused)
Centered
Core
Student
Centered
Correlation is relating subjects to each other while maintaining their separateness
(Oliver, 1977). Relationships between subjects on a particular level are taught, e.g., as in
history and literature; math and science; history, music, and art; or art, music, and
literature. This type of correlation is horizontal on one grade level. Correlation of
subjects takes a lot of planning. This can be done by individual teachers but maybe better
done by "subject" committees that can explore the contribution that each subject can
make to other teaching fields. Correlating subjects needs to take into account the content,
the activities, and the timing of the activities. For example, the English teacher could
cover the unit on the Romantic poets at the same time the history teacher is covering the
social impact of the Industrial Revolution in England. In some schools, there is a doubleperiod plan in which one teacher covers two subjects, e.g., first English and then social
studies. Hopefully, the artificial division between the two subjects will fade over time as
the teacher starts teaching an English-social studies class.
Correlation can also be done in a vertical manner across two or more subjects.
For instance, ancient history taught in the sophomore year of high school can be
correlated with Latin taught in the junior year. In this manner, Latin could be enriched by
the progression. Regardless what form it takes, correlation demands much cooperative
planning among departments. Interdepartmental feelings of jealousy and superiority can
obstruct the efforts of curriculum planners. Teachers should note that correlation allows
each specialist to keep his or her specialty. Correlation moves toward integration when
the subjects start to lose their identities.
Integration is concerned with ways to bring into a broad organization those
subject matter elements which have certain relationships (Oliver, 1977). The task is to
develop ways of helping students create a unity of knowledge. This has already been
done consistently in some areas, such as in general subjects. For example, general math
87
integrates elements from arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. In the
elementary schools, language arts pulls together reading, writing, spelling, speaking, and
grammar. Most of this integration is within fields: fusing two different fields is less
common but possible.
Instead of trying to blend subjects to gain unity, the approach becomes one of
trying to find some unifying ideas, principles, or generalizations. In the knowledge of
human culture, there can be found central ideas that showcase several disciplines. For
instance, this occurs with the cultural epoch approach. English, science, math, social
studies, music, and art are all used to illustrate a cultural epoch such as the Renaissance.
Another way to fuse could be through problem solving. Rather than taking a cultural
epoch as the central theme, real-life problems in a democratic society are used as the
basis for content, thought, and activity. An example of problem solving is having
students answer the question, "Should we and how could we provide universal health
care for citizens?" This would delve into the disciplines of history, religion, psychology,
government, math, and economics. Problem solving focuses on current issues as
compared to the cultural epoch approach which emphasizes past problems and
achievements.
Taba (1962) also defined integration as "something that happens in an individual"
whether or not the curriculum content is organized that way. Doll (1982) concurred,
“Integration, which must actually be achieved by the child, consists of relating
experiences to each other in such a way as to create wholeness out of the collection of
little pieces that constitute the usual experiences in schools” (p. 139). Beane (1992) also
agreed by stating that the integration “is done by the person him or herself; it is not done
for that person by others” (p. 49). The person begins integrating knowledge with
meanings that are already established and builds extensions onto those meanings. The
emphasis is then shifted from integrating subjects to locating integrative threads (Taba,
1962). Integrative threads help learners to relate learning experiences that would
otherwise appear unrelated; they are used as a basis for comparing and contrasting
experiences. Learning is integrated by stressing the broad concepts which the various
subjects share in common and by helping students develop a consistent framework for
understanding these concepts.
88
The “core” approach to organizing curriculum relies more on structuring. "The
plan is to develop unified studies based upon the common needs of the learners and
organized without restriction by subject matter" (Oliver, 1977, p. 246). This plan of
organization was moderately popular during the forties and fifties. Core programs were
developed to allow students to have a core of experience with one teacher during a period
of time that was longer than customary. As the student progresses through the system,
from elementary to higher education, the general education decreases and the specialized
education increases. At the secondary level, the core system allows for a fifty-fifty
balance with the school day being split in half. The first half is core with unified studies
based on the common problems of the learners. This is called general education or
common learnings. The second half of the day is spent on specialized knowledge,
experiences selected in terms of individual needs and interests. Using math as an
example, students working together on common problems in the morning (functional
math such as budgeting, figuring taxes, reading graphs in a magazine, halving a recipe)
spend the afternoon addressing their individual math needs (calculus for the boy who
wants to be an engineer). For many people, however, core means an administrative
method of scheduling with little attention paid to the concepts underpinning core.
According to Ellis, Cogan and Howey (1981), there are five patterns of
curriculum organization:
1. Separate subject: disciplines are addressed separately
2. Unified: themes which cut across related disciplines, such as social studies
3. Correlated: concepts (e.g., conflict) which cut across subject lines
4. Core: problems which cut across all disciplines, such as pornography
5. Child centered: integrated curricula which stress application
Ornstein (1977) agreed that correlation was integrating two or more subjects
without destroying their subject boundaries but said that correlation was just a
modification of subject-matter curriculum. His continuum looked like this:
Subject
Activity Centered
Centered
Student
Centered
89
Modifications of subject centered:
1. Correlation: The integration of subjects without destroying subject boundaries.
2. Fusion and broad fields: Fusion is the merger of related subjects into a new
course, such as, algebra and geometry into trigonometry. Broad fields is
bringing together several related fields, such as, general science.
3. Core: The integration of subjects by examining a problem, e.g., pornography.
Activity-centered curriculum grew out of Dewey's philosophy and was led by one
of his students, Kilpatrick (Ornstein, 1977). It was called, also, the project method and
emphasized purposeful activity by the learner. The activities should be based on real life;
ideas from this method were adopted by many elementary schools in the 1920s and 1930s
and gave birth to units, projects, field trips, and centers of interest. In general, the
activity curriculum organizes the classroom around a cluster of activities or problems
which deal with life outside the school, usually community-oriented. The student is
actively participating, involved in problem solving, and relating to the world outside of
the school.
As integrated curriculum gains in popularity, new names are associated with these
approaches to integration. As before, there is no general agreement on terms used to
describe integration. Drake (1993) and Jacobs (1989) state that infusion is the term for
integration of particular skills such as writing or reading across the curriculum. Topicswithin-disciplines is the name for integrating multiple strands of the same discipline such
as integrated language arts wherein literature, writing, and grammar are studied
concurrently. Interdisciplinary approaches maintain traditional subject boundaries while
aligning content and concepts across disciplines. Thematic instruction subordinates
disciplines to larger concepts which run as a theme through various subject areas.
Lake (1994) offered several names and definitions for integrated curriculum:
integrated, interdisciplinary, thematic, synergistic. Lake stated that some authors have
gone beyond a single definition and to a continuum of integration, citing Fogarty (1991),
in The Mindful School, as identifying ten levels of curriculum integration. All of the
definitions of integrated or interdisciplinary curriculum include: more than one subject
area, an emphasis on projects, other sources besides the textbook, relationships among
concepts, thematic units as organizing principles, and flexible schedules and student
90
groupings. In the thematic unit, instruction is organized around a theme instead of
around a subject and allows for meaningful integration across reading, writing, math,
history, science, and the arts (Shanahan, Robinson, & Schneider, 1995). A theme is used,
rather than a topic, to form the basis of integration. Themes deal with a point of view or
a perspective; students must take a position. This allows for exploration into the theme
and not just a broad survey of subject matter. Students are asked to think in greater
depth; they pursue ideas that support or challenge a particular point of view. This
exploration can lead to better connections among ideas and, therefore, greater and deeper
understanding. Beane (1992) agreed, “The most common attempt to move away from the
straight subject area approach involves identifying a central theme and asking what each
subject area can contribute to it” (p. 46).
Through these first decades at attempting to integrate subject matter and go
beyond discrete disciplines, no agreement has been reached on definitions of the terms
involved or where they should be placed on the curriculum organization continuum
(Czerniak, Weber & Sandmann, 1999). In fact, the term, integrated curriculum, is
becoming obfuscated. Because of this the lack of research regarding integrated
curriculum may be a conceptual issue regarding the framing of research questions:
At the most basic level, a common definition of integration does not exist that can
be used as a basis for designing, carrying out, and interpreting results of
research…This ambiguity is evident in the sheer number of words used to
describe integration: interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, transdisciplinary,
thematic, integrated, connected, nested, sequenced, shared, webbed, threaded,
immersed, networked, blended, unified, co-coordinated, and fused. (p. 2).
The next section describes the State of Florida's view on integrated curriculum or making
connections across the curriculum.
Florida Curriculum Framework
The Florida Curriculum Framework (1996) encourages making curricular
connections because it makes learning more meaningful for students. Four models are
outlined. The first model of integration is infusion—a teacher integrates another subject
matter into his or her instruction. For example, infusion takes place when the music
teacher explains quarter notes with the fractions students are learning in math. Second,
91
parallel instruction is when teachers from different subjects align their curricula to focus
on the same theme or topic. Each discipline is taught separately but teachers plan the unit
together to address a common theme, concept, or problem. The third model,
multidisciplinary instruction, is akin to parallel instruction but with the addition of a
common project or assignment that links the various disciplines. Teachers would do
prior planning to identify how the concept, theme, or problem would be addressed in each
subject area—construction of it, division of duties among teachers, and division of labor
among students. In the fourth model, transdisciplinary instruction, two or more subject
areas address a common concept, theme, or problem, but, this time, the subject areas are
presented in an integrated fashion. Classes meet together, teachers plan together and
team teach. Usually, a major project is the focus of transdisciplinary instruction.
These four models are based on the degree of integration that occurs. The intent,
in my view, was to encourage the teacher to make connections across the curricula. It
could be a beginning effort, such as infusion, or a more extended one, such as in
transdisciplinary integration. However, there was no consideration given to the length of
time dedicated to the integration effort. For instance, would integration be just for one
topic or project? Or would it be ongoing throughout the school year?
Art Education and Integrated Curriculum
Art educators are hotly debating integrated curriculum and are split on the
question of whether or not integrating the arts with other school subjects enhances
learning (Parsons, 2000). The claim that it does is based largely on anecdotal evidence.
Even studies that show learning enhancement do not answer the question of how arts
education influences student achievement. Because of the diverse content in the arts and
ways of teaching, there is no way to tell at this point what is enhancing learning (if it is)
and what is not. What is needed is an examination of particular kinds of art activities and
their impacts as well as explanations for their promoting positive student gains in
learning. Further, Parsons stated that even if it can be shown that art enhances learning it
does not follow automatically that art education should be used in this manner. It would
depend on what art educators think the purpose of art education should be.
Luftig (2000) agreed that there is no agreement among art educators about the
desired outcomes for students in art education and what constitutes a viable arts
92
curriculum. In the literature, there is a lack of studies that assess the positive affects of an
arts curriculum. He maintained that these questions remain unanswered while school
systems are finding the arts to be increasingly less important and allocating less of their
budgets toward these subjects.
Rettig & Rettig (1999) disagreed about the research not supporting arts in the
curriculum. They stated, “There is a plethora of research that supports the arts in school
curriculum” (p. 24). Their assertion is based on brain research that shows learning in an
emotional context, engaging as many senses as possible, looking for patterns, and
socially interacting all contribute to remembering content. Art education helps to create
the right conditions for optimal student learning.
Schiller (1995) agreed that art helps to create a rich interactive environment for
learning in the Reggio Emilia early childhood centers in Italy. Art is effective and
essential for early childhood education and is a central component of the Reggio Emilia
preschool curriculum. It is “an integral part of all activities” (p. 45). Art is used as a
graphic language by which students embed concepts more thoroughly and represent their
learning. The curriculum stresses using a variety of art resources including media for
creating art, books about artists, and fine art prints for looking at and talking about art.
Art is not taught as a separate discipline.
Clark (1985) spoke to the debate over whether art should be taught as a discipline
or whether it should be used to enhance learning in other subject matter. Because art
activities are inherently exciting, art can be used to stimulate general learning. However,
some use this as a reason to replace an art program within a school setting. He concluded
that art is important both as a unique subject worthy of study and as a way to enrich other
subject matter and both have a legitimate place in the school curriculum. Clark (1985)
stated, “Integration of art with other subject matters has a long history…Reading, writing
and other subject matters can all be made more exciting when art is used to enrich
education” (p. 5).
Freyberger (1985) concurred with the long history of integration; correlation of
art with other subject matter began as early as the 1920s. The most popular subjects for
integration were history and geography. Integration intensified when the subject centered
93
curriculum moved toward more child centeredness in the late 1930s and 1940s with
progressive educators.
When this occurred, subject matter of children’s artwork moved from adult
conceived interest areas to those arising immediately from the child’s
involvement with activities and interests in his or her home and school
environment. Art no longer functioned as a unique subject matter but became
integrated with all phases of living. (p. 7)
Lowenfeld & Brittain (1987) stated that correlation was used to combat the
specialization of subject matter and that it may or may not be successful. If successful, it
is only superficial and, further, art may be viewed as a bad experience by the learner
because it is associated with another subject that is not as attractive. Instead, integration
had to occur within the individual who was “influenced by emotional responses and
perceptual sensory experiences” (p. 172).
For example, history is often taught only in terms of dates and events. The
Pilgrims landed in 1620. Plymouth Rock is somehow important in the event, and
a ship called the Mayflower was there, too. A request for children to draw this
event is a meaningless activity. On the other hand, if children can empathize with
the experience itself and focus upon this involvement, the activity may be a
meaningful one.
The children must feel the air and the waves, and even taste the salt on
their lips. The experience must be their experience…Meaningful integration
occurs in the youngster through such a motivation, which creates an atmosphere
that is conducive to self-identification and self-involvement. The art experiences
that the youngster has had can provide the means of accomplishing this. To some
extent, then, art can be the core of the learning environment within the school.
Integrated learning does not happen by merely shuffling subject matter around—
such integration can take place only within a child. (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1987,
pp. 172-174)
Further, Lowenfeld and Brittain (1987) stated that art should not be separated into its
various disciplines but should be studied together.
94
Integration was a factor in the 1950s progressive school programs until art
educators became concerned that art was losing its identity (Freyberger, 1985). “One
often heard the refrain, art is a hand-maiden to the areas in which it was functioning”
(p. 9). At this stage, art educators fought for reestablishing separate art programs and
integration was not heard of again until the 1980s.
There are many visions of the aims of art education today as outlined by Eisner
(2002) in his book, The Arts and the Creation of Mind. How do these current visions of
art education align with the resurgence of interest in integrated curriculum? More
specifically, do these visions include using art to enhance learning in other subject
matter? The following visions have significance for integrating art with other subject
matter to enhance learning.
1. The first vision is discipline-based art education, known as DBAE (Eisner, 2002).
This was discussed in Chapter 1 of this study and deals primarily with the visual arts and
studying them in their separate disciplines—studio art, art history, art criticism, and
aesthetics.
Possible significance for integration. DBAE is art for all students whether gifted
in art or not and integration could occur through all and any of the four separate
disciplines. Making art or talking about art or viewing art could all be equal
avenues for integration with other subject matter.
2. The second vision concerns “using the arts to promote an understanding of visual
culture” (Eisner, 2002, p. 28). The visual culture refers to all of the images in our society
including text, print, and electronic which permeate our lives and influence our decisions.
Possible significance for integration. Art enables students to “read” visual
images and understand what they are viewing. Integration could aid visual
literacy—such as reading charts, graphs, and political cartoons—in all academic
disciplines as well as popular culture. Visual literacy creates a more discerning
citizen and consumer.
3. The third vision refers to creative problem solving (Eisner, 2002). In creative problem
solving, students use the materials given in an academic problem to design a solution.
Possible significance for integration. When given new information in a subject
area, students first receive it and, next, manipulate it mentally. They could then,
95
through art, make visual their thoughts concerning it by designing a graphic
organizer. The graphic organizer could display through symbols the student’s
understanding of the new information and its relationships.
4. A fourth vision involves preparing students for the world of work by developing
initiative, creativity, and self-expression (Eisner, 2002).
Possible significance for integration. Through integration students could become
creative, expressive, and show initiative in all subject areas. Art is intrinsically
exciting to many students and captures their imaginations and willingness to
participate. It allows for the creative expression inherent in all human beings.
Individual student responses could promote the discussion and appreciation of
diverse outcomes.
5. A fifth vision regards cognitive development and how the arts promote complex
thought patterns (Eisner, 2002).
Possible significance for integration. Art could help to develop complex and
subtle forms of thinking in all subject areas. Students could use drawing to
organize their thoughts and reflect upon them. Drawings could be used as well to
express and assist in explaining answers to questions.
6. A sixth vision promotes integrating art with other arts and with other subject matter
(Eisner, 2002). Typically it is used in one of four ways: (a) to help explain a particular
historical period, (b) to examine the similarities and differences among the arts, (c) to
build a curriculum around a theme, (d) to challenge students to solve a real life problem
through several disciplines.
Possible significance for integration. Art could become the center of a school’s
curriculum. In this manner, it could be taught on its own merits in DBAE art
classes as well as used for support and enhancement for other subject matter.
School Improvement Research Series (SIRS)
Lake (1994), in her research paper on integrated curriculum, reviewed 53
documents which dealt with multiple aspects of integrated curriculum. The areas of
integration included: art, math, and reading; writing across the curriculum; history,
science, and math; history and literature; integrated humanities; health and reading; areas
of mathematics; social studies, health, and the arts; P.E., the arts, health, and literature;
96
and, science, social studies, health, and the arts. Her conclusions fell into three main
categories: the effectiveness of an integrated curriculum on content learning and attitude,
successful implementation of an integrated curriculum, and teacher experiences in
formulating thematic units. Findings show that there were no detrimental effects on
learning by students involved in an integrated curriculum.
One of the largest and most thoroughly researched integrated curriculum
programs is that of the Humanitas program in Los Angeles (Lake, 1994). This is a high
school humanities program taught in an interdisciplinary, thematic, team-based approach.
It was compared to 16 other schools with a more traditional approach. The factors of
comparison were: performance-based assessments; surveys of teachers, students, and
administrators; classroom observations; teacher and student interviews; analysis of
assignments and examinations; analysis of portfolios; records of student attendance;
records of discipline incidents; and records of college-oriented behavior and standardized
tests. The findings were: a statistically significant positive effect on writing and content
knowledge; large gains in conceptual understanding (the control groups made no gains in
conceptual understanding); and, students stayed in school longer, worked harder, and
liked school better.
Lake (1994) cited another study, by Willett (1992) of 87 fifth graders, on the
integration of math with art. The result was higher post test scores for integration
students as compared to those who were taught math concepts in isolation by the regular
classroom teacher. Findings related to the impact of an integrated curriculum on students
attitudes show: students developed team spirit, improved attitudes and work habits;
students were more motivated when dealing with "real" problems; teachers had fewer
behavior problems when students helped to design the curriculum; integrated curriculum
was associated with better student self-direction, higher attendance, higher levels of
homework completion, and better attitudes toward school; and, students were engaged in
their learning. Not only did students benefit but also teachers. Many teachers involved
in an integrated curriculum preferred to stay in such a program rather than return to a
traditional curriculum. The research results on integration had several common elements
but the outstanding one is that curriculum integration takes time; common planning time
97
is needed to select themes, explore resources, discuss student learning styles and needs,
and coordinate teaching and activities.
The research findings (Lake, 1994) supported the positive effects of curriculum
integration, namely, helping students apply skills, faster retrieval of information by
students, students holding multiple perspectives of knowledge, encouragement of depth
and breadth in learning, promotion of positive attitudes in students, and quality time for
curriculum exploration. The most effective themes were those that promote the linking
of concepts which leads to deeper understanding (a series of activities arbitrarily
connected does not make a theme and does not improve learning). In this way,
curriculum integration is a means and not an end result.
Research on Models Using Integrated Curriculum
This section reviews other current research on integrated education and the arts.
SPECTRA+ was a schoolwide, multi-disciplinary, integrated arts-in-education program
that contained five main components: arts instruction, arts integration, artists-inresidence, professional development, evaluation and advocacy (Luftig, 2000). Luftig
tested the hypothesis that the SPECTRA+ program would enhance the academic
achievement, creativity, self-concept, and appreciation of the arts in a diverse group of
elementary school children in southwest Ohio. Students who participated in the
SPECTRA+ program engaged in a variety of activities, including making art, observing
art and the creative process, critiquing art, studying art in historical and cultural contexts,
and learning about artistic materials. Also, the arts were integrated into other curricular
areas, such as, science, math, and reading. These subjects were presented through the
instructional processes and devices of the arts. The arts were defined as art, music,
dance, and drama, or theatre. There were 615 participants in second, fourth, and fifth
grades; students were pre and post tested. Five variables were measured using six
instruments: self-esteem (Culture-Free Self-Esteem Inventory), Locus of Control (BailerCromwell Locus of Control Scale), creative thinking (Torrance Tests of Creative
Thinking), appreciation of the arts (Appreciation of the Arts Scale), and academic
achievement (Iowa Test of Basic Skills and Stanford Achievement Tests).
The results were encouraging. In the area of self-esteem the results were mixed.
There were no differences on total or academic self-esteem; however, in the areas of
98
social and parental self-esteem, decided advantages were found in the direction of the
SPECTRA+ students. Interestingly, there were gender differences with the males
showing the greatest improvement socially and the females the second worst. The results
showed that second and fourth graders may have better parent/child interactions at home
because of SPECTRA+. Even though the researcher thought the children would feel that
they had increased control over their lives, the data analysis yielded nonsignificant
results. On creative thinking, the data strongly indicated that creative thinking was
facilitated by involvement in the arts. With regard to art appreciation, SPECTRA+
students scored higher than both of the control groups. On academic achievement,
generalization was limited because each school district used different standardized
academic tests. Results were mixed. The math achievement data, although weak,
generally favored the SPECTRA+ students.
The SPECTRA+ program represented an attempt by two school systems to
institute an integrated arts program into the elementary school curriculum. It represents a
formal evaluation of that program in an area where formal evaluation is rare. Despite the
problems of the research (the size of the study was staggering), the SPECTRA+ program
yielded promising results and warrants further use and evaluation in the schools.
Another example of art as an integral part of the school curriculum is at the
Reggio Emilia daycare centers in northern Italy near Milan (Schiller, 1995). Central to
the philosophy of Reggio Emilia is a belief that art is important as a symbolic language.
These schools employ a full-time visual arts specialist who guides children into different
types of media to complete their ideas or projects. Special studio space at the center is
designated just for this. The Reggio Emilia philosophy states that children's interactions
with each other and with adults are vital to learning; drawing and art are representative of
the child's learning and embedding of concepts; and art is a graphic language which takes
the place of writing. Art is not taught as a separate subject, or discipline, but is an
additional language available to the young children. The Reggio Emilia schools have
demonstrated that young children grasp "the concept of graphic symbolic representation
and can be expected to use it in a more sophisticated manner than is usually expected of
them in the United States” (p. 47).
99
Another curriculum based on the natural physiological and psychological
development of the child, the discovery method of learning, and the important role of the
arts is the Montessori technique (Linskie, 1977). Montessori, an Italian physician who
lived at the beginning of the twentieth century, believed that children have within them
the people they will become; that they are physical, mental, and spiritual beings with
absorbent minds and a great capacity for work and appetite for learning; and, that the
environment is of utmost importance. The curriculum had three distinct parts: motor
education, sensory education, and language development. The source of the content for
motor education was the physical environment. The physical needs of the children were
addressed through producing child-sized furniture for the classroom, large art prints
decorating the walls of the classroom, and outdoor areas so that the classroom could flow
outdoors. The source of the content for sensory education was carefully structured and
pre-selected materials. Montessori felt that sensory experience had to occur before any
abstract learning could take place. Language was seen as a natural development
stemming from rich motor and sensory experiences of children. All sensory education
and motor education was in preparation for reading, writing, and math skills. Children
who have been deprived of experiences have limited language skills and almost no
imagery or curiosity. Special curriculum materials were planned in advance to develop a
child's ability to see, to feel, and to discriminate among shapes, sounds, and textures.
"All this sensory education is a preparation for reading, writing, and computation"
(p. 177).
In contemporary Montessori schools, students work in a carefully prepared
environment that stimulates learning and discovery. Children work in an independent
manner and emphasis is on concrete learning—hands-on learning of concepts. The
curriculum at Montessori schools uses a whole child approach. In this child centered
environment, the holistic curriculum promotes the development of social skills, emotional
growth, physical coordination as well as cognitive preparation. It is believed that
children delight in the work itself rather than the end product.
Another example of private education in which the whole child is addressed and
art is central to the curriculum is the Waldorf school (Easton, 1997). The first Waldorf
school was established in New York City in 1928 based on the work of Steiner, an
100
Austrian philosopher (1861-1924). Steiner believed that as societies became more
technologically advanced that people needed to become more aware of their humanness.
The human being was defined as having three components: body, mind, and spirit. The
role of the arts was to develop the capacities to perceive both one's inner and outer world.
The Waldorf curriculum integrates artistic and academic work. "The aim of the
Waldorf model is to educate the child toward a holistic thinking that integrates
knowledge gained from thinking, feeling, and doing" (Easton, 1997, p .3). This is
accomplished by actively contemplating, practicing, or creating artistic work which
stimulates a person's sensations, feelings, and thoughts. In this approach, the unique
inner self is capable of evolving through three stages: the first stage is physical activity
when the child learns through imitation and play which stimulates physical growth,
language development, and curiosity; the second stage is visual, musical, and tactile
artistic activities that develop awareness of feelings and stimulate imagination; and, the
third stage is the unfolding of the capacity for abstract thinking and the emphasis on
understanding, relating, and integrating ideas and concepts. "To educate the thinking,
feeling, and willing capacities of the whole child, Steiner outlined a core curriculum in
which the visual, musical, and tactile arts are integrated in all subject areas from
preschool through high school" (Easton, 1997, p. 4).
It is a spiral curriculum in the way that each level builds on past experience and
lays a foundation for future learning. Content is revisited at a later time to deepen
understanding as new capacities unfold. In summary:
In addition to integrating artistic work in all subject areas and
involving students in a broad range of artistic activities, Waldorf
method advocates teaching as an art by creating an aesthetic
environment and presenting subject matter in an artistic way.
(Easton, 1997, p. 5)
The Waldorf school experience is Christian-based and theistically oriented which means
it would not be feasible in the public sector. However, a curriculum could be Waldorfinspired and be a viable public school curriculum.
One way that public secondary high school teachers could create meaningful,
integrated curriculum is evidenced by the Genetic Robots project at a junior/senior high
101
school in Cincinnati, Ohio (Schramm, 2000). Integrating subject matter at the high
school level is usually more difficult than at the elementary level because of the
constraints of subject centered, six-, seven- or block period school days. Further, visual
art is usually integrated with language arts, social studies, or humanities. "Visual art,
drama, music, and physical education are labeled as encore subjects and are deemed
subordinate and ancillary to core subjects such as science, mathematics, and language
arts" (Schramm, 2000, p. 40).
At Madeira Junior/Senior High School an integrated art and science curriculum
was achieved as high school art and biology students came together in the Genetic
Robotics project (Schramm, 2000). The goal of the project was to stimulate students to
become visually and scientifically literate but allow for individual differences in learning.
"The aim was to provide all students with access to experiences that enabled them to go
beyond memorizing isolated facts and to put issues in context" (Schramm, 2000, p. 41).
Students explored the chromosome theory of heredity, specifically, the rules that govern
the passage of genetic information within a family. They translated the DNA they
"inherited" into a humanoid three-dimensional "genetic robot" sculpture using found
objects and art supplies.
It was a ten-week project and culminated in student presentations and portfolios
along with display of the robots to the entire student body, faculty, and parents
(Schramm, 2000). During the course of the project, the teaching team encouraged
students to perform many roles—as artists, writers, historians, and scientists. Teachers
facilitated the integration of knowledge by helping students pull together their bits and
pieces into a whole display. Those involved considered the project a success and a way
for students to develop higher-order thinking skills. There were some logistical problems
and concerns by parents but "the encore and core teachers expressed that the intellectual
growth the students achieved, and the rewards of integrating the subjects, far outweighed
the obstacles to learning they encountered" (Schramm, 2000, p. 45). Some have
addressed concerns that the arts are shortchanged in integrated curriculum or just viewed
as a hand-maiden to core subjects. They fear that the goals of art will not be met and the
value of the arts diminished. The Genetic Robots team of teachers felt that it was
102
important to maintain a balance between visual art and biology so that neither curriculum
would be shortchanged. The full scope of the project is a follows:
The project revolved around the sculpture of 20th century video
artist, Nam June Paik, and 19th century biological geneticist,
Gregor Mendel. The theme was broad enough to encompass a
wide range of disciplines, issues, and materials, including
American cultural, political, and social history, art history,
aesthetics, criticism, 20th century technology, history of genetic
science, perceived boundaries between art and technology, and the
recent worldwide ethical debate that surrounds cloning. (Schramm,
2000, p. 45)
Another study that paired art with science used descriptive drawing to promote
understanding of science concepts (Edens & Potter, 2001). It was noted that verbal
language was the primary mode to promote science learning. However, “descriptive
pictorial representation should provide a supplemental way to learn about concepts and to
communicate scientific thinking” (Edens & Potter, 2001, p. 219). This study was
conducted at an elementary school in the southeastern United States with 184 fourth and
fifth grade students. Students were randomly divided into three groups: (1) the first
group was instructed to read a passage and write about what they learned, (2) the next
group was told to read a passage with its accompanying illustration and to copy the
illustration, (3) the last group was told to read a passage and draw their own picture or
illustration. The science text the students read was about the law of conservation of
energy and the information was explained using the dynamics of a roller coaster.
Findings from this study suggested that “pictorial representation provides a viable
way for students to learn scientific concepts” (Edens & Potter, 2001, p. 227). Drawing
led to enhanced performance on items that required higher level thinking skills, i.e.,
synthesizing concepts. Drawing allowed for elaboration and visual encoding of science
information and was not influenced by the level of art ability of the student. The drawing
students significantly outperformed the writing students and marginally outperformed the
copying students on items measuring conceptual understanding. The authors
103
recommended drawing as an instructional mode because it can contribute directly to
learning, especially when it explains processes or working systems.
In summary, this section on integrated curriculum tells us that there have been
several movements to try to integrate curriculum and move it away from being totally
subject centered, beginning with the activity curriculum associated with Dewey. Later
attempts at integration have been called by various names, such as, correlated, fused,
broad fields, integrated, core, and unified. During the last decade, the attempts at
integration and defining it have produced even more terms, such as infusion, parallel,
interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, transdisciplinary, thematic, topics-within-disciplines,
and synergistic. The SIRS research article cited Fogarty (1991) as developing a
continuum of integration with ten levels of curriculum integration. All of the definitions
have some common themes, such as, using more than one subject area, emphasizing
projects or activities that utilize more than textbooks, and looking for connections
between subject matter. The point of integration is to give the learner an experience that
will be meaningful and remembered, to create an understanding of concepts and
connections between concepts in the learner, to accommodate the way the brain actually
works during the learning process, and to make the explosion of knowledge we are
experiencing more manageable and relevant.
The point of art integration, either within the disciplines of art itself or with
another subject, is that it lends itself very well and easily to integration. Burton,
Horowitz & Abeles (2000) compiled a list from the literature of arts learning impacts on
other subject matter:
…enhance creativity, imagination, and ability to think critically…ability to
centralize energy, focus perception, engage in reflection…show flexibility by
changing directions, explore new possibilities, and elaborate on ideas…integrate
divergent points of view, layer relationships, and construct unified wholes
or…increase student performance in writing, reading and reading comprehension
in elementary age children…improve conceptual understanding in social studies
and history…improve cognitive capacities in general among elementary and
junior high school students, particularly in their abilities to think speculatively,
analytically, critically, and representationally. (p. 229)
104
Polar Versus Holistic (Integrated) Curricula
An extensive review of the literature shows that, as Dewey stated (1938), human
beings like to describe knowledge and knowing in either-or choices:
Mankind [sic] likes to think in terms of extreme opposites. It is given to
formulating its beliefs in terms of Either-Ors…The history of educational
philosophy is marked by opposition between the idea that education is
development from within and that it is formation from without…(p. 17)
This is rooted in antiquity as seen in the philosophical debates of metaphysics and
epistemology. The crux of the argument was and is the nature of knowledge: external to
the learner or internal to be discovered. This debate has continued in various forms down
to the 20th century to the beginnings of psychology and learning theories. It continues
today through the behaviorist and constructivist arguments. It is reflected in the
organization of curriculum as being either subject centered or student centered. The art
curriculum, too, has its own brand of either-or: either DBAE or creative growth for the
learner.
However, there is a third choice. Between this dichotomy of thinking are those
who have tried to find a middle ground between two opposing camps. Pragmatists have
not wanted to be concerned with the question of ultimate reality and have focused on
making a difference now. Biologists study brain research to try to unlock the physical
secrets of learning so that the speculation will end. Activity curricula gives students
meaningful experiences from which to grow and art students are both taught skills and
assigned open-ended projects.
Between the extremes of either-or, a continuum can be perceived and accounted
for as shown in the model below (J. Doster, 2001). This model is about the nature of
knowledge and the knowing process. Knowledge is viewed as either external to the
knower, an internal construction of the learner, or a combination of the two. The model
includes the following fields that are relevant to this question: philosophy (metaphysics
and epistemology), psychology (learning theory), and curriculum organization (general
and art, in particular). This chart summarizes the information discovered from the review
of literature and shows its interrelationships.
105
The realist, empiricist, behaviorist, subject centered curriculum, and DBAE
curriculum are of the same general nature. The same is true for the other end of the
continuums: idealist, rationalist, constructivist, student centered curriculum, and creative
play model of art. The middle column represents various attempts to work with both
ends of the continuums.
Between the extremes of either-or, a continuum can be perceived and accounted
for as shown. There certainly are positions at either end of the spectrum but there are
also positions that can be taken in the middle. These moderate, inclusive positions are
conducive to integrated curriculum.
KNOWLEDGE
External
External/Internal
Internal
Metaphysics:
Realism
Unknowable
Idealism
Epistemology:
Empiricism
Pragmatism
Rationalism
Learning Theory:
Behaviorism
Biology
Constructivism
Curriculum:
Subject
Activity
Student
Art Curriculum:
DBAE
Combination
Creativity
The literature supports that a shift should occur away from looking at learning as
choices of the left or right toward viewing learning as a holistic process. The answer to
the puzzle of learning lies on neither side of the continuum. Rather, it is found in a
synthesis of the elements on the continuum incorporating each element at its most
advantageous time for the learner. The Expert Learning System (H. Doster, 1991)
described earlier exemplifies this. For instance, when the learner is at Level I and
receiving information on a new topic, the knowledge is being transferred; it is subject
centered and factual, and may require drill and recitation to store it into long-term
106
memory. This is behaviorist type of conditioning. When the learner is at Level II and
manipulating information, the learner must visualize and examine the new information
relative to his or her present cognitions and personalize it. At this point, the learner
moves away from strict subjects and toward making connections between subjects. The
learner is trying to integrate curriculum. When the learner is at Level III and applying
information, the new knowledge is converted into useful skills and attitudes through
hands-on experiences. This is the activity curriculum of Dewey which dovetails with the
biological functioning of the brain in a multi-modal way. When the learner is at Level
IV, the curriculum is student centered as the learner experiences the application of the
new knowledge in a way selected by the learner. At this point, knowledge is wholly
constructed by the learner. Integrated curriculum and art, in particular, can facilitate the
learning process at Levels II, III, and IV. In terms of art education, the student, after
acquiring basic skills in art, can successfully complete open-ended projects.
A Definition of Integrated Curriculum
The literature shows that art integrated with other subject matter can increase
learning but there are varying definitions of what this means. Further, the term integrated
curriculum is often used interchangeably with the terms interdisciplinary curriculum and
correlation of subjects. After reviewing the literature, the following definition will be
used for integrated curriculum. Integrated curriculum occurs when one or more subjects
are combined and this combination achieves a broader understanding than could be
attained through either of the individual subject disciplines alone (J. Doster, 2001).
Integrate means to form, coordinate, or blend into a functioning or unified whole; to unite
with something else; to incorporate into a larger unit (Merriam-Webster, 1993). The
prefix "inter" means, between, among, in the midst (Merriam-Webster, 1993).
Interdisciplinary curriculum occurs when the flow of subject matter expands into other
areas and content is extracted from more than one area. It goes beyond correlation which
means the state in which a phenomenon is parallel and related to another phenomenon
(Merriam-Webster, 1993), coordinating and linking subject matter with specific amounts
of time allotted to each subject. This idea of correlation is an attempt to start to integrate
or "infuse" one subject with another, hence the term infusion. Taking all of this into
107
consideration, I think integration is the most appropriate term to use for describing the
holistic combining of two or more subject areas.
The integration can occur at different levels or intensities (J. Doster, 2001). The
three levels are:
1. Thematic Integration—when a theme, topic, or problem cuts across many disciplines,
2. Integration Within a Discipline—when related sub-disciplines are used to address a
single subject, such as using art history and studio production together in the
understanding of an art topic, and
3. Integration Between Disciplines—when two disciplines are taught together (a) with
each given equal weight and importance or (b) one acting as a vehicle for another.
Art and Integration
With the above definition, art as integrated curriculum seems to appear most often
in the thematic approach. This approach is the least intense of the approaches and the
easiest to accommodate, and, perhaps, the most comprehensive and effective in teaching
life skills. At this level, a common theme is addressed by two or more teachers of
different subject areas. Each subject area brings to the thematic approach its own unique
way of knowing the world. This approach works well when the theme involves many
subject areas or even a schoolwide project. Art, as we have seen in the Gestalt approach,
is a cultural universal in all societies. Because of this, art is easily integrated into any
theme that involves human society.
The second level of integration, within a discipline, lends itself easily to the study
of the disciplines of art—art criticism, art history, aesthetics, and studio art. Studio art
provides the hands-on activity to further understanding of art criticism and art history as
well as to provide a holistic view of the unit under study. The effect of the integration
can be heightened by employing a theme as the emphasis of the unit.
The third level of integration is the most intense and requires a lot of planning on
the part of the teachers involved. When combining disciplines, teachers have to realize
the connections between subject matter before they can guide the student in that
direction. An appropriate amount of time for planning is absolutely necessary for this
approach to work. The Genetic Robotics project (Schramm, 2000) described earlier
employed the third level of integration in the "a" mode by teaching biology combined
108
with art. A topic was used (genetics) to focus the unit; a theme, also, could be employed
effectively. This approach is similar to thematic integration but the difference lies in the
extent to which the two subjects are integrated; the third level is more intense and often
of longer duration. The Reggio Emilia school used the third level of integration in the
"b" mode by employing art as a language (graphic symbolic representation).
I have now concluded the literature review. The review encompassed the
biological, psychological, and philosophical foundations for integrated curriculum; a
historical overview of integrated curriculum; models using integrated curriculum; a
holistic model of learning that integrates philosophies, theories, and curricula; and a
definition of integrated curriculum. The next chapter, Chapter 3, describes the
methodology used for this study.
109
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH DESIGN
This study examined how a variation of integrated curriculum, called the CoStudy Curriculum, used art in the delivery of American history subject matter. The
research questions that guided this study are:
Research Question #1: Will the Co-Study Curriculum process enhance students’
perceptions of their understanding of American history?
Research Question #2: Does the Co-Study Curriculum process of integrating art and
American history have an effect on students’ attitudes toward art?
Integrated curriculum has become a highly debated topic over the last several
years. Personally, I have been encouraged to integrate curriculum during teacher
inservice programs for the secondary school level. The reasons for this renewed interest
in integrated curriculum are many including ongoing school reform initiatives, the
changing nature of society, and the powerful impact of computer technology. There is a
growing specialization in many disciplines just when the need for holistic thinking is
greatest. The increased information load, the need for highly skilled people in the
workplace, and the increasing complexity of the world demand that new curriculum
designs be implemented. Because of the sophisticated tools used in brain research and
the ever increasing information available we will be propelled toward integrated
curriculum, either willingly or unwillingly.
The literature review shows that the role of art can be central in integrated
curriculum. Art is basic to life because it is a fundamental process of the brain as well as
a way humans express themselves emotionally and spiritually. Art plays a unique role in
the learning process as a symbolic language, as a way to perceive relationships and
patterns, as a method of problem solving, as a way to develop imagination and creativity,
as an ability to see the world from an aesthetic point of view, and as a vehicle for
110
expressing the inner self. Two art activities mentioned in the literature that aid in
learning are drawing and viewing art images.
My Own Experience with Art and Integration
In my teaching experiences at Rutherford High School in Panama City, Florida, I
have used integrated curriculum in all three levels. They are as follows:
1. Thematic Integration
The American History and Art Co-Study class sponsored Living History Days for
four consecutive years, 1999-2003, at a local state park, St. Andrews State Park. Part of
the mission statement of the Florida Park Service is to interpret the cultural resource and
the park did this for RHS by setting up historical reenactments which lasted over a twoday period. Approximately forty Rutherford students trained to participate as docents
alongside park personnel who are professional reenactors. The types of activities at this
event included crafts such as candle making, preparing food and household commodities
(cooking pork rinds, mullet smoking, butter and ice cream churning, open campfire
cooking, lye soap making), Native American pottery making and dancing, and Civil War
military and medical knowledge (including cannon and black powder demonstrations).
The audience for these activities was other Rutherford students, consisting of 300
eleventh grade American history students (150 per day), who came to the park for the day
to enjoy this interactive event. Before Living History Days occurred, teachers from
different subject areas—American history, English literature, health occupations, ROTC,
art, and science—who taught juniors in American history aligned their curricula around
the Colonial to Civil War time period. This is a good example of several subject areas
and one grade level focusing on a common theme. Art students studied Native American
designs, engaged in clay building, and made posters for the event.
2. Integration Within a Discipline
In my Art in Other Cultures classes, I combined studio art, art history, and art
criticism to achieve integration within a discipline. At the beginning of the school year, I
asked the students in the class what they wanted to study. They chose from a time period
in history, an art movement, or a cultural group. Popular selections over the years were
111
the ancient world (Egypt, Greece, and Rome), medieval Europe, Asia, and Africa. Most
units began from an art historical viewpoint, placing the art in a chronological and social
context. Next, the students usually viewed slides to participate in art criticism, either
orally or written. These activities laid the groundwork for one or more studio projects.
At the end of the projects, we shared the finished pieces and talked about them. In this
manner, the disciplines of art were integrated and projects were made more meaningful to
the students than art for art's sake.
3. Integration Between Disciplines
American History and Art Co-Study and World History and Art Co-Study are
both examples of the third level of integration. Two teachers, Jean Warren (Social
Studies Department) and myself (Art Department) worked together to provide the
integrated courses. However, co-study was not team teaching where two teachers
presented the same subject matter. Co-Study was not traditional teaching where one
teacher presented one subject. Co-study was not correlated where smatterings or more
from two different subjects were linked by similarities. Co-Study was a process that was
shown to create a higher level of retention within students by more effectively bringing
together two bodies of knowledge (Doster & Warren, 1999). In this case, it was the
combination of art and history.
The Co-Study Curriculum students (a quasi-experimental group) made better
mental connections between their thoughts and abstract concepts by using the Co-Study
Curriculum (Doster & Warren, 1999). How? Students created visual images of concepts.
These art projects stimulated their creative imaginations enough to increase learning over
that of a control group (a regular history class). The Co-Study Curriculum process used
the natural visual imagery of the brain to clarify thinking. When students drew a map it
improved retention; drawing stimulated the recall of names and relative locations. For
example, co-study students drew a pre-WWI map and, consequently, on a map test
increased their retention by two letter grades over that of the control group's average map
test grade (Doster & Warren, 1999).
In the Co-Study Curriculum classes between 1998 and 2003, art was used as a
process to effectively bring together two bodies of knowledge by such projects as
creating visual images of vocabulary words and concepts, using contour drawing to
112
render geographical maps, generating political cartoons, participating in art criticism,
viewing art history slides, illustrating historical events, photographing architectural
elements, and creating posters. In this manner, many students were able to make better
mental connections between their thoughts and history subject matter.
The discipline of art was not threatened in the Co-Study Curriculum process.
Instead, the role of art in the school curriculum was broadened. Some students who had
never taken an art class signed up for co-study. They learned to enjoy expressing
themselves and developing concepts in visible form. They often, at year's end, declared
their intentions to take an art class the following year having gained confidence from the
co-study course.
This longitudinal pilot study shows empirical evidence that art enhanced learning
outcomes. A narrative of this pilot study of integration between disciplines is the subject
of Chapter 4. Because of the enhanced learning outcomes obtained, more research needs
to be done on the effectiveness of this model of art education and integrated curriculum.
Overview of the Design of this Study
This study examined how a variation of integrated curriculum, called the CoStudy Curriculum, used art in the delivery of American history subject matter. The
study’s research questions are:
Research Question #1: Will the Co-Study Curriculum process enhance students’
perceptions of their understanding of American history?
Research Question #2: Does the Co-Study Curriculum process of integrating art and
American history have an effect on students’ attitudes toward art?
This study focused specifically on the perceptions of the students involved in the
process. Some of the previous research in the pilot study focused on comparing an
experimental group against a control group; this was no longer feasible at RHS for this
study because of my inability to obtain a reliable control group. Instead, I obtained
descriptive data from looking at the thoughts, feelings, and perceptions of the students
going through this classroom experience of integrated subject matter. This qualitative
113
study is thought to expand and enhance the previous quantitative data and qualitative
findings of the pilot study.
This study addressed whether components of the Co-Study Curriculum process
(art skills and exercises, history related studio projects, art criticism, and art history)
created positive perceptions of enhanced learning by students taking American History at
Rutherford High School during the first semester of the 2003-04 school year. Further, I
wanted to know whether using art in this interdisciplinary manner to enhance learning in
another subject would enhance or diminish the art learning and/or appreciation for art in
the students’ eyes.
Rationale for the Research Methodology
The methodology of the current study is both quantitative and qualitative in
perspective. The quantitative component is of the descriptive type which examines a
situation as it is and identifies characteristics of the observed phenomena and yields
quantitative data such as percentages and frequency counts from which inferences are
drawn regarding the population studied (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). The qualitative aspect
of the study seeks to describe and explain the phenomenon of the Co-Study Curriculum
from the participants’ point of view. Qualitative research occurs within a natural context
making it true to life and its findings are presented often in a narrative format.
Unlike the quantitative, experimental approach which seeks to explain, predict,
and generalize findings to broader populations, the qualitative approach tries to grasp
more fully complex situations by exploring them in a holistic manner, interacting with the
participants, and building a theory explaining the phenomenon under study (Leedy &
Ormrod, 2001). Eisner (1998) in The Enlightened Eye, characterized qualitative research
as interpretive, relying on the researcher’s perceptions, expressive with a point of view,
and empathetic. In this manner, the research gives an accurate picture of what the
phenomenon was like, in its totality, in the eye and mind of the researcher who paints a
reasoned, persuasive picture. Eisner (2002) explored this further in The Arts and the
Creation of Mind (2002) and stated, “It seems likely that qualitative studies of practice
are an appropriate methodological orientation to the study of teaching” (p. 217).
114
Action Research
The particular type of qualitative research here is classroom action research.
“Classroom action research typically involves the use of qualitative, interpretive modes
of inquiry and data collection by teachers with a view to teachers making judgments
about how to improve their own practices” (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000, p. 569). This
classroom action research will give teachers a view of the use of the Co-Study
Curriculum process in the classroom.
Classroom action research focuses on finding a solution to a problem within the
classroom setting. This is an important strategy because, according to Sagor (1992),
school reform should be dealing with supporting and nurturing teachers in their work.
Further, he stated that teaching is different from other professions because teachers,
generally, are isolated from their colleagues and are not expected to contribute to their
profession’s knowledge base. Also, quality control of the educational process is in the
hands of those organizationally separated from the teacher.
The teacher is alone in the classroom with little time for professional interaction
to discuss ongoing problems or innovative strategies (Sagor, 1992). Further, public
school teachers are not expected to lend their knowledge and experience in the classroom
to journal publications. Instead, journals disseminate information to the teachers from
professors, administrators, and consultants on how to teach.
The topics, problems, or issues pursued are significant, but not necessarily helpful
to teachers on the front line. The context of the interventions reported or
discussed in the education journals compromising our knowledge base may or
may not conform to the realities of the public school classroom. In education, the
worlds of research and practice are both separate and unequal, for the teacher who
ignores research is likely seen as anti-intellectual or unprofessional, whereas the
researcher who ignores the classroom bears no such label. (Sagor, 1992, pp. 3-4)
Teachers are told often to implement strategies from research in their classrooms without
having input into the development of those strategies. Likewise, the standards for quality
are set by those who are outside of the classroom and are data driven. School boards and
state legislatures analyze data and set the agenda for school improvement with little or no
input from the classroom teacher.
115
Action research is a way to overcome the factors mentioned above, specifically
teacher isolation, teachers not being expected to contribute to their profession’s
knowledge base, and control of the educational process in the hands of those above and
apart from teachers (Sagor, 1992). As long as teachers remain isolated, the knowledge
base is formed outside the public school classroom, and quality control is apart from the
teachers and handed down from above, the teaching profession will be viewed as an
assembly line process. Action research can move teachers to the center of the process
and allow them to improve it. Sagor defined action research as research “conducted by
people who want to do something to improve their own situation” (p. 7). The
information learned is used to do something in a better way. Primarily, it is for the action
researcher to improve his or her own practices and, secondly, to share with others.
According to Kemmis & McTaggart (2000), the key participants in classroom
action research are teachers in school settings with prominence given to teachers’
knowledge. A criticism of this type of research is that it gives privileged status to
teachers’ knowledge instead of views from outside the classroom, specifically the
literature on educational change and the ideas of the community at large.
Researcher’s Qualifications and Role
I am certified by the State of Florida in both Art (K-12) and Social Studies (6-12).
For the past eight years, I have taught at Rutherford High School. My present duties
include teaching courses within both the Art and Social Studies Departments. Over the
past five years I have created, developed, used, and tested an innovative form of
integrated curriculum called the Co-Study Curriculum in most of my classes at RHS.
These earlier efforts are outlined in the pilot study in Chapter 4. During these years I
have involved other teachers in using the Co-Study Curriculum process. They have
either taught with me, taught with each other, or taught alone. Jean Warren, a veteran
teacher in the Social Studies Department, has collaborated with me the most during the
development of the Co-Study Curriculum process. Her present role is that of one of the
teachers of the two populations under study.
116
Research Context
The research occurred at Rutherford High School in Panama City, Florida, which
is one of four high schools in Bay District Schools. It is the second oldest high school,
established in 1961, and the most culturally diverse and economically disadvantaged Bay
County high school with 1,750 students of which 37% are minority. It is located two
miles east of the old downtown area of Panama City and its neighboring rival, Bay High
School, the oldest high school in the county.
Rutherford High School, as well as all Bay District Schools, is accredited by the
Florida Department of Education and the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools.
Bay District Schools has an enrollment of over 25,000 students: 80% Caucasian, 15%
African-American, 1.5% Hispanic, 2% Asian-American, 1% multi-racial, and less than
.5% Native American. All classroom teachers have bachelor degrees and over one-third
have advanced degrees.
Rutherford High School is part of Bay County which is located on the Gulf of
Mexico in the panhandle region of northwest Florida and has a population of over
150,000. Of the eight municipalities that comprise Bay County, RHS draws mainly from
Callaway, Cedar Grove, Parker, and Tyndall Air Force Base. School choice, however,
has had the effect of blurring school zoning. The International Baccalaureate program, in
particular, draws many students from all over the Bay District school region to RHS.
This study was comprised of two regular American History classes at RHS.
Students generally take American History, a required course for graduation, during their
eleventh grade year. It is a year-long course and the art intervention activities occurred
during the first semester, August through December, 2003. Both of these classes met
during fifth period of the day in separate classrooms. Jean Warren taught one of the
classes and I taught the other. We planned together and used the same textbook and
supplemental materials; both classes completed the same assignments and the same art
activities. Our classes were taught separately 90% of the time; we brought our classes
together no more than 10% of the time, usually for viewing art images. RHS is on a
Block 8 schedule which means that we saw our students every other day for a 90-minute
period.
117
Research Population
The study population consisted of 50 students enrolled in American History.
These 50 students were in two separate classes with two different teachers, Jean Warren
and me, the researcher. Students were either assigned to these classes by the RHS
Guidance Department or requested to take American History and Art Co-Study. Both
classes met at the same time, fifth period, and were housed next door to each other in the
Social Studies wing.
Jean Warren’s class consisted of 24 students:
14 Males
58%
14 Caucasian
58%
10 Females
42%
10 African-American
42%
Twenty-one of her students were in the eleventh grade (88%); the remaining three were
tenth graders (12%).
My class consisted of 26 students:
11 Males
42%
15 Females 58%
17 Caucasian
65%
4 African-American 15%
3 Hispanic
12%
2 Asian-American
8%
Twenty-four of my students were in the eleventh grade (92%); the remaining two were
tenth graders (8%).
Description of the Co-Study Curriculum Art Activities
The art activities developed and used were twelve art activity enhancements
linked to the Sunshine State Standards for Social Studies. They included:
Title
Art Activity
Sunshine State Standard
1. Historical Themes Activity
Drawing
SS.A.1.4.2
2. Visualizing the Technology Theme
Art history
SS.A.1.4.2
3. Chronology Through Art Images
Art history
SS.A.1.4.4
4. Illustrated Venn Diagram
Drawing
SS.A.4.4.1
5. Illustrated Map of the 13 Colonies
Drawing
SS.A.4.4.2
118
6. Colonial American Images
Art history, criticism
SS.A.4.4.2
7. Revolutionary War Images
Art history, criticism
SS.A.4.4.3
8. Naturalistic Drawing
Drawing
SS.A.4.4.4
9. Paintings, Neoclassical
Art history
SS.A.4.4.4
10. Civil War Visual Vocabulary
Drawing
SS.A.4.4.6
11. Reconstruction Visual Concept
Drawing
SS.A.4.4.6
12. Brady’s Photography
Art history
SS.A.4.4.6
Architecture & Sculpture
One-half of the art activities used drawing as an enhancement; the other half used
viewing art images. Drawing included contour drawing of maps, organizing information
graphically, and illustration of ideas and concepts through natural images and cartooning.
Art images were viewed and discussed in terms of historical and art historical context.
Often, the Anderson Art Criticism Method (1997) was used to introduce the art image to
the students. This method allowed students to become fully engaged in the viewing
process before placing the image in an historical context. A detailed description of these
art intervention activities is found in the following section.
Overview of the Treatment Procedure
A primary result of engaging in this study was the development of a Co-Study
Curriculum Guide. This Co-Study Curriculum Guide is intended to give examples of
some approaches for applying in a practical manner the information contained in this
study. The art intervention activities are on the high school level but can be modified for
lower grade levels.
I approached Jean Warren with the idea of collaboration using the following
guide. The guide gives step-by-step instructions for implementing the art activities used
in this study. Social studies teachers who have no prior art experience may want to
collaborate with an art teacher and use activities from this guide. For further details
including what might be expected in the way of student responses, consult the Teacher
Researcher Observations in Chapter 5. If you decide to collaborate, set aside time for
planning because the Co-Study Curriculum process requires a team effort in the
development of curriculum, presentation of coursework, and classroom management.
119
My rationale was that collaboration allows teachers to assess the compatibility of
their teaching styles as well as the impact on student performance. If you want to
collaborate, do the following to get started: (1) decide on when the collaboration will
take place, (2) plan and organize the collaborative coursework and activities, and (3) pick
a location that will accommodate the collaboration. Make sure during implementation to
spend time after each class meeting to process the day’s activities. The following art
activities comprise the Co-Study Curriculum Guide used in this study.
CO-STUDY CURRICULUM GUIDE
TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY
Sunshine State Standard: SS.A.1.4.2
The student identifies and understands themes in history that cross scientific,
economic, and cultural boundaries.
Historical Themes Activity
Most American history textbooks list and explain themes that run throughout the
study of American history. Much of what is taught about American history can be
understood more readily if it is viewed as part of a larger pattern; key themes help
students to link events across time. The Historical Themes Activity requires students to
read the textbook explanation of the themes, write a short summary statement in their
own words, and create a small drawing to illustrate the theme. If your textbook does not
cover themes then you can use the following: science and technology, economics,
cultural diversity and immigration, politics, and geography.
Instructions
First, have students title their paper “Historical Themes” and define the term in
their own words in a sentence below the title. Second, have students draw a line
lengthwise down the middle of their drawing paper underneath the title and definition;
this line divides the paper in half. Explain that the left hand side of the paper is to be
used for naming and defining a theme; the right hand side for illustrating it. Students
120
may use colored pencils to color their illustrations or leave them just as pencil sketches.
When finished, discuss the student definitions and share their illustrations.
Time needed: 1 class period.
Materials
Drawing paper, size 12” x 18”; drawing pencils and colored pencils
Visualizing the Technology Theme
This art history activity occurs, also, during the Introduction to American History
unit. Students view art images within a social context. They are asked to identify a
transportation art image, find its time period, and analyze its impact on American society
and people who were living at the time of its invention. This activity reinforces one of
the key themes in American history: Americans encourage and welcome technological
and scientific innovation which in turn shapes American society. Further, advances in
technology are readily linked to changes in transportation.
Instructions
1. Divide the class into pairs of two or groups of three students.
2. Give each group an art image of some type of transportation used in America past or
present.
3. Explain the following instructions:
a. Look at the image carefully
b. Read the back of the card for information (artist, time period, brief overview)
c. Use your textbook or other books for reference
d. Discuss the impact of the new technology on Americans’ lives and society
e. Prepare a brief presentation for the class
4. Presentation: Each group describes its art image to the class, its time period, and its
assessment of the technology impact including advantages and disadvantages.
Time needed: 1 class period.
Materials
Fourteen images from Transportation in America by Gerald P. Wolf (2001) (a set of 44
art images)
121
Sunshine State Standard: SS.A.1.4.4
The student uses chronology, sequencing, patterns, and periodization to examine
interpretations of an event.
Chronology Through Art Images
This is the last art activity in the Introduction to American History unit and
examines the development of transportation in America. This art historical activity uses
the remainder of the images (30) in the Transportation in America set not used in the
previous activity. The 30 images are divided into five smaller sets of 6 images each.
Students who receive a set of 6 images are instructed to place them in the sequence in
which they think that form of transportation developed. Thus, the art images are used to
help the student understand historical chronology and, concurrently, to begin to notice
differences in style among the cards.
Instructions
1. Divide students into five groups.
2. Each group selects a leader or one is appointed by the teacher.
3. The leader receives the packet for the group and reads the enclosed instructions.
4. The leader places the 6 images face up in random order and reads the following aloud
to the group:
You see before you images of transportation in America as it has evolved over our
history. Your task is to look at the images, place them in order from oldest to latest.
Clues that you will use include prior knowledge you bring to this class, the subject matter
in the painting, as well as clues in the pictures themselves. Be aware that all art images
are made during a time period; details in them or the style in which they were made will
give you information concerning what time period they are representing.
5. Once a group consensus occurs regarding the chronological order, the group leader
checks the back of the card for its Time Line Date.
6. If the order is incorrect, the leader challenges the group to try again. This process is
used until the correct order is chosen or time is called.
7. Each group gives its choices and reasons for them.
8. Each group’s leader presents to the class a quick description of the images in the set,
122
the group’s chosen order, and reasons for that choice.
Time needed: 1 class period.
Materials
Thirty images from Transportation in America by Gerald P. Wolf (2001) (a set of 44 art
images)
TOPIC 2: AMERICAN BEGINNINGS
Sunshine State Standard: SS.A.4.4.1
The student understands the economic, social, and political interactions between
Native American tribes and European settlers during the Age of Discovery.
Illustrated Venn Diagram
This art project is used to illustrate the economic and social interactions between
Native Americans and Europeans during the Age of Discovery. I introduce this project
with visuals that come with the supplemental materials of various American history
textbooks. I use the following overhead transparencies: a world domestication of plants
and animals map (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995), a map of Native American culture
areas in North America (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995), an Iroquois quilled buckskin
robe (Scholl, 1992), a Navajo sand painting (Prentice-Hall, 1991), Clallum Women
Weaving a Blanket by Paul Kane (Prentice-Hall, 1991), Canoe Race Near Sault Ste.
Marie by George Catlin (Prentice-Hall, 1991), Portrait of Native Americans by John
Wesley Jarvis (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995), ancient Greek and Renaissance maps of
the world (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995), a map showing European knowledge of the
world and how it expanded between 950 and 1800 (Prentice-Hall, 1991), Haymaking in
the Month of June from a prayer book by Pol de Limbourg (Prentice-Hall, 1991), the
cathedral at Reims (exterior and interior views) (Prentice-Hall, 1991), Spanish America
in 1785 (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995), a three-dimensional Spanish religious image
called a bulto (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995), and the Spanish Mission San Xavier del
Bac in Tucson, Arizona (Scholl, 1992). These images are used to stimulate the students’
imaginations and to show differences between cultures of the Native Americans and
Europeans.
123
Students receive a rubric to follow while I explain the project: an illustrated Venn
diagram with one circle representing Europeans and the other, Native Americans. The
overlapping part of the circles is for illustrating one consequence of these two groups
meeting. Inside the circles, pictures are drawn by the students to illustrate various aspects
of the social, economic, and political lives of these two groups. The project is titled,
“When Worlds Collide”.
Instructions
Students create and illustrate the Venn diagram using the following rubric:
“When Worlds Collide” Rubric
Directions: The following items should be clearly seen in both circles of your Venn
diagram drawing for Native American and European cultures circa 1492. Label each
circle with the appropriate title, “Native American” or “European”.
_____Housing
_____Clothing
_____Food
_____Technology or weapons
_____Symbols or letters
_____Name of one conquistador and one Native American chief
_____In the center of the Venn diagram, the overlapping section, draw one impact or
consequence of the meeting of the two cultures
Directions for the background:
_____Title your work “When Worlds Collide”
_____List the causes of European exploration (3 minimum)
_____Name 3 Native American civilizations that developed in Central and
South America
_____Name 2 Native American civilizations that developed in North America
_____List 4 European countries that engaged in early exploration
_____Name 3 explorers and the country each sailed for
_____List 5 items that were part of the Columbian Exchange
Time needed: 2 class periods.
124
Materials
Drawing paper, size “12 x 18”; drawing pencils, colored pencils and markers; templates
for circle shape; visual images that show aspects of Native American and European
cultures to use to introduce the project; textbooks, books, or photocopies from books that
have pictures showing Native American and European housing, clothing, technology and
weapons, symbols and letters, food and animals
TOPIC 3: COLONIAL PERIOD
Sunshine State Standard: SS.A.4.4.2
The student understands how religious, social, political, and economic
developments shaped the settlement patterns of the North American colonies.
Illustrated Map of the 13 Colonies
During the unit on the Colonial Period, students draw and illustrate a map of the
original 13 English colonies along the eastern seaboard. Illustrations include political as
well as economic realities of the colonies along with other pertinent information. This is
the third map that we have our students draw. The previous maps are the world map and
the lower forty-eight American states. These maps are used in the introduction of the
course for two reasons: (1) to reacquaint students with political boundaries and
geographic features of America and the world, and (2) to introduce mapmaking to the
students. Students read about contour drawing and complete a blind contour drawing
before drawing their first map. By the time students draw this map they are confident in
their ability to do so.
Instructions
1. Draw the eastern seaboard and the original 13 colonies
2. Give the following information on the colonies: name, year it became a colony
3. Locate the Appalachian Mountains
4. Draw 2 things that represent the economic activity of the three major groups of
colonies (New England, Middle, Southern)
5. Locate the following cities: St. Augustine, Jamestown, Plymouth, Boston,
Philadelphia
125
6. Locate the following bodies of water: Gulf of Mexico, Great Lakes (name each one),
Atlantic Ocean, Mississippi River
7. Use colored pencils to show the New England colonies, the Middle Colonies, the
Southern Colonies, Spanish Territory, and French Territory
8. Create a legend (key) for you map showing colonies, territories, and economic
activities
Time needed: 2 class periods.
Materials
Drawing paper, size 9” x 12”; drawing pencils and colored pencils; textbook maps,
additional books with maps, and wall maps
Colonial American Images
This art history activity is, also, in the unit on the Colonial Period and follows the
mapmaking project. Its purpose is to help students understand the colonists’ way of life.
To start this project, I review previously covered material with visuals that come as
supplemental materials to various American history textbooks. I show the following
overhead transparencies: an historical map set showing the original 13 colonies as a
whole and in three groups—New England, Middle, and Southern colonies (Prentice-Hall,
1991); a map displaying goods exported and imported from the colonies through Atlantic
Ocean trade (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995); a pie chart showing ethnic division of the
colonial population in 1775 (Prentice-Hall, 1991); and, a political cartoon. These images
set the stage to view colonial art through sculpture, painting, and folk art.
The sculpture is a set of three images of gravestone styles in the colonies, two
from New England and one from the South (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995). The
painting is Penn’s Treaty with the Indians by Benjamin West, a historical painting
depicting William Penn signing a treaty with Native Americans (Scholl, 1992). There are
two examples of folk art: a representation in needlework of the main building at Harvard
and a Pennsylvania German fraktur, an ornamental drawing of George and Martha
Washington (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995).
126
Instructions
First, students view the gravestones and I describe what they see. I note the
differences between the New England and Southern gravesites as far as style and ask for
discussion. I end the viewing and discussion with students drawing one of the
gravestones and labeling it.
Second, students view Penn’s Treaty with the Indians. At this point I introduce
them to the Anderson Art Criticism Method of reaction, description, interpretation, and
evaluation (Anderson, 1997). I use just description and interpretation for this first
encounter with art criticism. Anderson’s description has 4 components: “description of
obvious thematic and formal qualities, the relationships between forms and figures,
intended emotional impact, and the contextual qualities outside the work itself which
affect its meaning” (p. 22). Interpretation tries to discover the meaning of the work and
follows the description phase.
For some of the students, talking about art is a new thought process. During this
first introduction to art criticism, I spend the description phase introducing students to art
terms and phrases such as, mood, focus, background, foreground, and elements and
principles of design. Students in the class who have previous art experience seem to
enjoy showing off their knowledge of art terms. For the first encounter with
interpretation, I simply ask, “Do you think this is a realistic portrayal of the actual event?
Why or why not?”
Third, students view the needlework and the fraktur. Discussion centers on the
images and their relationship to the lifestyle of the colonists. Students draw either one or
the other of the images.
Time needed: 1 class period.
Materials
Drawing paper, size 9” x 12”; drawing pencils and colored pencils; visual images for
review of prior knowledge before beginning the project; Colonial Period images to be
used for discussion; Anderson Art Criticism Method questions (see below).
127
Anderson Art Criticism Method (Anderson, 1997)
Reaction
1. What’s your first response to this work?
2. How does it make you feel?
3. What does it make you think of?
4. What does it remind you of?
Description
Obvious Thematic, Formal, and Technical Qualities
1. What images do you see?
2. What colors/shapes/textures/etc. are there?
3. Are there any outstanding or unusual features you notice?
4. What else do you see?
5. Are there any dark/light areas? Rough/unusual textures? Large/small shapes?
6. How do you think this work was made?
7. What types of brushstrokes/sculptural finish/photographic technique, etc. do you see?
8. What is the artist’s viewing point? What are your clues?
Formal Relationships of Shapes and Images
1. What colors/shapes/textures/lines dominate the image? Why?
2. Are there significant negative areas/spaces in the work? What makes them
significant?
3. Is there movement? What elements and/or principles cause it?
4. Do you see contrast? What causes it?
5. Where are the figures looking/pointing?
6. Where does the focus lie in this work? What causes you to look there? Is there a
single focus? Why? Why not? What features cause us to see it that way?
Formal Characterization
1. What mood is presented? How are we meant to feel in the presence of this piece?
Why? What’s the evidence?
2. Why are we meant to focus on where we do? Why is there no central focus or why is
there a central focus?
3. Is this realistic? Formalistic? Expressive?
128
4. Is this primitive, slick, aggressive, bold, intellectual, overpowering, timid,
monumental, fluid, abstract, cool, static, rhythmic, hot, etc.? How? Why? What’s the
evidence?
5. What if the background were a different color? What if it were done realistically
instead of in exaggerated forms? What if it had soft edges instead of hard?
Contextual Examination
1. Who did the work?
2. What was the artist’s point or intention?
3. What is the title?
4. When and where was the work done?
5. How does it reflect that place and those times?
6. What style is it considered to be?
7. Does it have or has it ever had a functional purpose? What?
8. What influenced its production?
9. What impact has the work had on work that came later or on society in general?
10. What does the work tell us about the people who originally made and used it?
Interpretation
1. What do you think this work means? (Think about the subject matter, qualities,
character and other responses from the Reaction and Description processes.)
2. If you were inside the work, as a particular character, abstract form or figure, what
would you be thinking/feeling?
3. In the case of nonobjective or highly abstract work, what does it make you think of or
remind you of?
4. What title would you give this work if you were the artist? Why?
Evaluation
Personal Experience
1. What was your experience in critiquing this work?
2. Have your perceptions/feelings of it changed since we started? How?
3. Would you like to have it for your own? Why/why not?
4. Do you feel a need to resolve what you found through visual critique versus what you
found in the contextual examination? Can this be done? How?
129
Aesthetic Judgment
1. Do you think the work is good in and of itself? Why or why not? What criteria do
you base that on? (Answers can be about technique, skill level, expressive power,
beauty, and other qualities to be found in the work.)
2. Is the work well made? Does it exhibit a high degree of technical, compositional,
and/or conceptual skill?
3. Is it clear? Does it do what it seems to be trying to do?
4. Does the work have any cultural significance? Is it important in society in any way?
5. Does it move you? Does it have the aesthetic power to make you feel something
strongly, or think something new, or move you to action in some way?
Contextual Judgment
1. Did the work address some significant human problem or need? Did it do it well?
Why or why not?
Final Judgment
1. Was the work up to the task we have determined that it set for itself? Was it worth
making?
2. Ultimately was it worth examining? Why/why not?
TOPIC 4: REVOLUTIONARY WAR PERIOD
Sunshine State Standard: SS.A.4.4.3
The student understands the significant military and political events that took
place during the American Revolution.
Revolutionary War Images
In this art activity, students view art images to help understand significant military
events that occurred during the American Revolution. The art images are used to
reinforce material already covered in a written format. I start the class with an oral
review telling the story of American history up to this point: the American colonies were
valuable to England because of their mercantilist economic philosophy but by the mid1600s the colonists wanted more economic and political freedom. The colonists were
influenced heavily by Enlightenment philosophy in Europe and the Great Awakening in
130
America. Meanwhile, England was embroiled in war with France not only in Europe but
in the New World, too. The British response to colonial unrest and its European
problems was legislation and taxation that angered the colonists, such as the Stamp Act
and Townshend Acts. Tempers flared and resulted in the Boston Massacre, the Boston
Tea Party, the First Continental Congress, and the first skirmish at Lexington and
Concord. A second skirmish occurred outside Boston at Bunker Hill. At this point, I am
ready to begin the viewing portion of this art activity and using the Anderson Art
Criticism Method.
Instructions
Students view the The Battle of Bunker Hill by John Trumbull (Prentice-Hall,
1991). In order to get students into a viewing and responding mode, I ask students to
describe what they see and make general comments or ask questions. Afterwards, I
inform the class that they will be doing art criticism. I remind them of the description
and interpretation phases learned while viewing images from the Colonial Period. I
review the Anderson Art Criticism Method: reaction, description, interpretation, and
evaluation. I briefly describe each step of the process, giving examples using the Bunker
image (see previous activity for questions to be asked during the four phases).
I start the student art criticism with the next image, The Declaration of
Independence, July 4, 1776 by John Trumbull (Scholl, 1992). I go through the four-step
process with this art image. Next, students go through the full four steps again with
George Washington Before the Battle of Trenton by John Trenton (Glencoe, 1992). The
second time around runs more smoothly because students know what is expected of them
and respond accordingly.
In the interest of time, students view three more images quickly:
George Washington Crossing the Delaware by Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze (Scholl, 1992)
Capture of the Hessians at Trenton by John Trumbull (Prentice-Hall, 1991)
George Washington at Princeton by Charles Wilson Peale (Phelps, 1997)
I close the period with an overhead transparency of a map showing major battles between
1776 and 1781 and one showing British, French, and American uniforms (Holt, Rinehart
& Winston, 1995).
Time needed: 1 class period.
131
Materials
Art images from the Revolutionary War Period
TOPIC 5: CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD
Sunshine State Standard: SS.A.4.4.4
The student understands the political events that defined the Constitutional
Period.
Naturalistic Drawing
In order to understand the political events of the Constitutional period, students
need to understand the basics of the Constitution which is the organization of our system
of government. In order to show the three branches of government, their makeup and
functions, students draw a tree as a model (Constitutional Tree Project). The tree has
three branches (one for each branch of government), a trunk (a place for the concept of
checks and balances), and a root system (a place for significant events leading up to this
event). A border around the edges of the paper contains the Bill of Rights. Rectangular
boxes on either side of the tree, toward the base, contain the Preamble to the Constitution
in one and the topics of Articles 1 through 7 of the Constitution in the other. Students
receive a rubric to follow while I explain the project.
Instructions
Students create and illustrate the Naturalistic Drawing using the following rubric:
The Constitutional Tree Rubric
Directions: Check off each of the following items as you complete them. Spelling and
neatness count. Sample trees are available.
1. Create a two-inch border on your paper
2. Draw your tree with 3 branches and a root system
3. Label each branch as one of the branches of government: Legislative, Executive,
Judicial
4. Give the following information for each branch:
132
a. Who makes up each branch (e.g., Executive branch consists of the President
and Vice-President)
b. The term in office for the main positions of the branch (How long do they
serve?)
c. The duty, in general, of each branch
5. In the trunk of your tree write “Checks and Balances” and explain this term. Illustrate
the concept of balance.
6. On the roots of your tree write the following:
a. The Revolutionary War
b. Articles of Confederation
c. Shay’s Rebellion
7. In your border:
a. Define the Bill of Rights
b. List each of these rights
c. Illustrate each one
8. Draw a box on each side of the trunk of the tree. Do the following:
a. Box #1: Write the Preamble to the Constitution
b. Box #2: List the topics dealt with in Articles 1-7 of the Constitution
Time needed: 2 class periods.
Materials
Drawing Paper, size 12” x 18”; drawing pencils, colored pencils, and markers; line
drawings and other pictures of trees
Paintings, Neoclassical Architecture & Sculpture
This art history and art criticism activity is, as the previous one, in the unit on the
Constitutional Period. Students view art images of paintings and neoclassical
architecture and sculpture in order to understand better the political events of the period.
The purpose of viewing is to help students visualize the people, places, and political
events of the Constitutional Period.
133
Instructions
First, students view The Sargent Family (Prentice-Hall, 1991), artist unknown,
and I use the Anderson Art Criticism Method for discussion. This is followed by two
more images, an embroidery titled Liberty in the form of the Goddess of Youth and
George Washington Addressing the Constitutional Convention of 1787 by Junius B.
Stearns, to view only briefly with description and interpretation (Glencoe, 1992).
Second, I explain the term “neoclassical” architecture and Thomas Jefferson’s
desire for this style to be adopted as our national architecture. I use overhead
transparencies to show students architectural elements—domes, columns, and
colonnades. Each student sketches the three orders of Greek columns and labels them.
Students then view the rotunda at the University of Virginia at Charlottesville (Scholl,
1992) and the Lincoln Memorial and Parthenon (Prentice-Hall, 1991) simultaneously.
Third, students view a sculpture of George Washington by Horatio Greenough
(Scholl, 1992). I center the discussion on symbolism in the sculpture and the use of the
classical style to portray Washington.
Time needed: 1 class period.
TOPIC 6: THE CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION
Sunshine State Standard: SS.A.4.4.6
The student understands the military and economic events of the Civil War and
Reconstruction.
Civil War Visual Vocabulary
In order to cover a lot of material in a reasonable amount of time and give
students an opportunity to make a presentation, we created the project Civil War Visual
Vocabulary project. Students select a vocabulary word from the list provided and create
a visual that defines and illustrates it. All of the vocabulary words come from the
textbook. Then, students present their vocabulary word definitions and illustrations in
front of the class. Presentations occur in the same sequence as the words appear in the
textbook. Students are graded on their illustration and their presentation. Students
receive a rubric to follow while I explain the project.
134
Instructions
Students create and illustrate the vocabulary word using the following rubric:
Civil War Visual Vocabulary Rubric
1. Illustration
Illustrate the vocabulary word that you have chosen. Use a 12” x 18” sheet of
drawing paper. Utilize the entire sheet of paper. You may use pencil, colored pencil,
marker, or any combination of these as well as construction paper. You will be graded
on:
a. how well your illustration explains the vocabulary word
b. neatness
c. timeliness
d. overall effect
2. Presentation
Present your illustration to the class. You will be graded on:
a. the accuracy of your definition
b. your speech and mannerisms while in front of an audience
c. timeliness
Time needed: 3 class periods.
Materials
Drawing paper, size 12” x 18”; drawing pencils, colored pencils, and markers;
construction paper, scissors and glue sticks
Reconstruction Visual Concept
Reconstruction is handled in the same manner as the Civil War material except
that the information is more complex. Students are given a choice of concepts to
illustrate, such as, Lincoln’s 10% Plan, sharecropping and tenant farming, Radical
Republicans, Freedmen’s Bureau. All of the concepts come from the textbook. After
selecting a concept, students create a visual that defines and illustrates it. The visual is
larger but the presentation format is the same.
Then, students present their concept
definitions and illustrations in front of the class. Presentations occur in the same
135
sequence as concepts appear in the textbook. Students are graded on their illustration and
their presentation. Students receive a rubric to follow while I explain the project.
Instructions
Students create and illustrate the concept using the following rubric:
Reconstruction Visual Concept Rubric
Reconstruction was the time period, 1865-1877, during which the South began to
rebuild after the Civil War. It includes the process which the U.S. government used to
readmit the defeated Confederate states to the Union.
Citizens had to be kept abreast of the many changes taking place during this time.
Your job as a graphic illustrator is to inform the public of changes by using the visual
arts. Maybe you work for the Government Printing Office and must design the
announcement of a new law…or maybe you work for your local newspaper as a political
cartoonist and comment on national politics…or maybe you work for your political party
and design campaign buttons. Other types of visuals could include pamphlets,
advertisements, maps, graphs, diagrams, or postage stamps.
1. Illustration
Illustrate the concept that you have chosen. Use one sheet of poster board.
Utilize the entire surface. You may use pencil, colored pencil, marker, or any
combination of these as well as construction paper. You will be graded on:
a. how well your illustration explains the concept
b. neatness
c. timeliness
d. overall effect
2. Presentation
Present your illustration to the class. You will be graded on:
a. the accuracy of your explanation
b. your speech and mannerisms while in front of an audience
c. timeliness
Time needed: 4 class periods.
136
Materials
White poster board; drawing pencils, colored pencils, and markers; construction paper,
scissors and glue sticks
Brady’s Photography
At the end of the Civil War and Reconstruction unit, I show photography images
made by Matthew Brady (Kunhardt & Kunhardt, 1977). The purpose is to show the
harsh realities of the aftermath of war: scenes after the fighting ended and before the
burial of the dead. I introduce the art history lesson with a reading about Brady (Glencoe,
1996) which portrays him as Lincoln’s cameraman and as one of the most notable Civil
War photographers. All of his battle scenes were photographed after a battle ceased. I
talk about the invention of the camera by Daguerre, the exposure time needed for early
photographs, and Brady’s career.
Instructions
Students view several overhead transparencies of Brady’s work (Kunhardt &
Kunhardt, 1977). The display starts with famous people and places photographed by
Brady in his New York City studio. These include photographs of Harriet Beecher
Stowe, P. T. Barnum’s Living Skeleton and Siamese Twins, the Capitol dome under
construction, the Washington Monument under construction, and the New York City
harbor.
Next, students view a group of images photographed by Brady when he left New
York for Washington to photograph the inauguration of Lincoln and, subsequently,
maintained an office there. They cover several pictures of Lincoln, including the one
used for the Lincoln penny, and one of John Wilkes Booth, the assassin of Lincoln.
Last, students view Civil War pictures: Union camps; a Union soldier with his
family at an encampment; General Lee at Appomattox Court House; General Grant; a
Union ironclad; battles scenes at Fredericksburg, Spotsylvania, St. Petersburg, and
Antietam; an embalming surgeon; and Union soldiers in trenches.
Time needed: 1 class period.
137
Materials
A reading from The Spirit of American Art and Music, Glencoe Social Studies Teaching
Aids (1996); overhead transparencies made from Matthew Brady and His World by
Kunhardt & Kunhardt (1977)
Resources
This section provides teachers with resource locations where additional
information can be found that is useful in the planning, development, and delivery of
further units of study.
Catalogs
The following catalogs contain print, video, and technology materials for art
history and appreciation and cross-curricular activities:
Crizmac Art and Cultural Educational Materials, Inc.: 1-800-913-8555 or
www.crizmac.com
Crystal Productions: 1-800-255-8629 or www.crystalproductions.com
J. Weston Walch Publisher: 1-800-341-6094 or www.walch.com
Parent Child Press: 1-814-946-5213 or [email protected]
Sax Visual Art Resources Catalog: 1-800-558-6696 or www.saxarts.com
Websites
The following websites are used often by art educators:
www.artsednet.getty.edu (The Getty Education Institute for the Arts)
www.nga.gov (The National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.)
www.metmuseum.org (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
www.artic.org (The Art Institute of Chicago)
Instruments Used in Data Collection
The methods used in this study included: a post assessment survey of students’
perceptions on the impact of the Co-Study Curriculum process and its usefulness in the
classroom, a pre and post assessment survey of students’ attitudes toward art, interviews
of selected students, and teacher researcher observations. Surveys, as a method, were
138
used to “collect data by asking people who have experienced certain phenomena to
reconstruct these phenomena” (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 1992, p. 215). “This
method attempts usually to describe a condition or to learn the status of something and,
whenever possible, to draw valid general conclusions from the facts discovered (Hillway,
1964, p. 187). Specifically, surveys were used to gather student perceptions regarding
the impact of the Co-Study Curriculum process and attitudes toward art. The use of the
survey in education grew tremendously in the period between the two world wars of the
twentieth century and was used to describe the American school system. According to
Leedy and Ormrod (2001), survey research captures a moment in time much the same
way “a camera takes a single-frame photograph of an ongoing activity” (p. 196). The
survey looks closely at the phenomena of the moment and allows the researcher to gain
understanding of the present. It examines a situation as it is and allows the researcher to
generalize from what is seen.
The second method used was interviews of selected students. Interviewing allows
the researcher to understand the experience of the participant in the phenomenon under
study and what it means to him or her (Seidman, 1998). Seidman (1998) stated:
It is a powerful way to gain insight into educational issues through understanding
the experience of the individuals whose lives constitute education. As a method
of inquiry, interviewing is most consistent with people’s ability to make meaning
through language. (p. 7)
The third method used was teacher researcher observations. Observations can be
made either as an outsider looking in or as a participant observer, known as ethnography.
(Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). Ethnography involves entering a setting, getting to know the
people in it, observing, and writing down those observations and experiences (Emerson,
Fretz & Shaw, 1995). As an observer, I jotted down notes and impressions during class
and later wrote them into a detailed account, interpreting and making sense of what I saw.
These field observations can be an excellent secondary research tool in support of the pre
and post assessment surveys and interviews (Anderson, 2000). They give context to
those findings.
139
Co-Study Impact Survey
The Co-Study Impact Survey (see Appendix A-1) was created by the researcher to
measure student perceptions regarding the impact of the Co-Study Curriculum process on
learning. This instrument consists of twelve belief or attitudinal statements regarding the
benefit of the art intervention activity used. This survey was administered primarily to
address Research Question #1: Will the Co-Study Curriculum process enhance students’
perceptions of their understanding of American history?
The Co-Study Impact Survey consisted of twelve statements. Each statement
addressed a specific art intervention activity. Therefore, there is one statement per art
activity. Students were asked to respond to each statement by circling the belief or
attitude that best expressed their feelings regarding the art activity and how it impacted
their learning. Choices of response to the statements were Strongly Agree, Agree,
Undecided, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree. The Co-Study Impact Survey was
administered in two parts: the first half at the end of the first six art activities and the
second half at the end of the second six art activities. This survey’s administration
corresponded with the first and second nine week grading periods.
This survey instrument’s content validity was achieved by using a Co-Study
Impact Survey Instrument Internal Validity Matrix, a table of specifications constructed
by the researcher. This table is a two-dimensional grid that reflects the Sunshine State
Standards for American History on one axis and the Co-Study Curriculum components
on the other. This insures that the survey’s statements adequately cover these two
domains: Sunshine State Standards and the Co-Study Curriculum components. The
survey instrument’s reliability was measured by the use of an interrater process.
“Interrater reliability is the extent to which two or more individuals evaluating the same
product or performance give identical judgements” (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001, p. 99). Jean
Warren and two students, one male and one female, in my co-study class were selected to
evaluate the survey. Both students and Jean Warren understood the meanings of the
statements on the survey as I had intended them. I know this because of their responses
to my questions after reading the survey. I feel assured that the Co-Study Impact Survey
statements reflected the same meaning throughout the student population.
140
Art Attitude Survey
The Art Attitude Survey (see Appendix A-2) is an evaluation about students’
feelings and perceptions related to the value of art. This survey was administered
primarily to address Research Question #2: Does the Co-Study Curriculum process of
integrating art and American history have an effect on students’ attitudes toward art?
The Art Attitude Survey was administered at the beginning and end of the study
to see if student perceptions changed regarding the value of art after being exposed to the
Co-Study Curriculum art activities. The pre and post Art Attitude Survey instrument was
developed by surveying ERIC in the field of education. The final instrument was
constructed by the researcher selecting various statements from several research
documents in the field of art education, including a doctoral dissertation (Milbrandt,
1996), an art education program evaluation report (Thomas, 1992), a graduate paper
(Stell, 1981), and a master’s action research project (Tranquilli, 1999). It consists of
eighteen belief or attitudinal statements about the value of art to oneself or society.
Students were asked to respond to each statement by circling the belief or attitude that
best expressed their feelings. Choices of response to the statements were: Strongly
Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree. The Art Attitude Survey’s
content validity and reliability have been established by its use.
Student Interviews
The selection process for selecting those to be interviewed began by summing
each student’s responses across all survey questions (Strongly Agreed, +2, to Strongly
Disagreed, -2) within the Co-Study Impact Survey. This resulted in each student
receiving an averaged response value, which fell between the two end points of Strongly
Agreed (+2) to Strongly Disagreed
(-2). These response values were arithmetically stacked. The inter-quartile range, which
is the middle 50%, was identified. The inter-quartile range is defined as the range from
the 25th to the 75th percentile. Those students whose response values fell at the 25th
percentile were assigned to one group and those students whose response values fell at
the 75th percentile were placed into another group. Using this inter-quartile range allows
the researcher to collect feedback unaffected by extreme responses and, thereby, avoiding
overly positive or negative attitudes.
141
The students in these two groups were further examined regarding their
demographic characteristics: ethnicity and gender. Four students with diverse
demographics were selected to be interviewed: two from Doster’s class and two from
Warren’s class. One student falling in the 25th percentile and the other falling in the 75th
percentile were then selected from each class. Specifically, in Doster’s class, a Caucasian
female falling in the 25th percentile and a Caucasian male in the 75th percentile. In
Warren’s class, an African-American male falling in the 25th percentile and a Caucasian
male falling in the 75th percentile. This selection was representative of the overall
composition of both Doster’s and Warren’s classes.
Then, these four students were interviewed. An Interview Guide (see Appendix
C-1) to frame the interviews was created from the students’ responses on the Co-Study
Impact Survey and observations made by the teacher researcher. The interviews were
conducted in three parts during three separate time periods. Interviews were conducted
and responses recorded on a handheld tape recorder with each student interviewee and
the researcher focused on expanding student descriptions and perceptions of the CoStudy Curriculum process as reflected by the Interview Guide. Responses were grouped
into common themes based on students’ descriptions of their experiences regarding the
Co-Study Curriculum process and described in narrative form.
The interviews were conducted to add context and depth to the results of the CoStudy Impact Survey. Also, they were used to situate the findings in their circumstances,
thus adding more depth of meaning to those results.
The interviews occurred at the end of the study during the third nine weeks of
school. The interviews were based on the Seidman (1998) method of interviewing, the
three-interview series, which consisted of: interview one, focused life history to provide
context; interview two, the details of experience; interview three, reflection on the
meaning of the experience. The first interview puts the interviewee in context with
general background information. The second interview concerns the participant in the
Co-Study Curriculum experience and, the third, his or her reflections on the meaning of
that experience.
142
Teacher Researcher Observations
I conducted field observations throughout the study by jotting down notes of my
observations and impressions during class and later writing them into a detailed account,
interpreting and making sense of what I saw (see Chapter 5). According to Anderson
(2000), these observations are an excellent secondary research tool, again for the purpose
of adding situational context to the other findings, thus increasing the understanding of
meanings. I used the following Observation Pattern:
1. Count the number of students in class.
2. State the unit or topic under study, including Sunshine State Standard.
3. State the Co-Study Curriculum intervention (art activity) being used.
4. Evaluate the climate or mood of the classroom.
5. Observe student reaction and involvement (on task or off task).
6. Target students who are on task and off task.
7. Jot down behaviors observed and comments of target students.
These notes of observation were written into a narrative account with additional
commentary by me.
Administration of Study
All consent and permission forms required in this study were submitted to and
approved by the Human Subjects Committee (see approval memorandum and consent
forms in Appendix D). Further, the study has been approved by Bay District Schools
(see Appendix D-4).
The first half of the Co-Study Impact Survey was administered at the end of the
first nine weeks of school and the second half was administered at the end of the study.
The Art Attitude Survey was administered at the beginning of the school year, August
2003, which was the beginning of the study; it was administered again at the end of the
study, December 2003. Selected one-on-one interviews occurred at the end of the study
during the third nine weeks of school. Teacher researcher observations were made
continually throughout the study.
143
Data Analysis and Display
This classroom action research gathered quantitative data from two survey
instruments, and qualitative data from student interviews and teacher researcher
observations. Addressing, first, the surveys:
The Co-Study Impact Survey used a 5-point Likert scale to determine the
students’ perceptions on the impact of the Co-Study Curriculum process in learning
American history. The ordinal data gathered from this post assessment was placed within
a Response Value Matrix so that further analysis could be made relative to the
distribution of Likert scale responses to each survey statement (see Figure 4, p. 202), the
value each curriculum component had to the students (see Figure 5, p. 205), and the
contribution of each of the Co-Study Curriculum components in achieving a Sunshine
State Standard (see Table 3, pp. 251-252).
Post assessment data from the Co-Study Impact Survey were displayed in three
charts:
1. Percentage Distributions of Student Responses by Survey Statement
This is a percentage bar chart that shows the groupings of students, by percentage,
that SA, A, N, D, or SD to each statement (see Figure 4, p. 202). It shows the distribution
of student responses to each statement.
2. Student Responses by Survey Statement
This is a line graph showing the relative value of each curriculum component to
the students (see Figure 5, p. 205). Coding student responses assigned them a value that
was summed to obtain a net value for each statement. It shows the degree of satisfaction
(positive number) or dissatisfaction (negative number) that students had toward each
curriculum component (art intervention).
3. Curriculum Component(s) Contribution to Achieving Sunshine State Standards
This chart displays the extent to which each curriculum component (art
intervention) actually contributed to achieving a Sunshine State Standard (see Table 3,
pp. 251-252). It shows the percentage of students who SA or A to each statement and its
corresponding Sunshine State Standard. In total, this analysis bundling will describe
144
perceptions of enhanced learning and achievement of specific Sunshine State Standards
due to the Co-Study Curriculum process.
The Art Attitude Survey used a 5-point Likert scale to determine students’
attitudes toward art. The ordinal data gathered from these pre and post assessments were
used to indicate any shifts that occurred in attitude toward art due to the Co-Study
Curriculum process. The ordinal pre/post assessment data from the Art Attitude Survey
were displayed in Tables 1 and 2 (see pp. 209-210).
The supporting strategies gathered qualitative data from two sources: student
interviews and teacher researcher observations.
1. Student Interviews
Student interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim (see Appendix C).
Specifically, each interview was examined relative to specific characteristics unique to
each interviewee’s perceptions of the Co-Study process or art attitude. Further, common
threads, such as, perceptions regarding the Co-Study process, attitudes toward art,
lifestyle, and art background, were identified. The researcher then used various excerpts
from each interview as descriptive evidence to support the research questions and as
explanations, interpretations, and implications within this study.
2. Teacher Researcher Observations
An Observation Pattern was developed for use during teacher research
observations (see Observation Pattern, p.190). Observations were used to describe how
well students received, manipulated, applied, and explored history information while
using the Co-Study Curriculum process. The teacher researcher jotted down notes while
observing students during art intervention activities. Notes were then written into a
narrative format that detailed each observation. The researcher then used various
excerpts from each observation as descriptive evidence to support the research questions
and as explanations, interpretations, and implications within this study.
145
Testing of the Research Questions
Research Question #1
Will the Co-Study Curriculum process enhance students’ perceptions of their
understanding of American history? This research question is resolved by the Co-Study
Impact Survey. Two criteria were used for affirming this research question. The first is
based on data from Figure 4 (see p. 202). The second is based on data from Figure 5 (see
p. 205). For data in Figure 4, the research question is accepted if 51% or more of the
responses across all the survey statements are at least “Agree” in the Percentage
Distributions of Student Responses by Survey Statement chart. For data in Figure 5, the
research question is accepted if the average ranking across all survey statements, in both
classes, is a positive number.
Research Question #2
Does the Co-Study Curriculum process of integrating art and American history have an
effect on students’ attitudes toward art? This research question is resolved by the Art
Attitude Survey. “Agree” and “Strongly Agree” responses were considered to be
indicative that a change occurred in the students’ attitudes toward art. This research
question is affirmed if the average response shift between the pre and post assessment
surveys across all statements is a positive percentage.
Student interviews and teacher researcher observations were accepted as
supporting the research questions based on the degree to which credible and dependable
evidence confirmed students’ perceptions of enhanced learning and positive attitudes
toward art. This data was used for discussion.
The information in the Curriculum Component(s) Contribution to Achieving
Sunshine State Standards chart (Table 3, see pp. 251-252) specified the extent to which
each Co-Study Curriculum component was effective. If 51% or more of the students
circled SA or A to a statement and its corresponding Sunshine State Standard, then it was
taken as evidence that the art intervention helped to achieve the standard. This data was
also used for discussion.
146
Supporting Documentation
Support for the research questions came, also, from the pilot study. Chapter 4,
Pilot Study, as well as teacher and student interviews conducted during the pilot study
(see Appendix B) form the basis of this documentation. Chapter 4 includes a narrative
account, The Co-Study Story, of the pilot study. This narrative covers the inception of
the Co-Study Curriculum, its implementation at Rutherford High School, results of
quantitative research regarding the Co-Study Curriculum process during its first two
years of implementation, and interviews of teachers and selected students involved in the
pilot study. This data was used for discussion.
Summary
This chapter explained the methods used in this quantitative and qualitative study
to determine student perceptions of the Co-Study Curriculum process. The research
questions are: (1) Will the Co-Study Curriculum process enhance students’ perceptions
of their understanding of American history? And (2) Does the Co-Study Curriculum
process of integrating art and American history have an effect on students’ attitudes
toward art? Chapter 4 provides a narrative account of the pilot study which gave
impetus to the present study. Chapter 5 presents the results obtained with these methods
and answers these research questions.
147
CHAPTER IV
PILOT STUDY
This chapter provides the reader with an overview of the pilot study that was
conducted from 1998 through the end of the school year 2002-03. It is not meant to be an
exhaustive, detailed account but rather it relates the highlights of the study. It is told in a
narrative format to facilitate reading and begins with some background information
regarding the researcher.
The Co-Study Story
I began my public school teaching career in a small elementary school in the
community of West Bay, Florida. West Bay is a fishing community with no particular
landmarks at that time except for a bridge spanning an arm of the bay and a small, local
general store at the foot of the bridge. West Bay Elementary School was the only public
building and served as a community center as well as a school. A few houses and trailers
around the school were evidence of the population of West Bay but the rest of the
dwellings were out of sight. The community was located in pine forests owned by St. Joe
Paper Company. The students, approximately 280 of them, were mostly local residents
but a few were bussed in from the small towns comprising the west end of the Panama
City beaches. They were sweet, unassuming children, all white except for five of color
(three African-Americans and two Vietnamese). Many were related to one another and
spoke in their own peculiar dialect in which certain consonants were dropped, i.e., not
spoken. When I had trouble understanding what children were saying others, who could
bridge the gap, would voluntarily translate for me.
I was hired as the part-time art teacher to teach K-5 students for two days per
week. It was an unexpected turn of events when I was offered the job because I was
finishing my degree in Social Studies Education. My husband and I had closed our retail
148
store after nearly twenty years in business and started on new career paths. My earlier
degrees (bachelor’s and master’s) had been in international affairs with minors in art and
art history. Social studies education seemed the right spot for me and I began working on
a second bachelor's degree in that field offered at the Panama City campus of The Florida
State University. So, in a quirk of fate, I was hired as an art teacher! During the second
semester of my first year of part-time teaching art at West Bay Elementary School I was,
concurrently, doing my student teaching in world history at Rutherford High School.
Each school week I spent two days at West Bay and three days at Rutherford. I was in a
position of bridging two worlds—elementary school and high school, art curriculum and
world history curriculum.
The point of this story is to lay the foundation for the beginnings and practical
application of the Co-Study Curriculum. The thought of integrated curriculum was not
new to me having worked with my husband in a group that advocated and planned to
implement an interdisciplinary curriculum within an entertainment setting. However,
applying integrated curriculum in the classroom was novel for me. When I was rehired
the second year as a full-time art teacher at West Bay, I was given the opportunity to
integrate curriculum as I saw fit—art and world history—with only one constraint from
the principal. She thought that I must see every student every day in order for my
program to be successful. Two-hundred-eighty students per day filed through my old
wooden portable on a rotational basis of a class every 30 minutes. The Co-Study
Curriculum started with ancient Egypt, which I could not get to until October, and
finished with the Middle Ages by the end of the school year. The established elementary
art curriculum was full of holiday, safety, and school events projects that had to be
sandwiched into my World History and Art Co-Study curriculum.
Throughout the year I wondered if the Co-Study Curriculum was having an
impact on the students. During our unit on Ancient Egypt, I talked of its history, showed
filmstrips, viewed slides of King Tut’s treasures, and had the children draw from replicas
of Egyptian sculpture on loan from a collection housed at the Bay District School's office.
The answer to the question I was pondering came in May toward the end of the school
year. Jessica, a shy first-grader, was always a good student in class. Her blonde ringlets
cascaded over the table as she diligently worked on her art. She always seemed to enjoy
149
art class and worked hard; even though she did not say much, she smiled frequently. A
sweet angelic face. One early Monday morning in May, she stopped me on the sidewalk
to show me her new shoes. Over the weekend her mother had taken her shopping for
summer clothes and Jessica had picked out a pair of sandals that were meaningful to her.
"Mrs. Doster, look at my Egyptian sandals!" As I looked down, there they were—gold,
thong-strap sandals encrusted with colorful, plastic jewels. They looked very similar to
the ones we had viewed on King Tut's mummy in the filmstrip. I realized then what an
impact the Co-Study Curriculum had on Jessica. The visual image of the sandals she
viewed in October stayed with her until May when she went shopping for her summer
wardrobe.
The following year I moved to Rutherford High School to teach in the Social
Studies Department. The first year I saw little opportunity for the development of the
Co-Study Curriculum, as I was hurriedly crafting lesson plans for teaching economics,
law studies, and psychology. An exception was when my psychology students would
draw the brain when we got to Chapter 3 on physiology. The following year, I picked up
American History and study skills for ninth graders. In both of those classes I started
introducing art projects. The following year I moved to the Art Department at
Rutherford. My Art in Other Cultures class allowed me to integrate curriculum within a
discipline. I taught art history, art criticism and studio art together as the students
traveled through different time periods and cultures. Studio art provided hands-on
activity to further understanding of art history and art criticism as well as to provide a
holistic view of the unit under study. Most units began from an art historical viewpoint,
placing the art in a chronological and social context. Next, the students usually viewed
slides to do their art criticism, which may have been oral or written. These activities laid
the groundwork for one or more studio projects. At the end of the projects, we shared the
finished pieces and talked about them. In this manner, the disciplines of art were
integrated and projects were more meaningful to the students than art for art's sake alone.
Art was viewed, discussed, and made within a cultural context.
The thought of integration between academic disciplines, however, was still a
goal. When I was in the Social Studies Department, I missed art; when I moved to the
Art Department, I missed social studies. Neither felt complete without the other.
150
Another teacher in the Social Studies Department, Jean Warren, with whom I had shared
American history projects, agreed that we should collaborate. We had discovered that
beginning with the school year of 1994-95 and through the school year of 1997-98,
Rutherford High School had 39% of its students who took American History receive a
"D" or "F": 19% of those failed. This signaled to us there was a need to try to get more
students passing American History; Jean and I began collaborating during the second
semester of 1998.
During February of 1998, we collaborated on the World War I unit. We brought
together our eighth period classes for the collaboration: Regular American History and
Art in Other Cultures students. While the curriculum content normally taught by the
Social Studies Department remained the same, various art projects supplemented the
teaching of American History by providing a variety of hands-on experiences. Specific
projects included drawing a labyrinth model to aid in understanding the causes of World
War I; contour drawing, coloring, and labeling a map of pre-World War I Europe; and
producing, within a cooperative group activity, a World War I newspaper with content
and artwork depicting the major events, machinery, and impacts of the war. We gave
Jean's American History students two tests: a map test on pre-World War I Europe and
an objective test on the causes of World War I. Her other American History classes took
the same two tests but they had no art while learning. They did have photocopied maps;
students colored their maps but did not draw them. The test results were phenomenal;
average test scores in the Co-Study Curriculum class were over 17 points (2 letter grades)
higher than in the traditionally taught American History classes! Fourteen out of 18
students in Jean's American History class responded on an anonymous, written exit
survey at the end of collaboration. Twelve of the 14 (86%) said that they felt their history
grade would improve if they studied art and history together as a yearlong course. Ten of
the 14 (71%) agreed that they remembered their history better because of the art projects
completed during the collaboration; 43% said they understood the history better. When
asked what would be the advantages of American History and Art Co-Study over a
traditional history class some of the responses were (Co-Study Program Report, 1999,
p. 51):
“Art makes the history you learn become more visible.”
151
“It is more interesting and makes students want to learn and pay attention.”
“It teaches people who are slow at recognizing things.”
“People who like to learn by looking at visual drawings can take advantage of this
class.”
“It helps you to understand history better.”
“It's a lot more fun and easier to understand.”
“Good for visual learners.”
Given our success with this collaboration, Jean and I felt emboldened to approach the
Guidance Department about a yearlong American History and Art Co-Study course for
the following year. We felt that it exemplified the type of curriculum that would meet the
new curriculum standards of the State of Florida.
Our teacher inservice training program for the 1997-98 school year was
Connections:A System for Restructuring Teaching and Learning. The purpose of the
Connections training was to help teachers understand the relationship between
curriculum, instruction, assessment and the Sunshine State Standards. Module Three of
the training explored the implications of Gardner’s intelligences theory in student
learning and Module Six explored the implications of using integrated curriculum
approaches in the classroom. We felt that the Co-Study Curriculum met the needs of
diverse learners and, also, made content more relevant to the learner because it showed
connections between disciplines.
We approached the Assistant Principal for Guidance with our data and the idea
that the Co-Study Curriculum was not team teaching—where two teachers present the
same subject matter. It was not traditional teaching—where one teacher presents one
subject. It was not what is typically called "integrated" curriculum—where smatterings
or more from two different subjects are linked by similarities. The Co-Study Curriculum
was a process that created a higher level of retention within students by more effectively
bringing together two bodies of knowledge. We had the test scores to substantiate this
assertion. Further, the Co-Study Curriculum process was supportive of the Connections
training we had received at the beginning of the year. We were granted a yearlong
American History and Art Co-Study class for the 1998-99 school year.
152
Profile of Jean Warren
At this point, I would like to describe Jean Warren in more depth. Jean is the
teacher in the Social Studies Department who has collaborated with me the most during
the development of the Co-Study Curriculum process. The following are excerpts from
an interview (Appendix B-1a) conducted during October of 2002. For the full threeseries interview see Appendix B-1a, B-2a, and B-3a).
JEAN: You would ask me where I was born and when I was born. I was born in,
actually, Foxworth, Mississippi, July 2, 1949…very country. That’s in southern
Mississippi about 90 miles north of New Orleans.
JENNY: What size town was it?
JEAN: We had, when I left …we had about 1,700 in Columbia, Mississippi, but that
doesn’t include Foxworth which was the outskirts. Yeah, Columbia was where…
Columbia was the county seat. So, we were on the outskirts of Columbia…which means
country. Yeah, a lot of little communities …there was no main street. These were just
little communities where people lived and everybody did their shopping in Columbia.
Farming communities, that’s what they were because everybody had their little farms.
JENNY: How many people lived in that town?
JEAN: I don’t know what the population of Foxworth was but let’s say it couldn’t have
been more than 500.
JENNY: So everybody knew everybody?
JEAN: Absolutely, everybody knew everybody.
JENNY: Were there any jobs around there?
JEAN: It was paper mill, small-time, small-scale farming. And that was about it.
My grandfather was a farmer. He used all of the grandchildren for slave labor (laughing).
He had cotton; he had corn; he had beans and okra and peas. And then my mother had a
garden. We picked cotton not only for my grandfather but some of the other farmers in
the area. They would come out in the mornings and they would load us up on the trucks.
They would give us dinner. We didn't have anything to do anyway. My family, though,
if you went off and worked anywhere you brought the money home. And then if Mom
wanted to give you some of it she would give you some of it…but it wasn't your money.
153
JENNY: Interesting. Well, that was the next question…I was going to ask you to
describe your hometown. Is there anything you want to add?
JEAN: I just can remember we went to town usually every Saturday afternoon because
my dad worked Saturday morning cutting yards. So, we would load up and do the
grocery shopping …
JENNY: That would be Columbia?
JEAN: Yeah, we just went to town on Saturday afternoon, went to church on Sunday,
and school during the week and that was it. No trips. Occasionally we would go to visit
my mom’s brother who lived in Picayune, Mississippi, which was about 60 or so miles
from us and…occasionally we would go to New Orleans to visit a cousin down there.
But that was like once every ten years or so. We led a very quiet life.
JENNY: Did ya'll have a TV?
JEAN: We didn't get a TV until we moved…I grew up in a two-room shotgun house as
they would call it now. We moved into a new house in '59, too. That was '59, too. So,
we did have a TV in grandmother's house. I remember when we got it because all the
grandkids and my aunt across the hill had 10 kids and my uncle down the way from us
had seven and when we wanted to watch TV we went to grandmother's house.
Grandmother had the TV; grandmother had the phone; grandmother had the running
water because she had a pump and we didn't because they owned the land. When their
children got ready to get married and if they wanted land, they ended up buying it from
my grandfather. He wasn't giving anything away. My dad bought 13 acres from him.
JENNY: What were your first memories of school?
JEAN: Getting on the bus…I remember my dad was the bus driver when I started school
and every morning…for some reason the bus was over at my grandmother’s and we
would go over there and eat breakfast. She would fix breakfast for us every morning.
And it was syrup, biscuits, and homemade butter and salt meat or bacon or something
like that. And we would do that every morning and, then, we would be off to school. He
would take us to school…take a load of kids to school and then he would go by an aunt
of his that lived in the area until school got out. And then I got into the habit in first
grade of just staying with Dad all day and almost flunked (laugh). The school was not in
Foxworth. It was in a little….another little settlement called Little Rock which was
154
about, I would say, about thirty miles. The name of that school was Piney Woods and,
so, it was a very small school. We couldn’t have had any more than 100 kids enrolled.
JENNY: Inclusive of first through twelfth?
JEAN: Yeah, first through twelfth. I can remember it now, a white building and we had
another little building to the side. I can remember the wood heater and the cafeteria
because the lady in the cafeteria—Miss Hoffman, I remember her name now—cooked,
ah…the best food. But anyway…I can remember the room. We had it divided,
partitioned, so that we had different grade levels and I can remember the hallway and I
know the principal’s office was over there on the left and there must have been three or
four classrooms on either side of the hallway. And those classrooms were partitioned.
JENNY: How many kids would be in your partitioned area? And was it by grade level?
JEAN: Grade level, yeah, and it couldn’t have been anymore than 20. So, we were
small.
JENNY: So, how far did you go in that school? What grade?
JEAN: It went from first through twelfth. All right there.
JENNY: And you went there the whole twelve years?
JEAN: Oh, no, because we were growing, you see, we were expanding, In 1959, they
built a new school. And we consolidated all the little schools into one black school for
the county. And that was East Marion and the name doesn’t even exist anymore. But,
anyway, we all went to the new school.
JENNY: Was it nice?
JEAN: Oh, well, I thought I was in hog heaven. So big and so new and the paint was
still fresh. The halls were so shiny and I got lost on the first day.
JENNY: What grade were you in by then?
JEAN: Fifth grade…fifth grade…and, so, I finally found my way to the area and it was
…oh....just seemed like so many people. Well, because you are coming from that small
environment. It was change…
JENNY: Life was changing? 1959, things were starting to change?
JEAN: Yeah, we had Brown (Brown v. Board of Education) in ’54 but we weren’t
affected by Brown at all. It wouldn’t be until 1966 that we would begin the process of
…(integration)..
155
JENNY: Did you have a favorite teacher or subject?
JEAN: I remember some teachers that stood out. Miss Ella Laflore was a history teacher
of mine in the eighth grade. And I just thought she was so smart and she had us actually
doing some things instead of just sitting in the desk.
JENNY: What was your favorite subject?
JEAN: The only thing I can remember was sitting in the little desk, taking tests, and
listening to the teacher. School was not really very enjoyable because it was all teacher
focused. So the only fun activities we had were when we went out to recess or to a
football game. The classroom itself was not fun. I remember having a geography teacher
when I was in seventh grade. The thing I remember most about her was that she was
dressed everyday. We had to draw our maps.
JENNY: You did?
JEAN: Yeah, she wanted every little curly cue…you don't do the contour, you have to go
in and show those little details. Because we didn't have paper that we would just have
maps printed out on. If you wanted to do geography, you drew your maps and labeled
them. She was very big on that. I guess that kind of helped me develop an idea for
detail.
JENNY: Who encouraged your studies and who influenced you the most?
JEAN: I think my grandfather did a lot because he would always say, "Study hard." I
think he expected all of the grandkids to go on and go to college after high school. And
then when I went to college, he and my grandmother, every time I would come home,
would give me a little piece of money. And my parents they expected…they expected
great things. "You have no excuse; this is what you are here to do." I know one
time…we would get off the bus and stay with my grandparents until my parents came
home. And one day I left my book out on the hill and it rained that night and I went
through the whole year without it. And that meant money, too, and we didn't have that
much money to be paying for a book that I should have brought home. They had great
expectations.
JENNY: That is the expectancy…the Pygmalion effect. If you expect your child or your
student to do well that idea will get into their head and they will live up to your
156
expectation. Even though you were growing up in this rural community in the segregated
South, you knew you were going to college?
JEAN: There was never any question "if" you were going…maybe "where" you were
going.
JENNY: So, how did you decide which university to go to?
JEAN: In high school, I started looking around at guys and so there was this tall guy that
played basketball that lived in the area and, so…my thing at that time was I'm not talking
to anybody shorter than me. My emphasis was on the tall ones, so I knew the family…as
I said they were in the area, and he went to Jackson State when he left to go off to school.
My mother said, "You will never get anywhere close to Jackson State." (laughing) "I'm
going to put you as close to me as I can." USM is only forty miles away and they were
into their second year of integration at USM so I applied and was accepted and she said,
"That is where you will go; you will go to Hattiesburg."
JENNY: So, USM is the University of Southern Mississippi?
JEAN: Yes, and that was 1967. That was my first year.
JENNY: Were you prepared coming from your small school to the university?
JEAN: It is amazing because by having very little by way of dedicated teachers…I can
remember in the sixth grade, the English teacher, if you missed a word on the spelling
test you got beat. I can remember learning my times tables. If we were doing 7s on any
given day and you missed one, you got a lick for every one that you missed. So, I'm
talking about discipline. And you had to go into the bathroom and clean the stalls when
somebody wrote on them. We didn't have in house…we had people come and do the
halls but every teacher was responsible for their own room as far as keeping it clean.
Discipline probably stands out the most for me but one of the things our principal always
reminded us was that the white students kept their schools so clean. And we want to do
the same thing. So when the county people would come in we would have to really
spruce up the place. And I didn't know any better until I went to college and we would
walk down the hall and say "Oh, my goodness, we have been lied to all these years." It
was just their way of trying to keep us in place.
JENNY: So your school experience in the small town you grew up in was adequate for
university work?
157
JEAN: Not in math (laugh)…I was, like, praying, “Lord, let me get a ‘D’, please,
please.” There were some areas where I was very deficient and math was one of them.
Other than that, anything that just generally involved reading I could handle. But the
math, you know, like algebra…I had had algebra something in the eighth grade and had
not seen it since.
JENNY: So you ended up with a certification in secondary education with a focus in
history? You graduated and then what happened?
JEAN: They were doing interviews…actually I graduated the second quarter of my
senior year because I went to summer school…why I don't know…anyway, which meant
I was out early. Wondering what to do, no car and so I did some sub work but they were
interviewing for jobs and they were sending people from the county office…
JENNY: You mean our county here?
JEAN: Yeah, Bay County. Their Director of Personnel would go out to various colleges
and interview and recruit. So Mr. Pribbenow, at the time, was at USM. I went in and
interviewed and he offered me a job, just like that. One of the teachers…it was for Bay
High…one of the teachers there when they shifted around when they integrated was not
happy and they needed a replacement to keep the quota up. And so they were just
looking for…and so Dad said, “I don't care where it is, just go."
JENNY: What did your mom say?
JEAN: "Ooh" because this is, like, Florida; it is so far away. Florida is what they see on
TV, the palm trees. So I went to Hattiesburg, Mississippi, and got on a bus and it took
me 13 hours to get here by bus. And I didn't know a single person here. And I had to
come here for an interview as well. So I came here for the interview and met people like
Hattie Burch, who is a longtime...she was probably there when you were there…and
some others. They offered me the job and I took it. Still, when I came down here, I
didn't have a car. I worked until Thanksgiving, got back on the bus and went home and
said, "Dad, I have to have transportation." So he put the down payment on a car for me.
My first car was a Camaro. It was so cute. A gold Camaro. Rented a room from one of
the Bowers over there on Lincoln Drive, where the drivers range is at Bay High. It was
close to school and, sometimes, I walked. I could take a bus downtown. The next
summer I got married.
158
JENNY: First, I would like to make the comment that you have an extraordinary story
coming from the rural Mississippi area, segregated South, going to a major university and
getting a degree. That is really a phenomenal story. You have a lot of teaching
experience. So what significant things have you learned about teaching others?
JEAN: They (students) are all different. There is no one way to teach. What you have to
do is decide what works best for any given group even if it’s the same subject. What you
do in one class might not work in another class. A lot of patience…a lot of patience.
JENNY: What have you learned about yourself from teaching?
JEAN: I can be patient (laughing). Flexibility, I think. I don't think there are too many
things that upset me anymore because I know that this, too, shall pass. And I just wait for
the next wave to come through. But…I think flexibility and patience. At some level I
really enjoy what I do, at some level. I just haven't discovered what level that is yet. But
if I could just teach and not worry about the paperwork that goes along with all this and
the forms. If I could just teach, it would really be a great occupation.
JENNY: Well, do you think that your university experience, the classes you took to get
ready for teaching helped you or were you surprised when you started teaching?
JEAN: I was surprised how little I knew. Even though you major in a subject you really
don't start learning it until you teach it.
JENNY: So, the teacher is the learner?
JEAN: Absolutely, absolutely. I interned in middle school…just having to prepare…I
know I took that class but I didn't learn enough to try to teach it to somebody. Even the
classes you take on how to teach…you have to get out there and learn it, basically, on a
lot of trial and error. I guess there were some good things that came out of those classes
but, for the most part, you learn by doing.
JENNY: What has been the most frustrating thing for you as a teacher?
JEAN: I think having students come in with preconceived ideas of "I cannot do this" and
won't even try…"My mother had trouble with history and she understands why I don't do
well" and "I can't learn this" and "I can't, I can't, I can't." That just drives me up the wall.
So, I think that's the most frustrating; those students who won't put forth the effort. Not
realizing that this is nothing but a story...American history is and world history is…but a
story. If you watch a story on TV, you can learn American history.
159
JENNY: Would you recommend teaching to other people?
JEAN: I think it would have to be something…first of all, you have to have a personality
if you are going to be effective…somebody who really enjoys this type of interacting
with students on a daily basis. If you don't like people, this is not the job for you. Would
I recommend it? If you're not looking for a lot of money, you have good hours and have
nice vacations and you get a challenge every single day. And there is always growth.
Because every time I teach I learn something that I didn't know before. If you're looking
for something like that then this is a good spot.
JENNY: True, I agree with that. I am always learning. Tell me what classes you are
teaching this year and what a typical day might be for you?
JEAN: I'm just doing world history and American history this year. A typical day like
today is all American history. I have one honors and three regulars. It is just a matter of
reviewing content and introducing new content and reviewing what you have just
covered. A typical day is making sure that those people who are out are recorded as
school leave or…it is the record keeping that drives me up the wall and making sure that
this form is signed and that form is signed…ah. So a typical day is some teaching and a
lot of paperwork.
JENNY: What kinds of skills or concepts do you want your students to learn? And how
do you motivate them?
JEAN: My first thought is that I tell them if they don't do it they get a zero (laugh). That
works for some. I think the opportunity to improve themselves as individuals, to give
them a greater knowledge base to work from. Until they have that knowledge base, they
can't compare and contrast, draw conclusions, synthesize and all those other great and
wonderful skills we want them to develop. The writing skills are awful. I don't think we
practice anything like memory skills anymore.
JENNY: Is there anything you push with them?
JEAN: I think being responsible for what they do, be it bringing a pen and a piece of
paper to class or knowing what I expect of them even though I may not be in the room.
That internalizing of expectations, for some that takes a year or two…for those who
repeat it. The next year they come back and I repeat it, “I expect you to bring a pen, a
pencil, paper to class everyday. I've had you before. This should not be anything
160
different.” Interpersonal skills, just dealing with other people. Knowing that people may
not always agree with you but knowing there is a way you can always talk to people,
express your opinion without resorting to vulgarity every other word.
JENNY: Do you think it is more important in your American history content to teach
breadth or depth? Do you get to decide that or are you told what to teach through
standards or from the district? How are all these decisions made?
JEAN: Well, I'm waffling back and forth with that. Should I go breadth or should I go
depth? And I think what I have concluded at this point is that there are some areas for
going with breadth and some areas for going with depth. And there is no general
consensus in the department as to where these two should take place. Right now, it is just
a personal decision. They expect us to get to a certain point at a certain time but what we
do in-between is left up to the individual teacher.
JENNY: So there are no department-wide semester exams for American history or
anything like that?
JEAN: There is no master exam, no master plan, really except that you must get from
point A to point B.
JENNY: What about the Sunshine State Standards? How do they figure in?
JEAN: They figure in… in that in some shape, form, or fashion you are supposed to
touch on those as you go through from point A to point B.
JENNY: So they are not real defined or strict? They are more conceptual?
JEAN: Yeah, and the ways things are going now, the next year or the year after, social
studies will be a part of the FCAT. So, with that in mind, I am sure we will need to have
a little bit more structure to what we do. Right now, it is kind of loosey-goosey.
JENNY: How do you grade your students and what do you think is important about
grading?
JEAN: You know, we have gone to this whole business of assessment, trying to vary the
assessment tools we use and so what we were told is that there are many pictures you can
take of Johnny. And that applies to assessment as well. One picture does not tell all what
Johnny can do or who Johnny is and, so, as far as assessment goes we try to use not only
just the pen and pencil but actual projects, presentations, and, of course, there is always
the homework and the class work, quizzes. So the attempt is to vary the assessment to
161
the point where if he doesn't do well on a pen and pencil, he may do exceptionally well
when he has to give a presentation to the class. Anything we can do to make sure that
most of the bases are covered so we can get a better picture of what he is able to do or she
is able to do, Johnny or Jeanette (laugh).
JENNY: What do you think the most important thing is that you teach?
JEAN: Oh, that's a hard one. Oh, my goodness. As I listen to them come and go, I think
that one of the most important things I try to get across is respect for other people and
their ideas. You may not agree with them but because we are in America they are
entitled to express their opinion. When the kid gives me the paper and we've been talking
about slavery and he wrote "nigger" everywhere he is supposed to write…he could write
slave, as a teacher I try to encourage political correctness. I think that respect and
responsibility which will follow them throughout their lives no matter where they go,
which kind of people they come in contact with.
JENNY: So, what kinds of trends do you see in teaching over the years?
JEAN: What goes around (laugh), comes around. I don't really see anything new that
hasn't been tried before. If Johnny can't read it won't matter what kind of program you
institute. Sooner or later, you have got to get back to the basics and that is what we have
been trying to do for the thirty years I have been teaching. They try to get back to the
basics and they call it a new thing but it is the same thing: How do we get Johnny to read
and understand? So, the new trends...we have alternative assessment, standardized tests
we are trying to get kids to pass and so forth but it all gets back to what happens the first
couple of years at school. In my opinion, they are not putting enough emphasis on those
first couple of years. Otherwise you would not have 25-30 students in them. Otherwise,
we are going to continue having the same problems. I don't know why, they have been
doing this for so long. I don't understand why…it is the reading, writing, arithmetic.
JENNY: Kindergarten through third, fourth, and fifth grade sets you up for the rest of the
time, doesn't it?
JEAN: I think when I got to college, because I had come from a segregated environment,
it was a culture shock for me because there was so much I had not been exposed to. And
that is why it is so difficult for me to understand kids who have so much by way of things
they could use to learn…so much on TV, so many movies. We didn't have any of that
162
stuff when I was growing up. And we still don't get it. You know, they have all of that
and they still don't get it. And, I think maybe technology has been a wonderful thing for
us on the one hand but has caused kids to just become brain dead. Because everything is
right there in front of them and there is no imagination.
JENNY: Did ya'll have a library in your school?
JEAN: No, no library.
JENNY: Did you do much reading?
JEAN: Actually, I didn't. But I read magazines because my mom worked for a lady who
subscribed to a lot of magazines…some of them were romance.
JENNY: I think I read a few of those, too.
JEAN: I read a lot. We went to the library. I know we had reading assignments. I don't
remember checking out a lot of books and doing a lot of reading in that regard.
JENNY: You have to wonder why so many people who have so many advantages and
opportunities, do so much less with it. You were growing up with, I would say, a
minimum of supplies, opportunities, and experiences and were able to maximize.
JEAN: And we were talking the other day…I don't remember when I learned to read,
when I learned to break words down. We did a lot of that when I was growing up. It was
part of vocabulary. You had to know the root word, be able to add the prefixes and
suffixes and all that that forms larger words. And somewhere along the line we missed
the basics.
Jean’s extensive background in teaching, the circumstances of her formative
years, and her insight and enthusiasm have come together to make her an invaluable
partner in developing the Co-Study Curriculum for American history. After our
successful World War I collaboration, we were anxious to begin our first full year of
American History and Art Co-Study.
1998-1999 School Year
For the 1998-99 school year, Jean and I were given two periods for American
History and Art Co-Study: Students were enrolled in art (seventh period) and American
History (eighth period). This meant that we would see our students everyday. On the
Block 8 schedule at RHS, students attend their odd periods (first, third, fifth, and seventh)
on odd days and their even periods (second, fourth, sixth, and eighth) on even days. We
163
were blessed with a total of 41 students in the eighth period American History class.
Guidance had agreed to help us but only to a point. The seventh period art class had only
21 students. In other words, not all of our history students were also taking art; twenty of
them were history only. The ideal situation would have been no division between art and
history—where the class could flow back and forth between the two subjects at any time.
However, in this arrangement art was taught during seventh period and American history
during eighth period. The seventh period art class approached the ideal, as we would
discuss history while doing art. Although this arrangement was not totally ideal, it did
provide a built-in control group. We compared test scores between our history-only
students and our Co-Study Curriculum students.
The year started with several projects. During the first nine weeks, students
illustrated a Venn diagram titled “When Worlds Collide”, contour drew a map of the
original 13 colonies, created a Colonial Period booklet, constructed a labyrinth to
highlight the causes of the Civil War, and participated in a field trip to Westville (a
working 1850s town) in Lumpkin, Georgia. These art activities included drawing,
photography, art history, and art criticism. During the second nine weeks, students
illustrated a Civil War timeline, played Pictionary to review history content, made oral
presentations with visual components, created a Plains Indians project, and engaged in
oral and written art criticism. The third nine weeks continued with the same types of
activities—illustration, map making, art criticism, and art history—with the addition of
drawing political cartoons.
At the end of the third nine weeks, we compared scores from 10 objective tests
between the two groups, history-only and Co-Study Curriculum. The averaged grade
shift was a positive 7.93 points; Co-Study Curriculum students averaged a letter grade
higher than their history-only counterparts. The history content for all of the students
was identical because they were all in the eighth period American History class. The
intervening variable was the art for those enrolled in the seventh period art class.
The Co-Study Curriculum program covered three nine week segments. The
averaged test scores of these three nine week periods show a significant trend. The first
nine weeks shows little improvement (.98 point) over the control group, the second nine
weeks shows a substantial improvement (6.15 points), and the third nine weeks shows a
164
remarkable improvement (11.77 points). This dramatic trend in improved student
performance probably can be attributed to the students learning how to combine different
subject matter. Specifically, they had to learn how to let the art help them learn history.
Grade Point Improvement
AMERICAN HISTORY & ART CO-STUDY
GRADE POINT IMPROVEMENT BY NINE WEEK PERIODS
15
• +11.77
• +6.15
0
• +.98
1 st
2 nd
Nine Week Grading Periods
3 rd
Figure 2: American History & Art Co-Study Grade Improvement
At the end of the study, we distributed an anonymous, written exit survey to the
Co-Study Curriculum students and twelve responded. Ten (83%) felt that their grade
improved because of the Co-Study Curriculum and twelve (100%) unanimously agreed
that it helped them to remember better and to understand better their history. They listed
advantages of the Co-Study Curriculum as (Co-Study Program Report, 1999, pp. 17-18):
"The Co-Study helped me to remember things visually and it really gave
me two opportunities to go over what I was learning."
"We got more in depth in the topic."
"Because of drawing maps, I can now locate countries. Before, I didn't
even know where Asia was."
“The art projects made it possible for me to pass the test without reading the
entire chapter five minutes before the test.”
"There is more time to go over things and study. We can make picture
associations with our work."
165
"In Co-Study you understand more of the history than in traditional history
class. The art pictures help me understand more and help me a lot
on tests and chapters."
"The artwork we do goes with the history to help us better understand. If I
don't understand something in history, it helps me to draw it."
“We cover more background information. We embed the history lectures more.”
“Coloring and drawing. You get sneak peeks at the coming chapters. You
understand what is going on more.”
"The class was fun and interesting. If I could, I'd come back."
Jean and I compared our observations of the three nine week periods. We both
agreed that map making remarkably improved Co-Study Curriculum student map test
scores over history-only students. On the World War I map test, Co-Study Curriculum
map test scores were an average of 19.04 points higher than the control group’s. Clearly,
map making improved student retention of geography facts.
We both disliked the artificial division of classes—art during seventh period and
history during eighth period. We felt it caused a lack of continuity and flow back and
forth between subjects, at least during eighth period when we had history-only students.
This was a change from the collaboration of the previous year when history was
immediately reinforced with an art activity. We found that many students believed that
art was an easy course which required little work to pass and they had to adjust their
thinking regarding the workload needed in the art class.
We agreed, also, students had to realize that art projects would not replace their
efforts in studying history; art would help them in studying history. As the year
progressed, improved test scores indicated that students had adjusted their perceptions
and internalized our expectations regarding how art could help them retain and
understand history better. We noticed this shift from their comments and increased
quality of art portfolio work. Finally, we found that the Co-Study Curriculum created a
nurturing environment which reduced the negative effects of factors that can interfere
with learning, such as, low self-esteem, lack of self-control (too talkative, inability
starting or staying on task), lack of enthusiasm, expectations of failure, and feelings of
anxiety.
166
We wondered if our two groups—Co-Study Curriculum group and history-only
group—were roughly equal in overall student performance. According to student GPAs
in both groups, the Co-Study Curriculum group was performing on an average of onehalf letter grade below the control group (history-only). Taking that into consideration,
the experimental group actually increased their average test grade by 1 ½ letter grades
instead of one letter grade.
We always had plans to expand the Co-Study Curriculum into other arenas. I
collaborated with a world history teacher during February of 1999 on the Renaissance.
We brought my Art in Other Cultures class and his regular World History class together
during second period. Students learned the technique of art criticism while viewing
slides of Renaissance painting and sculpture; the skill of contour drawing to make a map
of Renaissance Italy; and, one-point perspective. One of Mr. S’s other regular World
History classes was used as a control group; they saw no slides nor received any art
instruction on the Renaissance. The assessment used was an objective test on the Late
Middle Ages and Renaissance periods and a map test on Renaissance Italy. The Late
Middles Ages portion of the test was used as a control measure between the two groups
because no collaboration occurred on that time period. Therefore, the Late Middle Ages
portion of the test was used to measure the performance level of each group.
Averaged objective test scores showed a one-letter grade (8 point) increase for the
Co-Study Curriculum group. This was achieved by adding the 4.41 positive grade shift
(of the Co-Study Curriculum group as compared to the control group) to the 3.58 control
measure. The experimental group performed more poorly on the Late Middle Ages
portion of the test and the +3.58 points compensated for the deficiency.
The improvement in test scores of the experimental group over the control group
occurred despite the fact that some of the students were quite adamant about not wanting
to change the format of instruction after years of teacher centered classes. They did not
want to deviate from their set learning pattern which was defined by text reading, use of
worksheets, and instructor lecturing.
Some of the students had difficulty adjusting to the idea that two subjects could be
taught together and had trouble understanding the linkages and connections between
subjects. Also, some of them were worried about their World History class getting
167
behind other classes in subject matter covered because the art consumed more time. Mr.
S was a charismatic personality in the classroom and some of his students resented my
intrusion into their class. In anonymous, written exit surveys, students cited the
disadvantages of the Co-Study Curriculum (Co-Study Program Report, 1999, p. 35):
"Maybe more people would be interested if they understood what this is all
about."
“It put us behind.”
"Boring."
"Hard."
"Confusing."
"Everything."
However, not all of the students were dissatisfied. Several listed the advantages of the
Co-Study Curriculum (Co-Study Program Report, 1999, p. 34):
“It was fun because you didn’t have to listen to someone talk all the time.”
“It would help people to understand history by using visual arts.”
“It teaches you how to draw history.”
“Because it teaches more than only history.”
“It’s good for visual learners, instead of learning from a book.”
“I remembered more.”
“I really enjoyed this. It was fun.”
“It is two classes in one, so that helps. I think people would rather draw or paint
than do bookwork all the time.”
“It might help some people understand better.”
With results and test scores like these from both the American History and Art
Co-Study course and the World History and Art Co-Study collaboration, Jean and I
decided to share the information with everyone. At the end of the 1998-99 school year,
we made a presentation of our findings not only to our principal, assistant principals, and
faculty but also to some district office personnel and one school board member. We
shared our results, showed how it exemplified Connections training, and laid out a future
course for the Co-Study Curriculum program. It was set for another year, or so we
thought.
168
1999-2000 School Year
During the 1999-2000 school year, American History and Art Co-Study was
changed; Jean and I both were assigned American History classes. The most that
Guidance was willing to do was to schedule us in adjoining classrooms during the same
time. We both were scheduled for the same period, seventh period, so that we could
bring our classes together if we wished, and we did. The reason given to us was that we
had not been carrying our full teaching load the previous year and the school could not
afford to continue that arrangement. We saw our students every other day during seventh
period; they were registered for American History only and earned credit only in
American History. Whereas, last year's American History and Art Co-Study class met
everyday and earned two credits: one credit in art and one credit in American History.
Contact hours were reduced by 50% and this meant that the Co-Study Curriculum
students would have less time for the art to reinforce American history content than the
previous year's students. The question was—would we get comparable results to last
year's Co-Study Curriculum group with less time for art projects to reinforce history
content?
Jean reflected (Interview, 2002) on the first American History and Art Co-Study
class and the changes coming for the second year:
I remember the advantage was that you could do an art activity and follow it up
immediately with content so that they could readily see the connection…and since
we saw them everyday, we would constantly reinforce them. Well, I think having
been able to see them everyday also meant that we could move faster. But then
with the every other day, it meant that we don’t have them for the art and the
history, we just have them for the history and we are trying to include the art in
there. We had to squeeze whatever art we wanted in there and still cover what
was required in the curriculum as well. That was very difficult.
We moved forward in developing the most effective Co-Study Curriculum and
delivery techniques but had great concern regarding whether or not one class period
every other day would be enough time for the art to improve student grade performance
in history. We used Jean's other American history classes—three classes—as control
groups against which to compare Co-Study Curriculum test scores. Many of our hands-
169
on projects remained the same but a few from the previous year, deemed too lengthy,
were discarded. A few new projects were added. Of particular interest to the additions
was the beginning of Living History Days, a thematic integration activity.
The American History and Art Co-Study class sponsored Living History Days
which were held each year, for four consecutive years, at a local state park. Part of the
mission statement of the Florida Park Service was to interpret the cultural resource of the
park; St. Andrews State Park did this for RHS by setting up historical reenactments that
lasted over a two-day period. Approximately forty Rutherford students were trained to
participate as docents alongside park personnel who are professional reenactors. Another
thirty Rutherford students helped develop and maintain three of the historical
reenactment stations with the help of their teachers. The types of activities at this event
included crafts such as candle making, preparing food and household commodities
(cooking pork rinds, mullet smoking, butter and ice cream churning, open campfire
cooking, lye soap making), Native American pottery making and dancing, and Civil War
military and medical knowledge. The audience for these activities was other Rutherford
students, consisting of 300 American History students (150 per day), who came to the
park for the day to enjoy this interactive event. Before Living History Days occurred,
teachers from different subject areas—American history, English literature, health
occupations, ROTC, art, and science—who taught juniors aligned their curricula around
the Colonial to Civil War time period. Art students studied American Indian designs,
engaged in clay building, and made posters for the upcoming event. This was a good
example of several subject areas and one grade level focusing on a common theme
(thematic integration).
Jean rated the learning experience of Living History Days in this manner
(Interview, 2002):
Well, I think the hands-on, and actually seeing…because some of them had never
seen some of the things that were used in the homes…making butter…and they
didn’t know what a cracklin’ was (laugh). They do now! And cooking food on
an open fire, that sort of thing…just being my age, I guess I just assumed if you
grew up you knew about those kinds of things. But their range is such that unless
they see it on TV, they would never see it. But even at Westville, we didn’t have
170
all of the park reenactors. They had a chance to walk through but here they
actually got a chance to see them churning the butter. And, we had the fire, the
grease was in the pot, and we were doing the cracklin’.
Alecia, a student who participated in one American History and Art Co-Study
class and two Living History Days, summed up her experience this way (Interview,
2003): “It taught many of the students things they never would have learned in a
classroom. The hands-on experience gave knowledge of what came before and a better
understanding of what we have now.”
The first Living History Days occurred in October during the first nine weeks of
school. By the end of the third nine weeks and several projects later, we were ready to
compare our data. We compared the averaged grade performance of the Co-Study
Curriculum group with the averaged grade performance of the control group, Jean’s other
American history classes. It was disappointing at first glance. The Co-Study Curriculum
group’s averaged test scores were below the control groups' averaged test scores.
Jean had noted during the year that this year's experimental group had many
within it who seemed to be at the basic skill level, i.e., below average, not up to high
schoolwork, short attention span, poor reading comprehension, and difficulty staying on
task. We looked at their GPAs: Co-Study Curriculum group’s average GPA was 2.183;
control group’s average GPA was 2.646. The experimental group’s was definitely lower
than the control group’s; the difference equaled .463 or approximately ½ letter grade.
Then we noticed the same improvement in test scores that we had seen in the previous
year’s American History and Art Co-Study class. The Co-Study Curriculum group’s
performance increased as the year progressed. They improved their averaged test scores
by 11½ points—one and one-half letter grades—over the three nine-week period. The
control groups’ averaged test scores did not increase over the same time period. The CoStudy Curriculum students increased performance, almost the same amount of improved
test performance as last year’s, while the control group did not.
Students expressed their feelings about the Co-Study Curriculum in anonymous,
written exit surveys (Co-Study Program Report, 2000, pp. 11-12):
"I remember patterns and pictures before I remember numbers and
dates."
171
"The projects keep me interested with the information."
"Drawing pictures helps me to remember."
"Well, me being an art lover, it allowed me to be creative and actually have
fun learning while improving my artistic ability."
"It helped me to express myself more and get better at art."
“We actually get to draw.”
“Not as stressful…you are not always just reading.”
“The art gets you into the history more…the other way was boring.”
“I am able to understand better with the art that we do…it is like a visual aid.”
A few students expressed their dissatisfaction (Co-Study Program Report, 2000, p. 12):
“I felt I didn’t have the drawing talent to do this class.”
“You don’t cover as much traditional information.”
“We didn’t get to go through everything because we did the artwork.”
“Too much work.”
Jean and I agreed that despite the fact that the Co-Study Curriculum was taught
during only one class period, the art projects still significantly enhanced learning in
American history. On the anonymous, written exit surveys, 88% of the students said that
art projects helped them to remember history better and 96% said art projects helped
them to understand history better. Further, Jean and I concurred that the students
exhibited growth in ways not shown by objective testing. Growth occurred in students’
art skills, presentation skills, abilities to focus their in-class attention on subject matter,
openness to suggestions, willingness to try new things, greater independence in study
habits, greater self-motivation, and willingness to openly discuss their opinions.
The experimental and control students were compared to see if their average
attendance differed. The month of February was used for this comparison. The data
below reflects that the Co-Study Curriculum students’ average attendance was twice as
good as the control students’ average attendance—absenteeism was cut in half.
Jean and I were pleased with another successful year of American History and Art
Co-Study. However, we noticed something else occurring—in Jean. Her teaching style
was changing from repeated exposure to the Co-Study Curriculum. During the first year
172
of American History and Art Co-Study, it was easy for her to separate the new teaching
techniques from her traditional classes. As we moved through the second year, it was
ATTENDANCE FOR FEBRUARY 2000
(10 Class Periods)
Experimental Group
Control Group
th
7 Period
1
st
5th
6th Periods
Number of Absences
16
13
22
28
% Absent
4.71
5.65
10.00
14.74
Average % Absent
4.71
10.13
Figure 3: Attendance Comparison
increasingly difficult for Jean not to use Co-Study Curriculum techniques in her other
American History classes. Some of the techniques inadvertently filtered into the control
groups. She remembered it this way (Interview, 2002):
And now every time I’m looking at content I’m thinking, “What can we do to
bring some visualization to this so that it will make more sense?” I changed, of
course, yeah. I started to introduce something visual to the content so that it will
stick with them better. Introduction of art has really helped me to expand what I
do in the classroom. Students love it. Just give them a chance to draw something,
even if it looks bad. Just the idea that they could sit down and do something other
than write words.
We decided that for the next school year we would have to find another teacher who
could act as a control for our experimental group. That proved to be very difficult as will
be shown in the following section on the 2000-01 school year.
Karen Collins and Myra Crews
Jen and I were anxious to get others interested in Co-Study. Between 1998 and
2000, the Co-Study Program centered on two collaborations and two courses taught in the
173
Social Studies Department. Our data was showing significant improvement in student
grade performance. We wondered if this increased grade performance could be
transferred to other disciplinary areas. We found willing teachers: Karen Collins from
the Art Department and Myra Crews from the Science Department.
Karen is an experienced high school art teacher and described her career in an
interview with the researcher during May of 2003 (See Appendix B-4a). The following
are excerpts from this interview; please refer to the appendix for the entire interview.
JENNY: Where did you go to college?
KAREN: Valdosta State College in Valdosta, Georgia.
JENNY: What was your major?
KAREN: I have a BFA in art education.
JENNY: Where was your first teaching job?
KAREN: Cairo High School, Cairo, Georgia.
JENNY: So, you’ve been teaching in high school all along?
KAREN: Yes, I’ve not taught in lower grades.
JENNY: What significant things have you learned about teaching others?
KAREN: I think the older I’ve gotten I’ve realized that different kids learn by different
learning styles. I’ve become more aware of it especially by being at Rutherford and
being with other teachers. We have to motivate them and they all learn differently and so
I’ve tried to come up with different ways to help them that have certain learning
styles…to focus in on their learning style…you know to help them prepare and learn
things differently.
JENNY: What have you learned about yourself from teaching? How has teaching
changed you as a person?
KAREN: I’ve developed more patience. I am really a perfectionist and I’ve really had to
be patient with my students because they’re learning and I try to focus on their learning
and not so much on being so perfect. And a lot of times they want to just do enough to
get by and I won’t accept that. Some of them get mad at me because of that. I try to have
patience with them because I don’t want them to give up and because I don’t want to give
up either on them. And it’s just kind of a balance between the two.
JENNY: Describe the classes that you teach this year and the structure of a typical day.
174
KAREN: I teach three: two Art 2-D classes and a drawing class every day. I really
enjoy my Art 2-D classes and I enjoy the upper class that I have in the drawing which
ends the day. I like teaching the lower classes like the ninth graders, but I like the mixed
classes, and that is what is in 2-D. In 2-D, a lot of times they’re anxious…to be there and
to learn about art.
JENNY: They have anxiety about being in art class?
KAREN: Some of them really do…especially those who are not artistically inclined at
all. But, even so, I’ve got a student now…she can’t even color within lines. She is very
stressed at times and I try to make her feel more comfortable, you know. But she is very
artistically challenged.
JENNY: How do you motivate your students?
KAREN: That’s a tough one. I try to pick things, projects, that they have an interest in.
If not the project, I try to convert it to a subject they may be interested in. Like in a grid
drawing, they like to draw cars…but they got a choice of what to draw. And a lot of
times I do give them choices of subject matter and they tend to gravitate toward things
they like. That is the most common way I motivate them…by letting them have a
responsible choice in what they are doing.
JENNY: What is the most important thing you teach?
KAREN: I think color is important. But in drawing, I think learning how to shade
realistically is an important concept because everybody wants to do something realistic.
And when you’ve got shading and tones down and they can do something realistically,
they become proud of themselves and they want to continue. I really think drawing is
something important that I teach.
Karen concluded that she enjoys teaching her two subjects, Art 2-D and Drawing, and
“even though I teach the same subjects I am constantly changing the units and what I
teach in each one so it does not get monotonous by any means” (Interview, 2003).
Karen’s collaborator, Myra, is an experienced teacher, too, having taught in
Missouri before moving to Panama City. In an interview conducted in January 2003,
Myra revealed some of her background and teaching experiences. The following are
excerpts from this interview (see Appendix B-5a). Please refer to the appendix for the
entire interview.
175
JENNY: So, how in the world did you end up at Rutherford High School from Missouri?
MYRA: Well, my husband took a job in Panama City and that is why we came here in
1991.
JENNY: So, you came from Missouri to here? Was it hard to leave your land of rearing?
MYRA: Not really, I was ready to go.
JENNY: Did you like the water and the beaches?
MYRA: Oh, I thought that was fabulous, yes.
JENNY: Had you ever seen it?
MYRA: Yes, we used to come to Florida when I was a child. My dad…his family lived
in southern Florida during the Depression. They had sold their farm in Kansas to buy
prime farmland in southern Florida that turned out to be a swamp. And so, the
Depression hit and they lost everything and they stayed down in southern Florida until
the Depression was over. So anyway, my dad, then…that was his boyhood home and he
had to see the beaches every summer. So we used to come…
JENNY: Where did you go to college?
MYRA: I went to a small college, very small, state college. It’s called Southeast
Missouri State College. Cape Girardo, Missouri. It’s right on the Mississippi River.
JENNY: What is your certification in?
MYRA: Science. Bachelor of Science degree with a major in biology and a minor in
chemistry.
JENNY: What significant things have you learned about teaching others?
MYRA: I think that a turning point came when I…believe it or not…I guess my “how to
teach science classes” in college were just dish it out, just, you know, just be a lecturer.
Just lecture and if they get it, they get it and who cares…you know…whatever. And I
was bored and I thought, “There is something missing here.” When Missouri started their
rendition of the FCAT, we had our goals that we had to satisfy. And as I started to do
that and see what I had to get the kids to come up with and learn, I just started changing
the way I was teaching and do a little bit more…well, just tried to make it more
interesting, I guess. Because I knew they had to remember this stuff because they were
going to be tested in May about it. And, plus, I had the opportunity to go to the NSTA,
which is the National Science Teachers meeting, and that really opened the door to the
176
fact that everybody else was doing the same thing. They were exploring science as an
interesting subject rather than just memorize, regurgitate, memorize, regurgitate. And I
think I was ready to change. I saw that the way I had been taught…you know, teaching
high school like you teach college…is just ridiculous. It is just not going to motivate the
kids.
JENNY: What have you learned about yourself from teaching?
MYRA: Well, I never had thought I was a creative person…never, you know…but I
think I developed that part of myself. I think, in the old days, creativity was “Can you
draw something that looks like it is supposed to look?” And now, it’s like…it’s more
just…I don’t know…putting together parts to make the whole issue come together.
JENNY: So, how has teaching changed you as a person?
MYRA: I think probably the biggest change that has taken place…since my own
kids…(well, they are out of the public schools now but…they graduated last year)…is
having more compassion for the kids. Seeing how their teachers could get them so
confused (they didn’t go to school here), it made me realize that you’ve got to make it
simple. You’ve got to make it step by step. You’ve got to make it where they can take it
away and come back, not the next day, but two days later and still be able to start it up
again. Just making it more simple and logical to them, I guess.
JENNY: Tell me what you are teaching this year and how your day is structured.
MYRA: I have one Chemistry II class and two average Chemistry I classes, two Honors
Chemistry I classes and a Biology class…an average Biology class.
JENNY: What skills or concepts do you want your students to learn?
MYRA: I think that the whole realm of physical sciences, the physical world, is…has a
tendency to be…abstract. And I want them to go away with more of an understanding of
the world of matter. We are living in a physical world and when you talk about the
atomic level it does get abstract. The general population just doesn’t have very much
knowledge of how things operate.
JENNY: How do you motivate your students to get interested in this?
MYRA: Well, I try to bring in lots and lots of activities. We are…the world of science
and science teachers…I tell the kids this and they laugh…we chemistry teachers are very
organized. We are a very organized group. We get together and we have conventions
177
and people bring the best of the best. We share our ideas and I think this is where I pick
up lots of ideas on how to motivate, lots of activities…
JENNY: A hands-on approach?
MYRA: Very much. You can talk all day but until you show somebody something they
are just halfway understanding it.
Karen and Myra wanted to bring together their eighth period classes—Karen’s
Drawing II class and Myra’s Chemistry I class—in order to try a co-study collaboration
between science and art. They decided to use Myra’s first and second period Chemistry I
classes, which did not receive art instruction, as a control group.
The chemistry students had previously studied the effects of pressure exerted by
gases. This lesson was extended further by studying the effects of pressure exerted by
liquids on an object. The Co-Study Curriculum students illustrated the dynamic effects
of pressure due to temperature change by drawing a sequence of events. A drawing of
four stages—“empty” can, can heated on a hot plate, can placed into water, crushed
can—showed the effects of water pressure on an empty soda can whose gaseous contents
had been dispersed through the addition of heat. Students learned the skills of
perspective, shading, and pointillism. Perspective and shading were used to realistically
and accurately draw the soda can and its details, such as lettering and logos. Pointillism
was used to show the molecular activity from the liquid water, the gases of the air, and
the water vapor.
All of Myra’s Chemistry I students were given the same quiz on the process and
the Co-Study Curriculum group had a phenomenal 29 point grade increase (four letter
grades) over the control groups. Myra said (Co-Study Program Report, 2000, p. 40) she
saw “for the first time how an art teacher’s teaching techniques are different from her
own yet very complimentary to the learning process.” She said that the Co-Study
Curriculum students gave much better written explanations of the observed scientific
process than those in the control group.
Myra expressed her frustration at teaching this unit in previous years (Interview,
2003):
I remember the frustration, believe it or not, of “This is the most fantastic
section…I absolutely love to teach this section” but I always came away with the
178
kids not being able to explain anything that they saw. They had fun doing all the
activities but they couldn’t express themselves as to why it all happened. That
was my frustration. We picked this activity to do and I was just blown over with
my control group compared to my experimental group. The experimental group
actually being students who were much lower academically but after it was all
over their knowledge and being able to express themselves and explain on paper
and verbally what was going on was just head and shoulders above my control
group.
It all had to do with drawing invisible…invisible to the naked eye of
course…atoms. And that is where Karen came in. She showed them how to draw
and how to make force lines and, evidently, just drawing and putting in what you
couldn’t see made it all click with them.
Well, I thought, “This has some merit. This is something we need to start
shouting from the rooftops…that this works.”
Both teachers saw the students in a different light. Myra saw art talent that she
did not know her students possessed contribute to their learning. She expressed it this
way (Interview, 2003):
Now these students that I had in this experimental group were kind of a rough
group…behaviorally. They were not highly motivated academically. But I saw
them being able to draw things. I mean I saw this artsy side of them that I had
never seen before. They drew things and could color to make it look like it was
supposed to look.
We allowed her (Karen’s) art students, many of whom had never had
chemistry—in fact, I think it was, I’m thinking, probably 100% that had never had
chemistry—we brought them to the chemistry lab and I saw my students kind of
step up to the plate and take these students who had not had chemistry, make sure
they followed all the safety rules and…just had the proper behavior. They really
stepped up. They were real concerned that these other students did everything
correctly. It made me really proud of them.
Karen saw art talent that needed to be developed through art classes. In an
interview (2003) she said:
179
I was really interested in how it (the collaboration) affected my students. I didn’t
really think that they would like being there but they did because they got to
participate in the actual lab, too. Then it challenged them because they tried to
draw better than her students. So it was funny to watch them trying to outshine in
their drawing abilities over hers. I really saw a lot of potential drawers as I taught
this and I would persuade them to take drawing classes.
Both teachers saw the art students, many of whom had never taken a chemistry
class, become active participants in the learning process by enthusiastically joining with
the chemistry students in the scientific experiment. Karen summed up her feelings this
way:
Planning with a colleague, Myra, who taught a different subject area, Chemistry I,
was quite a different experience. I was very apprehensive with the Co-Study
initially because I did not believe my Drawing II students would be challenged
sufficiently. However, we were very much in tune from the beginning stages of
planning with recognizing and meeting the needs of all the students involved.
Even though the performance-based assessment project would be centered around
what her chemistry students needed to know and reinforce, a drawing project
would, also, meet the needs and even challenge my students as well. A subject
was chosen which appealed to all students…a soda can! A detailed soda can
would be drawn, complete with logos, color, and details, both before and after a
lab experiment. The results of the drawings were awesome! The chemistry
students who did the drawing assignment were able to remember and retain what
was learned better than a control group who did not do the drawing. Both Myra
and I were extremely pleased with the results of the Co-Study even though it took
quite a bit of planning. (Co-Study Program Report, 2000, p. 41)
In a subsequent interview (2003), Karen elaborated further:
I really enjoyed working with another teacher. So many times I am working
alone or I’m getting feedback off of other art teachers but it’s never with a teacher
of a different subject. And that was an experience because I never really cotaught or team taught a class. That experience was totally new. Myra and I
worked together really well. We played off of each other and sometimes I’d fill
180
in certain sentences for her and she would me. Even though I’m not a chemistry
teacher but I have had chemistry…and I just think we worked really well together.
I have never in my teaching career…and that’s 27 years…worked with
another teacher. I really liked doing that. Like I said, Myra and I worked
together and came up with this one assignment. We keep saying we are going to
get back together and it’s hard.
Jean and I ended the school year with another presentation to RHS faculty and
administrators and Bay District Schools office personnel of the results and highlights of
the Co-Study Program—our own American History and Art Co-Study Course and Karen
and Myra’s Chemistry and Art Co-Study Collaboration. We asked Guidance to give us a
World History and Art Co-Study class for the next school year as well as to maintain our
American History and Art Co-Study class.
2000-2001 School Year
The year began with Jean and I looking for another social studies teacher whose
American history students could act as a control group against our American History and
Art Co-Study class. Mr. T became our control. However, it proved very difficult to
coordinate with him and the data we eventually collected was insufficient to draw any
conclusions.
Guidance gave us a World History and Art Co-Study class consisting of the ninth
grade Acceleration Academy students. The Acceleration Academy was for students who
had scored low on the FCAT in the eighth grade and were kept together as a group in the
ninth grade for remediation. They were labeled dropout prevention students. During the
tenth grade, they were mainstreamed into all classes except for English and World
History and Art Co-Study. We used Mr. D's world history classes as a control to
compare but it was like comparing apples and oranges. Our students were performing
way below his classes. However, we noticed the same thing we did earlier with our first
two American History and Art Co-Study classes. The Co-Study Curriculum group’s
averaged test scores improved over the three nine week periods whereas Mr. D's students
averaged test scores, the control group, stayed the same over three nine week periods.
181
2001-2002 School Year
The 2001-02 school year brought us our fourth class of American History and Art
Co-Study class and our second class of World History and Art Co-Study. We, again,
inherited the Acceleration Academy dropout prevention students for the world history
class. There were no suitable control groups for either Co-Study Curriculum group so we
were unable to accumulate objective data on student performance. Instead, I interviewed
some of the students. Alecia and Crystal were interviewed from the American History
and Art Co-Study class and Kellie, Christina, and Elizabeth were interviewed from the
World History and Art Co-Study class. These interviews occurred during the spring of
the year after the students participated in the Co-Study Curriculum courses. Plenty of
time had passed for them to reflect on the meaning of the curriculum and its impact on
them. Below are excerpts from these pilot study interviews; please see Appendix B for
the full interviews.
Alecia, who had been in American History and Art Co-Study during her junior
year, thought that Co-Study improved her grade in history and increased her art skills.
The following are excerpts from her interview; the full interview is in Appendix B-7.
MRS. DOSTER: Alecia, how would you characterize yourself as a student?
ALECIA: Well, I guess I would call myself a band nerd.
MRS. DOSTER: What do you play in the band?
ALECIA: Everything…well, just about. But I actually have a seat for a bassoon. Well,
in concert band, which is the band I’m in…I’m the only one. But there is a band higher
than mine and there are two in there so, technically, I’m third chair in band. But, I play
first part.
MRS. DOSTER: Your interests are band, primarily…anything else?
ALECIA: I like to read.
MRS. DOSTER: What are your favorite subjects?
ALECIA: Well, besides band, I like math and science.
MRS. DOSTER: So, you were American History and Art Co-Study last year, which
would be the 2001-2002 school year. And Mrs. Warren and I were teaching that
together, correct?
ALECIA: Yes…in the big room…
182
MRS. DOSTER: The room with the collapsible wall…
ALECIA: The room that was specifically made for Co-Study.
MRS. DOSTER: What do you remember most about the course?
ALECIA: The art…
MRS DOSTER: The art?
ALECIA: Obviously…
MRS. DOSTER: Not the history?
ALECIA: Well, I remember the history because of the art.
MRS. DOSTER: Could you elaborate a little more?
ALECIA: Like the posters that we did…and the oral projects…like, about…the one I did
was the 1920s and the 1930s project. It was on poster and we could bring people in if we
wanted to for a live performance and I did jazz…jazz music of the 1920s.
MRS. DOSTER: So, who is the Co-Study slanted toward?
ALECIA: Well, obviously it is slanted more toward the people who like visual
challenges…and art class. But it gives that challenge to visual…it gives that visual
orientation that you wouldn’t get in some other classes. Well, the other thing they need
to realize is that it’s not only art. They should also make the students aware there is
textbook stuff.
Alecia further elaborated on the effect of the Co-Study Curriculum process and
how it affected her study habits. She expressed her thoughts in this manner (Interview,
2003):
Well, to be honest, I never studied in school before and I got into this class and
with the artwork and stuff, the discussions and everything, people were saying
stuff that I really didn’t know about. So, I’d go and I’d actually go study it…and
it actually caused me to get into other types of literature. The visual orientation
caused me to want to study for once in my life.
Some people…I’m not the first person to say this…it’s been studied…but
some people are more challenged by being given visual orientation than they are
by sitting there and listening to people.
I came away with more knowledge and better art skills. It made it more
enjoyable. It was fun because of the art. It helps. It helps you remember things.
183
Drawing helped me remember things more. In some ways it did help me
understand better…
Crystal was another student in Alecia’s class of American History and Art CoStudy. They sat on opposite sides of the room and did not particularly interact with one
another on a daily basis. The following are excerpts from Crystal’s interview. The full
interview is in Appendix B-10. I started by asking her to characterize herself as a
student.
CRYSTAL: I’m really committed and organized. I work hard at what I do…my work
and stuff. I get my work done…on time or ahead of time. I like to read…Stephen King
books…and Harry Potter. I like anime. I like to write and play video games.
MRS. DOSTER: What are your favorite subjects?
CRYSTAL: English, mythology, art and that is about it.
MRS. DOSTER: Do you have any least favorite?
CRYSTAL: Math and gym. History and science are neutral…neither good nor bad.
Crystal said that while she was taking American History and Art Co-Study she
was concurrently taking a class in World History taught in the traditional manner. She
said that she remembered more of her American history content than her world history
content. In her own words (Interview, 2003):
CRYSTAL: Yes, I remember most of it. I remember more than in world history which I
was taking at the same time…except for World War I and II when both classes were
studying the same thing.
MRS. DOSTER: Can you give me an example?
CRYSTAL: I remember, like, studying the presidents and we had to do Hoover’s plan,
and like the different plans for how they handled the economic depression and stuff.
Each one had their own plan. I remember doing a tornado thing for, I think, it was
Hoover.
MRS. DOSTER: The funnel approach. I think we were doing a pop-up book on the
1930s, weren’t we?
CRYSTAL: Yeah, I couldn’t remember what we called it but it was a tornado. I
remember it was a tornado. Yeah, we were doing a pop-up book of that and the FDR
stuff.
184
MRS. DOSTER: Was Co-Study helpful to you?
CRYSTAL: Yeah, because like the funnel approach shows how it starts from the top and
goes down. They help you remember better because when you see the funnel you see the
funnel approach. When you see the tornado and, then, you put the little things in there it
helps you to understand it.
MRS. DOSTER: So, it’s almost like a diagram of something.
CRYSTAL: Yeah.
Crystal’s summarizing remarks concerning the American History and Art CoStudy class included the following (Interview 2003):
…it helped me remember the information a lot better. I understand by
reading; the Co-Study helped me remember.
…the whole class improved my grade. My other friends had other
teachers and their grades were bad. Many people wanted to get into the CoStudy. Art would help them do better.
Three of the students in the World History and Art Co-Study class voiced similar
sentiments during their interviews. When I interviewed these students they were, at the
time of the interview, taking a traditional American History class the following year. It
was the year after their World History and Art Co-Study class and Jean and I were not
given an American History and Art Co-Study class that year so they were placed in
another teacher’s class. The three students were Kellie, Christina, and Elizabeth. Kellie
and Christina are sisters and Elizabeth is their friend.
Kellie was very positive about her learning experience in World History and Art
Co-Study. She said that she learned a whole lot because the Co-Study Curriculum was
hands-on. In her own words, “It was very organized. I learned a whole lot. We could
see what we were doing. I learned geography.” (Interview, 2003). She described the
class as a mixture of activities including drawing, movies, and bookwork. The following
are excerpts from her interview; the full text is in Appendix B-13.
MRS. DOSTER: Kellie, characterize yourself as a student.
KELLIE: I’m responsible. I do my work on time and I enjoy going to school.
MRS. DOSTER: What are your favorite subjects?
KELLIE: Art, history, and science.
185
MRS. DOSTER: What are your least favorite?
KELLIE: Math, English and all them…like that.
Kellie remembered having fun in class. I asked her if she remembered the
history. She responded (Interview, 2003):
Yeah, because it was hands-on and now when my teachers quote something I
remember it. Co-Study was not just hearing but doing things…making it come
alive. It has helped me a lot this year. I can answer history questions this year. I
usually was not able to do that…in the past.
That was an interesting statement; the Co-Study Curriculum had a residual effect for this
particular student. It improved her ability to handle history content the next year in her
American history class. She, also, found working in groups helpful:
If you didn’t understand something then your friend understood and could help
you. In my classes now, if you help each other they think you are cheating. But,
then, you guys walked around and you helped us, too, so we weren’t cheating.
We were always talking about it. And when we got ready for midterms
and stuff, we would have a big study group. We would go to my friend’s house
and make little cards and stuff.
She, further, credited the Co-Study Curriculum with helping her to pass the FCAT:
My FCAT grade this year was awesome. I didn’t have to retake it at all. I passed
it the first time.
People who don’t usually like reading out loud, you’d encourage them to
read out loud. Usually, when I take FCAT, I hate reading. You know how you
have to read that long thing and answer all the questions. It just helped me to
read. I read at home normally now.
This particular student prospered in a social learning context of working in groups on
projects and participating in reading aloud. However, she lamented that her grades had
fallen during her junior year as compared to her first two years in high school.
Christina, Kellie’s sister, had strong memories, also, of the World History and Art
Co-Study curriculum. Christina’s interview is found in Appendix B-9. She characterized
herself as a good student, one who likes to do her work. She said that history was her
186
favorite subject and science, too, but that she hated math. Christina remembers the
following about the class (Interview, 2003):
Egypt. I remember studying Egypt. That was my favorite. I still have my
drawings and my notebook from that class.
It helped me to, you know, understand it…to have hands-on activities…to
learn it more. I like to learn from actually doing it…than just hearing a lecture,
actually seeing it on slides and stuff like that. It gave me hands-on study material.
I took that class (World History) in middle school and I didn’t even realize
how much was actually in the course until I got into high school and took it again
with the art. Co-Study actually taught me stuff instead of just learning reading
and lecturing and stuff like that. You actually look at the stuff and see the art and
understand the people more. You get into what was in the people’s minds and
how they were drawing.
I can still remember sitting in class and drawing from the slides and the
overhead. It was fun. I learn better by seeing something than, just, you know,
just listening to it and not understanding it…until I actually see it.
Everyone I talked to liked the Co-Study class and I wanted to take it this
year. They didn’t let us have that course this year.
It was just a great, great, great course…awesome. I still have my
notebook and I always look at it and remember things I did in that class.
Elizabeth, friend to sisters Kellie and Christina, was the third student interviewed
regarding her experience in World History and Art Co-Study. Her complete interview is
in Appendix B-11. She described herself as “average”, “responsible”, “trying to work
hard” and listed art and science as her favorite classes. She felt, also, that the curriculum
helped her with reading. She said, “It helped with the reading. I was more interested in
it…in reading by the time the Co-Study was over with” (Interview, 2003). When asked
about the FCAT she responded, “Oh, I passed. The first time I took it, I passed.”
The following are excerpts from Elizabeth’s interview (2003):
MRS. DOSTER: What do you remember most about the course?
ELIZABETH: How much I learned and how easy it was to remember things because we
drew so much and were so involved with the subject.
187
MRS. DOSTER: Did you find the Co-Study Curriculum helpful?
ELIZABETH: Oh, yeah, because I know I wouldn’t have remembered if it wasn’t for the
art portion of the subject.
MRS. DOSTER: Did it help you to understand?
ELIZABETH: A lot, yeah.
MRS. DOSTER: Do you think it improved your grade?
ELIZABETH: Oh, yeah. It got me more involved with it because if I hadn’t had it then I
wouldn’t have been so in tune with what was going on.
MRS. DOSTER: Was there a favorite project you did or a favorite type of art that you
did?
ELIZABETH: The lettering…the lettering…was my favorite part.
MRS. DOSTER: When did we do lettering?
ELIZABETH: When we were studying the…I can’t even remember now…the
Egyptians…the hieroglyphics.
She felt the following type of student would benefit from the Co-Study
Curriculum:
The kind of student who is, maybe, not slow per se but it’s kind of harder for
them to learn…unless you are doing hands-on activities. I’m the type of student
where it’s hard for me to learn unless I’m involved with the subject.
With results like these Jean and I did not think the future of the Co-Study
Program was in jeopardy. However, Guidance did not schedule us to teach together for
the 2002-03 school year.
2002-2003 School Year
Jean was scheduled to teach all American History classes except for one World
History class. I received two World History classes. My World History classes did not
share the same time slot or location as in previous years. This was the first year since we
started the Co-Study Program that we would not be teaching together. Despite our not
being able to teach together, it did not really stop either of us from teaching with CoStudy Curriculum methods. I asked Jean to reflect on her experience as a teacher using
Co-Study Curriculum methods. I wondered to what extent it had influenced her teaching
188
style, even when I’m not in the classroom with her. She responded in an interview
(2002):
Having reflected on this quite heavily, I think I am different. I am different in that
the planning I do for units, now, always includes graphics or visuals. Visuals may
be used to introduce, to support, to summarize unit content. At some point in the
study of a unit, the production of a visual by each student has become a
requirement. I have really changed. Before I began working with you, visuals
were randomly included. That change for me has been positive. I believe the
change for my students has been positive as well because the production of a
visual that supports the content provides them with another assessment tool.
I asked her if our time spent together in the whole Co-Study Curriculum
experience would affect how she would teach in the future without me in the classroom
with her. She answered me this way:
I think what I am doing right now is just looking for visuals, things I can use to
hone in on the content and revising some of the old ones. I look back now and
say I could have done this, this, and this…so it’s a matter of introducing new
ones…because I haven’t done this with every unit. But the intent is to do that...
fine-tuning and introducing new visuals to support the content.
On the first day of class with my world history students, I told them that they
were in World History and Art Co-Study. They would receive the same credit as their
friends in other world history classes, use the same textbooks, cover the same history
material but that my teaching methods were different. They would be doing art. I had
decided that since they had not requested this class, I needed for them to know right from
the beginning what it was all about. On that first day they were doing contour drawings
of their hands and shoes. On the second day of class, they were doing a contour drawing
of the world map. I quickly explained the research angle to them and handed them a
survey to complete, asking only for their gender as identification.
My fifth and sixth period World History and Art Co-Study classes were typical
tenth grade regular world history classes. One had 28 students, the other 29. They
followed the demographics of Rutherford High School fairly closely: approximately onehalf male and one-half female, two-thirds white and one-third minority, although sixth
189
period has a few more minority students. When I handed both classes the survey, the
students had completed our Introductory Unit and taken a test on it but had not yet
received their test scores. The first question on the survey asked them how much they
thought studying art and history together would help their history grade. The combined
results of both classes showed that 54% thought it would help a lot or a whole lot and
39% thought it would help a little. In other words, a total of 93% of the students thought
that art would help their history grade in some fashion. Only 7% thought it would have
no effect. Also, 69% of the students in the two classes combined thought that drawing
the world map helped them to remember better the locations of the items on the map test
and to understand better the world map. At this point, I felt they were willing to work
with me and the Co-Study Curriculum.
After a month of classes, it was determined at Rutherford that enrollment had
increased, new teachers must be hired, and classes leveled. Some of my students were
shifted to another world history class. Francine was one of them but did not want to
leave. She told me a few weeks after the transfer that she felt a little frustrated. She said,
“I miss the art because the art helped me understand the history.” She said the other class
was boring because it was only lecture and worksheets and her grade had dropped by one
letter.
Toward the end of the first semester, the students and I were getting to know each
other quite well. They seemed to enjoy the class and there were few failures. Most
failures were due to non-attendance. I saw them grow with their art. Looking back over
the semester, I was pleased. I, especially, remembered our unit on the Prehistoric Period
because it had a lot of "firsts." It was the first time for looking at slides. Students
enjoyed looking at and drawing the paintings on the walls of Lascaux and Altamira
caves. It was our first "talk about art", our first art criticism of early prehistoric
sculptures. It was our first studio experience; students created a cover for their unit
notebooks.
As we progressed to the next unit, I noticed that some students were having
trouble trusting their drawing sense. After learning about Sumerian society and its art, I
announced that their activity was to draw a Sumerian, a cylinder seal, or a monster in the
middle of the paper. After that, they were to label the top of the page "Accomplishments
190
of the Sumerians" and place, around their drawing, things that this ancient civilization
had accomplished. Most of the students jumped right into drawing. Solomon, however,
was busily tracing a Sumerian man. I asked him why and said, "You can draw that…I
know you can." I told him to leave the tracing on the paper but to add something else
that he drew. I walked away and returned a few minutes later. Solomon had drawn a
very good monster and seemed very pleased with himself.
Some students, though, were difficult to reach. Jackson was one of them. He was
bright but did not apply himself. I asked him why and he responded, "I listen, usually
always, but don't always do the work. I listen to the art but don't do the projects. But I
see others who are benefiting from the art" (Interview, 2003). I feared I had an audio
learning style student stuck in a visual teaching style class.
In an interview, conducted toward the end of the school year, Jackson explained
further his feelings (Interview, 2003):
MRS. DOSTER: Did you find the Co-Study Curriculum helpful?
JACKSON: In some ways…I mean…I learned locations on a map. Not the drawing of
the map…the looking at the map. I don’t like drawing. It’s just not fun to draw.
MRS. DOSTER: So you don’t like to draw. Did you find the drawing helping you to
understand the subject matter any better, even though you didn’t like it?
JACKSON: Maybe a little bit…parts of it…especially locations.
MRS. DOSTER: Did you see any students that you felt benefited from the Co-Study
Curriculum?
JACKSON: Yes, that girl that just walked in the door.
MRS. DOSTER: And what type of students are those?
JACKSON: People who look like her and stuff…with papers hanging out of her book
bag. I saw others who were benefiting and enjoying the art…those who learn by doing
more.
He characterized himself as a student who made “normal grades”, that is, “Cs”,
and favored “anything involving computers...and math.” He said, “I am unwilling in
some classes, namely history, art, English.” The following are more excerpts from his
interview; his complete interview is in B-12.
MRS. DOSTER: What type of student benefits from Co-Study?
191
JACKSON: A person who likes art, obviously. A person who likes to do things by
hand…who doesn’t like computers.
MRS. DOSTER: You think you can’t do both…you can’t do art and computers?
JACKSON: I think it is possible but a lot of people are either…very…they like it one
way or the other. They are very organized…either that or they like art.
Charles, on the other hand, seemed to be extremely visual and receptive to doing
art. He was the second student interviewed regarding the World History and Art CoStudy curriculum. The following are excerpts from his interview toward the end of the
school year; the full interview is in Appendix B-8.
MRS. DOSTER: What do you remember about World History and Art Co-Study?
CHARLES: I remember drawing a lot of maps…and I think that helped me a lot because
it gave me a better understanding of the area…and it gave me, like, visual pictures of the
area so that when I was reading in the book and it said people moved to certain places I
could understand by looking back in my head at the map.
MRS. DOSTER: So you had a visual image in your head going on when you were
reading? You could locate it visually?
CHARLES: Yeah, kind of like making a movie.
MRS. DOSTER: Do you remember any other type of art besides making maps?
CHARLES: Oh, yeah, we did a lot of buildings from ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia
and the caves…I remember that.
MRS. DOSTER: Do you remember the content of the course? By that I mean the history
part of it and not just the art.
CHARLES: I remember the history because the art helped me out a lot. I remember way
back to Egypt and before…to the Neanderthals and the Cro-Magnon people…and all the
way up to where we are now in the Middle Ages.
MRS. DOSTER: Was Co-Study helpful to you?
CHARLES: Yeah, it was very helpful. Not only did it help in history, it helped in other
subjects, too…like in science because we were studying about the first humans in science
and I remembered it from the history class.
MRS. DOSTER: That’s interesting. You are actually linking different classes together,
connecting different classes together. Has that ever happened before?
192
CHARLES: Yep, you can do it in science and math, too. They kind of link together.
MRS. DOSTER: Do you like to do that?
CHARLES: Yep.
MRS. DOSTER: Does it make more sense to you when you can link knowledge?
CHARLES: Yeah, it’s easier because you don’t have to isolate different information to
different subjects…when you can use one piece of information for different subjects.
MRS. DOSTER: Did Co-Study help you understand better the subject matter?
CHARLES: Yes, it did because…I could understand how people lived by looking at how
they wrote and what kind of weapons they had developed, inventions they made, how
their land was laid out, and how their cities were built...and the castles were built…and
how they had trade skills according to where they lived.
MRS. DOSTER: And, then, to follow that…did it help you remember it better?
CHARLES: Yes, see, I’m a visual person so that anything I draw I can remember,
anything I write down I can remember…and all the bookwork and definitions help me
remember too because if I write it down I get like a picture memory in my head…and
then I take a test and it’s like “Look, there’s number 3”. It is like looking on a sheet of
paper in your head.
MRS. DOSTER: That’s interesting because that is the way I study, too. That is, I write it
down, to study. Some people do this verbally and others do it visually. So, evidently,
you are a visual learner. Did you ever know that before?
CHARLES: No…not before…
MRS. DOSTER: Did you figure it out this year?
CHARLES: Yes, this year I figured it out.
He described himself this way:
CHARLES: I’m a hardworking student that occasionally likes to talk. I do most of my
work at school and I like to study a lot. I’m interested in a lot of things. I want to be a
geography teacher or a history teacher or I want to be a doctor. Get up in college and go
for a long time.
MRS. DOSTER: What are your favorite subjects?
CHARLES: Math, science, English, history, and lunch.
193
I conducted two more interviews of my World History and Art Co-Study students
towards the end of the school year. One was with Michael and the other was with
Samantha. Michael stated that he both understood more history and increased his art
ability during the year (Interview, 2003):
It helped me understand a lot better than the normal classes that are not like the
Co-Study. The Co-Study helped a lot.
I’m not a very great drawer; I can’t do art. But it has helped me to learn
how to and how to practice doing it. Because before, I would be lucky if I could
draw a stick person and now I can actually draw…somewhat of a person with two
dimensions.
In the following excerpts, Michael describes himself and elaborates on his CoStudy curriculum experiences. His full interview is in Appendix B-14.
MICHAEL: Hard-worker. I try my best and I don’t sit there and play around too much.
I try to get down and get the work done. I’m kind of interested in technology and
engineering and stuff. I also like to be a kid outside and play basketball, baseball, and all
sports. Favorite subjects…I kind of like math…a little…I kind of struggle sometimes. I
like history, a lot, sometimes. Then, I also like my technology class because that’s a fun
class.
MRS. DOSTER: What is it that you remember most about the course?
MICHAEL: That we didn’t just study out of the book. We drew pictures and we
discussed it in class. We drew the pictures of the people and the things in the place we
were actually studying about.
MRS. DOSTER: Was Co-Study helpful to you?
MICHAEL: Actually, it was because it helped me understand what we were studying
about instead of reading it out of the book and trying to imagine it. We actually had to
draw it. We went over it in the class instead of me doing it by myself. It was like a
whole group activity thing.
MRS. DOSTER: When you went to take a test, did it help you remember it better for the
test?
MICHAEL: Basically, it did. Even though I didn’t study for most of the tests, it did help
me remember it…
194
MRS. DOSTER: You didn’t what? (laughing)
MICHAEL: Yeah, it helped me remember it.
MRS. DOSTER: So, you didn’t have to study? Is that what you are telling me?
MICHAEL: No, that is not what I’m saying. I’ve never been one to study for a test but
the Co-Study helped me remember it better. When I did look over it before the test, I
basically remembered everything that I knew.
MRS. DOSTER: Do you think it improved your grade?
MICHAEL: Yeah, it did. In all my other history classes I’ve had in the past I always had
a low C in the classes and I have a B average in the Co-Study class. My grade has
improved a lot.
Samantha, the last student to be interviewed and one of my better students grade
wise, was very interested in art. She told me that her dad was teaching her how to paint
and described the picture she was working on at home. I asked if the Co-Study
Curriculum helped her to understand the history better and she responded (Interview,
2003), “Yeah, I really enjoyed it. The art was wonderful and it helped me understand so
much.” I was really surprised when we she said, “I’ve always been really bad in history
and this year I’ve been doing really good.”
Samantha characterized herself as “generally a good student” that “works hard”.
Her interests included art, reading, and sports and her favorite subjects were English, art,
and mythology; she did not like math. In the following excerpts, she delved deeper into
her views on the Co-Study curriculum process. Samantha’s full interview is in Appendix
B-15.
MRS. DOSTER: In what way was Co-Study helpful to you?
SAMANTHA: The art and especially the maps helped me to understand the projects we
had to do.
MRS. DOSTER: So it helped you get a fix on your location in the world. Did it help you
understand the subject matter any better?
SAMANTHA: Yes, a little…by looking at the art I could understand their culture more.
MRS. DOSTER: When it came time to take a test, did it help you remember any of the
subject matter better?
195
SAMANTHA: Oh, definitely. I have a pictographic memory and looking at pictures is
easier than reading it out.
MRS. DOSTER: Would you call yourself a visual learner?
SAMANTHA: Yes.
MRS. DOSTER: And you remember pictures rather than words?
SAMANTHA: Yes. This sort of class definitely helps visual learners. I usually hate
history but I’ve never had really good teachers. You know, like it’s history out of the
book. You know, “Just read out of the book and your test is on so and so date.” This
helps me understand it better.
MRS. DOSTER: So what type of student benefits from Co-Study?
SAMANTHA: A visual learner. People who are very visual and like hands-on activities.
MRS. DOSTER: What do you think a visual learner is? What does that mean to you?
SAMANTHA: A visual learner learns best from hands-on activities, looking at
something instead of just reading it from a book.
MRS. DOSTER: When teachers are lecturing, do you have a problem understanding
what they are saying?
SAMANTHA: Yeah, I’m not a very good audio learner. I tend to zone out a lot unless,
you know, I’m doing something right that moment.
MRS. DOSTER: Your attention wanders?
SAMANTHA: Yes, I think most teenagers do. We have, technically, the attention span
of a gnat.
MRS. DOSTER: Is there anything else you would like to say about Co-Study?
SAMANTHA: I think it is really great and we should have it more often. We should
have it year after year. A lot of students would benefit from it.
On anonymous, written exit surveys of both classes combined, 81.76% of the
students said that the art projects helped them to remember the history better and 62.35%
said it helped them to understand it better. Four out of five students remembered more;
two out of three students understood more. Art was not held at a disadvantage as shown
by student remarks concerning the advantages of the Co-Study Curriculum:
“You learn how to draw and learn (history) at the same time.”
“You learn more about history and its art.”
196
“Getting to draw at the same time.”
“Because looking at pics helps me see what it is and then I understand more.”
“Art tells what they did and how they acted.”
For five years, beginning with the first collaboration in February of 1998, through
four years of teaching the Co-study Curriculum methods with Jean Warren as a partner,
while watching others implement the methods, and finally, teaching by myself, I have
watched students benefit from using the Co-Study Curriculum. Jean summed it up this
way after I asked her is she had seen any changes in students who had been through a CoStudy Curriculum course (Interview, 2002):
You know, I was thinking about that and I think, because you mentioned you
talked to some we had last year…it takes a while for this to soak in. This is
something different and it can be beneficial and not just what we do with
American and world history but in other areas as well. So, I think it’s like being
at home with your parents, you don’t appreciate it too much then but, when you
leave, you kind of see where they were trying to get you to and that may be the
case with some of those I’ve had. Unlike you, I haven’t had that many who’ve
come back and said “oooh” except for Joey. Every time I see Joey he asks about
that Co-Study class. I think it takes a while for them to realize the impact it could
have if it were expanded to other classes…how wonderful it could be.
I thought back to Joey and a picture came to mind of an enthusiastic young man who
really enjoyed and applied himself in American History and Art Co-Study even though
he was not a particularly good student in terms of objective testing. I asked Jean if that
was her recollection. She responded, “Yeah, yeah. He works at Wal-Mart now. I would
see him at Wal-Mart. I think he works there at night. He often comments it was the class
that allowed him to graduate.”
“If we did it for one, that is good enough,” I said.
She replied, “If we saved one starfish (laughing)…”
I felt that the Co-Study story needed to be told. During the second semester of the
2002-03 school year, we approached the principal with the request that we be able to
teach together an American History and Art Co-Study class during the 2003-04 school
year so that I could conduct this present study. The principal agreed and Jean and I both
197
received a class of American History students scheduled at the same time next door to
each other. I conducted this research during the first semester of the 2003-04 school
year. The results of the research, conclusions, and implications for practice and further
research are presented in Chapter 5.
198
CHAPTER V
RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND
FURTHER RESEARCH
This study examined how a variation of integrated curriculum, called the CoStudy Curriculum, used art in the delivery of American history subject matter. The
study’s research questions are:
1. Will the Co-Study Curriculum process enhance students’ perceptions of their
understanding of American history?
2. Does the Co-Study Curriculum process of integrating art and American
history have an effect on students’ attitudes toward art?
The research methods used in this study, outlined in Chapter 3, are both
quantitative and qualitative in perspective.
The quantitative approach is of the descriptive type yielding quantitative data
such as percentages and frequency counts. The qualitative aspect describes and explains
the phenomenon through the participants’ point of view. The Co-Study Impact Survey
was administered to gather students’ perceptions of the impact of the Co-Study
Curriculum process and its usefulness in the classroom. Interviews of selected students
and teacher researcher observations gave information and insight into student viewpoints
concerning the Co-Study Curriculum. Pre and post assessment of students’ attitudes
toward art indicated any shift in student viewpoints due to the Co-Study Curriculum
process.
The research type is consistent with classroom action research which is applied
research in the classroom. The study was conducted in two classes of American History
at Rutherford High School in Panama City, FL, between August and December, 2003. I
taught one class and Jean Warren taught the other one. We planned together and used the
same textbook and supplemental materials; both classes completed the same assignments
and the same art activities. Our classes were taught separately 90% of the time; they
199
were combined approximately 10% of the time for viewing art images. The following
major sections of this chapter present the results obtained for each research question,
summarize the results, and discuss their implications. The results are organized in terms
of two specific research questions posed in Chapter 1.
Research Questions
Research Question #1
Will the Co-Study Curriculum process enhance students’ perceptions of their
understanding of American history? This research question is answered by the Co-Study
Impact Survey. Two criteria were used for affirming this research question. The first is
based on data from Figure 4 (see p. 202), Percentage Distributions of Student Responses
by Survey Statement. The second is based on data from Figure 5 (see p. 205), Student
Responses by Survey Statement. For data in Figure 4, the research question is affirmed if
51% or more of the responses across all the survey statements is at least “Agree”. For
data in Figure 5, the research question is affirmed if the average ranking across all survey
statements, in both classes, is a positive number.
Research Question #2
Does the Co-Study Curriculum process of integrating art and American history have an
effect on students’ attitudes toward art? This research question is resolved by the Art
Attitude Survey. Data from this survey is separated by class, Doster and Warren, and
displayed in Tables 1 and 2 (see pp. 209-210), Pre/Post-assessment Shifts in Attitudes
Toward Art. This research question is affirmed if the average response shift between the
pre/post-assessment across all questions is a positive percentage.
Research Results of Quantitative Data
Research Question #1
Research Question #1 is answered in the affirmative. Data from Figure 4,
Percentage Distributions of Student Responses by Survey Statement, show that an
average of 71.17% of the respondents “Agree” or “Strongly Agree” across all the survey
200
statements. Data from Figure 5, Student Responses by Survey Statement, explained later,
show that the average ranking across all survey statements is a positive number for both
classes.
Figure 4 below shows the results of the Co-Study Impact Survey (see Appendix
A-1). This survey was created by the researcher to measure student perceptions
regarding the impact of the Co-Study Curriculum process on learning. Each of the
Survey Statements expressed a belief or attitude the students could have formed about the
Co-Study Curriculum process. Each Survey Statement addressed one of the twelve art
activities used. Students were directed to indicate on a 5-point Likert scale to what extent
they agreed with each Survey Statement.
Figure 4 can be interpreted in the following manner. Survey Statements are
charted along the horizontal axis, numbers 1 through 12. Each vertical column displays
the student responses, arithmetically stacked, from Strongly Agree (+2) to Strongly
Disagree (-2) corresponding to each of the twelve Survey Statements. The vertical axis
converts these arithmetically stacked column displays to percentage distributions for each
Survey Statement. For example, column 1 shows the arithmetically stacked responses of
all students to that Survey Statement and the vertical axis shows its percentage.
In totality, the dark grey area in Figure 4 shows the percentage of students who
Strongly Agreed (+2) and Agreed (+1) to each Survey Statement. The light grey area
represents students who were neutral (0) about Survey Statement. The white area
represents students who Disagreed (-1) and Strongly Disagreed (-2). The horizontal line
at 50% represents the acceptance point for Research Question #1. Affirmation for
Research Question #1 was defined as, “if 51% or more of all responses across all survey
statements is ‘Agree or Strongly Agree’ Research Question #1 is affirmed”. Below are
the percentages by Survey Statement:
SURVEY STATEMENTS
% AGREED/STRONGLY AGREED
1. Illustrating the historical themes (for example, politics)
80%
helped me to understand them.
2. The pictures of transportation helped me to understand
the effects of technological changes on American life.
201
74%
Figure 4: Co-Study Impact Survey Percentage Distributions of Student Responses by
Survey Statement
(Cumulative Date from Doster”s & Warren’s Classes)
202
3. Arranging the transportation pictures from the oldest to
68%
the newest helped me to realize the historic sequence
of inventions in American history.
4. The Venn diagram helped me to understand the
74%
economic and social interactions between the Native
Americans and the Europeans.
5. Drawing and illustrating my map of the 13 colonies
82%
helped me to understand the economic and social
differences among the colonies.
6. Viewing Colonial American pictures helped me to
78%
understand the colonists’ way of life.
7. Viewing Revolutionary War pictures helped me to
70%
understand the military events of the war.
8. Drawing the Constitutional Tree project helped me to
74%
understand the formation and organization of our
government.
9. Paintings, neoclassical architecture & sculpture helped
70%
me to visualize the people, places, and the political events
of the Constitutional period.
10. Completing the Civil War Visual Vocabulary project helped
66%
me to understand military and economic events of the war.
11. Completing the Reconstruction Visual Concept project helped 56%
me to understand military and economic events of
Reconstruction.
12. Brady’s photography helped me to understand the death
62%
and destruction of Civil War battles.
Figure 5, below, further shows the results of the Co-Study Impact Survey (see
Appendix A-1). Again, Survey Statements are charted along the horizontal axis, numbers
1 through 12. However, each Survey Statement is viewed in a different manner. Rather
than showing the arithmetically stacked responses and their corresponding percentages,
Figure 5 summed all responses for each Survey Statement and reflects its net value. This
203
presents a weighted value of responses rather than a percentage. For example, if a
Survey Statement received a large number of Agrees (+1) it could have supported the
acceptance of Research Question #1 in Figure 4. However, in Figure 5, what is being
determined is the degree of positiveness or negativeness associated with the responses to
each Survey Statement. Specifically, several “Strongly Disagrees” (-2) could weaken or
even offset the “Agrees” (+1) even though the “Agrees” represented a majority of the
responses. In other words, the researcher looked at the same data through a different
lens. Figure 4 examined the percentage of responses and Figure 5 the weighting or
quality (net value) of the responses.
The vertical axis in Figure 5 displays the Aggregated Response Values, which is
the net sum of all student responses. For example, Survey Statement 1 received an 80%
“Agree” or “Strongly Agree” student response in Figure 4. In Figure 5 it received a net
or Aggregated Response Value of +22 for Doster’s Co-Study Class and +24 for Warren’s
Co-Study Class.
Each Survey Statement has a point value on its vertical line. Each point value is
the sum of all the positive and negative responses by all the students to each Survey
Statement. These points are connected by a different graph line for each class. The solid
line represents the responses from Doster’s Co-Study Class and the dotted line represents
the responses from Warren’s Co-Study Class.
The horizontal line at “0” in Figure 5 represents the affirmation point for
Research Question #1. Affirmation for Research Question #1 was defined as “if the
average ranking across all survey statements, in both classes, is a positive number
Research Question #1 is affirmed.”
The data produced an average sum of all student responses to all Survey
Statements for Doster’s class of +19.75 and for Warren’s class +18.83. Therefore,
Research Question #1 was affirmed. The data reflected in Figure 5 further strengthens
the support for affirming Research Question #1 because the amount of negative responses
within each survey statement did not significantly weaken its Aggregated Response
Value.
204
Figure 5: Co-Study Impact Survey Student Responses by Survey Statement
205
Research Question #2
Upon reviewing the Art Attitude Survey’s pre and post assessment shifts shown in
the data of Tables 1 and 2, student responses to the eighteen statements produced an
average positive percentage shift in both Warren’s class (+5.17%) and Doster’s class
(+3.28%). Tables 1 and 2 display the percentage of those students who “Strongly
Agreed” or “Agreed” during the pre and post assessments to each of the eighteen survey
statements. For example, in Doster’s class, Table 1, 22 students (85%) “Agreed” or
“Strongly Agreed” that art is important in society today, whereas in the post assessment
23 students (88%) did likewise. This is a positive 3% shift in the students’ perception
relative to this statement. The researcher summed all of the shifts between the pre and
post assessments within each class to obtain an average perceptual shift for each class.
Based on these findings, Research Question #2 is affirmed (if the average response shift
between the pre and post assessments across all questions is a positive percentage).
Each survey statement was intended to elicit a student’s attitude toward a different
facet of art. A student’s positive pre/post-assessment shift (perception) is indicated in
some statements as a positive response but in others as a negative response. The
following explains the intent of each statement on the Art Attitude Survey:
1. Art is important in society today. (Positive response shows positive perception.)
This statement delves into the emotional and factual basis upon which a student
views art as a meaningful part of today’s culture.
2. Art is mainly for decoration. (Negative response shows positive perception.)
This statement causes the student to evaluate how art is used in a society, whether
it is purely decorative or has deeper meaning and is reflective of the culture.
3. Art is easy. There’s not much thinking involved. (Negative response shows positive
perception.)
This statement reflects student thinking regarding how much effort and thought
are required in the creation of artwork.
4. Art teaches us about other people. (Positive response shows positive perception.)
Response to this statement gives insight into whether the student can make a
connection between artwork and the culture in which it was produced.
206
5. Art asks us to think about problems in society and the environment. (Positive
response shows positive perception.)
This statement questions whether social issues and environmental issues can be
legitimate subject matter for artwork.
6. Art is mainly for fun. (Negative response shows positive perception.)
This statement describes the primary reason for creating art as having fun as
opposed to things like creating meaning, portraying emotions, or telling a story.
7. The best artwork makes people think about, or look at things in a new way. (Positive
response shows positive perception.)
This statement calls for an evaluation of the impact of art on the viewer, whether
or not the viewer interacts with the artwork as opposed to just viewing it in a detached
manner.
8. Art should be on display in public places. (Positive response shows positive
perception.)
Responses to this statement reveal students’ views on the value of art to the
society, whether or not artwork is a valuable tool for the dissemination of information or
values of the culture.
9. Artists make different kinds of art because they have different beliefs or reasons for
creating art. (Positive response shows positive perception.)
This statement causes the student to discern the reasons why people create art,
such as functional considerations, religion, politics, education, aesthetics, and human
creativity.
10. I feel good when I am creating something in art. (Positive response shows positive
perception.)
This statement reveals the student’s general attitude toward participating in art
activities. A positive response shows that it gives him(er) pleasure to create artwork.
11. I practice art activities in my free time. (Positive response shows positive
perception.)
Students who respond positively to this statement acknowledge that they value the
act of creating artwork.
207
12. I find the artwork of other people to be interesting. (Positive response shows positive
perception.)
Students who respond positively to this statement exhibit a tendency to be open to
and aware of the creativity of others.
13. I think art lessons help me in other schoolwork. (Positive response shows positive
perception.)
A positive response to this statement is evidence that the student is aware of the
nature of art that allows it to integrate easily and successfully with other subject matter to
increase learning and understanding.
14. I think I do art well. (Positive response shows positive perception.)
A positive response to this statement demonstrates a student’s self-confidence in
his or her own artwork.
15. Doing art gives me pleasure. (Positive response shows positive perception.)
This statement is the same as #10 and reveals the student’s general attitude toward
participating in art activities. A positive response shows that it gives him(er) pleasure to
create artwork.
16. I can draw well. (Positive response shows positive perception.)
This statement is similar to #14 in that a positive response to this statement
demonstrates a student’s self-confidence in his or her own drawing ability.
17. I usually like my artwork. (Positive response shows positive perception.)
Students who respond favorably to this statement take pride in the creation of
their own art.
18. I do not feel good when I am doing something in art. (Negative response shows
positive perception.)
This statement is the opposite of statement #10 and reveals the student’s general
attitude toward participating in art activities. A positive response shows a dislike for
creating artwork.
208
Table 1: Art Attitude Survey
Pre/Post-assessment Shifts in Attitudes Toward Art
Doster’s Co-Study Class
PRE
POST
SA/A
SA/A
1. Art is important in society today.
85% (22)
88% (23)
2. Art is mainly for decoration.
23% (6)
16% (4)
3. Art is easy. There's not much thinking involved.
15% (4)
20% (5)
4. Art teaches us about other people.
77% (20)
69% (18)
5. Art asks us to think about problems in society and the environment.
38% (10)
50% (13)
6. Art is mainly for fun.
7. The best artwork makes people think about, or look at things in a
new way.
42% (11)
46% (12)
77% (20)
92% (24)
8. Art should be on display in public places.
9. Artists make different kinds of art because they have different beliefs
or reasons for creating art.
85% (22)
88% (23)
96% (25)
80% (21)
10. I feel good when I am creating something in art.
50% (13)
62% (16)
11. I practice art activities in my free time.
39% (10)
58% (15)
12. I find the artwork of other people to be interesting.
65% (17)
70% (20)
13. I think art lessons help me in other schoolwork.
43% (11)
62% (16)
14. I think I do art well.
50% (13)
54% (14)
15. Doing art gives me pleasure.
54% (14)
54% (14)
16. I can draw well.
31% (8)
31% (8)
17. I usually like my artwork.
46% (12)
50% (13)
4% (1)
15% (4)
STATEMENT
18. I do not feel good when I am doing something in art.
N = 26
Data shows both the percent of total cases and number of cases
209
Table 2: Art Attitude Survey
Pre/Post-assessment Shifts in Attitudes Toward Art
Warren’s Co-Study Class
PRE
POST
SA/A
SA/A
1. Art is important in society today.
71% (17)
67% (16)
2. Art is mainly for decoration.
42% (10)
33% (8)
3. Art is easy. There's not much thinking involved.
21% (5)
21% (5)
4. Art teaches us about other people.
63% (15)
83% (20)
5. Art asks us to think about problems in society and the environment.
33% (8)
46% (11)
6. Art is mainly for fun.
7. The best artwork makes people think about, or look at things in a
new way.
54% (13)
25% (6)
79% (19)
67% (16)
8. Art should be on display in public places.
9. Artists make different kinds of art because they have different beliefs
or reasons.
75% (18)
67% (16)
92% (22)
75% (18)
10. I feel good when I am creating something in art.
58% (14)
42% (10)
11. I practice art activities in my free time.
38% (9)
46% (11)
12. I find the artwork of other people to be interesting.
71% (17)
71% (17)
13. I think art lessons help me in other schoolwork.
21% (5)
38% (9)
14. I think I do art well.
21% (5)
38% (9)
15. Doing art gives me pleasure.
33% (8)
42% (10)
16. I can draw well.
13% (3)
21% (5)
17. I usually like my artwork.
17% (4)
29% (7)
18. I do not feel good when I am doing something in art.
25% (6)
17% (4)
STATEMENT
N = 24
Data shows both the percent of total cases and number of cases
210
Research Results of Qualitative Data
Student Interviews
Interviews provide meaning and context to the research questions. Four students
were interviewed for the present study: Anna, David, Ernest, and James. The selection
process for these four students was discussed in Chapter 3. Excerpts from these
interviews are used in discussion in the sections that follow. Please see Appendix C for
the full text of the interviews.
Relevant Student Responses to Research Question #1
All four of the interviewees responded that the Co-Study Curriculum helped them
to understand American history content better. Anna, a student in my class, described
herself as an average student that tried “to do good work” and pass her classes (Interview,
2004). Her favorite subjects are art and sign language and her least favorite is math. She
does not participate in any extracurricular school activities but she does have a part-time
job, working 18-20 hours per week in a local restaurant. Her parents play a very
supportive role in her life. Anna expressed it this way in the following excerpts from her
interview. The full text of her interview is in Appendix C-2.
MRS. DOSTER: Who encourages you to do well in school?
ANNA: My parents.
MRS. DOSTER: Who has influenced you the most?
ANNA: My mom.
MRS. DOSTER: What does Mom do?
ANNA: She really wants me to do good. She talks to me about it and sets examples and
tries to talk to me about it and get involved with things that I am doing.
Then I asked about her experiences in school and with art classes taken in school.
MRS. DOSTER: Have you had any favorite teachers?
ANNA:
Yeah, I’ve had a couple. One of my teachers this year teaches sign language.
She is real fun to be around. I’ve had one or two…in elementary school. We just had a
lot of activities to do and a lot of field trips and fun stuff.
MRS. DOSTER: Have you enjoyed school?
ANNA: I don’t really enjoy it but it hasn’t been nothing horrible for me.
211
MRS. DOSTER: Have you taken any art classes?
ANNA: The Art 3-D is the only one.
MRS. DOSTER: Did you have any art in elementary school?
ANNA: Other than basic art you have in classrooms…not nothing extra.
MRS. DOSTER: So you did not have an art teacher come by your room. Your
classroom teacher maybe did some art with you.
ANNA: Yeah, that was about it.
MRS. DOSTER: Were you in Port St. Joe then or Panama City?
ANNA: Port St. Joe.
MRS. DOSTER: Did you have any art in middle school?
ANNA: No.
MRS. DOSTER: And you’ve had one class in high school…the one you are taking now?
ANNA: Yes.
I was curious why she had decided to register for the American History and Art Co-Study
class and, then, we discussed the class.
ANNA: Well, I haven’t took any type of class where, you know, it combined art with it
and I didn’t know anyone else that did it too and it just seemed interesting.
MRS. DOSTER: Has the structure of the class been helpful to you?
ANNA: Yes, I think so.
MRS. DOSTER: In what way?
ANNA: Some of the artwork you have shown us has helped me to remember it and just
different examples, different activities we have done. It gets you the idea about how it
was in that time era. So I think it helps.
MRS. DOSTER: Do the art activities help you to understand the history better?
ANNA: Yeah…I think so.
MRS. DOSTER: Which activity stands out in your mind?
ANNA: I think most definitely the art pieces you brought in for us to look at helped a lot.
MRS. DOSTER: I showed the slides or the overheads and we used the art criticism
method. And, I think what you’re saying is that it helped you more than the drawing.
ANNA: Yeah, definitely, because we talk about it more and we look at someone else’s
instead of trying to make our own.
212
MRS. DOSTER: So, you feel like the Co-Study Curriculum is more effective when you
are looking at art of the time period rather than when you are creating it yourself. Do you
like or dislike the class?
ANNA: I like the class. I like that we do more activities instead of just reading straight
out of the book and doing worksheets like most history classes. We get to do more
activities and more drawing and stuff like that.
MRS. DOSTER: What advantages does the Co-Study Curriculum have over a traditional
history class?
ANNA: Well, I think with all of the maps and pictures and stuff you brought in, I think it
makes the work a lot clearer and easier to work on…easier to understand than just from
the book.
James was also a student in my class. For James, remembering and understanding
were intertwined. He explains in the excerpts below. The full interview is in Appendix
C-5.
JAMES: Um…just all the art and stuff we do helps me to learn it a lot better.
MRS. DOSTER: Do you know why?
JAMES: Yeah…like normally when I see something…um…it just helps me to learn it.
If I like read it, I’m not going to know what I am reading…or I can’t get a picture of it in
my head and I don’t know what it looks like.
MRS. DOSTER: So, the art activities help you to remember the history better?
JAMES: Yes.
MRS. DOSTER: Do they help you understand it better?
JAMES: At a point. There are sometimes…like…I don’t know what I am doing…no
matter what. But most of the activities, they help me.
James characterized himself as an “average person” and one who does “what most
kids do as a student” (Interview, 2004). His favorite subject is science and his least
favorite subjects are English and math. He, also, has a part-time job, twenty-five hours
per week, at Pizza Hut. He credits an aunt with instilling a good work ethic in him by
being a good role model in her working life. Because his father is in the Air Force, James
has moved around a lot in his life.
MRS. DOSTER: Where have you lived?
213
JAMES: Here…and Japan…Washington, that’s about it.
MRS. DOSTER: Washington State?
JAMES: Yeah, State.
MRS. DOSTER: I guess you are military…Air Force?
JAMES: Yes.
I was curious about his varied schooling experiences and art classes.
MRS. DOSTER: Have you enjoyed school?
JAMES: Yeah, I’m not one of those people that hate school. I like going to school every
day. There is every now and then… I don’t want to come…but yeah.
MRS. DOSTER: Have you enjoyed it all along, as in elementary, middle school, and
high school?
JAMES: I didn’t really like middle school that much. Elementary and high school are
pretty good. I don’t know why I didn’t like middle school; I just didn’t.
MRS. DOSTER: Have you taken any art classes?
JAMES: Yeah, I’m taking one right now.
MRS. DOSTER: Oh, that’s right. You are in my Art 3-D class. Have you taken any
other art classes during high school?
JAMES: No, I haven’t. I took some in elementary.
MRS. DOSTER: How often did you see the art teacher?
JAMES: Every day. They made us go every day.
MRS. DOSTER: Did you take art in middle school?
JAMES: No.
I wanted to know which art activities in the Co-Study Curriculum James enjoyed
or learned from the most.
MRS. DOSTER: Which activity we did this year stands out in your mind?
JAMES: I think the one that really stands out is the one where we had to make a tree
with the branches.
MRS. DOSTER: I remember your Constitutional Tree.
JAMES: Yes, my tree was excellent.
MRS. DOSTER: Tell me what you like about the class.
214
JAMES: I like how we get to discuss everything. We look at stuff on the overhead and,
then, everybody gets to put in their opinion on what they think it is. Yeah, I liked that
where we made the path leading to Civil War.
MRS. DOSTER: The Road to War…yeah, that we visualized in a timeline and a path
with vocabulary words and illustrations.
JAMES: Since we had to visualize it, it made me want to do it. So it made me learn a lot
more.
MRS. DOSTER: You said that you enjoyed looking at “stuff on the overhead” and
talking about it. I wasn’t sure what you were referring to in that remark. Could you
clarify that for me?
JAMES: Um…yes…I was talking about when you, like, put a picture on the overhead
and everybody gets to guess what it was or say what they think it is.
MRS. DOSTER: So, when we were doing art criticism…reacting, describing,
interpreting, and judging. You enjoyed that? You found it helpful?
JAMES: Yeah, because...I don’t know…a lot of times if I just look at it I’m not going to
know what it is and when everybody is saying what they think it is I get better ideas.
The other two students interviewed were in Jean’s class: David and Ernest.
David describes himself this way in the following excerpts. See Appendix C-3 for his
entire interview.
DAVID: I was born in Sacramento, California. I’ve lived in California and I’ve lived in
Florida. Well, I lived in Alabama for, like, for three months but…you know…I’m a good
student. You know, I behave well. I have average grades.
MRS. DOSTER: What are your favorite subjects?
DAVID: I like art; I like history; and, I like science.
MRS. DOSTER: What are your least favorite subjects?
DAVID: I do not like drafting; I hate math; and, that’s about it.
MRS. DOSTER: Do you have any hobbies, interests, or special talents?
DAVID: I can…I can draw pretty well and I put together the little plastic model kits, you
know…yeah.
MRS. DOSTER: Of what?
DAVID: Of cars.
215
MRS. DOSTER: Have you enjoyed school?
DAVID: Yeah.
MRS. DOSTER: Have you taken any art classes?
DAVID: I’ve taken Art 2-D; I’ve taken Art 3-D; taken Drawing I; taken Painting.
MRS. DOSTER: You’ve taken a lot. You have taken a lot of what we have to offer here.
Did you take any art in elementary school?
DAVID: All the art classes I took was down here. It was at Southport Elementary.
MRS. DOSTER: How often did you see an art teacher?
DAVID: I think it was every two days or something.
MRS. DOSTER: Did you take any art in middle school?
DAVID: Nope. I don’t think they have any.
MRS. DOSTER: Did you elect to take American History and Art Co-Study or were you
placed in the class?
DAVID: Well, the first year, World History and Art Co-Study, I was placed in it and
then, in the second year, I signed up for it.
MRS. DOSTER: Has the structure of the class been helpful to you?
DAVID: Well, it’s…you know…the art…well, see, I can draw…so when I draw I learn
stuff. So, we did the Battle of Something or Other, I forgot what it was, but we drew
and…I still remember it, so…
MRS. DOSTER: But you don’t remember the name of the battle!
DAVID: Shiloh…it was Shiloh.
MRS. DOSTER: Do the art activities help you to remember the history better?
DAVID: Yeah.
MRS. DOSTER: Do they help you understand it better?
DAVID: I guess…I mean…I don’t know what you mean by that.
MRS. DOSTER: Well, recall for a test—to remember a name or a place or a date for a
test—is one thing; to understand a concept is another. For instance, when we were doing
the Civil War Visual Vocabulary and the Reconstruction Visual Concept you had to
illustrate that you understood the meaning of the word or concept.
DAVID: Oh, yeah…okay…yeah, yeah, it does.
MRS. DOSTER: Did the art help you then?
216
DAVID: Yeah, it did…I mean ‘cause it helps you get the concept.
MRS. DOSTER: I have noticed that some of the people in my class have trouble
thinking of pictures to illustrate concepts with. So you don’t have any problem with that?
DAVID: No.
MRS. DOSTER: Which activity that we did stands out in your mind?
DAVID: Um…well, we’re doing one now about how America isolated themselves. You
know, when we first started out…isolating ourselves and…you know, the Monroe
Doctrine and all that mess. We just…we just, you know, did that and…the Battle of
Shiloh.
MRS. DOSTER: So, the foreign policy visual that we’re now completing stands out for
you and the Civil War Visual Vocabulary project. What advantages does the Co-Study
Curriculum have over a traditional history class?
DAVID: Well, instead of like listening to somebody talk, you know, give a lecture on
history, or just reading out of the book you are taking part in…in the lesson, you know.
Ernest, a classmate of David’s in Jean’s class, was the fourth student to be
interviewed for the present study. Ernest is a Panama City native, born and bred. He
characterized himself as a “good” student, a little above average, well-rounded in all
subjects, and has “good habits” (Interview, 2004). Below are excerpts from his
interview, the full text of which is in Appendix C-4.
ERNEST: Even though I’m struggling, geometry is my favorite subject.
MRS. DOSTER: Do you work outside of school?
ERNEST: Yeah.
MRS. DOSTER: Where do you work?
ERNEST: In the mall at Burlington Shoes.
MRS. DOSTER: How many hours a week do you work?
ERNEST: A little over twenty.
Ernest said that he has enjoyed school, in general, and high school, in particular. I asked
about his art education throughout his school years.
MRS. DOSTER: Have you taken any art classes?
ERNEST: This year I have.
MRS. DOSTER: What are you taking?
217
ERNEST: Art 2-D.
MRS. DOSTER: Did you have art in elementary school?
ERNEST: I guess that was art.
MRS. DOSTER: Did you have someone called an art teacher who came by or was it just
with your classroom teacher?
ERNEST: It was an art teacher. We had to paint and stuff like that.
MRS. DOSTER: Do you remember how often you did that?
ERNEST: I think it was like once every week.
MRS. DOSTER: What about middle school?
ERNEST: I didn’t have any art in middle school.
I asked Ernest why he registered for American History and Art Co-Study.
ERNEST: Because I like pictures. I like seeing stuff in pictures.
MRS. DOSTER: Has the structure of the class been helpful to you?
ERNEST: Yes.
MRS. DOSTER: In what way?
ERNEST: It like just helps me see what’s going on instead of just having to think it in
my mind. It gives me a better picture.
MRS. DOSTER: Do the art activities help you to remember the history better?
ERNEST: Yes.
MRS. DOSTER: Do the art activities help you to understand the history better?
ERNEST: Yeah, a little more...than usual. I can…I can remember what the picture looks
like then and…then…so I just adapt to what it is saying…like what the questions are
saying.
MRS. DOSTER: Of the art activities we did first semester, which one stands out in your
mind?
ERNEST: The one where we had to look at the picture and we had to summarize what
the picture was about.
MRS. DOSTER: …“summarizing what the picture was about.” Do you mean the art
criticism that we did?
ERNEST: Yeah, I believe that was it…right there…the art criticism.
218
MRS. DOSTER: Half of the projects we did required drawing and the other half required
viewing art. So, you enjoyed the viewing activities better than the drawing projects?
ERNEST: Yes m’am. I like looking at the art. It was very nice.
MRS. DOSTER: You would rather look that do?
ERNEST: Yeah.
MRS. DOSTER: Do you like or dislike the class?
ERNEST: I like it. It’s challenging…interesting.
MRS. DOSTER: Tell me what you like about it.
ERNEST: I like mainly…I guess ‘cause I like looking at pictures. I guess that’s one
reason why I like it. Because I like seeing stuff more than having to picture it in my
mind.
MRS. DOSTER: Do you think the Co-Study Curriculum improved your grade?
ERNEST: Yeah, it improved it a whole lot.
MRS. DOSTER: Why do you think that?
ERNEST: Because like before when I was taking history I wasn’t really doing too good.
I had like a “C” average but now this year I have a “B” average.
MRS. DOSTER: What advantages does the Co-Study Curriculum have over a traditional
history class?
ERNEST: Um…it gives you a better idea of where the history comes from. You can
actually see what’s going on in the history instead of just having to think it.
MRS. DOSTER: What type of student benefits from the Co-Study Curriculum?
ERNEST: Um…a student that, you know, does better learning with a visual than just
hearing about something…well, that likes to see what’s going on instead of just hearing.
MRS. DOSTER: When did you figure out that you learn better that way?
ERNEST: When I got a “B”.
In summary, all four of the students interviewed considered themselves to be
good, average students. All generally liked school throughout their elementary, middle
and high school years; middle school years were their least favorite. No one disliked
school even though Anna was somewhat non-committal and neutral about it. They each
had differing favorite subjects but all, except Ernest, disliked math. Everyone but Anna
had received art instruction from an art teacher during his or her elementary years. No
219
one took an art class during middle school; it seems that they weren’t offered. David was
the only student who had taken more than one art class in high school. In other words,
the students had art at the elementary level if they attended a Bay District School,
received no art instruction in middle school, and three of the four students had taken one
art course in high school. They were not students who had a lot of exposure to art.
However, they all thought that the Co-Study Curriculum enhanced their learning of
American history. They were split on whether making art or viewing art was more
helpful. Anna and Ernest preferred viewing art while David liked drawing, and James
enjoyed both drawing and viewing.
Pilot Study Student Responses Related to Research Question #1
American History and Art Co-Study students, Alecia and Crystal, from the pilot
study had similar feelings regarding the enhancement of the history content by art
activities. This became apparent during an interview (2003) that I had with Alecia.
When I asked her what she remembered, she responded:
ALECIA: All the maps we got to draw…I liked drawing maps. Videos…I liked the
videos. It made it more enjoyable. It was fun because of the art. It helps. It helps you
remember things. Drawing helped me remember things more.
MRS. DOSTER: Did we draw many maps in class?
ALECIA: Gosh, people wouldn’t stop complaining about drawing maps.
MRS. DOSTER: Did they help you remember the geography?
ALECIA: Yes, especially when we had to color like when we did World War I. We had
the Allies and the other guys, Germany and Austria and such. We had to do it in different
colors and we had to do neutral countries in another color so we could tell who was on
what side and that really helped out.
MRS. DOSTER: So, it helped you to remember better. Did it help you understand
better?
ALECIA: In some ways it did help me understand better but there is also other art that
we did, like the posters that also helped. But I also think discussions that we had like
when we presented the artwork and stuff…the discussions that went along with it were
also helpful because they helped to create understanding. Discussions were really helpful
for understanding.
220
MRS. DOSTER: So, every time you had to give a presentation you had a visual?
ALECIA: Yes.
MRS. DOSTER: So, there were no presentations without visuals. Do you think being in
the Co-Study class improved your grade?
ALECIA: Yes, I think it improved my grade.
Crystal, in her interview (2003), concurred:
CRYSTAL: Yeah, it helped me remember the information a lot better. I understand by
reading; the Co-Study helped me remember. I could retain it more because we did so
many things over and over instead of, like, just doing questions and then taking a test.
But we did these packets and we did things like projects and it helped me remember it
better than just doing book questions and taking a test.
MRS. DOSTER: Is there anything in particular you remember?
CRYSTAL: The packets.
MRS. DOSTER: What was in the packets?
CRYSTAL: There was just a bunch of questions and activities, things to match up, fillin-the-blanks and stuff. I can’t really remember very much but I remember they helped
me a lot more because I’d just do my work, get the answers and stuff, and then I’d
remember them on the test.
MRS. DOSTER: Were there any art activities in the packet?
CRYSTAL: Yeah, there were a bunch of them.
MRS. DOSTER: Can you remember what types?
CRYSTAL: Some of them were where we did things from the overhead, and we’d color
some, and we did posters one time and we made a world map one time. We did a lot of
different stuff—cut-out, draw, color.
MRS. DOSTER: All of those activities, did they help you understand the subject matter
better?
CRYSTAL: Yeah, because if you would have just given us a diagram, I wouldn’t have
hardly, probably, looked over it as much but I would have looked over it. But actually
having to fill it in myself, it helps me remember it because I had to fill it in myself.
MRS. DOSTER: Draw it yourself.
CRYSTAL: Draw it myself. That helped me.
221
MRS. DOSTER: Do you think it improved your grade?
CRYSTAL: Yeah, the whole class improved my grade. My other friends had other
teachers and their grades were bad. Many people wanted to get into the Co-Study. Art
would help them do better. Lecturing and worksheets don’t work well for me.
However, Crystal did not think that art criticism particularly helped her. I asked
her if she remembered art criticism and what she thought it was.
CRYSTAL: Art criticism is where you take a piece of art and you evaluate it and you
give your opinion and use…I think it is properties or principles…and you evaluate it on
the elements and principles and see how well it was crafted and stuff like that.
MRS. DOSTER: Do you think that related to the history? Or was that just extra, when
we would do that? (No response) I remember when we looked at one painting by an
artist who had done a painting of a group of immigrants in New York City. At that point
in time, we were studying the effects of immigration during the early 1900s and there
were a lot of social problems given industrialization, immigration, World War I—all of
the changes that had happened in American society—and in that unit we were looking at
an overview of all these problems. When we viewed this painting of an immigrant area
in New York City, we talked about it in terms of the elements and principles but we also
talked about it in terms of what it showed about American society. Do you remember
that and was it helpful?
CRYSTAL: No, not looking at artwork like that. It doesn’t help me remember history
very much. I’m not a visual learner like that. I don’t look at art and remember it for a
time period, like that. I remember the carpetbaggers, though. I remember the artwork for
that because it was funny.
MRS. DOSTER: That was a political cartoon.
CRYSTAL: I can remember them. But I can’t remember someone going and making a
painting…like the guy who did the Spanish Rebellion…what’s his name?
MRS. DOSTER: Goya?
CRYSTAL: And he did that…and I remember that but I don’t remember, like, a lot of it
because I don’t like looking at it and remembering it came from this and it represented
this.
222
MRS. DOSTER: So what you remember more, and what is more helpful to you is the
illustrating or diagramming of the knowledge.
CRYSTAL: Yeah, like actually doing work and projects and stuff helps…like doing
them yourself.
Both Alecia and Crystal preferred drawing as the art intervention method to
improve their understanding of American history. They believed that their recall was
better and that their grade improved because of the Co-Study Curriculum process.
Relevant Student Responses to Research Question #2
All four of the interviewees responded that the Co-Study Curriculum had a
positive affect on their attitude toward art. However, the change was not the same for
any of them. For James, it was increased appreciation. He elaborated on this in his
interview (2004):
MRS. DOSTER: Did the Co-Study Curriculum change you as a student?
JAMES: Um…no, not really.
MRS. DOSTER: Did it make you do anything differently in the way you study, or how
you study, or how you look at things?
JAMES: Well, it made me want to do more of the projects and stuff. And, every time we
got one of those I felt like…I don’t know…I felt better…like happier. I don’t know…I
got excited.
MRS. DOSTER: Well, good! So, it felt good to complete a project?
JAMES: Yeah, because we don’t really do many of those in high school.
MRS. DOSTER: So, in most of your classes you’re not doing many projects?
JAMES: Yeah, we just do textbook stuff and after a while that gets boring…like the
same old thing everyday.
MRS. DOSTER: What type of student benefits from the Co-Study Curriculum?
JAMES: Um…probably the student that actually likes to see things. I know there are
some students…they don’t…they don’t care for art and they would rather do everything
out of the book. It’s easier to them. Some people like to actually see it. I guess those
students.
MRS. DOSTER: You know, there is a name for that. It is called a learning style, a
preference for learning. Some people prefer just to read a book and others prefer to see
223
it… visual learning. Has your attitude toward art changed because of the Co-Study
Curriculum?
JAMES: Well, it made me appreciate it a lot more because I didn’t know it could be used
to teach. I knew people did art and stuff and sometimes I draw pictures but I never knew
it would like help or anything.
MRS. DOSTER: You never knew it could be useful in other ways?
JAMES: Yeah, I didn’t know it helped a lot in history and probably in other classes but
they don’t ever use it.
Anna increased her ability to look critically at artwork. The following are
excerpts from her interview (2004):
MRS. DOSTER: Has your attitude toward art changed because of American History and
Art Co-Study?
ANNA: I think so. I think I criticize it more and look at it more deeper than I would
normally. And…I think so…yeah.
MRS. DOSTER: So, by criticism you mean the art criticism method that we did?
ANNA: Yeah.
MRS. DOSTER: Do you plan to take any art classes in the future?
ANNA: Yeah, I hope so.
David was beginning to link and connect information because of art. I asked him
if the Co-Study Curriculum had any affect on how he looks at art. He expressed it this
way (Interview, 2004):
Yeah, like I can just notice…like, yeah, we were doing something with people
from way back when and they had big eyes. And they believed the eyes were the
windows of the soul or something like that. I just look at stuff and I think of
history, you know. Because I look at some of the Japanese drawings, Japanese
anime, right, and the eyes are huge and I think of the Sumerians.
I probed his thoughts regarding how the art activities had affected others in his
history class.
MRS. DOSTER: Have you noticed any others in your class having anxiety about
drawing?
224
DAVID: Only like people who can’t draw. They don’t like doing it because they can’t
draw, you know?
MRS. DOSTER: Do you think they just say they can’t draw and they can draw okay or
they really can’t draw?
DAVID: Yeah, they say they can’t draw just so they don’t have to do the work.
MRS. DOSTER: As you look around do you see their finished products?
DAVID: Yeah, they are creative. They’re not good looking but they’re creative.
Later in a follow-up interview, I asked the same question, phrased a little bit differently,
about the effect of the Co-Study Curriculum on how he views art.
MRS. DOSTER: Does it make you look at things any differently or think differently?
DAVID: Yeah, I mean like we’re doing Edgar Allen Poe in English class. And, you
know, like some of his stories are kind of insane. You can’t really get a good idea of
what it was like so some pictures would help in there. You know, just little stuff.
MRS. DOSTER: What type of student benefits from the Co-Study Curriculum?
DAVID: I guess those that like to express themselves or something, you know.
MRS. DOSTER: Has your attitude toward art changed because of the Co-Study
Curriculum?
DAVID: Well, no. I mean, not really, you know.
MRS. DOSTER: So you came in with a positive attitude toward art and it remains
positive.
DAVID: Yeah.
MRS. DOSTER: Do you plan to take any art classes in the future?
DAVID: Yeah, I do. I just can’t take anymore at this school because I’ve taken all of
them.
When I asked Ernest if his attitude toward art hand changed because of the CoStudy Curriculum he said, “I’ve always liked art and this, like, made me see…it made
me realize how important art is…to everyone” (Interview, 2004).
MRS. DOSTER: Do you plan to take any art classes in the future?
ERNEST: Um…I don’t think so because like my career…it doesn’t really have anything
to do with art. But I still like to look at art. I’m not a good art person. I like to look. I’m
a spectator.
225
All four of the students interviewed for the pilot study were impacted by the CoStudy Curriculum in their attitudes toward art. James learned to appreciate the potential
role of art in other classes and how it could be used to help teach other material. David
started making cross-curricular connections and agreed with James about art’s usefulness
in other disciplinary areas. Anna began to look at art more deeply and, therefore,
increased her awareness. Ernest, too, enjoyed being a “spectator” of art and realized how
important art is to culture. All four want to maintain a link to art, either by making art or
viewing art.
Pilot Study Student Responses Related to Research Question #2
The interview guide that I used in the pilot study did not specifically ask a
question regarding student attitudes toward art due to the Co-Study Curriculum.
However, Alecia straightforwardly remarked during her interview, “I came away with
more knowledge and better art skills.” (Interview, 2003). She feels that the class
improved her skills for making art. Crystal had a different approach toward the art
activities as seen in the following excerpt (Interview, 2003).
MRS. DOSTER: Do you have to like art to do Co-Study?
CRYSTAL: No, because I didn’t really want to do art.
MRS. DOSTER: But you did it anyway?
CRYSTAL: That’s what you have to do.
The response sounded Machiavellian and emotionally detached. I could not discern her
true feelings but, overall, she appreciated the fact that the art activities helped her to do
well in American history.
Teacher Researcher Observations
It was difficult to teach, help students, and observe at the same time. Sketchy
notes were jotted down quickly in class and typed up later into narrative accounts with
additional commentary by me. Below is the narrative generated from the notes taken
during class sessions.
226
TEACHER RESEARCHER OBSERVATIONS OF THE
CO-STUDY CURRICULUM COMPONENTS
1. Historical Themes Activity
In the Introduction Unit to the study of American history, students were made
aware of themes that run throughout our nation’s history (SS.A.1.4.2). The Historical
Themes Activity required students to read the textbook explanation of five themes—
science and technology, economics, cultural diversity and immigration, politics, and
geography—and write a short summary statement in their own words as well as illustrate
the theme. This activity occurred during the first full week of school and all of my
students were present and attentive. All students were on task at the beginning of the
project. Most worked alone; some worked with others. Three of the students did not
complete the project.
After receiving instructions and reading the textbook, many of my students were
not sure how to get started. Comments such as “I don’t know how to put this in my own
words” and “What could you use as a picture to show politics?” made me realize that I
would have to walk them through it with an example. I got the attention of the class and
we worked through the science and technology theme, how it could be worded, and what
could be used to illustrate it. My example of a light bulb as a representation for the
science and technology theme was accepted because I noticed it on several students’
papers; these students received my example but did not manipulate it any further. After
noticing that, I was careful not to give too many examples to students. I wanted them to
start visualizing and developing their own symbols. I overheard students asking each
other “What are you going to use for economics?” or “This is what I used for
geography.” Once students had an example to follow, either from me or a neighbor, they
seemed to catch on quickly. Students developed their own phrasing and pictures.
Illustrations tended toward single, simplified images rather than complex drawings. Most
were pencil sketches without the addition of color. People were portrayed as stick
figures.
The following images were used by students for illustrating the historical themes:
Science and technology: light bulb, computer, television, telephone, cell phone
Economics: roadside stand, coins and bills, a factory, a retail store, tree and bulldozer,
227
stock market
Cultural diversity and immigration: people or flags in boats coming to America, people
holding hands, national flags, a “melting” pot, religious symbols
Politics: flags, people giving speeches or shaking hands, political buttons and signs,
the Constitution, weapons of war, people seated around a rectangular
table
Geography: globes, world maps, maps of the United States, maps of states
Jean observed that a lot of her students struggled with the concept behind the
theme. For example, most of her students did not have a clue about the theme of
economics. They understood “money” but did not really understand the concept of
economics from reading what was written in the text. Politics and geography, also, gave
her students trouble. She felt her students were not used to visualizing or imagining and
creating. They were interested in having an idea given to them so that they could give it
back as the answer.
2. Visualizing the Technology Theme
This art history activity occurred, also, during the Introduction Unit of the first
full week of school and centered around the same Sunshine State Standard on historical
themes (SS.A.1.4.2). Students were paired and given an image of a painting of some type
of transportation invented in America. Information on the back of the picture as well as
from their textbook was used to develop a short presentation. Each pair of students had
to describe the image to the class, its time period, and tell what effect this new technology
had on the lives of Americans. All of my students were present and participated in the
activity.
My students had great difficulty in understanding the directions and needed help
in their small groups. It appeared to me that what I was asking them to do was something
they had never done before; it seemed like a new thought for them. The activity had
several steps they had to do in sequence: first, identify the image, place it in a time
period, assess the impact this invention had on people living during that time period,
develop a short (2-3 minute) presentation, and then present to the class. Some students
had difficulty identifying the image, especially those portraying inventions made prior to
the twentieth century. I heard “What is this?” more than once. I, also, heard several
228
times, “Now what is it that you want us to do?” I decided to work with each group
individually. As I went from group to group, I made them tell me what they knew and
then I told them what they needed to find out. After all groups were ready, the students
seemed to enjoy making their own presentations and listening to the other students
present. Audience members would ask questions of student presenters; they began
simultaneously applauding or making positive comments as a group would finish its
presentation. The atmosphere in the room was one of interest and exchange of ideas.
Jean’s students, as a whole, were less mature as a group in handling this activity.
They, too, needed help with the directions and images. However, some in her class had
trouble standing at the front of the room and speaking. Some of the boys would play to
their peers in the audience and their friends would respond by laughing at their efforts
and making rude comments. One girl was terrified to get up in front of the class but did
so and gave an excellent presentation. Regardless, they all seemed to enjoy talking about
the artwork as evidenced by their giving good descriptions full of details. For example,
“This is a picture of horses and wagons that delivered milk to houses. This is in New
York City by a bridge and those are motor buses down by the water. This picture takes
place in the 1920s and 30s” (Under the Bridge by Raphael Soyer) (Wolf, 2001 ).
Another example, “This is a picture of some guys going down a river on a raft and
they’re just chillin’ and playing cards. The guy sitting down over here had too much to
drink” (Raftsmen Playing Cards by George Caleb) (Wolf, 2001). Or my favorite, “This
is an 18 wheeler and that red on the front of the truck is blood splattered from the
roadkill” (Tractor-Trailer by Guy Billout) (Wolf, 2001). They were less sure of
themselves when speaking about the impact of the transportation unless it was something
more recent, such as, the space shuttle.
3. Chronology Through Art Images
This was the last art activity in the Introduction Unit. The goal of this activity
was to help students in using chronology, sequencing, and periodization to understand an
event (SS.A.1.4.4). Students were divided into groups of five or six. Each group was
given a packet of six transportation images. These images were similar to the ones used
for the previous activity but there were no duplications. A group leader put the images
face up in random order. The rest of the group had to place the pictures in order
229
chronologically from the oldest to the newest. Once the group was happy with its
decision, the group leader would check the back of the pictures for dates. If the order
was incorrect, the group was told by the leader to try again. This was the second week of
school and, still, no one was absent. All were attentive and involved.
My students seemed to really enjoy this quick, challenging activity. All students
were involved and out of their seats. There was interaction among group members and
debate. “What is this?” “Where do you think this one goes?” “Is the airplane after this
truck?” For most groups, this was a 10-minute activity. Two groups made no mistakes;
one group made one mistake; two groups needed several tries to get the sequence
chronologically correct. The group leaders seemed to enjoy their role as gatekeeper;
especially one girl, Petra, who was a taskmaster and would not stop until her group got
the order right. Her group was one that needed several tries to get the sequence correct.
Jean’s class had similar results and equally enjoyed the activity. The groups were
proud of their expertise in figuring out the timeline. I heard comments such as, “Our
group did it right the first time” and “That was easy for us” and “I knew where they
should all go”. The groups that needed more than two tries learned from their mistakes
and by the process of elimination arrived at the correct answer. The images of older
transportation, such as a steam engine, gave students the most trouble.
4. Illustrated Venn Diagram
This art project was used to illustrate the economic and social interactions
between Native Americans and Europeans during the Age of Discovery (SS.A.4.4.1). It
occurred during the unit on American Beginnings. I introduced the project by showing
several overhead transparencies: a world domestication of plants and animals map (Holt,
Rinehart & Winston, 1995), a map of Native American culture areas in North America
(Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995), an Iroquois quilled buckskin robe (Scholl, 1992), a
Navajo sand painting (Prentice-Hall, 1991), Clallum Women Weaving a Blanket by Paul
Kane (Prentice-Hall, 1991), Canoe Race Near Sault Ste. Marie by George Catlin
(Prentice-Hall, 1991), Portrait of Native Americans by John Wesley Jarvis (Holt,
Rinehart & Winston, 1995), ancient Greek and Renaissance maps of the world (Holt,
Rinehart & Winston, 1995), a map showing European knowledge of the world and how it
expanded between 950 and 1800 (Prentice-Hall, 1991), Haymaking in the Month of June
230
from a prayer book by Pol de Limbourg (Prentice-Hall, 1991), exterior and interior views
of the cathedral at Reims (Prentice-Hall, 1991), Spanish America in 1785 (Holt, Rinehart
& Winston, 1995), a three-dimensional Spanish religious image called a bulto (Holt,
Rinehart & Winston, 1995), and the Spanish Mission San Xavier del Bac in Tucson,
Arizona (Scholl, 1992). These images were used to stimulate students’ imaginations and
show differences between cultures before I gave them a rubric to follow while I explained
the project: a Venn diagram with one circle representing Europeans and the other circle,
Native Americans. The overlapping part of the circles was to be used for illustrating one
consequence of these two groups meeting. Inside the circles, pictures would be drawn by
the students to illustrate various aspects of the social, economic, and political lives of
these two groups. The project was titled, “When Worlds Collide”. We began this project
at the end of the third week of school. By that time the newness of the school year had
worn off and student behavior patterns were beginning to emerge. As a whole, my class
was well-behaved and attentive with a few notable exceptions. I had two very talkative,
loud, extroverted people and one that chimed in with them regularly. It was a challenge
to keep these three males on task. Also, students were beginning to be absent. The
project lasted two days; two people were absent during the first day while four were
absent on the second day. The students appeared interested in the project as evidenced by
no one saying, “I don’t want to do this” or “Why are we doing this?” In fact, just the
opposite, they seemed eager to get started. They indicated they were tired of my
instructions and ready to begin.
Although the students appeared interested in getting started, their enthusiasm did
not spill over to reading and following the rubric. One of our school improvement goals
at RHS was to enhance student reading. Many teachers, including Jean and I, developed
rubrics for students to follow. The rubric acted as a guide and a checklist for students to
follow while doing a project. Although I had read through the rubric with them once, my
students did not want to read and use the rubric. Instead, they wanted to be told what to
do. I repeatedly referred them back to it and to examples of student work from previous
years. After ten to fifteen minutes, I was no longer asked questions about the rubric.
The students used images from the textbook as well as from handouts provided by
the teacher. As with all art projects, a few students finished very quickly—the first day—
231
doing the minimum required. One boy put his head down on the desk to sleep. When
asked about this, I received the response, “I’ve done everything on the rubric.” I
mentioned that he could use color or shading to embellish the project. “Why?” he asked.
My response, “Because it will improve your grade. Don’t you remember the 10 points
allotted to aesthetic quality—appearance—of the project?” Others, at the other end of the
spectrum, wanted to do something very elaborate and would have worked on this project
for a week. I did not hear any of the “I can’t draw” statements. In fact, drawing had
improved dramatically from the last drawing project; there were no stick people! Almost
all of the students wanted to use color and were encouraged to do so. Color, in this class,
is limited to colored pens and pencils and markers. Also, almost all of the students did
not plan to do anything with the negative space in the picture—the background, the space
outside of the circles. There was one exception, James, who put a raging fire around his
Venn circles. He said the fire represented what happened when these two groups of
people came together. When I showed this to the class, others decided to add something
in the background, mostly light coloring to subdue the bright white of the paper or a
pattern to fill space. Jean noticed the same type of lack of concern for the negative space
with her students. We decided at the next class to add some activities for the negative
space. These activities were not drawing but adding information from the text.
The following are the types of drawings found in the Venn diagram:
Native American Circle
Housing: pueblo, Navajo hogan, Eskimo igloo, Seminole chickee, tipi, earthen lodge,
Apache brush lodge
Clothing: loin cloth, deer skin clothing, animal skin, tropical forest clothing, headdress,
snowshoe
Food: peppers, pineapple, avocado, tomato, peanut, potato, pumpkin, corn, squash,
yams, manioc
Technology/Weapons: bow and arrow, hatchet, arrow head, pump drill, spear,
spear point, blow gun
Symbols/Letters: eye mark, broken arrow, buffalo tracks, rain clouds, eagle,
battle scar
232
European Circle
Housing: castle, wooden two-story house, Italian villa
Clothing: suit or armor, ladies dress, helmet, Italian Renaissance male attire,
peasant clothing
Food: grapes, bananas, citrus fruits, coffee bean, olives, beef, horses, wheat
Technology/Weapons: mace, shield, sword, battle axe, one bladed halberd, long bow
Symbols/Letters: shield with design, Gothic letters
Venn Diagram Overlap
R.I.P., tombstone, skull and crossbones, grim reaper (black robe and sickle), Indian burial
mound, Thanksgiving turkey or horn of plenty, foods in the Columbian exchange,
American flag
All of my students finished the project and turned it in. Although the projects
were graded primarily on completion, I had 10 points that I could use to judge aesthetic
quality. The quality of the projects ranged from excellent to fair, with the overwhelming
majority of them good to excellent as evidenced by careful drawing, use of perspective or
shading, good lettering, use of color, planned placement of items, overall appearance, and
neatness. It was obvious that these students put time and thought into their creation.
Their efforts looked like high school level work. Two were “fair”; both belonged to
students who hurriedly finished their projects. Items were hastily sketched and
diminutive in size with no regard for placement. There was minimal use of color.
Jean’s students had an all together lower level of work; it ranged from poor to
excellent. In general, the drawing and use of color was not as sophisticated; there were
few backgrounds. Three of the projects were on a fifth or sixth grade level of art. These
students had trouble forming basic shapes. Lettering was not carefully executed. There
was little attention to detail. Jean had remarked to me that she felt as though she were
teaching a “basic” class (below average). In years past, students had been placed in
basic, average, or honors history classes. The basic classes had been discontinued many
years ago; the below average students were mainstreamed into average classes. She had
some behavior problems starting to manifest, namely a group of 4-5 males who were
loud, rowdy, talkative, and very immature. Their short periods of concentration were
233
broken by talking, joking, getting out of their seats and walking around. They would
periodically involve one or two girls in their shenanigans.
5. Illustrated Map of the 13 Colonies
During the unit on the Colonial Period, students drew and illustrated a map of the
original 13 English colonies along the eastern seaboard. Illustrations included political as
well as economic realities of the colonies along with other pertinent information
(SS.A.4.4.2). This was the third map that the students had drawn this semester and we
were in the fifth week of school. The previous maps drawn were the world map and the
lower forty-eight American states. These maps were used in the Introduction unit of the
course for two reasons: (1) to reacquaint students with political boundaries and
geographic features of America and the world, and (2) to introduce mapmaking to the
students. Students read about contour drawing and completed a blind contour drawing of
their hands before drawing their first map at the beginning of the year.
This project lasted two class periods. One person was absent the first day and
three were absent the second day. Again, I gave instructions following a rubric that was
handed out to students. The mood in the classroom was quiet and focused. All of my
students were on task and I did not hear the comment “I can’t draw” or “I’ll never be able
to do this” as I did previously when they had worked on the first two maps. Evidently,
students accepted as fact that they could draw this map and started immediately to do so.
Even my two male students who do the minimum amount of work were busy and seemed
to be enjoying the process. This time the students followed the map rubric more closely
and would ask questions for clarification. On previous maps, the quality of the maps
varied greatly. For this project, the maps were more consistently the same and more
technically correct. Everyone completed the map and did an acceptable job. There are
those who naturally go for details and others who don’t; this time was no exception.
Students enjoyed looking at their neighbors’ maps and comparing them to their own.
There was no ridicule, however, of another person’s work as there had been in the first
mapmaking experience.
6. Colonial American Images
This art history activity was, also, in the unit on the Colonial Period and followed
the mapmaking project. Its purpose was to help students understand the colonists’ way of
234
life (SS.A.4.4.2). We were in the sixth week of school, two of my students were absent,
and there was an air of anticipation in the classroom. Absent students were given the
overhead transparencies later to view. Students were always glad to see the overhead
projector or slide projector turned on and ready to go. Two or three asked, “Are we
going to draw today?” Jean’s students joined us to view the images and the students were
excited about our bringing the two classes together. I reviewed previously covered
material with some overhead transparencies: a historical map set showing the original 13
colonies as a whole and in three groups—New England, Middle, and Southern colonies
(Prentice-Hall, 1991); a map displaying goods exported and imported from the colonies
through Atlantic Ocean trade (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995); a pie chart showing
ethnic division of the colonial population in 1775 (Prentice-Hall, 1991); and, a political
cartoon. These images set the stage to view colonial art through sculpture, painting, and
folk art. The sculpture was a set of three images of gravestone styles in the colonies, two
from New England and one from the South (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995). The
painting was Penn’s Treaty with the Indians by Benjamin West (Scholl, 1992), a
historical painting depicting William Penn signing a treaty with Native Americans.
There were two examples of folk art: a representation in needlework of the main
building at Harvard and a Pennsylvania German fraktur, an ornamental drawing of
George and Martha Washington (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995). All but two or three
of my students and two or three of Jean’s were engaged in viewing. For those few, the
darkness of the room had prompted them to put their heads down on their desks.
My students enjoyed the sculpture on the gravestones, trying to read the
inscriptions, and noting differences between the styles. I had them pick one to draw and
describe in writing on their own paper. With the painting, I introduced them to the
process of art criticism. I used the Anderson Art Criticism Method of reaction,
description, interpretation, and evaluation (Anderson, 1997). This first time, I used just
description and interpretation. Students saw the name of the painting and the artist on the
overhead transparency so they understood that it was a historical painting. I asked them
to really look at the painting and describe what they saw. Students were willing to and
enjoyed doing so, especially if I prompted them. Time was spent orienting them to art
terms and phrases, such as mood, focus, background, foreground, and the elements and
235
principles of design.
For many of the students, talking about art was a new thought
process. For those who had taken an art class, it was much easier and they seemed to
enjoy showing off their knowledge of art terms. Most of the students seemed to be
engaged in the process. For interpretation, I asked the students if they thought the scene
was a realistic portrayal of the actual event. This was a more difficult question for them
and I received only a few responses. I talked to them about realism and romanticism.
One student blurted out her burning question, “Do you want us to draw this?” They all
seem relieved when I said “no”. I used the piece of needlework to talk about education,
in general, and for young women, in particular, in the colonies. They did a quick sketch
of the building at Harvard. With the fraktur, I talked about stylization of figures.
Although stylized, several students guessed immediately that it was a drawing of our First
President and the First Lady. Most seemed to enjoy drawing either one or the other of the
figures even though I heard a few “I can’t draw that” comments. I thought it was
important to have students draw while viewing because it appeared to keep them focused
and more involved with the artwork.
7. Revolutionary War Images
In this art activity, students viewed art images to help understand significant
military events that occurred during the American Revolution (SS.A.4.4.3). We started
the American Revolution unit at the end of September. By the time we used this art
activity, it was at the end of the unit and corresponded to the beginning of the second nine
weeks of the first semester. The art images were used as reinforcement for material
already covered in a written format. All of my students were present. Jean’s students
joined us to view the overhead transparencies. The group was large—there were no
absentees—and noisy. There was excitement among the students because they were able
to interact with others from the other class.
I started the class with a review, telling the story of American history up to this
point: the American colonies were valuable to England because of their mercantilist
economic philosophy but by the mid-1600s the colonists wanted more economic and
political freedom. The colonists were influenced heavily by Enlightenment philosophy in
Europe and the Great Awakening in America. Meanwhile, England was embroiled in
war with France not only in Europe but also in the New World. The British response to
236
colonial unrest and its European problems was legislation and taxation that angered the
colonists, such as the Stamp Act and Townshend Acts. Tempers flared and resulted in
the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the First Continental Congress, and the first
skirmish at Lexington and Concord. A second skirmish occurred outside Boston at
Bunker Hill. At this point, the students viewed The Battle of Bunker Hill by John
Trumbull (Prentice-Hall, 1991). I asked students to describe what they saw, identify
uniforms and flags of the opposing sides, and make general comments or ask questions. I
used this to get them into a viewing and responding mode. At this point I told the class
that I wanted them to participate in art criticism using the Anderson Art Criticism Method
(Anderson, 1997). They remembered that I had told them about it when we were viewing
the colonial images. I explained to them the process: reaction, description,
interpretation, and evaluation. I briefly described each step of the process and gave
examples using the Bunker image.
I started the student art criticism with the next image, The Declaration of
Independence, July4, 1776 by John Trumbull (Scholl, 1992). I asked students to
describe what they saw. The first comments were “no black dudes in the picture” and “a
bunch of rich white guys” amidst a lot of laughter. I felt that they were performing for
their peers, said things for the effect they would have, and did not take seriously the idea
of description. So, I prodded and asked what else did they see and eventually got some
good description, such as all white men in a room, white wigs on their heads, all looking
at something on a table, red and blue colors, dark and somber atmosphere, no windows
open, curtains drawn, doors closed, very serious atmosphere. A few of the students
wanted to interpret the scene along with describing it. They had trouble understanding
the difference between description and interpretation. One girl became very
argumentative and wanted to know why she could not interpret right now. Her question,
“How come my interpretation is not good? That is how I feel about it.” I explained that
her interpretation was just fine but that we needed to follow the process because it calls
for giving everyone a chance to really look at the image before we try to figure out what
it is all about.
Students enjoyed the interpretation part. To those who ventured that it was the
signing of the Declaration, I responded, “Well, let’s wait and see.” After they had
237
finished their interpretation, I gave them the background on the painting, starting with the
artist, the desire to record the major events and people of the day, identifying well known
patriots in the painting, and asking them to tell me the occasion. By then, the majority of
students confirmed it was the signing of the Declaration of Independence. The students
seemed to enjoy hearing about the details because they got very quiet to listen.
Afterwards, some enjoyed adding comments of their own, were more serious about their
comments, added details of observation that had not been mentioned, and seemed to
thoroughly engage in the process.
I closed the discussion by asking them to evaluate the painting and they deemed it
successful in conveying meaning and significance and was worth spending time to view
and discuss. What started out as a pretty rough process with this group ended pretty
smoothly and on a high note. Feeling confident, we used the Anderson Art Criticism
Method on the next image, George Washington Before the Battle of Trenton by John
Trumbull (Glencoe, 1992) and this time the process went more smoothly. The students
knew what was expected at each stage and responded accordingly.
After that, the students quickly viewed: George Washington Crossing the
Delaware by Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze (Scholl, 1992), Capture of the Hessians at
Trenton by John Trumbull (Prentice-Hall, 1991), and George Washington at Princeton
by Charles Wilson Peale (Phelps, 1997). After discussing the diagonal lines in the
Delaware picture and asking them to look for shape in its composition, I asked them if
they thought the picture was an accurate portrayal of events as they transpired. There
was a mixed response. Some said nothing while some of the guys thought that
Washington looked awfully vulnerable standing near the bow of the boat. The comments
opened the door for a discussion of symbolism and how it was used in this painting. The
class period was getting shorter so the students briefly looked for symbolism in the last
two pictures. The young men particularly liked talking about the horses and hardware of
the soldiers in the Trenton and Princeton pictures.
I closed the period with an overhead transparency of a map showing major battles
between 1776 and 1781 and one showing British, French, and American uniforms (Holt,
Rinehart & Winston, 1995). Later that day, Jean and I discussed the morning’s class.
She and I both felt that the majority of students in both classes were immature for their
238
age, an opinion we had discussed earlier in the year. She commented on the student
predilection for wanting “just the facts”—not wanting extra information or discussion—
to regurgitate later on a test. She lamented, “We can’t open their heads and pour it in.”
She regretted that some of the students had not requested this class but had been placed in
it unaware of the art component. We both decided that the students did better at
discussing the images when they had to draw while watching.
8. Naturalistic Drawing
The goal for the next unit of study was that students understand the political
events of the Constitutional period (SS.A.4.4.4). To achieve this, students needed to
understand the basics of the Constitution—the organization of our system of government.
In order to show the three branches of government, their makeup and functions, students
drew a tree as a model (Constitutional Tree Project). The tree had three branches (one for
each branch of government), a trunk (a place for the concept of checks and balances), and
a root system (a place for significant events leading up to this event). It was placed in the
center of the paper with a two-inch border around the edges. The border was to contain
the Bill of Rights: listed, defined, and illustrated. On either side of the tree, toward the
base, students drew a rectangular box. Box #1 was for the Preamble to the Constitution;
box #2 was for the topics of Articles 1 through 7 of the Constitution.
We began this project during the second week of October immediately after
finishing the unit on the Revolutionary War. Students were handed a rubric, given verbal
instructions, and shown student samples regarding the project. They were given one
class period and part of another to complete it. All students were present either one or
both days of the project, received instructions if absent the first day, and helped in class if
needed. However, two of my students never fully completed the project even though
they started it. One, a girl, took it home and never brought it back to class. The other, a
boy, had trouble all semester finishing projects. He, also, was frequently absent on test
days. The rest of the students did an excellent job and received full credit for their
project with the exception of five who received less than full credit because they failed to
complete one or more components of the rubric. No one who completed the project and
turned it made less than a “C”.
239
The students seemed excited about this project as evidenced by their questions,
getting up out of their desks to get the art paper, grabbing their American history
textbook, and generally, getting underway after my presentation and examples. They did
not seem to ask as many questions as they did for previous projects. There were no
moans and groans or “Do we have to?” questions. However, I did hear “I can’t draw a
tree.” I assured them any kind of tree was okay, including “lollipop trees”, palm trees
with fronds substituting for branches, or any tree that had three branches. I supplied
some sample trees from a drawing book for those who wanted a realistic tree such as an
oak or hickory. At first, the students had trouble getting focused to start drawing. One
boy stood at the board and copied my hastily sketched tree rendered in Expo marker!
Then, it got real quiet as they focused on their drawing. About halfway through the
period, once the trees were sketched, the students realized that they needed to understand
fully the rubric. They had not read it for comprehension; drawing was not a problem but
following directions was. I read aloud and discussed the rubric with them. Some
discussion arose regarding how to add the content into the tree sketch. The second day
on the project also began very quietly. The last half of the period was spent reviewing
content to make sure that it was accurate and understood by the students. It was their
time to read what they had written, ask questions, and make adjustments.
The finished student projects could be described this way: neat, accurate
American history content, somewhat colorful, unsophisticated tree drawings. There were
exceptions. One boy proudly showed me his tree that a “Canadian was lighting with a
match”. Flames were consuming the trunk of the tree in a riot of color; American history
content displayed in colorful geometric shapes. A second boy, not to be outdone,
rendered his lollipop tree in bright, neon color. A girl wanted to show me her illustration
of the right to bear arms: a dripping squirt gun.
Jean said that some of her students did not want to follow the rubric because it
was involved and detailed. She questioned showing them previous student work because
some of her students wanted just to copy what others had done. One girl spent the whole
time coloring her “beautiful tree”. Jean commented that she had not put any information
on her branches. In fact, she colored so hard that she could not write any content on the
branch. Jean helped her cut out rectangles of white paper to place on the branch so that
240
she could write in her content. This student was so involved in her drawing and coloring
that she forgot the purpose for the drawing.
9. Paintings, Neoclassical Architecture & Sculpture
This art history activity was, as the previous one, in the unit on the Constitutional
period. Students viewed art images of paintings and neoclassical architecture and
sculpture in order to understand better the political events of the period (SS.A.4.4.4). The
purpose of viewing the overhead transparencies was to help students visualize the people,
places, and political events of the Constitutional period. No one was absent and Jean’s
class joined us to view the slides.
I decided to try the Anderson Art Criticism Method once more. This time the
process worked much better because the students were more serious about their
comments and made more contributions to the discussion. The first image was The
Sargent Family, artist unknown (Prentice-Hall, 1991). I began the reaction phase by
asking, “How does this make you feel?” Answers included “like being with my family”,
“confused”, “it’s comforting”, “calm”, “happy”, “ordinary”, “busy”, “plain”, and simply
“wow”. One student said, “It is extremely gay, as in happy.” I was pleasantly surprised
with the responses; I had anticipated having to focus the students’ attention and calm
them down. However, their attention was focused on the image and their comments
sounded sincere, if not revealing.
Their interest continued with the description phase. Students one by one
announced items they saw: two birds in cages, wallpaper, a family, a dog, a ball of yarn,
an open window, trees in the window, an open door, chairs, a mom, a dad, mostly girls—
three girls—for children, a baby, a floor rug made of black and white squares like a
checkerboard. One boy piped up, “The lady has a medieval do-rag.” The comment
evoked laughter. Another said, “There are too many kids.” “The mother looks stressed,”
said one. A girl said simply, “I see green and red.” A boy responded, “I see black and
white clothing.” Another girl said, “I first saw the floor—the black and white swirls”.
We ended description with one boy’s observation, “I see a man wearing pantyhose.” At
this point, I thought it was time to turn our attention to interpretation.
Asking them “What do you think is going on?” initiated interpretation. One boy
said it looked like the girl was going to get a whipping. “The mother is mad,” agreed
241
another. Others disagreed and said the family looked happy. One person thought it was
an American school. One boy told the class the following scenario: “This is a guy
coming home and being greeted. The mom is angry because the baby has been fussy and
she has been sitting all day.” The open door was a puzzle. Was someone entering or
leaving? “I think the man is coming to get the kids because it is his weekend to have
them,” said one girl. I replied that people did not divorce as much during that time period
as they do now so that probably wasn’t the case. Then, speculation began about the man
doing drugs or stopping by to get friendly with the lady and the door left open for a quick
escape in case the husband came home. The next remark was, “Dad is happy because he
is having an affair.” “Yeah,” chimed in another boy, “Dad has been out all night.” What
started out as a good discussion was beginning to deteriorate. These remarks were not
serious (or were they?) but said to get attention—which they did. I ended the discussion
by talking about the painting being a typical portrait of a colonial family, much like a
casual family photograph. Because these people did not have cameras they used other
means to capture the family’s likenesses. Itinerant self-taught artists painted these
charming, informal portraits while painting other things in the town they were visiting,
such as business signs. We moved on to judgment and the students agreed that the artist
had done a good job portraying a family feeling, worthy of their time and attention.
Wanting to end on a high note with art criticism, I showed the next images only
briefly: an embroidery titled Liberty in the form of the Goddess of Youth and George
Washington Addressing the Constitutional Convention of 1787 by Junius B. Stearns
(Glencoe, 1992). We spent a few minutes on each with description and interpretation and
then turned our attention to architecture.
I explained the term “neoclassical” architecture and Thomas Jefferson’s desire for
this style to be adopted as our national architecture. I used overhead transparencies to
show students architectural elements—domes, columns, and colonnades. Each student
quickly sketched the three orders of Greek columns and labeled them. I kept the
overhead on but also made available hard copies. Approximately one-half of the students
wanted a hard copy, also, while they were drawing. We viewed the rotunda at the
University of Virginia at Charlottesville (Scholl, 1992) and then the Lincoln Memorial
242
and Parthenon (Prentice-Hall, 1991) simultaneously. The last image was a sculpture of
George Washington by Horatio Greenough (Scholl, 1992).
The buildings were interesting to the students as evidenced by their questions and
attentiveness. Although two or three students found neoclassical architecture “boring”,
the vast majority thought the style was appropriate for federal buildings. However, many
were not pleased with the Greenough sculpture. They enjoyed the discussion about the
symbolism but did not like the upper torso nudity of Washington. We took a vote, with a
show of hands, and a majority of the students did not like the Greenough sculpture.
Those who favored the sculpture cited the following reasons: Washington looked “kinda
like Zeus”, majestic-looking, nudity was an unexpected look and different from a
uniform, Washington is putting the sword away because we won, the details in the
sculpture, and the fact that “it makes you step outside your comfort zone.” The twothirds majority who did not like the sculpture defended their decision with the following
comments: “looking like Zeus is retarded”, “it belongs to Greece not now”, “Washington
thinks he is better than everybody…sitting there”, “too sexy”, and “very sexual.”
10. Civil War Visual Vocabulary
Up to this point in the semester, our students had not made any presentations in
class. It was the second week of November and Jean and I decided that it was time for
students to make oral presentations. This project as well as the next two dealt with
Sunshine State Standard SS.A. 4.4.6 that required students to understand “the military
and economic events of the Civil War and Reconstruction.” We named the project “Civil
War Visual Vocabulary” and students were instructed to select a vocabulary word from
the list provided, define it, and create a visual that would illustrate it. All of the
vocabulary words came from the textbook. These vocabulary words would be presented
in pairs—one student from her class and one student from my class. Each pair of
students was presenting the same word. They would receive a grade for the visual
component (75 points) as well as for the presentation (25 points). Students in the
audience would hear the vocabulary word defined twice, see two visuals, and be able to
supplement their own vocabulary notes. Our classes worked separately until the day the
presentations started.
243
I recommended the following to my students: that the visual have a clear and
easily read title; that any information written be in the form of phrases, not sentences,
large enough to be seen from the back of the room; and, that the visual should help
explain the meaning of the vocabulary word. I told them to try to condense the
information they read in their textbook into the 5 Ws—who, what, why, when, where.
After I gave instructions, students started looking up their vocabulary words in the text.
After a few minutes, the questions regarding the meaning of their vocabulary word
began. After questioning the students, I realized that they had not read the three or four
paragraphs surrounding their vocabulary word. They had picked the word out of one
sentence and ignored its larger context. I redirected them to go back and read the
surrounding material and then we would discuss what they thought it meant. On a hunch,
I took a quick survey—a show of hands—of how many students read for pleasure.
Reading for pleasure could encompass any type of written text, such as newspaper,
magazines, or novels. “Does a car magazine count?” asked one boy. I said “Sure” and
noted that approximately one-half raised their hands to affirm that they read for pleasure.
I encouraged the rest to start doing so.
I began working with students, one on one, regarding their visual. I asked them to
tell me what ideas they had for an illustration. Some of the students had trouble
condensing the information they read to “bullets.” One girl said, “I understand what I
read but I don’t know how to condense it down to fewer words.” I interrupted the class
and used her vocabulary word as an example of how to condense. After reading the text
aloud, we condensed the information together and listed the bullets on the board. I, then,
asked her what type of picture she could draw to help explain the meaning of the word.
Her response was tentative so others in the class elaborated on it. Not everyone in the
class was listening, however, because some were deep into their project from the very
beginning and needed no direction. I recall three students having much difficulty
grasping the main ideas in their reading passage.
I continued around the room discussing words and visuals with students. One girl
had her mind set regarding her visual and said, “I’m not going to do anymore than that.”
She added, “I don’t know how to do anymore than that.” I told her that her visual was
good, just add color. One boy said, “I don’t see a picture.” I threw out a few ideas and
244
he was happy and needed no more help. Later in the class period, he showed me his
visual which was well underway, springing off one of my ideas. I had to directly assist
five students with generating ideas for their visual. Even if I helped them with the initial
idea, they were able to add some of their own thoughts to their art once they got started.
The majority of the class had an idea but needed to talk it over with me to refine it
further or just to get my approval. During the course of the project, many would bring
their work to me to show their progress and what they were doing. For example, “I
decided to make the picture of Lincoln a silhouette profile and put it in the middle of the
page and place the words on either side of his head. Do you think that will look good?
Do you have any black construction paper?” asked one girl. Another boy, “I’m going to
make a big outline of Tennessee and put a star where Shiloh was. Then I’ll put all of the
information inside the state.” The boy doing the Battle of Vicksburg saw what his
neighbor was doing and decided to do the same for Mississippi but he added a drawing of
a shoe and a rat, part of the diet of the starving Confederate soldiers, as well as a knife to
symbolize cutting the Mississippi River supply line of the Confederacy.
Making a presentation was not easy for some of my students; they felt
uncomfortable in front of Jean’s class because they saw them only rarely. In fact, three
of them would not present in front of both classes but did present at a later date in front of
their own class only. One student would not present at all, in front of anybody.
11. Reconstruction Visual Concept
Jean and I decided to use the same format for studying Reconstruction that we had
employed for the Civil War. Students were given a choice of concepts to illustrate and
the project was named “Reconstruction Visual Concept.” The difference between this
and the previous activity was that the word was a concept and more complex (e.g.,
Lincoln’s 10% Plan, sharecropping and tenant farming, Radical Republicans) and the
visual was larger (one-half sheet of poster board). Students would receive 100 points for
a completed and accurate visual and 50 points for presenting it. We used the same format
for presentation by the students. We started this project the Monday after Thanksgiving
and it covered the same Sunshine State Standard as did the previous project, SS.A.4.4.6.
Only one student was absent for the beginning of the project but his girlfriend signed him
up for a topic and he started working on it at home before the next class meeting.
245
The class got off to a rough start; it was hard to get some of the students working.
In fact, three boys were disturbing a dozen other students so about one-half of the class
was having trouble focusing on the task at hand. One boy was not doing any work, did
not bring his textbook to class, announced that he was going to Haney (vocationaltechnical school) second semester, and was talking loudly at a non-stop pace to his
neighbors. Another boy did not bring his textbook, was doing no work, and kept
wandering around the room to talk to others. A third boy would not quit talking to his
neighbors and get started. Seventy-five percent of the students were attempting to work
and the others were not; one-third had not brought their textbooks to class. The
classroom was loud. I commented on the sorry state of affairs and got the following
response, “You are forgetting something—you are asking us to put forth effort. This is a
public school and we don’t do that in public school.” He succeeded in getting me angry
and I threatened to send him to the office. He calmed down and said, “I don’t want to get
into trouble. I want to leave this school on good terms.” Two of the students were very
quiet because they were sleeping. Five days off from school and three weeks until
Christmas vacation had transformed my class. The first day on the project was not real
productive for many of my students.
The following class period was just the opposite. The students were quiet and
working. However, I did have the same problem with not wanting to read as noted earlier
in the Civil War project. One boy said, “What can I draw for sharecropping and tenant
farming?” I asked him to explain them to me. He said, “I don’t know.” I told him to
read about them first and then we would discuss them and develop a visual. Then he
made an excuse, “Well, I didn’t read the whole page because I thought the words meant
the same thing. Why do I have to do two words?” I explained that he was working on a
concept, these words were very similar but a little bit different. Then he said the boy
seated next to him was distracting him which was true. Eventually, we did discuss the
two terms and he developed a visual similar to the one in the textbook.
Another boy read and understood about the Black Codes but drew a blank in how
to represent them. After some discussion he was on his way to completing his project.
Two other boys said they were ready to get started drawing but were having trouble
coming up with ideas. However, when I asked them to explain their concept to me, as
246
best they could, or show me their notes, they had nothing to offer. Again, I told them to
read the book and then we would discuss the concept and its visual representation. One
girl, having read the material, did not understand it; another girl having read the material
did understand but could not think of a picture. Another girl had a great idea and needed
only reinforcement from me. The others were working independently asking for supplies
such as rulers and markers. Eventually, by the end of the class period, everyone appeared
to be on track. Students seemed to like working on the poster board because no one
complained about its larger size.
The presentations this time were much better and the students who would not
present previously did so this time with the exception of one. However, four students
never completed or presented a project.
12. Brady’s Photography
At the end of the Civil War and Reconstruction unit, right before Christmas break,
I showed photography images made by Matthew Brady (Kunhardt & Kunhardt, 1977).
This art history activity was the third activity for SS.A.4.4.6. Four of my students were
absent so they viewed the images upon return from break. I started with a reading about
Matthew Brady which portrayed him as Lincoln’s cameraman and as one of the most
notable Civil War photographers (Glencoe, 1996). All of his battle scenes were
photographed after a battle ceased. We talked about the invention of the camera by
Daguerre, the exposure time needed for early photographs, and Brady’s career. After
that, students viewed several overhead transparencies of Brady’s work. The display
started with famous people and places photographed by Brady while living in New York
City. These included photographs of Harriet Beecher Stowe, P. T. Barnum’s Living
Skeleton and Siamese Twins, the Capitol dome under construction, the Washington
Monument under construction, and the New York City harbor. The next group of images
was photographed when Brady left New York for Washington to photograph the
inauguration of Lincoln and, subsequently, maintained a studio there. They included
several pictures of Lincoln, including the one used for the Lincoln penny, and one of
John Wilkes Booth, the assassin of Lincoln. The last group of pictures was of the Civil
War: Union camps; a Union soldier with his family at an encampment; General Lee at
Appomattox Court House; General Grant; a Union ironclad; battles scenes at
247
Fredericksburg, Spotsylvania, St. Petersburg, and Antietam; an embalming surgeon; and
Union soldiers in trenches.
The students listened quietly as I went through the images. They were amazed at
the human oddity pictures. When seeing the embalming surgeon with the dead soldier,
one girl asked, “Is he really dead?” I assured her that these were authentic pictures.
Then another girl volunteered the “fact” that “white folks have to be buried quicker than
we do.” “Why?” I asked. “Because you start turning black and blue and purple. You
have to be put in the ground in just a few days.” Students commented on the stiffness
and awkward positions of the dead soldiers’ bodies on the battlefields. I told them the
photographer just documented what was there. He neither staged nor set any of the
scenes. The camera could not capture action shots and these were the aftermath of
battles. Perhaps these soldiers died of blasts of gunshots or cannon fire to account for
their awkward positions in death. The photographer’s role was to capture the scene as it
was, after the fighting ended and before burial of the dead. They were harsh but factual
representations of the aftermath of war.
At the end of viewing the images, the students asked for more. I heard “Can we
see some more pictures?” and “We want to see more.” I told them I had no more to show
them and the period was over anyway. No one had watched the clock on that day.
Relevant Observations Related to Research Question #1
Observations can provide insights relevant to the findings of the study. As a
whole, I feel students moved from receiving information only to learning how to
manipulate and apply it. During the Historical Themes Activity in August, many
students seemed clueless about what I was asking for in the art activity. Many could not
conceptualize nor readily illustrate the themes that run throughout American history. The
project was completed with much prompting, by giving examples and direct help, on the
part of the teachers (Jean experienced the same phenomenon). By the time the students
created their Civil War Visual Vocabulary projects, fewer students required my direct
assistance in understanding their vocabulary word. Only three students failed to grasp the
definition of their vocabulary word without my direct intervention. During the
Reconstruction Visual Concept, once everyone read their material, only one student did
not understand its meaning. In both projects, a handful of people had to be given some
248
ideas for their illustration; the majority, by far, just wanted me to approve their ideas.
This shows growth in understanding by students of what is expected of them and in their
abilities to conceptualize history content Further, there was an increase in students’
abilities to imaginatively create artistic outcomes to tasks assigned. Overall, students
grew and matured over the course of the study and were able to handle more difficult and
complex assignments, such as the Civil War Vocabulary and Reconstruction Visual
Concept.
Pilot Study Teacher Observations Related to Research Question #1
In the findings and summary section of the Co-Study Report (1999), Jean and I
noted the same sort of trend after our first full yearlong American History and Art CoStudy course. Many students started the course believing that art requires little work.
They adjusted their perceptions, internalized our expectations, and grew into the task.
Further, few students had seen other teachers connect material that came from different
disciplines. At first they did not understand that this could happen and were confused
about it. As time passed, students adjusted and “caught on” to what we were doing.
Student test scores improved over the three nine week period. There was definitely a
learning curve associated with how students functioned in an interdisciplinary
environment. Also, the Co-Study Curriculum created a nurturing environment that
helped students grow into the task. The atmosphere in the classroom was very open and,
perhaps, more socially interactive than other classroom settings.
Relevant Observations Related to Research Question #2
Teacher researcher observations confirm a positive shift in attitude toward art.
Students always seemed eager to get started on art projects. This had been the case from
very early in the semester. I recall no one ever saying “I don’t want to do this.” I do
recall hearing, a few times, “I can’t draw.” By the end of the semester, I never heard, “I
can’t draw.” I did hear, “How do I draw…?” Those that doubted their drawing ability
were a very small minority, two to three students. It seemed to be more of a question of
understanding what I wanted them to do than a questioning of their ability to do it. As
the semester progressed, they seemed to improve at generating their own ideas; by the
end of the semester, the vast majority wanted only to bounce their ideas off of me.
249
Pertaining to art criticism, there was a student learning curve regarding how to
engage in talking about art. There was some confusion in the beginning about the
difference between description and interpretation. This was frustrating to some students.
However, by the end of the semester, students were easily and readily engaged in art
criticism and seemed to enjoy it very much as evidenced by their behavior: (1) excited
questioning when entering the classroom and seeing the overhead projector or slide
projector in place, and (2) attentive listening and ready responses during the art criticism
process.
Pilot Study Teacher Observations Related to Research Question #2
Karen noted in her Chemistry and Art Co-Study Collaboration that Myra’s
Chemistry students were positively impacted in their attitudes toward art. She
commented (Interview, 2003):
I would just get comments that they liked doing that, learning shading and they
used colored pencils and I showed them how to shade shiny metal because they
were drawing the soda cans but I had never heard whether they had had another
art class or not. They liked what they were doing and it really showed in their
artwork.
I asked if there was any in the group that just could not draw, or refused to draw, or
would not even try. She said, “No, everyone tried and I don’t recall any one of them
fussing about having to do the assignment. Not any one of them.”
Co-Study Curriculum Support of Sunshine State Standards
Table 3 displays the extent to which each Co-Study Curriculum component (art
intervention) actually contributed to achieving, in the perceptions of the students, a
specific Sunshine State Standard. It shows the percentage of students who “Strongly
Agree” or “Agree” to each statement and its corresponding Sunshine State Standard. It
indicates how important each art activity was to the students and what type of art activity
they prefer to enhance learning.
The top three preferred activities for enhancing student learning of American
history were the Illustrated Map of the 13 Colonies (82%), Historical Themes Activity
(80%), and Colonial Art Images (78%). The first two were drawing activities and the
third one was viewing art images. The least favorite of the art activities were Civil War
250
251
Table 3  continued
FLORIDA CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK
Sunshine State Standards: Social Studies, 1996
SS.A.1.4.2
The student identifies and understands themes in history that cross scientific,
economic, and cultural boundaries.
SS.A.1.4.4
The student uses chronology, sequencing, patterns, and periodization to examine
interpretations of an event.
SS.A.4.4.1
The student understands the economic, social, and political interactions between
Native American tribes and European settlers during the Age of Discovery.
SS.A.4.4.2
The student understands how religious, social, political, and economic
developments shaped the settlement patterns of the North American colonies.
SS.A.4.4.3
The student understands the significant military and political events that took
place during the American Revolution.
SS.A.4.4.4
The student understands the political events that defined the Constitutional Period.
SS.A.4.4.6
The student understands the military and economic events of the Civil War and
Reconstruction.
Visual Vocabulary (66%), Brady’s Photography (62%), and Reconstruction Visual
Concept (56%). Again, there were two drawing activities and one viewing art images
activity. The top three preferred art activities indicate that students prefer drawing over
viewing in a 2 to 1 ratio. However, because the 2 to 1 ratio exists for the least preferred
activities, the nature of the activity itself is more important than whether it is a drawing or
viewing activity.
Interpretation of the Findings
After doing research on the Co-Study Curriculum beginning in 1998 and through
the end of this present study, it appears to me that the importance of visual learning at the
high school level is being overlooked in many classrooms. I have learned firsthand that
many students are visually oriented in their preference for learning. I have noticed that
252
not only art but variety in instructional delivery techniques—videos, discussions, group
activities, presentations—is welcome by students. Not creating diverse learning activities
in the secondary school classroom may be keeping many students from getting excited
about learning. The following is an overview of the meaning of the present and pilot
studies regarding the Co-Study Curriculum.
Overview of Perceived Learning Through Visual Arts Enhancement of Social
Studies
Student perceptions of the Co-Study Curriculum are that it enhances learning.
The Co-Study Impact Survey of the present study supported across all questions that the
Co-Study Curriculum process created a significant positive learning experience for the
students (71.17% “Agreed” or “Strongly Agreed”). In pilot study exit surveys of
American History and Art Co-Study students, they confirmed their support of the CoStudy Curriculum in the following manner:
Co-Study Pilot Course Year
1998-1999
Student Perceptions
100% responded, “Co-Study helped me
to remember and understand American
history content better”
1999-2000
88% responded, “Co-Study helped me to
remember American history content better”
and
96% responded, “Co-Study helped me to
understand American history content better”
In pilot study interviews and interviews conducted in this present study, students
overwhelmingly stated that art helped them to remember and understand better their
history content. Art activities allowed many of the students to make visual images in
their mind to recall later during a test (remember) or to link information together
(understand). Many said that they must see or make a visual representation in order to
understand information. For these students, the visual component is necessary for
remembering and understanding, or learning.
253
Overview of Attitudinal Shifts Toward Art Due to the Co-Study Curriculum
Student attitudes within the present study toward art were positively impacted by
the Co-Study Curriculum. The Art Attitude Survey in the present study showed that the
Co-Study Curriculum positively shifted student perceptions regarding art relative to
personal value and societal importance. The average percentage shift in Warren’s was
+5.17% and in Doster’s class +3.28%.
In previous discussions (see Chapters 4 and 5), open response questions in both
the pilot study surveys and interviews, along with present study interviews and teacher
observations, noted that the majority of students enjoyed doing the art activities. Most of
the students were eager to participate and anxious to get started when an art activity was
announced according to teacher observations. For many, the art activities “grabbed” the
students’ attention and maintained their interest in the instructional material.
Performance Overview
The Co-Study Curriculum enhanced learning outcomes as shown by grade
improvement. The first two and one-half years of the pilot study showed increased
student performance on objective tests for those students in the Co-Study Curriculum as
compared to those who were not.
The Co-Study Curriculum program covered three nine week segments of the
1998-99 school year. The averaged test scores of these three nine week periods show a
significant trend. The first nine weeks shows little improvement (.98 point) over the
control group, the second nine weeks shows a substantial improvement (6.15 points), and
the third nine weeks shows a remarkable improvement (11.77 points). This dramatic
trend in improved student performance probably can be attributed to students learning
how to combine different subject matter. Specifically, they had to learn how to let the art
help them learn history.
During the 1999-2000 school year, the Co-Study Curriculum group’s performance
increased as the year progressed. They improved their averaged test scores by 11½
points—one and one-half letter grades—over the three nine week periods. The control
groups’ averaged test scores did not increase over the same time period. The Co-Study
Curriculum students increased performance, almost the same amount of improved test
performance as the previous year’s class, while the control group did not.
254
Reflective Overview by the Researcher
Literature discussed in this research supports that concrete concepts are best
learned visually as opposed to through only spoken or written words. Therefore, concrete
concepts may be learned best through strong visual cues called arguments. Further, the
strength of the visual cue, value and meaning to the observer, impacts the quality of the
visual argument. In other words, when strong visual cues are created, cognitive
processing is stimulated and students learn quicker, easier, and retain information longer
(Preston, 1996).
The Co-Study Curriculum process is a combination of visual learning plus
Dewian-type curriculum activity. The underlying premise of the Co-Study Curriculum
process is that visual cognitive processing is enhanced by the student participating in
creating a visual related to the subject matter. In the Co-Study Curriculum, the Dewiantype activities end in a visual product created by the student. As suggested by this study,
the result is a quality impact on the learner. The creation of an art product is at the
“synthesis” level of Bloom’s taxonomy of higher order thinking skills (FL DOE, 1997)
and the “manipulation level” of H. Doster’s Expert Learning System (Doster, 1991).
The Co-Study Curriculum process allows students to find additional meaning and
value in the information being taught. Consequently, that information is manipulated
easier and stored better. Art helps to embed knowledge and, therefore, should have an
expanded role in education far beyond its status as a discipline.
Implications for Art Educators
As stated in the review of literature, there are many visions for the aims of art
education. Art educators debate what the role of art should be while shrinking budgets in
schools and mandated standardized testing is squeezing art out of the curriculum. Few
seem to be noticing this trend except for art teachers and those sympathetic to the arts.
Three of the four students interviewed in the present study had little exposure to
art prior to their enrollment in the American History and Art Co-Study class. Yet, all of
them elected to take it and displayed positive feelings about art during the class.
I believe we are missing an opportunity to engage more students in art instruction;
it is as though art educators are hiding their collective light under the proverbial bushel
basket. Art education might want to consider broadening its concept and expanding its
255
educational role by not only offering art courses within its discipline but also by
encouraging teachers of other subject matter to collaborate and integrate art into the
presentation of their curriculum.
This study supports three main reasons why art educators should broaden the use
of art in other disciplines:
1. Art accommodates visual learners.
Increasing art’s role in the learning process will serve better the estimated 30% of
students who are visual learners and prefer to take in and give out information in a visual
manner (Miller, 2001). School mandates and standardized testing are geared to student
performance. Students’ performance will increase as we accommodate their abilities and
interests (learning style). As instructional content and delivery accommodate how the
brain works, students will move toward maximizing their learning experience.
2. Art stimulates interest in learning.
Many students, in this study, were motivated by the Co-Study Curriculum
process. Moreover, findings support that they were more often bored and unproductive
in other traditionally taught courses. This comes at a time when we can ill afford to have
our students enter the workforce less prepared than needed. Not only national needs but
also the global economy is exerting pressure on the educational system to maximize
student preparation.
3. Art acts as a language to convey information.
Teachers can convey better to students our era’s increased information by using
art within interdisciplinary collaborations. By using art as part of the instructional
format, teachers are able to explain subject matter more clearly and students are better
able to understand and store that information. This makes subject material more
meaningful, increases understanding of concepts, and helps to manage the explosion of
knowledge we are experiencing.
However, during my research, I discovered a reality regarding implementation.
Using the above reasons for implementing art’s increased role in education does not
reside singularly in the hands of teachers. More importantly, it resides in the hands of
school and district administrators. In order for any school based systemic change to take
256
root and grow, school administrators must be role models in both encouraging and
supporting such change. As Jean stated (Interview, 2002):
Now, you know, as I think back I know that when we first introduced the
program, they came to the meetings...talking about our administrators and
Guidance staff…and I think that was about it. As far as administrators, probably,
the greatest help we got was from Dr. K. He was willing to shell out some money
and construct a wall for us we could open to allow us more space. But then, on
the other hand, Guidance got to a point where they were not willing to schedule us
in the same room to use the $15,000.00 wall (laugh) that we had put in. But… I
think it is a lack of vision and I know the Bible says, “Those who will perish for a
lack of vision.” And, we have apparently some people who are not able to think
outside the box. If it is a program that can be self-contained and have people in
that program run that program without interfering with the established order, it’s
okay! We’re not trying to run an IB program; we don’t have a segregated school
within a school; we don’t have a special grant that allows us to staff our people
and we didn’t really need additional staff. All we really needed was a Guidance
who was willing to be flexible enough to allow us to have our schedules
essentially the same for the classes we were teaching…and look for those students
who were visual learners, channel them toward this particular program.
Fundamentally, support is needed from university art education departments for
the idea of integrating art into other subject areas. Art education departments need to
teach that it is okay for art teachers to collaborate and work with teachers of other
disciplines. University courses need to be developed that show new art teachers how to
integrate curricula.
At the secondary school level, collaborations between art teachers and teachers
from other subject areas have been a good way to get started. Art teachers are a plentiful
resource for enhancing the content delivery of other disciplines. This research does not
support that art will get lost or damaged by expanding its role in education. In fact, just
the opposite is supported. As students became more aware and appreciative of the world
of art, it became a more significant factor in their positive perceptions of learning and
attitudes toward art.
257
Developing a Co-Study Curriculum collaboration requires time management.
Additional front time is needed to develop a collaborative unit. As Karen said (Interview,
2003), “It is just a lot of planning that goes into a unit like this. Although it is
tremendously beneficial, it just takes a lot of planning.”
Suggestions for Additional Research
Generally, more data needs to be gathered on the learning impacts created by the
Co-Study Curriculum process. Specifically, to what extent does the use of art in the
delivery of other subject matter improve student performance?
Other specific inquires, which would explore and support the implications within
this research are:
1. How does the expanded role of art in the educational process impact art’s
standing and value in various school curricula?
2. How do students, after experiencing the Co-Study Curriculum, within
populations not covered by this research view art’s role as a learning process?
3. How does implementation of the Co-Study Curriculum process change
teaching styles?
Further, action research needs to be conducted regarding how the Co-Study
Curriculum could be implemented at the secondary level relative to district personnel and
school administrators’ support. This research needs to be replicated within other
educational environments to determine if its findings can be generalized to broader
populations. Finally, a clearinghouse process needs to be established that allows the
collection, cataloging, and dissemination of a burgeoning body of knowledge.
There were a few areas in the findings that raise questions and could be topics for
further research. Figure 5 showed that students in Doster’s and Warren’s classes
responded quite differently to Survey Statements #6, 7, 9 and 12. All four of the art
activities corresponding to these statements were viewing art images. I was responsible
for showing the images to both classes together. I think that combing the two classes to
show the art images created a dynamic that can account for this difference. Some
students became uncomfortable having to share their classroom with other students they
did not know. Their familiar classroom became unfamiliar; students were no longer in
their comfort zone.
258
APPENDIX A
SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
259
APPENDIX A-1a
Date: _____________ Name: ___________________________
Grading Period: First Nine Weeks
Co-Study Impact Survey
Directions: Please write the date and your name in the spaces at the top. Each of the following statements
expresses a belief or attitude you have formed about Co-Study. Indicate on the 5-point scale the statement that
best represents your personal beliefs. Draw a circle around the letter (to the right of each question or statement)
that best expresses your belief or attitude. Your choices are:
SA (Strongly Agree)
A (Agree)
U (Undecided)
D (Disagree)
SD (Strongly Disagree)
1. Illustrating the historical themes (for example, politics)
helped me to understand them.
SA
A
U
D
SD
2. The pictures of transportation helped me to understand
the effects of technological changes on American life.
SA
A
U
D
SD
3. Arranging the transportation pictures from the oldest to
the newest helped me to realize the historical sequence
of inventions in American history.
SA
A
U
D
SD
4. The Venn diagram project helped me to understand the
economic and social interactions between the Native
Americans and the Europeans.
SA
A
U
D
SD
5. Drawing and illustrating my map of the 13 colonies
helped me to understand the economic and social
differences among the colonies.
SA
A
U
D
SD
6. Viewing Colonial American pictures helped me to
understand the colonists’ way of life.
SA
A
U
D
SD
260
APPENDIX A-1b
Date: _____________ Name: ___________________________
Grading Period: Second Nine Weeks
Co-Study Impact Survey
Directions: Please write the date and your name in the spaces at the top. Each of the following statements
expresses a belief or attitude you have formed about Co-Study. Indicate on the 5-point scale the statement that
best represents your personal beliefs. Draw a circle around the letter (to the right of each question or
statement) that best expresses your belief or attitude. Your choices are:
SA (Strongly Agree)
A (Agree)
U (Undecided)
D (Disagree)
SD (Strongly Disagree)
7. Viewing Revolutionary War pictures helped me to
understand the military events of the war.
SA
A
U
D
SD
8. Drawing the Constitutional Tree project helped me to
understand the formation and organization of our
government.
SA
A
U
D
SD
9. Paintings, neoclassical architecture and sculpture helped
helped me to visualize the people, places, and the political
events of the Constitutional period.
SA
A
U
D
SD
10. Completing the Civil War Visual Vocabulary project help me
to understand military and economic events of the war.
SA
A
U
D
SD
11. Completing the Reconstruction Visual Concept project help me
to understand military and economic events of Reconstruction.
SA
A
U
D
SD
12. Brady’s photography helped me to understand the death and
destruction of Civil War battles.
SA
A
U
D
SD
261
APPENDIX A-2
ART ATTITUDE SURVEY
Directions: Please write the date and your name in the spaces at the top. Each of the following statements expresses a
belief or attitude about art. Indicate on the 5-point scale the statement that best represents your personal beliefs. Draw
a circle around the letter (to the right of each question or statement) that best expresses your belief or attitude. Your
choices are:
SA (Strongly Agree)
A (Agree)
U (Undecided)
D (Disagree)
SA (Strongly Disagree)
1. Art is important in society today.
SA
A
U
D
SD
2. Art is mainly for decoration.
SA
A
U
D
SD
3. Art is easy. There’s not much thinking involved.
SA
A
U
D
SD
4. Art teaches us about other people.
SA
A
U
D
SD
5. Art asks us to think about problems in society and
the environment.
SA
A
U
D
SD
6. Art is mainly for fun.
SA
A
U
D
SD
7. The best artwork makes people think about, or look
at things in a new way.
SA
A
U
D
SD
8. Art should be on display in public places.
SA
A
U
D
SD
9. Artists make different kinds of art because they have
different beliefs or reasons for creating art.
SA
A
U
D
SD
10. I feel good when I am creating something in art.
SA
A
U
D
SD
11. I practice art activities in my free time.
SA
A
U
D
SD
12. I find the artwork of other people to be interesting.
SA
A
U
D
SD
13. I think art lessons help me in other schoolwork.
SA
A
U
D
SD
14. I think I do well in art.
SA
A
U
D
SD
15. Doing art gives me pleasure.
SA
A
U
D
SD
16. I can draw well.
SA
A
U
D
SD
17. I usually like my artwork.
SA
A
U
D
SD
18. I do not feel good when I am doing something in art.
SA
A
U
D
SD
262
APPENDIX B
PILOT STUDY INTERVIEWS
263
APPENDIX B-1
GUIDE FOR INTERVIEW #1: FOCUSED LIFE HISTORY
Jean Warren, Social Studies Department, Rutherford High School
October 30, 2002
Where and when were you born?
Where did you grow up? Describe your hometown.
What are your first memories of school?
What are your most vivid memories of school?
Did you have a favorite teacher or subject?
Compare your different schooling experiences: elementary, middle, and high school.
Who encouraged your studies? Who influenced you the most?
How did you end up at the university?
How and why did you decide to become a teacher?
What kind of certification do you have?
What was your first teaching job? Others?
How did you arrive at Rutherford High School? What year?
What significant things have you learned about teaching others?
What have you learned about yourself from teaching? How has teaching changed you as
a person?
Did your university work prepare you well for teaching?
Have you enjoyed teaching? Explain the most rewarding or satisfying thing about being
a teacher. Explain the most frustrating thing about being a teacher.
Would you recommend it as a career to others? Why or why not?
Describe the classes that you are teaching this school year and the structure of a typical
day. Is it what you want to teach?
264
What would be your ideal arrangement of classes? Daydream about your ideal
situation—class size, budget, facilities, subjects, and anything else.
What skills/concepts do you want your students to learn? How do you motivate them? Is
breadth or depth more important to teach? Who decides that (state standards, district,
school, or self) and what you will teach?
How do you grade your students? What is important about grading?
What is the most important thing you teach?
Do you want to share anything else about your philosophy of teaching? Or your
experiences?
Do you remember any particular students? Anyone special?
How well are you supported by school administrators? By your department head? By
other teachers? By parents?
What kind of trends do you see in teaching over the years?
Would you do it all over again?
Is there anything else you would like to add?
265
APPENDIX B-1a
INTERVIEW #1: FOCUSED LIFE HISTORY
An Interview between Jean Warren, Social Studies Department and
Jennifer (Jenny) Doster, Art Department, Rutherford High School
October 30, 2002
JENNY: Jean, where are you from? Where and when were you born?
JEAN: You would ask me where I was born and when I was born. I was born in,
actually, Foxworth, Mississippi, July 2, 1949…very country.
JENNY: What part of the state is that in?
JEAN: That’s in southern Mississippi about 90 miles north of New Orleans.
JENNY: So, you could go down to the city occasionally?
JEAN: Well, could have but didn’t. (laughing) We were country poor.
JENNY: What size town was it?
JEAN: We had, when I left …we had about 1,700 in Columbia, Mississippi, but that
doesn’t include Foxworth which was the outskirts. Yeah, Columbia was
where…Columbia was the county seat. So, we were on the outskirts of
Columbia…which means country.
JENNY: How many people lived in that town? What’s it called again?
JEAN: Foxworth. F—O—X—W-O-R-T-H. I don’t know what the population of
Foxworth was but let’s say it couldn’t have been more than 500.
JENNY: Oh, really? A small, small town.
JEAN: Yeah, a small town.
JENNY: So everybody knew everybody?
JEAN: Absolutely, everybody knew everybody.
JENNY: Were there any jobs around there?
JEAN: It was paper mill, small-time, small-scale farming. And that was about it.
JENNY: Interesting. Well, that was the next question…I was going to ask you to
describe your hometown. Is there anything you want to add?
266
JEAN: I just can remember we went to town usually every Saturday afternoon because
my Dad worked Saturday morning cutting yards. So, we would load up and do the
grocery shopping …
JENNY: That would be Columbia?
JEAN: Yeah, we just went to town on Saturday afternoon, went to church on Sunday,
and school during the week and that was it. No trips. Occasionally we would go to visit
my Mom’s brother who lived in Picayune, Mississippi, which was about 60 or so miles
from us and…occasionally we would go to New Orleans to visit a cousin down there.
But that was like once every ten years or so. We led a very quiet life.
JENNY: Were you overwhelmed when you went to the city? When you saw it? Did
you feel comfortable going to the city?
JEAN: By the time I went to the city, New Orleans that is, I was in high school. Yeah,
so, we’re not talking every other trip. So, and the next large city to us was Hattiesburg,
Mississippi, and that was a rare occasion unless you had to go to another doctor or
something like that.
JENNY: And you had brothers and sisters at home with you?
JEAN: I’m the oldest and I have two brothers. We were all two years apart.
JENNY: So, you are close in years?
JEAN: Yeah, not too close now but close then.
JENNY: What were your first memories of school?
JEAN: Getting on the bus…I remember my Dad was the bus driver when I started school
and every morning…for some reason the bus was over at my grandmother’s and we
would go over there and eat breakfast. She would fix breakfast for us every morning.
And it was syrup, biscuits, and homemade butter and salt meat or bacon or something
like that. And we would do that every morning and, then, we would be off to school. He
would take us to school…take a load of kids to school and then he would go by an aunt
of his that lived in the area until school got out. And then I got into the habit in first
grade of just staying with Dad all day and almost flunked. (laughing)
JENNY: What did he do for a living?
JEAN: He…that was it! He was just driving the bus. He wasn’t into farming like my
grandfather was and so, I think, sometime before that he had been injured and after that
he started driving the bus. Ever since I have known Dad he has had that limp. He started
driving the bus and I guess he drove the bus four or five years.
267
JENNY: Was the school at Foxworth or was it at Columbia?
JEAN: The school was not in Foxworth. It was in a little….another little settlement
called Little Rock which was about, I would say, about thirty miles.
JENNY: These are interesting names, Foxworth, Little Rock.
JEAN: The name of that school was Piney Woods and, so, it was a very small school.
We couldn’t have had any more than 100 kids enrolled.
JENNY: Inclusive of first through twelfth?
JEAN: Yeah, first through twelfth. I can remember it now, a white building, and we had
another little building to the side. I can remember the wood heater and the cafeteria
because the lady in the cafeteria—Miss Hoffman, I remember her name now—cooked,
ah!, the best food. But anyway…
JENNY: So you ate well at school?
JEAN: Oh, yeah, and I fell in love in my elementary years because I left him some of my
lunch money on his desk everyday.
JENNY: Do you remember his name?
JEAN: Junior Moore. (laughing)
JENNY: Have you ever wondered where Junior is now?
JEAN: I often think about Junior. “Junior, where are you?” I often wonder where Junior
is but I don’t know what happened to Junior because he didn’t stay. The family moved
away. And there went my first love.
JENNY: Was that first grade first love?
JEAN: That was first grade.
JENNY: How many teachers were there in your small school? What were your teachers
like?
JEAN: I can remember the room. We had it divided, partitioned, so that we had different
grade levels and I can remember the hallway and I know the principal’s office was over
there on the left and there must have been three or four classrooms on either side of the
hallway. And those classrooms were partitioned. And I can remember in the fourth
grade, the teacher got…I guess, upset with us and she said, after lunch, nobody was going
to go to the restroom. A girl that rode our bus took her to heart. She had to go do a #2
(laughing) and she would not ask the teacher to let her go. And she sat right there and did
268
it in her desk. A friend and I kind of snickered a little bit and she made us take the desk
to the bathroom (laughing)…and wash it down. Oh, Lord…and she rode home with us
on the bus. You didn’t have parents who could bring clothes out for change, so she kept
those clothes on.
JENNY: I guess she learned something then?
JEAN: I guess I learned something then…to keep your mouth shut because it could be
you. But, the plan was the order of the day. You just didn’t question a teacher and if she
said something, it was the law. That’s it.
JENNY: How many kids would be in your partitioned area? And was it by grade level?
JEAN: Grade level, yeah, and it couldn’t have been anymore than 20. So, we were
small.
JENNY: So, how far did you go in that school? What grade?
JEAN: It went from first through twelfth. All right there.
JENNY: And you went there the whole twelve years?
JEAN: Oh, no, because we were growing, you see, we were expanding. In 1959, they
built a new school. And we consolidated all the little schools into one black school for
the county. And that was East Marion and the name doesn’t even exist anymore. But,
anyway, we all went to the new school.
JENNY: Was it nice?
JEAN: Oh, well, I thought I was in hog heaven. So big and so new and the paint was
still fresh. The halls were so shiny and I got lost on the first day.
JENNY: What grade were you in by then?
JEAN: Fifth grade…fifth grade…and, so, I finally found my way to the area and it was
…oh....just seemed like so many people. Well, because you are coming from that small
environment. It was change…
JENNY: Life was changing? 1959, things were starting to change?
JEAN: Yeah, we had Brown (Brown v. Board of Education) in ’54 but we weren’t
affected by Brown at all. It wouldn’t be until 1966 that we would begin the process of
…(integration)…
269
JENNY: I think that was pretty typical in this area, too, of northwest Florida. It took that
many years for it to have an effect. So, your most vivid memories of school would be
discipline…
JEAN: Discipline, discipline, discipline.
JENNY: Did you like school?
JEAN: I liked recess. (laughing) What was it about school that I enjoyed?
JENNY: Did you have a favorite teacher or subject?
JEAN: I remember some teachers that stood out. Miss Ella Laflore was a history teacher
of mine in the eighth grade. And I just thought she was so smart and she had us actually
doing some things instead of just sitting in the desk. And I remember she assigned us a
paper one time and…at that Christmas I had gotten a typewriter. I just thought I was in
hog heaven. Oh, and I tell you, and the first day I dropped it. But I typed this paper for
her and I thought I had done a marvelous job. I mean, nobody typed their papers and so
she looked at it and the red just began to flow and I think the bottom line was if you are
going to type there are some rules regarding typing. (laughing) And so it was just like a
reality check. And she coached girl’s basketball and she was just very…
JENNY: Did you play basketball?
JEAN: Tried to. I went out for basketball in my ninth grade year, I think, and in the
tenth grade. Both times, I ended up twisting an ankle so, by the second time, Dad said
just forget it because he had to come and pick me up from work, you know, limping with
a swollen ankle and da-de-da-de-da. I never really played basketball.
JENNY: What was your favorite subject? Do you remember having one?
JEAN: The only thing I can remember was sitting in the little desk, taking tests, and
listening to the teacher. School was not really very enjoyable because it was all teacher
focused. So the only fun activities we had were when we went out to recess or to a
football game. The classroom itself was not fun. I remember having a geography teacher
when I was in seventh grade. The thing I remember most about her was that she was
dressed everyday. We had to draw our maps.
JENNY: You did?
JEAN: Yeah, she wanted every little curly cue…you don't do the contour (drawing), you
have to go in and show those little details. Because we didn't have paper that we would
just have maps printed out on. If you wanted to do geography, you drew your maps and
labeled them. She was very big on that. I guess that kind of helped me develop an idea
for detail.
270
JENNY: Can you compare between elementary, middle, and high school? You moved
from a smaller rural school to a larger?
JEAN: From the country to a larger school.
JENNY: Is that larger school in Columbia?
JEAN: It is in what we call Rampton.
JENNY: Sounds like a lot of small towns.
JEAN: Yeah, a lot of little communities …there was no main street. These were just
little communities where people lived and everybody did their shopping in Columbia.
Farming communities, that’s what they were because everybody had their little farms.
JENNY: So, you're a farmer and I didn't know it?
JEAN: No, my grandfather was a farmer. He used all of the grandchildren for slave
labor. (laughing) He had cotton; he had corn; he had beans and okra and peas. And then
my mother had a garden. We picked cotton not only for my grandfather but some of the
other farmers in the area. They would come out in the mornings and they would load us
up on the trucks. They would give us dinner. We didn't have anything to do anyway.
My family, though, if you went off and worked anywhere you brought the money home.
And then if Mom wanted to give you some of it she would give you some of it…but it
wasn't your money.
JENNY: Did ya'll have a TV?
JEAN: We didn't get a TV until we moved. I grew up in a two-room shotgun house as
they would call it now. We moved into a new house in '59, too. That was '59, too. So,
we did have a TV in grandmother's house. I remember when we got it because all the
grandkids and my aunt across the hill had 10 kids and my uncle down the way from us
had seven and when we wanted to watch TV we went to grandmother's house.
Grandmother had the TV; grandmother had the phone; grandmother had the running
water because she had a pump and we didn't because they owned the land. When their
children got ready to get married and if they wanted land, they ended up buying it from
my grandfather. He wasn't giving anything away. My dad bought 13 acres from him.
JENNY: So, he owned a lot of land?
JEAN: My grandfather? Yeah, oh yeah. He could keep a dollar until it started to
crinkle. He wasn't giving up anything. When we got on his truck to go to Sunday school
on Sunday, you would have to pay. (laughing) If you needed a ride to the store, you'd
have to pay. And when he died, of course, it all went to his wife who did pretty much
what she wanted to with it. But, he was very strict on the money honey. You didn't ride
in grandpa's truck for free.
271
JENNY: I'm sure he wouldn't approve of all this plastic money—credit cards—we have
today. Who encouraged your studies and who influenced you the most?
JEAN: I think my grandfather did a lot because he would always say, "Study hard." I
think he expected all of the grandkids to go on and go to college after high school. And
then when I went to college, he and my grandmother, every time I would come home,
would give me a little piece of money. And my parents they expected …they expected
great things. "You have no excuse; this is what you are here to do." I know one
time…we would get off the bus and stay with my grandparents until my parents came
home. And one day I left my book out on the hill and it rained that night and I went
through the whole year without it. And that meant money, too, and we didn't have that
much money to be paying for a book that I should have brought home. They had great
expectations.
JENNY: That is the expectancy…the Pygmalion effect. If you expect your child or your
student to do well that idea will get into their head and they will live up to your
expectation. Even though you are growing up in this rural community in the segregated
South, you knew you were going to college?
JEAN: There was never any question "if" you were going…maybe "where" you were
going.
JENNY: So, how did you decide which university to go to?
JEAN: In high school, I started looking around at guys and so there was this tall guy that
played basketball that lived in the area and, so…my thing at that time was, “I'm not
talking to anybody shorter than me.” My emphasis was on the tall ones, so I knew the
family…as I said they were in the area, and he went to Jackson State when he left to go
off to school. My mother said, "You will never get anywhere close to Jackson State."
(laughing) "I'm going to put you as close to me as I can." USM is only forty miles away
and they were into their second year of integration at USM so I applied and was accepted
and she said, "That is where you will go; you will go to Hattiesburg."
JENNY: So, USM is the University of Southern Mississippi?
JEAN: Yes, and that was 1967. That was my first year.
JENNY: Tell me how you decided to get your degree in secondary education?
JEAN: With a minor in history. At that time you majored in either elementary or
secondary. I think the determining factor there was having to take a foreign language and
taking a language in college is very different from taking it in high school and the first
quarter I took it I got a "C" and the second quarter I took it I got a "C" and I needed three
quarters of it for my major because I was going into sociology. That was the intent…oh,
social worker, that would be great. After two quarters, I decided that maybe I should
change my major.
272
JENNY: So you ended up with a certification in secondary education and a focus in
history? You graduated and then what happened?
JEAN: They were doing interviews…actually I graduated the second quarter of my
senior year because I went to summer school…why I don't know…anyway, which meant
I was out early. Wondering what to do, no car, and so I did some sub work but they were
interviewing for jobs and they were sending people from the county office…
JENNY: You mean our county here?
JEAN: Yeah, Bay County. Their Director of Personnel would go out to various colleges
and interview and recruit. So Mr. Pribbenow, at the time, was at USM. I went in and
interviewed and he offered me a job, just like that. One of the teachers…it was for Bay
High…one of the teachers there, when they shifted around when they integrated, was not
happy and they needed a replacement to keep the quota up. And so they were just
looking for…and so Dad said, “I don't care where it is; just go."
JENNY: What did your mom say?
JEAN: "Ooh" because this is like Florida; it is so far away. Florida is what they see on
TV, the palm trees. So I went to Hattiesburg, Mississippi, and got on a bus and it took
me 13 hours to get here by bus. And I didn't know a single person here. And I had to
come here for an interview as well. So I came here for the interview and met people like
Hattie Burch, who is a longtime...she was probably there when you were there…and
some others. They offered me the job and I took it. Still when I came down here I didn't
have a car. I worked until Thanksgiving, got back on the bus and went home and said
"Dad, I have to have transportation." So he put the down payment on a car for me. My
first car was a Camaro. It was so cute. A gold Camaro. Rented a room from one of the
Bowers over there on Lincoln Drive, where the drivers range is at Bay High. It was close
to school and, sometimes, I walked. I could take a bus downtown. The next summer I
got married. I forgot my internship. I interned in Natchez, Mississippi. Sure did and, of
course, that was where Warren (future husband) was. I had to get to Natchez, right?
JENNY: Did Warren go to school with you?
JEAN: We went to high school together.
JENNY: Was he the tall, basketball player?
JEAN: Yeah, so he had been teaching in Natchez for a while…for two years…because
he is only three years older than me. When we got married, the thing was, am I going to
leave here and go to Natchez or what?
JENNY: Or was he going to come here?
273
JEAN: Yeah, they needed a science teacher at Bay High and so I had been rehired…if I
wanted the job. So he came down here and started working in the science department.
Unknown to us they had a rule…a school board policy…that said husbands and wives
cannot work at the same school. So, here they are…I guess Joe Ovca knew about the
policy but hired us anyway. Come to find out we were on the school board agenda. A
month of school has gone by and now we are on the school board agenda because
somebody has brought it to the school board's attention that a husband and wife are at the
same school. And, so they needed a science teacher more than they needed a history
teacher and they let me go. And so they offered me a spot at the county office working
with JTPA, I think it was something like that. I stayed out there for a year picking up
time slips from kids who were working at various jobs. There was a teacher there who
knew the department head here at Rutherford and, you know, like, "She's a good one; you
could use her." And so Betty Sue Evans hired me over here…or recommended me for
hiring over here and that was in 1973. And I've been here ever since. (laughing)
Teaching has been my only job. No…I did do a little work on the beach but I didn't get
paid for it.
JENNY: You have a lot of teaching experience. First, I would like to make the comment
that you have an extraordinary story coming from the rural Mississippi area, segregated
South, going to a major university and getting a degree. This is really a phenomenal
story.
JEAN: And it didn't take me five years or six years or seven years like my child.
JENNY: Were you prepared coming from your small school to the university?
JEAN: It is amazing because by having very little by way of dedicated teachers…I can
remember in the sixth grade, the English teacher, if you missed a word on the spelling
test you got beat. I can remember learning my times tables. If we were doing 7s on any
given day and you missed one, you got a lick for every one that you missed. So, I'm
talking about discipline. And you had to go into the bathroom and clean the stalls when
somebody wrote on them. We didn't have in house…we had people come and do the
halls but every teacher was responsible for their own room as far as keeping it clean.
Discipline probably stands out the most for me but one of the things our principal always
reminded us was that the white students kept their schools so clean. And we want to do
the same thing. So when the county people would come in we would have to really
spruce up the place. And I didn't know any better until I went to college and we would
walk down the hall and say "Oh, my goodness, we have been lied to all these years."
JENNY: You thought it would be antiseptic and it wasn't.
JEAN: Absolutely, absolutely. It was just their way of trying to keep us in place.
JENNY: When you decided to go into teaching after sociology wasn't looking so
promising, was there any reason why? Was it just because it was available?
Do you remember that decision point?
274
JEAN: By way of careers, I didn't really see that many people doing that many different
things. When I was in high school, I saw teachers. They tell me at one time there were a
couple of black doctors but I had never seen any. Since I didn't have a guidance
counselor, whatever was decided was based on my experience to date. I just didn't see
anybody doing great and wonderful things except for teaching. And they were good,
everyday people. I didn't know they made so little money. (laugh) And then when I
came down here, Florida was offering $6,500 or something like that and Mississippi was
only offering $4,000. I thought I was in hog heaven. Let me go to Florida.
JENNY: So what significant things have you learned about teaching others?
JEAN: They are all different. There is no one way to teach. What you have to do is
decide what works best for any given group even if it’s the same subject. What you do in
one class might not work in another class. A lot of patience…a lot of patience.
JENNY: What have you learned about yourself from teaching?
JEAN: I can be patient. (laugh) Flexibility, I think. I don't think there are too many
things that upset me anymore because I know that this, too, shall pass. And I just wait for
the next wave to come through. But…I think flexibility and patience. At some level I
really enjoy what I do, at some level. I just haven't discovered what level that is yet. But
if I could just teach and not worry about the paperwork that goes along with all this and
the forms…if I could just teach, it would really be a great occupation.
JENNY: Well, do you think that your university experience, the classes you took to get
ready for teaching, helped you or were you surprised when you started teaching?
JEAN: I was surprised how little I knew. Even though you major in a subject, you really
don't start learning it until you teach it.
JENNY: So, the teacher is the learner?
JEAN: Absolutely, absolutely. I interned in middle school…just having to prepare…I
know I took that class but I didn't learn enough to try to teach it to somebody. Even the
classes you take on how to teach…you have to get out there and learn it, basically, on a
lot of trial and error. I guess there were some good things that came out of those classes
but, for the most part, you learn by doing.
JENNY: Have you enjoyed teaching overall? If you had a scale, how would you weigh
this thing out?
JEAN: Since I still have some hair and a reasonable portion of my health and
strength…on a scale of 1 to 10, I would say 8 or 9. Except for the cussin' outs and the not
too nice messages left on desks…stuff like that…I think, overall, not bad.
275
JENNY: What would you say has been the most satisfying or rewarding thing? Can you
pinpoint any one thing?
JEAN: I think, probably, as I go to WalMart and meet former students and they tell me,
"Mrs. Warren, you were so hard." (laugh) I think I would rather hear that than to hear
someone say, "We didn't do anything in her class." I've had students who have left notes
and said how great and wonderful and da-de-da-de-da but I think, overall I think, is the
fact that they come away with more than what they came in with…a little bit more than
what they came in with.
JENNY: And on the flip side of that, what has been the most frustrating thing for you as
a teacher?
JEAN: I think having students come in with preconceived ideas of "I cannot do this" and
won't even try. "My mother had trouble with history and she understands why I don't do
well" and "I can't learn this" and "I can't; I can't; I can't." That just drives me up the wall.
So, I think that's the most frustrating; those students who won't put forth the effort. Not
realizing that this is nothing but a story...American history is and world history is but a
story. If you watch a story on TV, you can learn American history.
JENNY: Would you recommend teaching to other people?
JEAN: I think it would have to be something…first of all, you have to have a personality
if you are going to be effective—somebody who really enjoys this type of interacting
with students on a daily basis. If you don't like people, this is not the job for you. Would
I recommend it? If you're not looking for a lot of money, you have good hours and have
nice vacations and you get a challenge every single day. And there is always growth.
Because every time I teach I learn something that I didn't know before. If you're looking
for something like that then this is a good spot.
JENNY: True, I agree with that. I am always learning. Tell me what classes you are
teaching this year and what a typical day might be for you.
JEAN: I'm just doing world history and American history this year. A typical day like
today is all American history. I have one honors and three regulars. It is just a matter of
reviewing content and introducing new content and reviewing what you have just
covered. A typical day is making sure that those people who are out are recorded as
school leave or…it is the record keeping that drives me up the wall and making sure that
this form is signed and that form is signed…ah. So a typical day is some teaching and a
lot of paperwork.
JENNY: Are these the classes you want to be teaching?
JEAN: I would rather be doing just all American history. But because we try to be fair
in the department and not give one person five preparations and another one, I ended up
with three which is not bad.
276
JENNY: If you could have the ideal situation, could you give me a class size, a budget,
subjects, whatever….your dream teaching job.
JEAN: OK, I would say probably no more than 20 students. I want a classroom large
enough where I could have a teaching area and a hands-on area because we do
manipulate the content. I would like a wide-screen TV, something that kids could see
from the back of the room. We wouldn't have to break out the binoculars. (laugh) I
would like to have a computer for each of my students in the room so that we could have
some online work. I would like to have a sink area, built-in cabinets, a lot of room for
storage. I would like…what else…monies for field trips, for consumables, and the
opportunity to collaborate with more teachers across the curriculum. When I do the wars,
I would love to have the ROTC come over and do their little spiel because that is what
they specialize in, military stuff. So, we just haven't had a chance to and now that the
Co-Study program is a dead duck…
JENNY: What kinds of skills or concepts do you want your students to learn? And how
do you motivate them?
JEAN: My first thought is that I tell them if they don't do it they get a zero. (laugh) That
works for some. I think the opportunity to improve themselves as individuals, to give
them a greater knowledge base to work from. Until they have that knowledge base, they
can't compare and contrast, draw conclusions, synthesize and all those other great and
wonderful skills we want them to develop. The writing skills are awful. I don't think we
practice anything like memory skills anymore.
JENNY: Is there anything you push with them?
JEAN: I think being responsible for what they do, be it bringing a pen and a piece of
paper to class or knowing what I expect of them even though I may not be in the
room…that internalizing of expectations, for some that takes a year or two for those who
repeat it. The next year they come back and I repeat it; I expect you to bring a pen, a
pencil, paper to class everyday. I've had you before. This should not be anything
different. Interpersonal skills, just dealing with other people. Knowing that people may
not always agree with you but knowing there is a way you can always talk to people,
express your opinion without resorting to vulgarity every other word.
JENNY: Do you think it is more important in your American history content to teach
breadth or depth? Do you get to decide that or are you told what to teach through
standards or from the district? How are all these decisions made?
JEAN: Well, I'm waffling back and forth with that. Should I go breadth or should I go
depth? And I think what I have concluded at this point is that there are some areas for
going with breadth and some areas for going with depth. And there is no general
consensus in the department as to where these two should take place. Right now, it is just
a personal decision. They expect us to get to a certain point at a certain time but what we
do in-between is left up to the individual teacher.
277
JENNY: So there are no department-wide semester exams for American history or
anything like that?
JEAN: There is no master exam, no master plan really except that you must get from
point A to point B.
JENNY: What about the Sunshine State Standards? How do they figure in?
JEAN: They figure in…in that in some shape, form, or fashion you are supposed to
touch on those as you go through from point A to point B.
JENNY: So they are not real defined or strict? They are more conceptual?
JEAN: Yeah, and the way things are going now, the next year or the year after, social
studies will be a part of the FCAT. So, with that in mind, I am sure we will need to have
a little bit more structure to what we do. Right now, it is kind of loosey-goosey.
JENNY: How do you grade your students and what do you think is important about
grading?
JEAN: You know, we have gone to this whole business of assessment, trying to vary the
assessment tools we use and so what we were told is that there are many pictures you can
take of Johnny. And that applies to assessment as well. One picture does not tell all what
Johnny can do or who Johnny is and, so, as far as assessment goes we try to use not only
just the pen and pencil but actual projects, presentations, and, of course, there is always
the homework and the class work, quizzes. So the attempt is to vary the assessment to
the point where, if he doesn't do well on a pen and pencil, he may do exceptionally well
when he has to give a presentation to the class. Anything we can do to make sure that
most of the bases are covered so we can get a better picture of what he is able to do or she
is able to do, Johnny or Jeanette. (laugh)
JENNY: What do you think is the most important thing you teach?
JEAN: Oh, that's a hard one. Oh, my goodness. As I listen to them come and go, I think
that one of the most important things I try to get across is respect, for other people and
their ideas. You may not agree with them but because we are in America they are
entitled to express their opinion. When the kid gives me the paper and we've been talking
about slavery and he wrote "nigger" everywhere he is supposed to write…he could write
slave, as a teacher I try to encourage political correctness. I think that respect and
responsibility which will follow them throughout their lives no matter where they go,
which kind of people they come in contact with.
JENNY: Are there any particular students you remember? Anyone special you have
taught? Anyone that comes to mind?
278
JEAN: Some of the smart ones. (laugh) Some of the very, very bad ones. Ones inbetween I tend to kind of lose track of. I don't think there are any that I would say, "Oh,
what a wonderful, wonderful, wonderful person." I've had some really good students
along the way.
JENNY: Do they ever come back to visit?
JEAN: I've had some e-mails, actually, in the last five years or so. Now I'm getting the
parents; I'm getting the children of the parents I taught. And, so I get some visitations in
that regard…conferences…"You taught me. You're still here?" “'Fraid so!” But there is
where I am right now. Not so much the visitations but a lot of these people I see in the
mall or at Wally World and they say, "Are you still teaching?" Some of the ones who
graduate and then go off to college want to come back the first couple of years to see
what is going on but, then, after that they are into their own little worlds so we don't see
them that much. We have some who come back and teach here. I've got one now that I
taught several years ago and she is subbing here. I don't know what she is doing inbetween. I just don't want to see any on the street and they give me the finger! (laugh) I
was driving down the parkway one day and this guy is hanging out the car and he is
going (gesture). I thought, "Oh, you!"
JENNY: Did you recognize him?
JEAN: Oh, yes I did. I know why you're doing that. (laugh) I didn't like you either!
Sometimes there are personality clashes. There are some people who just rub you the
wrong way and the part as a professional that you always have to keep in mind is that you
have to treat…even though you know they are cussin' you under their breath every
time…you have to come in everyday and say I am going to try again. Perseverance…I
know.
JENNY: How well are you supported by administration including from the top down to
department heads, other teachers, by parents? Do you feel as a teacher you are
supported?
JEAN: Well, currently or over the years…well, changes have taken place. I think it has
been a roller coaster as far as administrative support. When I first got here, Mr. M was
principal. Mr. M was a former Marine. When Mr. M laid down the law, you followed
the law or he was at your door. So, he had us signing in; I think everybody in the county
was doing that. If you didn't sign in on time, you were called into the office. If during
semester exams he said "I don't want to see any students out on the sidewalk" and if
somebody was out there floating around, he would bring that person to your classroom
door for an explanation. So Mr. M was very strict. I remember one year I had goofed up
some on the final grade because it was like last minute rush, rush, rush. And so Mr. M,
by way of one of his assistants, made me come in and re-average all of my grades.
(laugh) Just to make sure there are no other errors, you know. Well, stupid me, I had a
calculator that the battery was about to go out on and I should have put the new one in
before I started averaging grades. Right? I have learned from my mistakes. Then after
279
that we kind of waffled back and forth and I think some of the principals we have had
who have come up from middle school are not as strict or consistent about enforcing the
policy. Some of the middle school people have been somewhat loosey-goosey. They are
more concerned about keeping parents quiet than what goes on in the classroom. So, on
that regard, I have never…the only situation that I had that really ticked me off about an
administrator was the time I had a child stand up in class and cuss me out. I mean really.
His explanation was the child is experiencing some problems and da-de-da and I think he
did one day in in-school (in-school suspension) and went on about his happy business.
For me that was just...you know…I don't care what kind of problems you are having, you
don't take them out on me when I'm not responsible for them. And he is back in middle
school now, though; the principal is. So that may have been the place for him. And he
did serve as superintendent one time, Mr. H. As far as administrators go, I haven't had
that many dealings with them. But, like I said, I found that the middle schoolers tend to
be a lot less consistent about enforcing the policy. That's the thing…if you have a policy,
enforce it or throw it out. And don't expect teachers to do what you are not willing to do.
JENNY: So, what kinds of trends have you seen in teaching over the years?
JEAN: What goes around, comes around. (laugh) I don't really see anything new that
hasn't been tried before. If Johnny can't read it won't matter what kind of program you
institute. Sooner or later, you have got to get back to the basics and that is what we have
been trying to do for the thirty years I have been teaching. They try to get back to the
basics and they call it a new thing but it is the same thing: How do we get Johnny to read
and understand? So, the new trends...we have alternative assessment, standardized tests
we are trying to get kids to pass and so forth but it all gets back to what happens the first
couple of years at school. In my opinion, they are not putting enough emphasis on those
first couple of years. Otherwise you would not have 25-30 students in them. Otherwise,
we are going to continue having the same problems. I don't know why, they have been
doing this for so long. I don't understand why…it is the reading, writing, arithmetic.
JENNY: Kindergarten through third, fourth and fifth grade sets you up for the rest of the
time, doesn't it? Would you do this all over again?
JEAN: Probably not. (laugh) If I had it to do all over again, I would probably try to find
some counselor who could advise me as to what my options were and I just didn't pursue
that. That's why I ended up teaching. I would not change it but if I had been given more
of a choice I probably would not have chosen teaching. I wouldn't go back and start over
and try something else. Once I retire…I'll be out there with my little garden, with my
peas, my corn, my beans.
JENNY: Don't forget the cotton!
JEAN: No, no cotton. (laugh)
JENNY: Is there anything else you would like to share about your philosophy of
teaching or your experiences?
280
JEAN: Philosophy or experiences…philosophy or experiences…No. (laugh)
JENNY: Is there anything else you would like to add? Anything at all?
JEAN: I think when I got to college, because I had come from a segregated environment,
it was a culture shock for me because there was so much I had not been exposed to. And
that is why it is so difficult for me to understand kids who have so much by way of things
they could use to learn…so much on TV, so many movies. We didn't have any of that
stuff when I was growing up. And we still don't get it. You know, they have all of that
and they still don't get it. And, I think maybe technology has been a wonderful thing for
us on the one hand but has caused kids to just become brain dead because everything is
right there in front of them and there is no imagination.
JENNY: Did ya'll have a library in your school?
JEAN: No, no library.
JENNY: Did you do much reading?
JEAN: Actually, I didn't. But I read magazines because my mom worked for a lady who
subscribed to a lot of magazines…some of them were romance.
JENNY: I think I read a few of those, too.
JEAN: I read a lot. We went to the library. I know we had reading assignments. I don't
remember checking out a lot of books and doing a lot of reading in that regard.
JENNY: You have to wonder why so many people who have so many advantages and
opportunities, do so much less with it. You were growing up with, I would say, a
minimum of supplies, opportunities, and experiences and were able to maximize.
JEAN: And we were talking the other day…I don't remember when I learned to read,
when I learned to break words down…we did a lot of that when I was growing up. It was
part of vocabulary. You had to know the root word, be able to add the prefixes and
suffixes and all that…that forms larger words. And somewhere along the line we missed
the basics.
JENNY: Well, this has certainly been interesting and I have enjoyed it. Is there anything
else you would like to say?
JEAN: I don't think so.
JENNY: Well, thank you very much.
281
APPENDIX B-2
GUIDE FOR INTERVIEW #2: THE DETAILS OF EXPERIENCE
Jean Warren, Social Studies Department, Rutherford High School
November 6, 2002
During our first interview you mentioned that you attended the University of Southern
Mississippi when it first became integrated. Could you elaborate on that experience?
Think back to your first few years of teaching. How would you characterize them?
Teacher-oriented or student-oriented? Did you use extracurricular materials or go just by
the textbook? What kind of relationship did you have with your students?
As the years passed, did your teaching style change? If so, what were those changes?
During February of 1998, you and I had our first American History and Art Co-Study
collaboration. Art was used to help students remember, manipulate, and understand their
history content better. We brought our two classes (my art and your American history)
together for a collaborative effort on World War I. What do you remember most about
that initial collaboration?
The following year (1998-99) we were able to have a yearlong course of American
History and Art Co-Study. That year we were fortunate because the students were
enrolled in your history class and my art class. We saw our students everyday. The
students were earning credit in both history and art. Art curriculum expanded to include
art history and art criticism as well as hands-on art experiences. What do you remember
most about that first year of Co-Study?
The following year brought a change (that lasted for three years) in that we both were
teaching American history. Our class sizes increased and we no longer saw our students
everyday. Students were earning history credit only. We combined our classes to teach
the Co-Study method. What do you remember most about those three years of CoStudy? Did it affect the way you taught your other history classes that were not CoStudy?
During the 2000-2001, we expanded to teaching World History and Art Co-Study. We
were given the ninth grade Acceleration Academy students. Those students were lowachieving eighth graders who were placed in an academy during their ninth grade year.
They were kept together as a group during the tenth grade just for our history class and
English class. What do you remember most about those two years of teaching at risk
students using the Co-Study method?
Now, our Guidance Department in its "no frills" approach to scheduling this year (20022003 school year) has removed Co-Study (as well as other innovative programs) from its
course listings. What we do with the Co-Study method we do separately in our own
classrooms. Are you using any Co-Study methods presently in your American or world
282
history classes? If so, what specifically do you do? What do you not do because I am no
longer teaching with you?
283
APPENDIX B-2a
INTERVIEW #2: THE DETAILS OF EXPERIENCE
An Interview between Jean Warren, Social Studies Department and
Jennifer (Jenny) Doster, Art Department, Rutherford High School
November 7, 2002
JENNY: Jean, during our last interview about a week ago, we were discussing your
background and you mentioned that you attended the University of Southern Mississippi
when it first became integrated. I found it fascinating that you lived through such an
historical experience. I was wondering if you had anything you wanted to add about that
experience of going to a newly integrated Southern university in the late 60s and what
that was like now that you look back on it.
JEAN: Well, actually, it was not an extraordinary event. I don't remember any incidents
like the ones you might see on TV. There was nobody standing in the door saying, "No,
you can’t come in" and that sort of thing—just a few occasions where a few students
were not very kind. But overall the professors were extremely nice and accommodating
and I had no problems with them. You cannot control some of their thinking but it was
not reflected in the grading at all. So, otherwise, I remember just being in classes where,
at the time, I was the only one (African-American) there. It was either you get it or you
don't get it because there was nobody you could go to get notes from. As I tell my
children, it made me become a very independent kind of person…to my husband's regret,
probably (laughing) too independent. But I worked on campus after my freshman year in
the library and did that for the duration of my college years—work-study program—and
attended very few social functions on campus. I think I went to one football game and I
may have gone to, about, one basketball game. But in the 60s, see, when you went to a
football game in the South you dressed. These people weren't into blue jeans then.
These people were dressing with the minks and da-de-da-de-da. I think we felt a little out
of place. One football game and that was about it. We did have….I remember the local
churches, black churches in town, were especially kind because they would send cars out
some Sunday morning if we wanted to come to church and they would fix dinner. There
was one church that would fix dinner for us every Sunday. That was nice, very nice, and
I’ve often been tempted to send a donation in memory of. Then there were some
recreational areas for young people in town that we had access to. One was run by the
Catholics, I believe, and they had little dances on Friday night and if we wanted to go to
one of those we could. As far as doing things on campus…other than that, that was about
it.
JENNY: So, you lived on campus?
JEAN: I lived on campus.
JENNY: In campus housing dorms?
284
JEAN: In the dorm, yeah. We had the dorm whatever-person-that-was-in-charge and
they had the room inspections every Saturday.
JENNY: Wow, college has changed.
JEAN: Yeah, college has changed a bit. That was about it. We didn't have any major
shopping centers at the time. We had a store that came into town; it must have been
when I was about a sophomore—Roses. It is kind of like a Kmart. But that was big. It
was so close we could walk to it if we wanted to. Nothing like it is now. I go over there
now and it's like "whoa". (laugh) Other than that life was very simple, really.
JENNY: So your school experience in the small town you grew up in was adequate for
university work?
JEAN: Not in math. (laugh) I was like praying, “Lord, let me get a ‘D’, please, please.”
There were some areas where I was very deficient and math was one of them. Other than
that, anything that just generally involved reading I could handle. But the math, you
know, like algebra…I had had algebra something in the eighth grade and had not seen it
since. You know, and you can imagine. And the first course I took was something
algebra. That may be another reason I changed my major.
JENNY: But anything to do with reading, language arts, you were fine?
JEAN: Yeah, yeah.
JENNY: You lived through history, through an historical moment in time.
JEAN: I can remember the night that Martin Luther King was shot. They did not cancel
classes. And the question was, were we going to go out and protest in front of the
president. (laugh) Some of us were saying, "My momma will kill me if I get kicked out
of school. I can't go home." (laugh) So there were many of us who did go on to class and
there were some who gathered together and lit the candles and that sort of thing.
JENNY: How many black students were there that first year you were there?
JEAN: We only had twelve out of about 8,000.
JENNY: Male and female?
JEAN: Yeah. No, let me take that back. There were twelve that lived on campus. There
were some city people who just came to class.
JENNY: That's interesting. Well, okay, now think back to your first few years of
teaching. I would like for you to give me a picture of how you would characterize your
first years and how you were teaching. What style? Was it teacher-oriented or studentoriented? Did you use extracurricular materials from the library or magazines or did you
285
go just by the textbook? What kind of relationship did you have with your students?
That sort of thing. Just try to give me a picture of what your first few years were like as a
teacher.
JEAN: Well, I think the first few years were scared years because, you know, you go
through these college classes but you don't learn enough to really teach anybody. You
have to actually get out there and jump into the water, so to speak, before you actually
learn anything. The first ten years is when you learn the curriculum. You can sit through
all kinds of college classes and regurgitate for the professor but when you try to explain it
to a class you have to break it down to their level. You have to bring in other stuff. It is
those first ten years that you get really comfortable with what you are doing. So, the first
ten years, I wasn't comfortable. (laugh) So, I know many of the students I taught would
say, "She is such a witch." (laugh) But I think a lot of that has to do with insecurity.
Anytime a teacher out there exerts tremendous control over a class, they are somewhat
insecure about what they are doing—unless the class are little demons out of hell. But
sometimes that is just a defense mechanism. I can remember my first year at Bay High
and I had a tenth grade world history class and I had some wonderful people in that class.
I remember at the end of that first year, we were talking about “What are you going to do
over the summer?” Somehow or other, birthdays came up and so I said, "I have never
had a birthday party." That Friday after school was out, the florist truck pulls up…and a
bouquet of flowers—roses from these three girls who were in that world history class. I
was remembering one of the names and I was trying to remember the other ones. Her
name was Helen and she died a couple of years ago. She was from here. A local. I've
had some others...Renee...she taught PE for years. That first year class I really
remember. The first class I did in Natchez, Mississippi, I couldn't give you a name if had
to. That class really…that was a good year. But, like I said, there was a lot of fear and
intimidation: Please don't ask me a question I don't know; please let me go read first.
But not being married …not having any other responsibilities other than teaching, I had a
lot of time to prepare.
JENNY: What about how you handled the classes in terms of teaching style and your
materials. Was it more lecture-type? Did they do research?
JEAN: I can't remember taking them to the library. I can't remember that much by way
of audiovisuals, like movies or anything like that. I don't think we had that much. I
know it was a teacher centered classroom. That is what we were then. We had not
decided to let students have a voice. You just came in and did your little work and we
just talked a little bit, reinforced with other activities, so I don't think I was out there
away from the majority. I was pretty much following the norm. So we are looking at
teacher centered classrooms.
JENNY: I think that is the same type of relationship we had when we were in school. As
the years passed, did your teaching style change?
JEAN: I did gather…the more I taught the more relaxed I became. Well, you know, I
think we kept that idea going that teachers were here to just give out information and they
286
would take it all in and then just give it back at some point…until about 10 years ago.
And then we decided that we could vary the way we taught, have them do more
simulations…and group cooperative learning came along and that is what…so now I
really hate to lecture. I want them to do as much as they can. I am definitely more
student centered now. Well, let’s say, in some classes.
JENNY: During February of 1998, you and I had our first American History and Art CoStudy collaboration. In that collaboration, art was used to help students remember,
manipulate, and understand their history content better. So, what we did was bring our
two classes—my art class and your American history class—together to study World War
I. Now, I know this has been a while but what do you remember most about that initial
collaboration going on almost five years ago?
JEAN: You know, I thought it was rather interesting and we used the labyrinth. And we
have never used it since.
JENNY: Yeah, it was time consuming.
JEAN: It was interesting to me because you could put your finger at one point and
follow the sequencing of events to get to another point. We probably should have gone
back and used it. That was interesting to me and the contour drawing was, really,
because I never learned how to draw. And just the idea of somebody starting from
nothing and being able to create something was interesting to me. So, just learning some
of the artistic techniques was interesting to me because I had never been exposed to them.
JENNY: So, in your schooling experience as a child you had no art.
JEAN: No art .
JENNY: Did you have any music?
JEAN: A little bit of music. Had to do a class in musical something—theory—in
college. I did a little something with music in high school but very basic. No art at all.
JENNY: Do you remember any of the students or their reactions to what we were doing?
JEAN: Well, there was the good, the bad, and the ugly. (laugh) "Why do we have to do
this?” and “I thought this was American history class." And there were others who were
saying, "Bring out the crayons." "Let's bring out the colored pencils, yes!" "This is
different." And for some it was difficult making the connection between what they were
drawing and the content. The idea was to connect the drawing to the content.
JENNY: They were having fun drawing but it didn't mean anything yet.
JEAN: Making that connection was a little difficult for some. Some caught on right
away and then there were others who just wanted to make it pretty.
287
JENNY: I remember that. I remember that we saw some improvement in their test
scores compared to your other classes.
JEAN: Yeah.
JENNY: Since this was a new idea, we were comparing your other American history
classes to our collaborative class. We did see there was improvement. So there was
more retention. I wonder if there was more depth of understanding. Do you have any
thoughts on that?
JEAN: I really can't say. All I could base that on was looking at the test scores and the
test scores improved.
JENNY: So the following year we talked Guidance into letting us run a full blown
yearlong course of American History and Art Co-Study. And we were very fortunate that
year because we saw our students everyday. Rutherford is on the Block 8 (even-odd)
schedule where you have half your students on one day and the other half on the next. So
we had students who were enrolled in seventh period art class and eighth period
American history. And we met everyday with them. The art curriculum expanded
beyond contour drawing of maps and graphic illustrations to include art history and art
criticism. Do you remember much about that first year and those first students?
JEAN: I remember the advantage was that you could do an art activity and follow it up
immediately with content so that they could readily see the connection. And since we
saw them everyday, we would constantly reinforce them. So you didn't have to relegate
one day for art and one day for history. You could just flow into the other and it was
truly integrated. But now…
JENNY: During the next two, three, and four years of Co-Study, we brought our classes
together, on a regular schedule, every other day. We used our collapsible wall and were
able to teach together. What do you remember about those years, those three years in a
row…after our ideal year of seeing our students every day whittled down to seeing our
students every other day?
JEAN: Well, I think having been able to see them everyday also meant that we could
move faster. But then with the every other day, it meant that we don't have them for the
art and the history we just have them for the history and we are trying to include the art in
there.
JENNY: That's a good point. They were earning credit for art and for history the first
year and for years two, three, and four they just earned history credit and nothing for the
art. It was a tool.
JEAN: Right, and we had to squeeze whatever art we wanted to in there and still cover
what was required in the curriculum as well. That was very difficult.
288
JENNY: But we did notice that the scores were still higher than when compared with
your other history classes taught in the traditional manner. What started happening with
your teaching over time?
JEAN: Well, Mrs. Doster, as you know (laugh)…I can remember my intern year we had
to do bulletin boards there and I think underneath I have always been a visual person. It
is just that I haven't had the skills to take it and apply it. I can draw a line and that is
about it.
JENNY: No, you did a contour drawing of that shoe and it was great.
JEAN: I did that, I did do that, and now every time I look at something I’m looking at it
from an artistic point of view. And I can see the lines…but, anyway, so I think I have
always had that visual bent, tint, whatever but I haven't had a chance to really bring it out.
And now every time I'm looking at content I’m thinking, "What can we do to bring some
visualization to this so that it will make more sense?" I changed, of course, yeah, I started
to introduce something visual to the content so that it will stick with them better.
Introduction of the art has really helped me to expand what I do in the classroom.
Students love it…just give them a chance to draw something, even if it looks bad. Just
the idea that they could sit down and do something other than write words.
JENNY: They can express themselves in a different way. Yeah, didn't you mention in
the last interview, when you were in elementary school, maybe it was high school, you
had to draw your maps…in your school because your school could not afford maps? Did
you know you were doing Co-Study?
JEAN: (Laugh) No, my geography teacher just said we are going to draw this and we
would draw it accurately as well. You never questioned what the teacher said to do, you
just went on and did it.
JENNY: Do you feel as a student back then that it helped you remember the map better?
JEAN: I don't know because I can barely remember what the geography entailed…but I
just know that I have an eye for detail and, so maybe, had we had an art class, I may have
been able to do very well. But I have a creative side to me anyway.
JENNY: Well, absolutely.
JEAN: I like to sew and now that we have computers I like to create stuff there.
JENNY: Yeah, you do a lot with graphics on the computer.
JEAN: Maybe when I retire I will take an art class.
JENNY: Now, this year we have a different situation because we have fallen out of favor
with Guidance and there were problems with school enrollment and American History
289
and Art Co-Study was put aside for a year. However, we both have been given world
history courses to teach…well, before we get into that…wait, I've got to back up. Second
or third year of teaching American History and Art Co-Study we were handed by
Guidance a World History and Art Co-Study class…only it was a bit unusual. World
History is a class that is taken in the tenth grade and we were given a class of students
who had been in the ninth grade Acceleration Academy. It was one large class of 40+
students. Low achieving eighth graders were placed in this academy during their ninth
grade year to help them do better in the transition from middle school to high school.
They were kept together during the tenth grade for our history class and for an English
class. We did that for two years. What do you remember most about that… for those
two years of teaching at risk students with the Co-Study method?
JEAN: I don't think I really noticed that much difference between them and the regular
American history classes that we had been working with and who knows where they
came from. (laugh) I don't know. Guidance may have also given us the low achievers in
those when you look at the ones we had over the years. But I guess with each class you
can see the "bells"—the bell shaped curve in grading. Some of them were very good. In
that class, we had a mix. We had the Academy folks but some others were just thrown in
during scheduling. I was thinking of the one who got pregnant. She was good, very
good. And there were others who were very good . Anyway, I think it sometimes
depends on the expectations. You expect them to do well and you keep pushing them
and they will come up to those levels of expectations. If you don't expect very much, you
don't get very much. I don't think we reduced or, what's the word I'm looking for,
watered down the curriculum just because they were from that program.
JENNY: No, not at all. We didn't at all.
JEAN: And so, when we looked at grades, we had As, Bs, Cs, Ds, and Fs…for those
who did not do at all. I didn't really notice any difference in behavior. And the
production was similar to what we would find in a regular history class.
JENNY: Seems like some of them were a little noisier at the first of the year than our
others…especially that first group we had.
JEAN: Yeah, and this group we had last year, our little girls here. (pointing)
JENNY: Noisier.
JEAN: No, I meant I think they were a little bit better.
JENNY: This year is a little bit different for us. Guidance has a no frills approach to
scheduling this year which means that anything innovative or creative has been chopped
out. It is just the meat and potatoes. Of course, we consider ours as meat and potatoes
for visual students but Guidance has not quite understood that in their great wisdom.
290
JEAN: Let me just go back…this year I've seen some of those students we had last year
in the hallway, and they have said, "Well, why didn't we get that course?" "What
happened?"
JENNY: I know; I get the same thing.
JEAN: And I'm wondering if some of them had mentioned it in Guidance and, hence, the
reason for encouraging us for going ahead and trying to get it going again for next year.
But I think there were those who really benefited from it because they were able to do the
visual. And some of those from several years ago, like Joey (who said), “If it had not
been for Co-Study, I never would have passed American history…if it had not been for
the introduction of the art into the content.” I'm happy with the results. I think I just
wish at this point the staff would have been more supportive in allowing it to grow. Our
vision was to see it cross into other areas and not just stay in the social studies. And so
right now we are almost, as far as growth, where we started.
JENNY: Yes, we're back to square one.
JEAN: Because we did do the collaboration with chemistry, was it? Science? Unless
you have leaders who have a vision, you know, sometimes things don't get off the floor.
JENNY: Absolutely, and another thing that we created was our Living History Days,
thematic integration across the whole school, which is going…and next week we will be
out in the park again with Living History Days. So, there have been a lot of good spinoffs. For this year, I'm teaching two sections of world, you're teaching two sections of
world and four of American, and we're not together except in passing in the hallways and
exchanging materials back and forth. This question is, since I'm not here breathing down
your neck…are you using any of our Co-Study methods presently in your American or
world history classes?
JEAN: I've got notebooks to show. (laugh)
JENNY: Specifically, what are you doing?
JEAN: We are using illustrated timelines still. We are coming up with visuals to
represent concepts. We are, of course, still doing our maps. We haven't exactly drawn
but one—the world map. But this is American history, so…but when we get to World
War I and II, we'll have to go back and draw Europe, yeah. Absolutely. And as we do
our oral presentations we still use the visuals to enhance those presentations. They are
given every opportunity…
JENNY: Is this a notebook I see here? (picking us a student notebook)
JEAN: Yes, they are at this point turning in notebooks for extra credit. The requirement
is that they must have a cover sheet with a visual on it before they can even turn it in.
They need to pull out something that is associated with the unit that we just finished.
291
JENNY: What kinds of things are you not doing because I'm not in the classroom with
you, as an art teacher?
JEAN: Well, the only thing that I can say that I am not doing as much is drawing every
map. But as far as the other visuals we used, I'm still doing the Venn diagram, the visuals
that go along with some of the vocabulary, so I can't think of …other than just the
map…everything else is carried over.
JENNY: What about in world history…because there I use some slides?
JEAN: No, I don't do slides (laugh), no….don't do the slides.
JENNY: Is it because you don't have them?
JEAN: No, it's because I not artistically knowledgeable enough to run the slides,
especially on Greece and Rome. I can see the statue of David. I know that that's it but as
far as getting some background information on it I would have to have a script in hand.
JENNY: So, a valuable teaching tool for a teacher who would like to try this sort of thing
would be a script to go along with art.
JEAN: That would certainly help.
JENNY: A format for talking about art and a format for talking about the significance of
that particular artwork's place in history.
JEAN: Absolutely, absolutely…and when you did it you would also include technique. I
can remember something called perspective and that kind of thing. I would have to have
a little blurb sheet on art. So, that is why I'm not using it right now. We haven't, actually,
seen any slides since the ones you came in showed us of the cave paintings.
JENNY: Yeah, the Lascaux and Altamira cave paintings. Well, maybe, I'll just have to
come back.
JEAN: Well, maybe so. (laugh)
JENNY: Well, let's see. We're getting toward the end of my questions. As I said earlier,
this interview is dealing with our experience, what we actually did together with the CoStudy. Do you have any more thoughts about Co-Study, how it impacted your teaching,
how it impacted students…just general thoughts.
JEAN: I am thinking along the lines of conferences we had over the years with students
who were in the Co-Study program. When we explained what we were trying to do to
parents they were just "agah". They were just thrilled because they thought it was just
such a natural connection to try to use art to try to connect to a content. And I just have
difficulty understanding people who are knowledgeable about curriculum and how kids
292
learn …that they would not have been more supportive. When you have people in
leadership positions...I was thinking…students should be given every opportunity to
learn, no matter what their learning style is. Unfortunately, economics plays a very large
part in deciding these issues. And that is what is, apparently, the deciding factor here.
JENNY: Of course, we can make a note that our principal has asked us to generate a list
of students, if we want to, who would be interested in American History and Art CoStudy for next year. It will at least be put on the course offerings for next year. Well, if
you have nothing else to say…
JEAN: I guess not.
JENNY: Then we can just look forward to our next interview. Thank you very much.
293
APPENDIX B-3
GUIDE FOR INTERVIEW #3: REFLECTION ON THE MEANING
Jean Warren, Social Studies Department, Rutherford High School
November 20, 2002
I would like for you to reflect on your experience as a teacher with Co-Study. Are you
different now, as a teacher, than you were before Co-Study? Have you changed for the
better? If so, how? Have you changed for the worse? If so, how?
Will it affect how you teach in the future?
Have you seen any changes in students who have been through Co-Study? If so, what?
What kinds of students should enroll for Co-Study?
We have taught courses together, American and world history, as well as created a
schoolwide thematic, integrated project, Living History Days. What are your favorite
memories? We just finished our fourth Living History Days last week. What have been
the highlights for you regarding these Living History Days projects?
Describe how you feel about the support or lack of support we have received from
administrators or other teachers regarding Co-Study, either courses or the schoolwide
project.
294
APPENDIX B-3a
INTERVIEW #3: REFLECTION ON THE MEANING
An Interview between Jean Warren, Social Studies Department and
Jennifer (Jenny) Doster, Art Department, Rutherford High School
November 22, 2002
JENNY: Jean, this is our final interview. I think I'm going to miss doing this. What do
you think?
JEAN: I don't think I will miss it. (laugh) You know I'm only doing it because…because
of you.
JENNY: Oh, thank you. I would like for you to reflect on your experience as a teacher
with Co-Study. Things like, are you different now as a teacher than you were before CoStudy? Have you changed for the better? If so, how? Have you changed for the worse?
If so, how?
JEAN: Having reflected on this quite heavily, I think I am different. I am different in
that the planning I do for units, now, always includes graphics or visuals. Visuals may be
used to introduce, to support, to summarize unit content. At some point in the study of a
unit, the production of a visual by each student has become a requirement. I have really
changed. Before I began working with you, visuals were randomly included. That
change for me has been positive. I believe the change for my students has been positive
as well because the production of a visual that supports the content provides them with
another assessment tool…an easy grade. Students who are struggling with a pen and
paper test are finding they are able to achieve long-term retention of concepts—such as
cause and effect relationships. So, I've just finished the unit on industrialization and they
had to do the visual to support the causes or factors for industrialization. So, everybody
who did it following the rubric got a 100 on it. That was a real easy grade. The crunch
will come when I test them next week, to see if it carries over to the pen and paper.
JENNY: So you are talking about our recipe…our Industrial Revolution Recipe Card?
JEAN: Yeah, they had that option or they could create for themselves some other thing.
We ended up with a pizza, a sub sandwich, a parfait with the layers (hand gesture), so
there are all kinds of variations of that. We had a salad in one class. Salad, recipe,
desserts, all came out of that.
JENNY: They (students) are food oriented, aren't they? Anything for the worse? Have
you been damaged?
JEAN: No, I haven't seen any blood or anything like that. No, no, nothing for the worse.
I think all of it has been for the better.
295
JENNY: Maybe you have already answered this…how will it affect how you teach in the
future? You said you already incorporate it in your planning. Is there anything else you
may or may not change?
JEAN: I think what I am doing right now is just looking for visuals, things I can use to
hone in on the content and revising some of the old ones. I look back now and say I
could have done this, this, and this…so it's a matter of introducing new ones…because I
haven't done this with every unit. But the intent is to do that…fine-tuning and
introducing new visuals to support the content.
JENNY: Are you still using a graphic organizer at the beginning of a unit or chapter?
JEAN: I'm doing that but there, too, I still do not have one for each unit and that’s the
goal.
JENNY: You do great ones. I've always admired them.
JEAN: Thank you. Well, it is a work in progress.
JENNY: Have you seen any changes in students who have been through Co-Study?
JEAN: You know, I was thinking about that and I think, because you mentioned you
talked to some we had last year, it takes a while for this to soak in. This is something
different and it can be beneficial and not just what we do with American and world
history but in other areas as well. So, I think it's like being at home with your parents,
you don't appreciate it too much then but, when you leave, you kind of see where they
were trying to get you to and that may be the case with some of those I've had. Unlike
you, I haven't had that many who've come back and said "oooh" except for Joey. Every
time I see Joey he asks about that Co-Study class. I think it takes a while for them to
realize the impact it could have if it were expanded to other classes…how wonderful it
could be. We didn't have anybody who actually cried "murder" or anything like that
because they were put in the class. That is a whole other story as well. The intent was to
have people who were truly interested and not because Guidance couldn't put them
anywhere else.
JENNY: The unwilling were not the kind needed in Co-Study. A couple of questions
here: Joey, if I remember correctly, was the student who may not have passed American
history if it weren't for Co-Study. He really enjoyed the class and he applied himself but
he wasn't a particularly good student. Was that your recollection?
JEAN: Yeah, yeah. He works at WalMart now. I would see him at WalMart. I think he
works there at night. He often comments it was the class that allowed him to graduate.
JENNY: If we did it for one, that is good enough.
JEAN: If we saved one starfish (laughing)…
296
JENNY: Well, what kind of student should enroll, do you think, for Co-Study?
JEAN: Well, I think it would have to be a student who, although he may not or she may
not have had experience in art…somebody who is flexible. Students who come in and,
number one, they hate the course, they hate doing anything different, they hate working
with other folks, they hate talking (laughing), they hate being in school…I think we are
looking for somebody who is flexible and who is willing to try another way to learn.
Once we tap into that…some of the students don’t really realize that they are visual
learners yet. And, so once they do, that really makes the difference.
JENNY: Well, we’ve taught a lot of courses together—American history and world
history, both Co-Studies—and created our schoolwide thematic project, Living History
Days. Over the last four years, I would say that we have done quite a bit together. What
are your favorite memories? What do you remember? What do you remember the most?
JEAN: I think I remember the most getting ready, the challenge of offering a different
course. And…not knowing how things were going to turn out. It was just the challenge
of it. And, then also, the struggles that we had to go through just to get it up and
running…and, then, the backstabbing. (laugh) It was the challenge and the struggle in
getting the course up and running and, then, the one or two students that we could really
see a difference that offering such a course made, in their grades. I guess it was sort of
like a light that came on for them, like “Well, I can perhaps do this.” That to me was
exciting. Well, and as far as the Living History Days, I think what I will remember the
most is the time the park staff people put into doing what they did. And just the hope that
our students appreciated a little bit of what they were doing for us because they didn’t
have to do it.
JENNY: It is an amazing thought that there were probably 30-40 park people involved in
Living History Days, 30-40 students on our side acting as docents and reenactors, to pull
this off for these 150 to go each day. It really was quite extraordinary.
JEAN: Yeah, and we did have some teachers who hung in with us, really, there from the
beginning…who year after year continued to participate and give up their time, work
with their students to get them ready to go out there as opposed to some teachers who
wouldn’t even let their students go…showed no interest in it.
JENNY: Because they were behind in their textbook, they didn’t want their students to
miss a day in class. How would you rate the learning experience for students who did
go?
JEAN: Well, I think the hands-on, and actually seeing...because some of them had never
seen some of the things that were used in the homes…making butter… and they didn’t
know what a cracklin’ was (laugh). They do now! And cooking food on an open fire,
that sort of thing…just being my age, I guess I just assumed if you grew up you knew
about those kinds of things. But their range is such that unless they see it on TV they
would never see it.
297
JENNY: And, you know, I was thinking back that before the Living History Days we
had the field trip to Westville (1850s working town in Lumpkin, Georgia). And that got
replaced with the Living History Days.
JEAN: But even at Westville, we didn’t have all of the park reenactors. They had a
chance to walk through but here they actually got a chance to see them churning the
butter. And, we had the fire, the grease was in the pot and we were doing the cracklin’.
JENNY: You didn’t see as many craftsmen...crafts people at Westville, although I think
at other times of the year there were. But as far as the buildings and the structures, they
were certainly there…but not the people and not as hands-on. You could walk around it
and through it but there was not as much for you to do yourself.
JEAN: The only thing I remember at Westville we did was the guy was there who was
doing…what was it…nails?
JENNY: Oh, the blacksmith!
JEAN: The blacksmith, and the pottery guy. He wasn’t fired up; he just had some on
display.
JENNY: Describe how you feel about the support or lack of support we have received
from administrators or other teachers regarding Co-Study, either courses or the
schoolwide project.
JEAN: Now, you know, as I think back I know that when we first introduced the
program, they came to the meetings...talking about our administrators and Guidance
staff…and I think that was about it. As far as administrators, probably, the greatest help
we got was from Dr. K. He was willing to shell out some money and construct a wall for
us we could open to allow us more space. But then, on the other hand, Guidance got to a
point where they were not willing to schedule us in the same room to use the $15,000.00
wall (laugh) that we had put in. But…I think it is a lack of vision and I know the Bible
says, “Those who will perish for a lack of vision.” And, we have apparently some people
who are not able to think outside the box. If it is a program that can be self-contained and
have people in that program run that program without interfering with the established
order, it’s okay! We’re not trying to run an IB program; we don’t have a segregated
school within a school; we don’t have a special grant that allows us to staff our people
and we didn’t really need additional staff. All we really needed was a Guidance who was
willing to be flexible enough to allow us to have our schedules essentially the same for
the classes we were teaching…and look for those students who were visual learners,
channel them toward this particular program.
JENNY: The idea about testing for learning styles was brought up continuously.
Perhaps, Guidance in their initial testing for entering the school would throw in a learning
style test and channel visual learners toward Co-Study.
298
JEAN: But nothing came of that and I think, at one point, we ended up being told, “You
need to go out and recruit your own.”
JENNY: Absolutely, if you want to teach this way, you go out and find students who
want to take your class and bring us a list.
JEAN: Then, we may or may not give you those and then we may chunk some other
people in there as well…which became a problem. So, overall, I have not been very
happy with Guidance with its ability to be flexible and work with us on this. And at one
point I thought we should just leave here and go somewhere else. (laughing) Somebody
else might be more appreciative of what we are trying to do. But, in the end, the idea was
to simply offer students, the average students—because we have something for the upper
folks, we have something for the lower folks—those folks in the mid-range, just offer
them another way to learn. That’s all it was. Nothing special, nothing that would require
a whole bunch of folks moving around, cleaning out wings to provide for programs,
nothing like that. Unfortunately, these are people who are locked inside the box. And
it’s as if “Don’t disturb me, I have my established way of doing things and if it causes me
to have to stay past 2:30 then I’m not going to do it.”
JENNY: Or if it causes me to communicate with the faculty and explain myself, then I’m
not going to do it.
JEAN: Or just communicate with the people who are trying to start a program such as
ours and we found that very difficult. Unless we scheduled an appointment with them we
never…I don’t think we were invited in to discuss anything about the program.
JENNY: We invited them to our discussions and presentations of our data. They were
never inquiring of us as to how our program was going, what were we doing, what would
we like except for Dr. K. We asked him and he responded. But the Guidance
Department never really asked if they could help in any way, shape, or form. Yet, we
had data showing it improved student performance. So, you have to wonder what is the
goal of education in the Guidance Department?
JEAN: Well, let’s just say that when it made the school look good, as far as going to
meetings and talking about the programs at your school, then we were used as being
innovative.
JENNY: Yes, we were, because I remember the Guidance head coming by and getting
from me brochures and information concerning Co-Study and the Living History Days.
JEAN: But, I don’t know…then we got to a point where, this past year, at the end of
school year 2001-02, it was just taken off the curriculum with no explanation. It just will
not be offered and from what we heard, Guidance said that… well, the administrator in
charge of Guidance said that… she would talk to us and has anything been said to you as
of date? This is now November 2002. No, not a word, not a word. Let’s just say, one of
299
the problems we’ve had around here for some time now has, simply, been a lack of
communication. And that continues to this day.
JENNY: And that has not changed. There is still a lack of communication. Well, do you
feel that all of these efforts have been worth it?
JEAN: Well, I think the effort has been worth it because I think we have helped some
students. And as it looks now there is an effort afoot to re-introduce the Co-Study
program and I just wonder about the motives behind that. Did we, perhaps, have
somebody from the County office inquire as why the program was not offered? Students
who may have gone to Guidance to inquire as to why the program wasn’t offered?
Because in the conferences I had with parents, whenever we brought the Co-Study up,
they were always thrilled with the idea that we could use something to support the
content. For people who have been educated and have been trained and should know that
there are varying learning styles, I am still just dumbfounded as to why Guidance has
been such a stick in the mud when it comes to a program like this. It would not really
impact the school as far as having a whole bunch of folks being moved and shifted…ladi-dah…I’m at a loss, I just don’t understand it. Maybe, Jenny, you should, interview
somebody up there to find out, “What was your thinking about this program when we
came to you?” (laugh)
JENNY: I do remember us having conversations with Guidance concerning the program
in the past and there were answers given…in the past when we asked these
questions…answers given that had to be challenged because of our information. It was
like coming down from on high—“Well, you know we have to have X amount of
students in the classroom or we can’t run it,” or “We can’t put a student in a class that
they did not select,” or “We cannot put someone in a Co-Study unless he asks for the CoStudy.” But why are they put in other classes they are not asking for? “We don’t do
that.” And then, of course, students tell you all of the time they are.
JEAN: What Guidance never really understood and the only difference is you are
introducing visuals as a part of the tools you use to teach students. They always felt it
was a separate class, something different. Students are required to take history; they are
required to take American History. So, that’s the wall we kept running up against. They
think it is a different class, that it needs a different course number, and da-de-da-de-da.
JENNY: It is American history or World history geared toward a person with a visual
learning style who would benefit from seeing rather than just hearing or reading...and
benefit from doing…seeing visual images, making drawings and graphic illustrations
and organizers.
JEAN: So, what did you do your inservice on this week Mrs. Doster? (laugh)
JENNY: Graphic organizers that looked like something a kindergartner would have done
compared to the ones you have been generating for years. So, as I sat there for an hour
and a half, this wheel has been invented and rolling for a long time but let’s not go there.
300
The deaf ear of bureaucracy. OK, well, Jean I appreciate…I appreciate you. I appreciate
everything you have done in support of Co-Study, all the teaching we have done together,
and hanging in there.
JEAN: This is like piling the dirt, after the corpse and coffin are in the ground. (laugh) I
think there is one thing about teachers, cause we did some collaborations…yeah, and
what was interesting is that some teachers were very excited about it and other teachers
were quite hesitant about it and I think a lot of that has to do…you know ,we have some
teachers who have been teaching for years but are still in that box. “Hey, if it doesn’t
follow my old lesson plan then I don’t have time for it or want to do it because it is
something different.” And I cannot understand how some people can teach for umpteen
years and do the same thing year in and year out. It would drive me crazy.
JENNY: I remember we ran into a problem the first year or two, where you were your
own control and experimental group. You were teaching Co-Study with me and teaching
the other way with your other classes to look at the difference. That was quite
extraordinary. But as time wore on, your teaching style changed because of the Co-Study
and we had to look outside to other American history classes to compare. And it was
difficult to get other teachers to try a unit to compare. I guess they didn’t want to look
bad if theirs did not do as well as ours. But the point is, as I told one of them, if we show
this works then we could ask for an art teacher to be assigned to social studies to help
everybody with art and social studies classes. Of course that’s money; that is a teaching
unit. I think what is misunderstood and overlooked is that the person who fails history
and has to repeat it is a waste of resources, too. They are not coming out any better that
way…maybe slowing down the student’s progress through the school system.
JEAN: And then you get some of these same students sitting in your class the next year,
taking up space that could be relegated to someone else. Or you may end up with smaller
classes if they pass the first time and then they won’t be sitting there the second time.
Either way we end up paying—we pay now or we pay later.
JENNY: That’s right. Pay now or pay later. Well, it looks like we are maybe on track
for American History and Art Co-Study next year. I guess we’ll be providing Guidance
with a list and we’ll see what happens. Thank you so much. Any last comments?
JEAN: It’s been nice.
JENNY: It’s been fun.
JEAN: It’s been fun. (laughing) Actually, I found it easier because I did not have to do it
by myself everyday. You know, that is an advantage. You do the art one day and I can
kind of slack off and work on some other stuff for the next class. But this every day…
(laugh)
JENNY: When you were lecturing or talking, I would be grading papers. And when I
was doing art, you would be planning and doing. It gives you time to plan. It takes time
301
to plan but Co-Study gives you some time in the day when the classes are together.
OK…thank you again.
JEAN: Okay…
302
APPENDIX B-4
INTERVIEW GUIDE
Karen Collins, Art Department, Rutherford High School
April 29, 2003
How and why did you decide to become a teacher?
What kind of certification do you have?
How did you arrive at Rutherford High School? What year?
What significant things have you learned about teaching others?
What have you learned about yourself from teaching? How has teaching changed you as
a person?
Describe the classes that you teach this school year and the structure of a typical day. Is
it what you want to teach?
What skills/concepts do you want your students to learn? How do you motivate them?
What is the most important thing you teach?
During April of 2000, you and Myra Crews, a science teacher, participated in a
Chemistry and Art Co-Study Collaboration. You brought your Drawing II class to
Myra’s Chemistry I class. Myra taught both classes about the effects of pressure exerted
by liquids on an object. You taught them how to illustrate the dynamic effects of pressure
due to temperature change. What do you remember most about that collaboration?
What were the advantages of working with a science teacher? Disadvantages?
Did you find it easy or difficult to combine art with science? Would you recommend it?
Why or why not?
Do you think other teachers in the Art Department would be interested in doing a CoStudy collaboration or course?
If you were in charge, how would you structure it?
303
APPENDIX B-4a
INTERVIEW WITH KAREN COLLINS
Art Department, Rutherford High School
May 7, 2003
JENNY: How are you this afternoon?
KAREN: Great!
JENNY: How and why did you decide to become a teacher?
KAREN: Well, I had worked in an office before and I just didn’t like being in that kind
of setting. When I went off to college I really didn’t know what I wanted to do but I
knew I didn’t want to do anything in an office. I didn’t like the closed-in feeling. So…
some of my friends were going to be teachers so I just decided maybe that’s what I would
like to do. So that is kind of how I got into teaching. I didn’t really anticipate being a
teacher.
JENNY: Where did you go to college?
KAREN: Valdosta State College in Valdosta, Georgia.
JENNY: What was your major?
KAREN: I have a BFA in art education.
JENNY: Where was your first teaching job?
KAREN: Cairo High School, Cairo, Georgia.
JENNY: So, you’ve been teaching at high school all along.
KAREN: Yes, I’ve not taught in lower grades.
JENNY: How many years did you teach in Cairo?
KAREN: Twelve.
JENNY: How did you arrive at Rutherford High School? What year?
KAREN: Well, our house burned in ’88 and we had a beach house at Mexico Beach that
we had gotten in ’77 and so we had just come down all the time and decided when our
house burned to move down. So I applied in Bay County and Gulf County and got an
opening in Wewa in Gulf County. And so we moved. I got the teaching job there, taught
there for three years, and then I met Mr. Spiva and started talking with him and he hired
304
me in ’91 for the ’91-’92 school year. So I ended up here at Rutherford. An art teacher
had left so I just kind of stepped in but I didn’t teach just art when I first came here. I
taught math, a basic math class, and a couple of art classes every day. And the math
classes were horrible.
JENNY: So what kind of certifications do you have now?
KAREN: I still just have the BFA in art education.
JENNY: Certified by the State of Florida and, I guess, Georgia.
KAREN: I was but I let my teaching certificate expire in Georgia.
JENNY: What significant things have you learned about teaching others?
KAREN: I think the older I’ve gotten I’ve realized that different kids learn by different
learning styles. I’ve become more aware of it especially by being at Rutherford and
being with other teachers. We have to motivate them and they all learn differently and so
I’ve tried to come up with different ways to help them that have certain learning
styles…to focus in on their learning style…you know to help them prepare and learn
things differently. It’s hard at times when you have a lot of different kids in the
classroom but I have found, especially with ESE kids…I’ve had quite a few in my
classes…I’ve really had to focus on what they’re able to do better and easier and try to
come up with ways they can pass. And it hasn’t been necessarily the same as the rest of
the class.
JENNY: What have you learned about yourself from teaching? How has teaching
changed you as a person?
KAREN: I’ve developed more patience. I am really a perfectionist and I’ve really had to
be patient with my students because they’re learning and I try to focus on their learning
and not so much on being so perfect. I know my students may not think that because I
really push them for the best out of them but I really have to hold back because I think
I’m, maybe, overbearing or pushing them a little too hard.
JENNY: That’s funny because I feel the same way.
KAREN: I want them to do their very best.
JENNY: You want them to stretch and grow.
KAREN: Right. And a lot of times they want to just do enough to get by and I won’t
accept that. Some of them get mad at me because of that. I try to have patience with
them because I don’t want them to give up and because I don’t want to give up either on
them. And it’s just kind of a balance between the two.
305
JENNY: Describe the classes that you teach this year and the structure of a typical day.
And is it what you want to teach?
KAREN: I teach three: two Art 2-D classes and a drawing class every day. I really
enjoy my Art 2-D classes and I enjoy the upper class that I have in the drawing which
ends the day. I like teaching the lower classes like the ninth graders, but I like the mixed
classes, and that is what is in 2-D. In 2-D, a lot of times they’re anxious…to be there and
to learn about art.
JENNY: They have anxiety about being in art class?
KAREN: Some of them really do.
JENNY: I think so, too.
KAREN: Especially those who are not artistically inclined at all. But, even so, I’ve got a
student now…she can’t even color within lines. She is very stressed at times and I try to
make her feel more comfortable, you know. But she is very artistically challenged.
JENNY: Are you happy with what you are teaching or would you like to teach
something else in art?
KAREN: No, I really like teaching Art 2-D and the drawing classes. I’ve kind of settled
in with them, with those two subjects. Even though I teach the same subjects, I am
constantly changing the units and what I teach in each one so it does not get monotonous
by any means.
JENNY: What skills or concepts do you want your students to learn?
KAREN: In Art 2-D, I definitely want them to learn color and color mixing. I think that
is important. Even as they graduate I tell them about a time when I went to have a color
of paint mixed and if I hadn’t known specifically about color mixing then I would have
gotten the wrong color. So I think it is important even when they decorate their home. I
just think color is a very important concept they need to know about.
JENNY: How do you motivate your students?
KAREN: That’s a tough one. I try to pick things, projects, that they have an interest in.
If not the project, I try to convert it to a subject they may be interested in. Like in a grid
drawing, they like to draw cars… but they got a choice of what to draw. And a lot of
times I do give them choices of subject matter and they tend to gravitate toward things
they like. That is the most common way I motivate them…by letting them have a
responsible choice in what they are doing.
JENNY: What is the most important thing you teach?
306
KAREN: I think color is important. But in drawing, I think learning how to shade
realistically is an important concept because everybody wants to do something realistic.
And when you’ve got shading and tones down and they can do something realistically,
they become proud of themselves and they want to continue. I really think drawing is
something important that I teach.
JENNY: During April of 2000, you and Myra Crews, a science teacher, participated in a
Chemistry and Art Co-Study Collaboration. You brought your Drawing II class to her
Chemistry I class. Myra taught both classes about the effects of pressure exerted by
liquids on an object. You taught them how to illustrate the dynamic effects of pressure
due to temperature change. What do you remember most about that collaboration?
KAREN: I really enjoyed working with another teacher. So many times I am working
alone or I’m getting feedback off of other art teachers but it’s never with a teacher of a
different subject. And that was an experience because I never really co-taught or team
taught a class. That experience was totally new. Myra and I worked together really well.
We played off of each other and sometimes I’d fill in certain sentences for her and she
would me. Even though I’m not a chemistry teacher but I have had chemistry…and I just
think we worked really well together. I was really interested in how it affected my
students. I didn’t really think that they would like being there but they did because they
got to participate in the actual lab, too. Then it challenged them because they tried to
draw better than her students. So it was funny to watch them trying to outshine in their
drawing abilities over hers. I really saw a lot of potential drawers as I taught this and I
would persuade them to take drawing classes.
JENNY: So you were recruiting?
KAREN: I was! I really think it helped her classes a lot…in talking with her later and
seeing their artwork was just amazing to me. They liked the team teaching too…the art
projects. From what I understand her classes retained more of the information.
JENNY: Yes, they definitely did. What are the advantages of working with a science
teacher? I guess you’ve answered part of that by your comment about working with
another teacher.
KAREN: I have never in my teaching career…and that’s 27 years…worked with another
teacher.
JENNY: And when you think about it, how many people work by themselves as teachers
do?
KAREN: I really liked doing that. Like I said, Myra and I worked together and came up
with this one assignment. We keep saying we are going to get back together and it’s
hard.
307
JENNY: It is hard to find the time. And also you said you saw things in your students
that you had never seen before and saw things in her Chemistry students, students you
had never seen on campus before, who had never taken an art class.
KAREN: Right and I certainly hadn’t had some of her students in Art 2-D to have an
idea that they even were interested in art. Most of them had not had art.
JENNY: I wonder why they had never taken an art class.
KAREN: Well, they might have but I didn’t have them. They could have taken it under
Judy.
JENNY: Did you feel like the chemistry students were so busy with their academic
classes that they did not have time to squeeze in an art class?
KAREN: No, I would just get comments that they liked doing that, learning shading and
they used colored pencils and I showed them how to shade shiny metal because they were
drawing the soda cans but I had never heard whether they had had another art class or
not. They liked what they were doing and it really showed in their artwork.
JENNY: What were the disadvantages of working with another teacher?
KAREN: I think it wasn’t so much working with her as trying to find the time to get
together to plan out the unit. That was the biggest problem and probably why we haven’t
done it since then. She’s busy with her classes and I’m busy with mine and it’s just hard
to plan because this takes planning and you just can’t wing it and go in there. We have to
talk about what she is planning on doing and how I am going to teach her students. It is
just a lot of planning that goes into a unit like this. Although it is tremendously
beneficial, it just takes a lot of planning.
JENNY: I would agree with that. Did you find it easy or difficult to combine art with
science? Once you picked your topic, could you think of things to do in art?
KAREN: Oh, right off. As soon as she started describing what she was going to do, I
could picture what I could do.
JENNY: You had a visual image of what you could do.
KAREN: Yeah, and I think it was easier to do with my drawing class doing this instead
of an Art 2-D class. This involved more of a drawing type art activity.
JENNY: More advanced.
KAREN: More advanced, yeah.
308
JENNY: I think your 2-D would have been able to do it but it wouldn’t have looked as
good.
KAREN: And I think my drawing students even inspired the chemistry students because
they could see…and it was almost like a competition between the two on their drawings.
JENNY: Did you notice that your drawing students just performed much better than the
chemistry students or did you have some latent closet drawers in there? (laughing)
KAREN: I think there were quite a few in the chemistry class…like I said, I was trying
to recruit some of them…who were really good drawers.
JENNY: Was there anyone who just couldn’t draw, or refused to draw, or just wouldn’t
even try?
KAREN: No, everyone tried and I don’t recall any one of them fussing about having to
do the assignment. Not any of them.
JENNY: Would you recommend other teachers try Co-Study?
KAREN: Definitely. And even if it’s not but once a year, I think the benefits far
outweigh anything because this is for the student…because it certainly takes the time for
the teachers to do it, in planning.
JENNY: Do you think other teachers in the Art Department would be interested in doing
a Co-Study collaboration?
KAREN: I think so. I believe that Judy has done one…with another teacher.
JENNY: So, art teachers…there are only three in our department…but if you look at the
three of us we are open to trying new things, using art in new and different ways. Well,
that leads to a question: Do you feel like art is lessened because it is helping another
subject? The students were learning some art in its own right but in a sense art was just a
handmaiden to or helping to get the chemistry idea across. Does that lessen art?
KAREN: I think my students learned from the experience. I wouldn’t want my
students just to go from, say, history to chemistry to just draw those experiences. If they
were just taking chemistry it would be okay. I don’t want to focus my drawing program
around different subjects.
JENNY: I think what you’re saying is that art can stand alone or art can be a helper for
other subject matter. An art teacher could be (1) an art teacher teaching art subject matter
or and art teacher could be (2) an art teacher helping other teachers teach their subject
through art.
309
KAREN: Exactly. I think without a doubt it helps the subject…it enhances it in
everyway. Like chemistry or history or just anything…I think the students retain the
information more. Most students when they have a hands-on experience…they can
remember what they have done more so than just reading it and taking a test over it. I
definitely think it enhances it.
JENNY: So if you were in charge of an art department and you had unlimited
funds…imagine that…unlimited art teachers and you could set up art to be what you
wanted, would you integrate Co-Study in any way and how would you do it?
KAREN: I think it…yes, I definitely would want to do a Co-Study with another subject.
I think at least once or twice a year would help out, would benefit the students in the
subjects as well as introducing new subjects to the art students.
JENNY: Do you think it is fair to say that some of her chemistry students were
introduced to art for the first time at the high school level and found something they
might want to take and some of your art students were introduced to chemistry and might
want to take that?
KAREN: Most definitely. My students were even commenting about how they were
amazed at doing the experiment, at the outcome of the experiment. I don’t know if any
went on later to take chemistry and I don’t know if any of her students went into the
art…I don’t remember exactly who they are…but I think they all benefited from the
whole experience. It was…like I said, I have never done this before but I would like to
definitely do it again.
JENNY: Is there anything else you would like to add?
KAREN: No.
JENNY: Well, thank you very much.
KAREN: Thank you, Jenny.
310
APPENDIX B-5
INTERVIEW GUIDE
Myra Crews, Science Department, Rutherford High School
January 23, 2003
How and why did you decide to become a teacher?
What kind of certification do you have?
How did you arrive at Rutherford High School? What year?
What significant things have you learned about teaching others?
What have you learned about yourself from teaching? How has teaching changed you as
a person?
Describe the classes that you teach this school year and the structure of a typical day. Is
it what you want to teach?
What skills/concepts do you want your students to learn? How do you motivate them?
What is the most important thing you teach?
During April of 2000, you and Karen Collins, an art teacher, participated in a Chemistry
and Art Co-Study Collaboration. Karen brought her Drawing II class to your Chemistry I
class. You taught both classes about the effects of pressure exerted by liquids on an
object. Karen taught them how to illustrate the dynamic effects of pressure due to
temperature change. What do you remember most about that collaboration?
What were the advantages of working with an art teacher? Disadvantages?
Did you find it easy or difficult to combine your subject matter with art? Would you
recommend it? Why or why not?
Do you think other teachers in the Science Department would be interested in doing a
Co-Study collaboration or course?
If you were in charge, how would you structure it?
You have been involved in Living History Days for the past two years (2001 and 2002).
I would like for you to tell me how you got interested in it and about your students that
were involved.
What do you remember most about Living History Days?
Do you think your students benefited from involvement in a schoolwide thematic,
integrated project? Why or why not?
311
APPENDIX B-5a
INTERVIEW WITH MYRA CREWS
Science Department, Rutherford High School
January 23, 2003
JENNY: Good morning, Myra.
MYRA: Good morning.
JENNY: How did you decide to become a teacher?
MYRA: Well, I don’t have any lofty answer for that. I came from a very conservative
community and at that time in history, believe it or not, this was the accepted job for a
woman. You could be a nurse; you could be a teacher; you could be a secretary. The
world of computers hadn’t really bloomed yet…and a very agricultural community,
where I was from, so…
JENNY: Where is that community?
MYRA: Southeast Missouri.
JENNY: Kind of farmland?
MYRA: Oh, yes.
JENNY: A conservative area and these were your options?
MYRA: Right.
JENNY: It is surprising you knew you even wanted to work outside the home.
MYRA: That’s true. Now that had kind of bloomed a little bit...but those positions were
very conservative, very traditional.
JENNY: What is your certification in?
MYRA: Science. Bachelor of Science degree with a major in biology and a minor in
chemistry.
JENNY: How did you decide to major in science in college?
MYRA: Well, I really liked science. I just liked it. I liked that field.
JENNY: It was a favorite subject?
312
MYRA: Yeah, it was a favorite subject.
JENNY: So, how in the world did you end up at Rutherford High School from Missouri?
MYRA: Well, my husband took a job in Panama City and that is why we came here in
1991.
JENNY: So, you came from Missouri to here? Was it hard to leave your land of rearing?
MYRA: Not really, I was ready to go.
JENNY: Did you like the water and the beaches?
MYRA: Oh, I thought that was fabulous, yes.
JENNY: Had you ever seen it?
MYRA: Yes, we used to come to Florida when I was a child. My dad…his family lived
in southern Florida during the Depression. They had sold their farm in Kansas to buy
prime farmland in southern Florida that turned out to be a swamp. And so, the
Depression hit and they lost everything and they stayed down in southern Florida until
the Depression was over. So anyway, my dad, then…that was his boyhood home and he
had to see the beaches every summer. So we used to come…
JENNY: You were not unfamiliar with Florida?
MYRA: No, not unfamiliar.
JENNY: Where did you go to college?
MYRA: I went to a small college, very small, state college. It’s called Southeast
Missouri State College. Cape Girardo, Missouri. It’s right on the Mississippi River.
JENNY: You know…I remember taking a trip…I think it was 1970…and we had to
cross the Mississippi and it was not near a town and we actually got on a barge-type
conveyance to cross. There was a landing where you went to cross the river. I wonder if
that sort of thing still exists?
MYRA: Yes, we did that this summer. My mother was going to celebrate her 80th
birthday in September…so, during the summer when all the kids were out of school, we
got together and went over to this really good restaurant in Kentucky and we ferried…
JENNY: That’s it, a ferry!
MYRA: We did this to let the kids have some fun and cross on the ferry instead of the
bridge.
313
JENNY: So, you’ve been here since 1991?
MYRA: Yes.
JENNY: How long have you been teaching? Did you teach in Missouri?
MYRA: Yes, I taught in Missouri, also.
JENNY: So, you’ve been teaching how many years?
MYRA: A long time. Oh, I don’t even want to count.
JENNY: At least ten, maybe closer to twenty.
MYRA: Yes.
JENNY: What significant things have you learned about teaching others?
MYRA: I think that a turning point came when I…believe it or not…I guess my “how to
teach science classes” in college were just dish it out, just, you know, just be a lecturer.
Just lecture and if they get it, they get it and who cares…you know…whatever. And I
was bored and I thought, “There is something missing here.” When Missouri started their
rendition of the FCAT, we had our goals that we had to satisfy. And as I started to do
that and see what I had to get the kids to come up with and learn, I just started changing
the way I was teaching and do a little bit more…well, just tried to make it more
interesting, I guess. Because I knew they had to remember this stuff because they were
going to be tested in May about it. And, plus, I had the opportunity to go to the NSTA,
which is the National Science Teachers meeting, and that really opened the door to the
fact that everybody else was doing the same thing. They were exploring science as an
interesting subject rather than just memorize, regurgitate, memorize, regurgitate.
JENNY: It is hard to believe an inservice or a mandated testing forced you or allowed
you to change your teaching style.
MYRA: And I think I was ready to change. I saw that the way I had been taught…you
know, teaching high school like you teach college is just ridiculous. It is just not going to
motivate the kids. And I think kids have changed.
JENNY: Yes, I would agree with that. We sat there like little ramrods in the chairs and
took whatever was dished out at us. What have you learned about yourself from
teaching?
MYRA: Well, I never had thought I was a creative person…never, you know…but I
think I developed that part of myself.
314
JENNY: Great, that’s wonderful. You know I have students who think they are not
creative. And I say, “What do you mean? Everybody is creative. Maybe we haven’t got
it going in you yet but it is there.” That is wonderful to hear. As an art teacher I think
that is fabulous.
MYRA: I think, in the old days, creativity was “Can you draw something that looks like
it is supposed to look?” And now, it’s like…it’s more just…I don’t know…putting
together parts to make the whole issue come together.
JENNY: Exactly, it’s arrangement of space and thoughts and ideas within it. So, how
has teaching changed you as a person?
MYRA: I think probably the biggest change that has taken place…since my own
kids…(well, they are out of the public schools now but…they graduated last year)…is
having more compassion for the kids. Seeing how their teachers could get them so
confused (they didn’t go to school here), it made me realize that you’ve got to make it
simple. You’ve got to make it step-by-step. You’ve got to make it where they can take it
away and come back, not the next day, but two days later and still be able to start it up
again. Just making it more simple and logical to them, I guess.
JENNY: So they will remember it. They might get it right then but if they can’t retain it
for any length of time…
MYRA: I saw my own kids take classes and then when they tried to do their homework,
they would be so confused about what the teacher talked about and…I didn’t want to
repeat that. And I’m sure I have.
JENNY: I’m sure we all have. Tell me what you are teaching this year and how your
day is structured.
MYRA: I have one Chem II class and two average Chem I classes, two Honors Chem I
classes and Biology class…an average Biology class.
JENNY: Your Chem II is what year, generally?
MYRA: Those are eleventh and twelfth graders. Chem I is tenth through twelfth.
JENNY: The earliest would be tenth graders? And Biology is reserved mainly for ninth
graders?
MYRA: Well, no, actually I have…they have changed that a bit in the last couple of
years…I said 10-12 because I have some dropout IB students that are tenth graders who
took Biology last year so now they are ready for Chemistry. I have one student who is
taking both Biology and Chemistry.
JENNY: Does the average Rutherford student take Biology and Chemistry?
315
MYRA: Now, they all have to take…who are not IB or HOSA…take their Biology in
the tenth grade.
JENNY: But, then, they do not have to take Chemistry?
MYRA: Unfortunately, they don’t.
JENNY: So, that is a problem. When I was in school, you took Biology in the tenth
grade and then Chemistry in the eleventh grade. Is this what you want to teach? Or
would you like to teach all Chemistry?
MYRA: This is my twelfth year here at Rutherford and our Chemistry load has dwindled
down to nothing, practically. We had 18 sections of Chemistry in 1992 and now we have
13…half the amount.
JENNY: Is there anything else besides Chemistry you would like to teach?
MYRA: No, that is what I want to teach.
JENNY: You were department head at one time, weren’t you?
MYRA: Yes, I had one little year of experience with that.
JENNY: Do you want to do that again?
MYRA: No.
JENNY: What skills or concepts do you want your students to learn?
MYRA: I think that the whole realm of physical sciences, the physical world, is…has a
tendency to be abstract. And I want them to go away with more of an understanding of
the world of matter. We are living in a physical world and when you talk about the
atomic level it does get abstract. The general population just doesn’t have very much
knowledge of how things operate.
JENNY: I’d agree. I’d agree with that because when I took those courses I came away
with the notion that science was “out there.” It wasn’t the dirt under my feet or the water
coming out of the tap. It was something out there. It was rather abstract. I’m not a real
science person and I really don’t understand a lot of the basic processes we live with and
depend on, on a daily basis. So, I understand your quest, here. How do you motivate
your students to get interested in this?
MYRA: Well, I try to bring in lots and lots of activities. We are…the world of science
and science teachers…I tell the kids this and they laugh…we Chemistry teachers are very
organized. We are a very organized group. We get together and we have conventions
316
and people bring the best of the best. We share our ideas and I think this is where I pick
up lots of ideas on how to motivate, lots of activities…
JENNY: A hands-on approach?
MYRA: Very much. You can talk all day but until you show somebody something they
are just halfway understanding it.
JENNY: Like the Chinese saying, “Tell them and they hear, show them and they start to
grasp it, let them do and then they understand.” What is the most important thing you
teach?
MYRA: What I find is…what I hear myself saying a lot of times to my students is that
they knew more than they thought they did. They just kind of want to dance across the
top. If you ask them something difficult or ask them to do something difficult, they just
collapse on you. But if you can make them know they know more than they think they
do and that they can pull it all together and have confidence in what they know.
JENNY: During April of 2000, you and Karen Collins, one of our other art teachers at
Rutherford, participated in a Chemistry and Art Co-Study collaboration. Karen brought
her Drawing II class to your Chem I class. You taught both classes about the effects of
pressure exerted by liquids on an object. And then Karen taught them how to illustrate
this dynamic effect of pressure due to a temperature change. What do you remember
most about that collaboration?
MYRA: I remember the frustration, believe it or not, of “This is the most fantastic
section...I absolutely love to teach this section” but I always came away with the kids not
being able to explain anything that they saw. They had fun doing all of the activities but
they couldn’t express themselves as to why it all happened. That was my frustration. We
picked this activity to do and I was just blown over with my control group compared to
my experimental group. The experimental group actually being students who were much
lower academically but after it was all over their knowledge and being able to express
themselves and explain on paper and verbally what was going on was just head and
shoulders above my control group.
JENNY: So, your control group was actually your higher performing group?
MYRA: They were.
JENNY: And that was another Chem I class.
MYRA: Yes. For some reason…who knows how all those kids got in there
together…they were just a better…they had a better GPA overall.
317
JENNY: After this collaboration, you compared test scores…both groups took the same
test and the experimental group who had had the Co-Study intervention outperformed the
control group.
MYRA: Oh, head and shoulders above the control group.
JENNY: What exactly did ya’ll do to make them get the ideas you wanted?
MYRA: It all had to do with drawing invisible…invisible to the naked eye, of
course…atoms. And that is where Karen came in. She showed them how to draw and
how to make force lines and, evidently, just drawing and putting in what you couldn’t see
made it all click with them.
JENNY: So they had to visualize the concept you were trying to get across?
MYRA: Right.
JENNY: And when they could visualize it, or illustrate it, then it helped their retention,
at least for the test.
MYRA: Absolutely.
JENNY: What did you think after all that?
MYRA: Well, I thought, “This has some merit. This is something we need to start
shouting from the rooftops…that this works.”
JENNY: So the advantage of working with an art teacher is that she could show them
how to illustrate the abstract concepts.
MYRA: Right. And I don’t know if this is the right time to bring this up or not but I saw
a different side of my students. Now these students that I had in this experimental group
were kind of a rough group…behaviorally. They were not highly motivated
academically. But I saw them being able to draw things. I mean I saw this artsy side of
them that I had never seen before. They drew things and could color to make it look like
it was supposed to look.
JENNY: I remember you showing me those. They were beautiful. That’s so true. We
see only one dimension or one part of our students. And that’s how they act, and how
they behave, and how they perform in our class. We don’t see the total person. You
were getting another glimpse of them through their “art” side, through their art
dimension.
MYRA: I was. We allowed her art students, many of whom had never had chemistry—
in fact, I think it was, I’m thinking, probably 100% that had never had chemistry—we
brought them to the chemistry lab and I saw my students kind of step up to the plate and
318
take these students who had not had chemistry, make sure they followed all the safety
rules and…just had the proper behavior. They really stepped up.
JENNY: They were teaching.
MYRA: They were; they were. They were real concerned that these other students did
everything correctly. It made me really proud of them.
JENNY: That’s great; that’s interesting. Were there any disadvantages to doing this?
MYRA: Well, for those people that just…well, one thing—I don’t consider this a
disadvantage for me—but if you’re a bean counter, we spent a lot more time on this
concept than I would have normally. Because it took time for her to teach them how to
draw and for them to actually do the drawing, and the coloring, and illustrating. And,
then, she had twice as many students as…and I had twice as many students as…we
would normally have. We had two classes together. So, we took, maybe, three days
extra.
JENNY: So, it gets back to the argument of breadth or depth…
MYRA: That’s right.
JENNY: …which is a continuous problem when you are designing curriculum. Should
we spend more time and go deeper or survey it and go broadly? Do you have any
thoughts about that?
MYRA: Well, it was a great opportunity and it just opened my eyes. I thought it would
work. You know, I went into it very positively. I wanted it to work. But, it was just
better than…I saw things I didn’t expect.
JENNY: That’s always nice.
MYRA: Yes.
JENNY: Did you find it easy or difficult to combine your subject matter with art?
MYRA: Actually, it was very easy although I was the one who picked the topic and I
picked something I thought would…well, I picked something that had failed in the past,
something that was dealing with the invisible.
JENNY: So, you set yourself up for a difficult thing to solve. It wasn’t one of your
easier things to teach.
MYRA: Right, but it had a real high interest lab that went along with it. So, in that, I
knew that all the students would be captivated by the lab. But my problem was that
nobody ever understood well enough to explain it.
319
JENNY: They enjoyed it but they weren’t sure what they saw, and they weren’t sure
what happened.
MYRA: Right. And, really…this…this…this clenched it.
JENNY: Would you recommend to other teachers that they try Co-Study?
MYRA: Yes, after this was over it just seemed like my mind opened up to, “Well, you
know, we could work with this and we could work with this,” and there is just no limit to
the number of Co-Studies that could happen.
JENNY: So, you think other teachers in the Science Department would be interested in
doing a collaboration or even a full course?
MYRA: You know, I don’t know whether there are any science teachers that…I don’t
want to say care…but …I did this for one reason just because I saw that there was a
problem and this was a way of solving it. And I don’t know that there are any science
teachers that would want to get into that much depth.
JENNY: Okay, that is an interesting observation. Let’s say you did have some
teachers…let’s say that you were head of the department again and you did have some
teachers that were interested in this, how would you structure it in a department? Or how
would you even start? A lot of times, things are pragmatic and you figure them out as
you go along, so how would you start, departmentwide or a few teachers who are
interested in it?
MYRA: Well, I think it…well, it would always work if you could just have your little
pull-out times. For instance, Karen had a drawing class at the same time I had a Chem I
class so it worked out perfectly. We could have pulled out many times during the
year...we could have.
JENNY: Rather than a full blown course, there were times when you could have used an
art teacher in helping you to teach. You know, I’ve often thought it would be nice if you
could have an art teacher in each department, to help the whole department visualize
what they are doing, to help the students visualize what they are trying to learn. Also,
you have been involved in Living History Days for the past two years, last year and this
year. Tell me how you got interested in it and how you got your students involved and
why.
MYRA: Well, first of all, probably I got interested in it because of you, Jenny, just
because, you know, hearing you talk about it. Had we not been friends here at
Rutherford, I would never have put my foot over the line. (laughing)
JENNY: Ventured out.
320
MYRA: Yes, because it is…it is…moving away from my curriculum. And that is what I
tell the students, because they always want to know, “Why are we doing this?” I said,
“Number one,…
JENNY: And this is a chemistry class?
MYRA: Yes, it is a Chem II class and I’ve taught it for about 7 or 8 years now. When I
first had the opportunity to teach it, I tried to teach it on a continuation of Chem I…you
know, stick with the book and…
JENNY: Just more chapters.
MYRA: Yes, more, more, and more chapters. Get through that book, right. And I found
the students were not going to buy into that. They had been really good students. They
bought into that whole idea, you know, just very classical, traditional chemistry. My
version of traditional, classical chemistry in their Chem I but they didn’t want to do any
more of that. They did not want to do any more of traditional chemistry even the way I
presented it.
JENNY: Even with your activities?
MYRA: Yes, they were tired of it. They just weren’t going to do it. But they were great
kids; they had a lot on the ball. And in going to my national science teachers
conferences—and then I’ve gotten involved with this conference that comes every other
year called Chemical Education or Chem Ed and this is just chemistry teachers that get
together—there is just a whole mushrooming effect of taking chemistry to the general
population. Take it out to the mall, take it to the elementary school, take it out...you
know, get it out of the classroom. So, I kind of tied in with those people, using their
ideas at first and let my Chem II students start doing programs at the elementary school
and this really was fantastic. It has really sold the program. Well, anyway, letting these
students be teachers…it just kind of meshed into allowing them to be the docents for the
different stations at the Living History.
JENNY: So if you had not been going out to the elementary school with these Chem II
students that would probably been too big of a leap?
MYRA: I wouldn’t have understood why, why do we have to do this. Now, I understand
and since it comes in the fall it is like a preview of what’s to come. “You’re going to
have to stand up in front of people and tell your story.”
JENNY: Or talk about a chemical process. There are a lot of chemical processes
happening at Living History Days—lye soap making…
MYRA: We had our still, the whiskey still, the turpentine still, the salt
production…reclaiming the salt. All of these students have taken history and this
probably would have meshed better with a history class.
321
JENNY: That could be…and, yet, the knowledge is in an historical context.
MYRA: These are really the right people…the right students to do this work.
JENNY: The chemical knowledge is in an historical context so the chemistry students
were learning the knowledge where it sprang from, where it came from…whereas the
history student may have known the context but not understood the process. So what do
you remember most about Living History Days?
MYRA: I just remember the enthusiasm of the students and this year—I saw the students
who are now seniors and were in the program last year—came back and demanded, “I
want a piece of this; I want a part; I want to be in this again.”
JENNY: That’s great.
MYRA: Yes, it is. It really is.
JENNY: So, you think your students benefited from their involvement in a schoolwide,
thematic, integrated project?
MYRA: I really do. They benefited. I had them write about this. Some of them said
things like, “This is the best thing I’ve ever done at Rutherford High School.” Wow!
We’ve got to save this paper! All in all, many of them were hesitant about getting
involved, but as we…this was just like the beginning of their little quest with me because
as the year goes on this is what we do, we go out to the elementary schools. Every time
they have class we’re at a different elementary school putting on a different program.
Toward the end of the year we’ll do this. So I’ve seen a lot of these kids grow. I’ve had
students who were just paralyzed with fear at Living History who by April and May were
just doing great with their teaching at the elementary school.
JENNY: Who knows…they might become teachers.
MYRA: They might. And whatever they do…and this is something else I say to
them…they will…no matter what kind of job they have—whether they are a public
school teacher or an accountant—they are always going to be in a position to teach
somebody. I think getting their thoughts together…and I make them have visuals and
reviews…
JENNY: You need an art teacher right there to get those visuals together!
MYRA: They will always be called on, no matter what their job is, to teach somebody
something because they’ll have verbal skills.
JENNY: Absolutely. Well, is there anything else you would like to say about the CoStudy collaboration or Living History Days?
322
MYRA: I think those are two projects that haven’t been fully investigated by the district,
by the educational system in general. I think it’s something. I’ve talked to people
who…well, we had a writing conference here and writing was one of my big problems
that I had with my students…so, in talking with this writing consultant, I showed her and
told her of the Co-Study (we had just finished it) and I gave her some of the work. She
was just blown away with it. She took it back to Kentucky and said we’ve been looking
for some way to mesh art…here it is, here it is. It’s a natural. It really is.
JENNY: That’s interesting. Well, we haven’t heard from her yet. (laughing) There is
always hope, huh?
MYRA: She probably took it and put her name on it.
JENNY: Well, that could happen. Well, Myra, thank you so much and I appreciate all
you’ve done with the Co-Study collaboration and with Living History Days. You are an
integral part of it and I appreciate it.
323
APPENDIX B-6
INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR CO-STUDY CURRICULUM STUDENTS
PILOT STUDY
1. Characterize yourself as a student. What year are you? What is your GPA?
What are your interests? What is your favorite subject(s)?
2. Which Co-Study Curriculum class did you take? When?
3. What do you remember about the course?
4. Do you remember the content of the course?
5. Was the Co-Study Curriculum helpful to you? In what way? Did it help you to
understand the subject matter? To remember it better? Do you think it improved your
grade?
6. What was a problem for you in the Co-Study Curriculum?
7. How could the Co-Study Curriculum be improved?
8. What type of student benefits from the Co-Study Curriculum?
324
APPENDIX B-7
INTERVIEW WITH ALECIA
February 11, 2003
Mrs. Doster: Alecia, how would you characterize yourself as a student?
Alecia: Well, I guess I would call myself a band nerd.
Mrs. Doster: What do you play in the band?
Alecia: Everything…well, just about. But I actually have a seat for a bassoon.
Mrs. Doster: First chair?
Alecia: No.
Mrs. Doster: How many bassoons in your band?
Alecia: Well, in concert band, which is the band I’m in…I’m the only one. But there is a
band higher than mine and there are two in there so, technically, I’m third chair in band.
But, I play first part.
Mrs. Doster: Isn’t that quite a few bassoons in a band?
Alecia: Usually, there are two in every band. There is actually less in our band than
there should be.
Mrs. Doster: What year are you now?
Alecia: I am a senior this year.
Mrs. Doster: Senior…graduating…that’s great. What is your GPA?
Alecia: About 2.7.
Mrs. Doster: Okay, good student…and your interests are band, primarily…anything
else?
Alecia: I like to read.
Mrs. Doster: You like to read, that’s good. What are your favorite subjects?
Alecia: Well, besides band, I like math and science.
Mrs. Doster: Math and science…that’s unusual. Usually people don’t like those.
325
Alecia: Well, you have to have math to write music.
Mrs. Doster: True. Now, you are a former Co-Study student. Which class did you take?
Alecia: American History and Art Co-Study.
Mrs. Doster: So, you were American History and Art Co-Study last year, which would
be the 2001-2002 school year. And Mrs. Warren and I were teaching that together,
correct?
Alecia: Yes. in the big room…
Mrs. Doster: The room with the collapsible wall…
Alecia: The room that was specifically made for Co-Study.
Mrs. Doster: What do you remember most about the course?
Alecia: The art…
Mrs. Doster: The art?
Alecia: Obviously…
Mrs. Doster: Not the history?
Alecia: Well, I remember the history because of the art.
Mrs. Doster: Could you elaborate a little more?
Alecia: Like the posters that we did…and the oral projects…like, about…the one I did
was the 1920s and the 1930s project. It was on poster and we could bring people in if we
wanted to for a live performance and I did jazz…jazz music of the 1920s.
Mrs. Doster: You brought someone in, didn’t you…I just remembered that. Who was
that?
Alecia: Clayton Andrews, he is a sophomore this year.
Mrs. Doster: And, what was he playing?
Alecia: Trumpet, I don’t remember the song. But I know that it was a song …played by
someone famous…I can’t remember the name.
Mrs. Doster: So you remember the large projects, presentations covering time periods.
Anything else you remember?
326
Alecia: All the maps we got to draw…I liked drawing maps. Videos…I liked the videos.
Mrs. Doster: Watching videos?
Alecia: Yes
Mrs. Doster: Do you remember the history content?
Alecia: Yeah, we did the Civil War discussions and we talked about the different sides,
and we would have, basically, debates on the different reasons for why they would have
broken away from the Union. I remember the stock market game and discussions.
Mrs. Doster: Do you remember working mostly in groups or by yourself…or…what do
you remember as the style or was it a mix?
Alecia: It was a mix but it was basically by choice. For most things, we weren’t required
to work in groups but we could if we wanted to. So, I tended to work by myself most of
the time because it tended to make work get done a lot faster. For some of our projects,
we had to work in groups. It’s just that if somebody did something and they were gone
the next time, you didn’t have that part of the work that you had done.
Mrs. Doster: That’s right…but you’re still responsible. Did you find that Co-Study was
helpful for you?
Alecia: Yes.
Mrs. Doster: In what way?
Alecia: It made it more enjoyable. It was fun because of the art. It helps. It helps you
remember things. Drawing helped me remember things more.
Mrs. Doster: Did we draw many maps in class?
Alecia: Gosh, people wouldn’t stop complaining about drawing maps.
Mrs. Doster: Did they help you remember the geography?
Alecia: Yes, especially when we had to color like when we did World War I; we had the
Allies and the other guys, Germany and Austria and such. We had to do it in different
colors and we had to do neutral countries in another color so we could tell who was on
what side and that really helped out.
Mrs. Doster: So, it helped you to remember better. Did it help you understand better?
Alecia: In some ways it did help me understand better but there is also other art that we
did, like the posters; that also helped. But I also think discussions that we had like when
327
we presented the artwork and stuff…the discussions that went along with it were also
helpful because they helped to create understanding. Discussions were really helpful for
understanding.
Mrs. Doster: So, every time you had to give a presentation you had a visual?
Alecia: Yes
Mrs. Doster: So, there were no presentations without visuals?
Alecia: Well, there were some presentations that were without visuals like when we had
to do a talk rather than have actual artwork with us but it was still more of a discussion
panel than anything. You put one person up in center stage and asked them all the
questions about stuff they should know.
Mrs. Doster: Do you think being in the Co-Study class improved your grade?
Alecia: Yes. I think it improved my grade.
Mrs. Doster: Why do you say that?
Alecia: Well, to be honest, I never studied in school before and I got into this class and
with the artwork and stuff, the discussions and everything, people were saying stuff that I
really didn’t know about. So, I’d go and I’d actually go study it…and it actually caused
me to get into other types of literature. The visual orientation caused me to want to study
for once in my life.
Mrs. Doster: So, you felt a little competition, huh? That’s interesting…I have not
thought of it from that angle.
Alecia: Like I said, it caused me to get into other types of literature.
Mrs. Doster: That’s wonderful. And you don’t feel you would have done that just in a
textbook type of course?
Alecia: I would have done what I usually do. He hands worksheets out; we do
worksheets, turn them in, end of story. It would have been boring. I actually felt
challenged by this class which is something I haven’t felt in a long time in school.
Mrs. Doster: Great. Now you’ve painted a nice picture, but what about problems. There
are always problem areas or things you don’t like.
Alecia: Well, some of the students, as I said…the people complained about the maps.
There are other things. It’s like they didn’t even want to be there. It was obviously
people who didn’t like school. They were not involved; they were talking…cutting
up…complaining.
328
Mrs. Doster: Maybe, it wasn’t just the class in particular, but the attitude in general about
school and learning.
Alecia: That’s exactly what it was.
Mrs. Doster: Now, I wonder if they gave it a chance if they wouldn’t change their mind
about learning…if they had really participated more.
Alecia: Well, half of them were asleep most of the class anyway and, as I understand it,
there were several people that failed.
Mrs. Doster: Some did. It’s one of those classes where you are either going to work or
you’re not. And if you’re not, you are not going to slide by. Because when you stand up
to give a presentation you have to say something, don’t you?
Alecia: There were too many students that weren’t involved.
Mrs. Doster: What do you think makes them like that?
Alecia: I don’t know…maybe boring classes from previous years because most of us in
there were juniors.
Mrs. Doster: You think they act that way in all classes or just the Co-Study class?
Alecia: Well, some of them that I know that are in other classes with me act the same
way in the other classes as well. They sleep and stuff. It’s pointless.
Mrs. Doster: So, they are just turned off to education?
Alecia: Exactly. It’s maybe where they didn’t get attention from their parents when they
were little and they didn’t do good in school or they had a really bad teacher here in high
school. I don’t know, I just know that’s the way they are. Some of them just didn’t
understand it and don’t like doing any artwork and so didn’t do that part and just tried to
do the textbook and they didn’t get it with just the textbook.
Mrs. Doster: So, it should definitely be only for people that want to be in there.
Alecia: Yes, I really feel it should only be offered to students who want to take it…like
western civ, you don’t have to take it in high school but you can.
Mrs. Doster: Well, what about this in terms of being an alternative to taking the
lecture/worksheet class? Should students be told by Guidance, you have a choice here,
you can sit in a class in the traditional manner and hear lectures and take a few notes and
do a lot of worksheets or you may sign up for the other way of presenting history with
artwork included and more hands-on and discussion.
329
Alecia: Well, the other thing they need to realize is that it’s not only art. They should
also make the students aware there is textbook stuff. And the other thing on that is that
not all the other classes are just worksheets. There are other classes where it is purely
discussion, where you ask a lot of questions and get answers and you do not do that much
in worksheets. And you take tests on what you have discussed rather than using the
textbook. You also have to make sure they’re aware of teachers who do it like that.
Because it all depends on how the student is oriented best.
Mrs. Doster: True, so you are really talking about a learning style, how the student learns
best.
Alecia: Some people…I’m not the first person to say this…it’s been studied…but some
people are more challenged by being given visual orientation than they are by sitting
there and listening to people. And some become more intelligent by asking…by being
able to be part of a discussion panel and asking the questions and getting the answers that
they want.
Mrs. Doster: So, who is the Co-Study slanted toward?
Alecia: Well, obviously it is slanted more toward the people who like visual
challenges…and art class.
Mrs. Doster: Well, predominantly it is a history class with art as a teaching method.
Alecia: But it gives that challenge to visual…it gives that visual orientation that you
wouldn’t get in some of the other classes.
Mrs. Doster: How would you improve Co-Study? If you wanted to take another class,
assuming you weren’t graduating…which I’m glad you are…congratulations…moving
on…assuming you weren’t and you wanted to take another one, how would you improve
it?
Alecia: Well, as I said, I would offer it to students who wanted to take it…would be my
first step. And I would try to see if there were any books out there that were ‘specially
made for a class like that rather than using the traditional history book as well…because
there are books that have that, that where they can do art projects along with what they
are talking about and it is not just out-of-the-air projects…like some of the stuff we did.
Mrs. Doster: Such as what? Can you tell me one?
Alecia: Well, I…well, for one…the research…the 1920s jazz that I did…it was nowhere
in our textbook.
Mrs. Doster: That’s right…you had to go pull that out of other sources.
330
Alecia: We went to the library for some things…internet and stuff. It was all on our
own. It was completely individualized work and everything. It was just out there.
Mrs. Doster: But don’t you think that is a valuable thing to know how to do in an
information society?
Alecia: It’s good to do stuff like that but…like, we did the maps. We had to draw the
maps rather than use them. But some books have it where they tell you what it looks like
and you can draw it from your imagination. So there’s that…you could get a different
textbook that’s more visually oriented.
Mrs. Doster: You know, I haven’t seen one yet.
Alecia: Well, it’s almost like an art book…’cause I know that you also teach art classes.
Mrs. Doster: Well, I also teach art history and you could almost use an art history text.
Alecia: Well, if you were doing world history but for American history it is a little bit
harder. I would definitely use the American history textbook but I would also look and
find…see if there is an American history book that has…even if it just a few… projects
for art…that can be put in there.
Mrs. Doster: Well, that is something we need to talk to a book company about. That’s a
good idea. So, I think we have already discussed this…what type of students would
benefit from Co-Study?
Alecia: Students who are willing to try, more than anything. I came away with more
knowledge and better art skills.
Mrs. Doster: Willing…that’s a word I like.
Alecia: Yes, you have to be willing.
Mrs. Doster: Yes, you have to be willing to try. Now, you also participated in Living
History Days.
Alecia: Yes…twice.
Mrs. Doster: Twice! You are the only one who has done that. Why don’t you tell me a
little bit about your experience with Living History Days?
Alecia: Well, first of all, I first heard about it in the Co-Study class last year but I was
also taking Chemistry II with Mrs. Crews. And because the IB students were unable to
become docents, Mrs. Crews signed us up to go help.
Mrs. Doster: What did you think of that?
331
Alecia: What does this have to do with science? First question out of my mouth. Talk
about an “open mouth, insert foot” situation. I didn’t know that there were only certain
types of salt that could be used to get the sodium content…of certain chemicals such as
salt that go into the ice cream to make the milk into the ice cream.
Mrs. Doster: So, there is a lot of chemistry going on in the kitchen?
Alecia: I had no awareness.
Mrs. Doster: So, you participated in Living History Days last year and this year. And
Mrs. Crews is responsible for getting you into it and what was your role?
Alecia: I worked at the salt works where they boiled the water down to get the salt.
Mrs. Doster: And what did you learn from that? What are the most meaningful things
you learned from that?
Alecia: Well, I learned it took teamwork to do it. Because I certainly never could have
been able to move that giant pot on my own. I believe he said it weighed about 150
pounds.
Mrs. Doster: Huge, cast-iron, saucer dish…very rare to find.
Alecia: Yes, and he actually owns it himself. So, it was fun to work with Mr. Clark. It
was fun to work with him. It was really enjoyable. Mrs. Crews signed us up and we did
research, went to the library and everything, and I had no idea this was going to happen.
And I was thinking, this is going to be so stupid…we are going to come out here and
spend two days…cause everybody knows water evaporates. But the more I studied it and
researched it, it has more to do with Bay County that I thought it did, especially St.
Andrews Bay out there…where we were actually doing it at. And so, I went out there
and it took a little while to get into it but Mr. Clark and I clicked…everybody was just
drawn into it.
Mrs. Doster: Now, he’s a park ranger?
Alecia: As I understand it, he is but not here in Bay County. He’s from Bay County but
he doesn’t work here.
Mrs. Doster: I believe he works at Wakulla Springs.
Alecia: Yes. This year I got the lovely idea, “Why don’t I do it again?” I talked with
Mrs. Crews originally to see what I would need to do to do it and she, of course, referred
me to you.
Mrs. Doster: Yes, Mrs. Warren and I plan it in conjunction with the state park, the
district office of the state park system.
332
Alecia: I got approved. Originally, I thought I wouldn’t be able to because they couldn’t
find a pot but then Mr. Clark said he was coming back, so I was allowed to do it. And I
just feel…well, we had fun again…
Mrs. Doster: Was it as good the second time around?
Alecia: Better.
Mrs. Doster: Better? That’s great!
Alecia: It was better because I was more into it and was doing it on my own. I wasn’t
being told how to do it.
Mrs. Doster: So, you graduated from docent to reenactor?
Alecia: Yes, I was a student reenactor.
Mrs. Doster: Wonderful, you were the only one I believe.
Alecia: No, Jessica and Cassidy helped Mrs. Gorman do it, but they were doing the
Indian dance and they had been practicing over the summer. They didn’t have to get
approved to be able do it, Mrs. Gorman asked them to. But I was the only one that
actually requested to go back. I’m glad that I was teaching other people. We taught them
things that I feel they never would have learned in a classroom, even in a Co-Study
environment. In a Co-Study, you learn about it, you can do projects about it but you
don’t go out and see people acting it out.
Mrs. Doster: This is the next level, isn’t it?
Alecia: Yes, definitely is.
Mrs. Doster: Textbook is the beginning, doing projects in the classroom is a step up, but
actually going out in the field…
Alecia: It was a hands-on experience. They saw people make the butter and they got to
taste it. They saw people make the grits from scratch…everything.
Mrs. Doster: And they saw you making salt.
Alecia: Yes, and we also were doing the mullet smoking and they got to taste
fish…smoked fish. You can make it but you’ll never actually make it like we do…we
did there. And that is something, I really feel, taught them stuff. It gave them the
knowledge of what came before and helps them appreciate what they have now because
they know it is better than what was.
333
Mrs. Doster: Easier, for sure. I don’t know about the butter…it was good but… store
bought is good, too.
Alecia: Something we learned about the store bought butter at Living History…the
margarine is only one molecule away from being a plastic.
Mrs. Doster: That’s margarine. That’s why I still buy real butter. I want the real thing.
Is there anything else you would like to add?
Alecia: Other than the fact that I loved the class and I enjoyed Living History; I had fun.
Mrs. Doster: Well, we appreciate you Alecia because you are one of our better students
who put forth a lot of effort and got into it and that is so rewarding for a teacher. You
allowed it to work like it can work. And the ones that put their heads on the desks, as
they do in all classrooms, are very discouraging.
Alecia: I think I’ve told you this before but…by teaching we learn...so…(interrupted by
bell ringing) I didn’t say anything bad.
Mrs. Doster: Oh yes, the teacher is always the learner. No, that just means it’s time for
students to come. Well, thank you very much.
Alecia: No problem.
334
APPENDIX B-8
INTERVIEW WITH CHARLES
May 2, 2003
Mrs. Doster: Good morning. How are you?
Charles: I’m fine, thank you.
Mrs. Doster: Charles, characterize yourself as a student.
Charles: I’m a hardworking student that occasionally likes to talk. I do most of my work
at school and I like to study a lot.
Mrs. Doster: That’s nice. And I agree; you are a good student. It’s a pleasure to have a
good student in class. And I agree; you do like to talk. (laughing) What year are you
now?
Charles: Tenth grade.
Mrs. Doster: So you are a sophomore. And what is your GPA?
Charles: I have a 3.672.
Mrs. Doster: Well, congratulations. What are your interests?
Charles: I’m interested in a lot of things. I want to be a geography teacher or a history
teacher or I want to be a doctor...get up in college and go for a long time.
Mrs. Doster: What are your favorite subjects?
Charles: Math, science, English, history, and lunch.
Mrs. Doster: Lunch! And what are your least favorite subjects?
Charles: Home ec.
Mrs. Doster: Home ec? You take home ec?
Charles: No, I’m not taking it. I took it in sixth grade and I hated it.
Mrs. Doster: What did you have to do?
Charles: Sew.
335
Mrs. Doster: Sew! It won’t hurt to know how to mend your own clothes when you’re in
college. Which Co-Study class are you taking?
Charles: History and Art Co-Study.
Mrs. Doster: World History and Art Co-Study, 2002-2003 school year. Well, we are at
the end of the school year now and I would like for you to reflect back over the year and
tell me what you remember most about the course.
Charles: I remember drawing a lot of maps…and I think that helped me out a lot because
it gave me a better understanding of the area…and it gave me like visual pictures of the
area so that when I was reading in the book and it said people moved to certain places I
could understand by looking back in my head at the map.
Mrs. Doster: So you had a visual image in your head going on when you were reading?
You could locate it visually?
Charles: Yeah, kind of like making a movie.
Mrs. Doster: Do you remember any other type of art besides making maps?
Charles: Oh, yeah, we did a lot of buildings from ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia and
the caves…I remember that.
Mrs. Doster: Do you remember the content of the course? By that I mean the history
part of it and not just the art.
Charles: I remember the history because the art helped me out a lot. I remember way
back to Egypt and before…to the Neanderthals and the Cro-Magnon people…and all the
way up to where we are now in the Middle Ages.
Mrs. Doster: Was Co-Study helpful to you?
Charles: Yeah, it was very helpful. Not only did it help in history, it helped in other
subjects, too…like in science because we were studying about the first humans in science
and I remembered it from the history class.
Mrs. Doster: That’s interesting. You are actually linking different classes together,
connecting different classes together. Has that ever happened before?
Charles: Yep, you can do it in science and math, too. They kind of link together.
Mrs. Doster: Do you like to do that?
Charles: Yep.
336
Mrs. Doster: Does it make more sense to you when you can link knowledge?
Charles: Yeah, it’s easier because you don’t have to isolate different information to
different subjects…when you can use one piece of information for different subjects.
Mrs. Doster: You can see it from different points of view and how it fits into the
puzzle…interesting. Did Co-Study help you understand better the subject matter?
Charles: Yes, it did because…I could understand how people lived by looking at how
they wrote and what kind of weapons they had developed, inventions they made, how
their land was laid out and how their cities were built…and the castles were built…and
how they had trade skills according to where they lived.
Mrs. Doster: And, then, to follow that did it help you remember it better?
Charles: Yes, see, I’m a visual person so that anything I draw I can remember, anything I
write down I can remember…and all the bookwork and definitions help me remember
too because if I write it down I get like a picture memory in my head...and then I take a
test and it’s like “Look, there’s number 3”…it is like looking on a sheet of paper in you
head.
Mrs. Doster: That’s interesting because that is the way I study, too. That is, I write it
down, to study. Some people do this verbally and others do it visually. So, evidently,
you are a visual learner. Did you ever know that before?
Charles: No…not before…
Mrs. Doster: Did you figure it out this year?
Charles: Yes, this year I figured it out.
Mrs. Doster: That’s great. So, did this improve your grade, do you think, or would you
have done just as well without it?
Charles: Yeah, this is the first year I got over a 3.5. Last year I had a 3.5 and this year I
got a 3.7.
Mrs. Doster: How had you done in history classes prior to this?
Charles: In middle school, sixth grade, I did exceptionally well because my dad beat it
into me. In seventh and eighth grade, I did mediocre. Last year, I did well because I like
geography and it was kind of like a geography-history class.
Mrs. Doster: What was a problem for you in Co-Study?
337
Charles: I really didn’t have any problems except for the people around me talking a
lot…and I didn’t have any problems.
Mrs. Doster: Do you think that would happen in a regular class…they would be that
talkative? Or does the Co-Study make them more talkative?
Charles: I don’t think Co-Study makes them more talkative except for the fact that CoStudy kind of gives you more freedom…you feel more free. You are not so bound to
bookwork.
Mrs. Doster: So, by its nature it frees up the creative part. So it is not as regimented and
you have more freedom and so people tend to get a little more relaxed.
Charles: And you learn better when you are in a relaxed atmosphere.
Mrs. Doster: It has always been kind of talkative in these classes…which doesn’t bother
me as long as they are working. But, sometimes, I wonder if they are working. How
could Co-Study be improved?
Charles: More like on the drawings, like when we draw maps and stuff…especially maps
be more specific like on exactly where everything is. Like the little cities, too, because
the more little cities you remember…because when you learn things you don’t always
remember the major things you learn but if you try to memorize the specifics then you’ll
forget most of the specifics but you’ll remember the basic things. Kind of like taking a
step forward and a step back.
Mrs. Doster: So you would want them to be a little more detailed.
Charles: Yeah, so you like take two steps forward and you only go one step back.
Mrs. Doster: So, if you have to remember twice as much, you’ll remember half. If
you’re told to remember 2x, then you’ll remember x.
Charles: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: What type of student do you think benefits from Co-Study?
Charles: A visual student.
Mrs. Doster: How do you think kids know if they are visual or not?
Charles: If you take Co-Study, you’ll find out.
Mrs. Doster: Have you ever had a Guidance counselor ask how you learn best, or how
you like to learn? Anytime in school? Like middle school? Elementary, middle, or high
school?
338
Charles: Yeah, in eighth grade, I went to my guidance counselor because I was having
trouble with homework and she asked me. I told her I just listened, that I liked to listen
and she thought that was the way I liked to learn. But come ninth grade, listening was
nothing because you start falling asleep and you can’t listen. Visual is how I learn.
Mrs. Doster: And you had to come to that conclusion on your own?
Charles: Yeah, Co-Study helped me.
Mrs. Doster: That’s interesting. I’ve often wondered why we can’t take students and
give them a learning style inventory test, trying to find out how they learn best. I’ve
always wondered why these were not given to incoming ninth graders and, then, they
could be told which courses are more visually oriented. Would that be helpful to you?
Charles: Yeah, that would be helpful to me and probably for upcoming ninth graders
because in high school you don’t want to take a class that is not going to help you or that
is going to make your grade worse because it can mess you up.
Mrs. Doster: Because it gets serious starting in the ninth grade, doesn’t it? It all starts to
count.
Charles: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: Do you think ninth graders are aware of that?
Charles: Some of them, not most of them. My brother…he is not very aware of it.
Mrs. Doster: They don’t catch on until about the tenth grade and then it’s a little late
because they’ve got one year of bad grades. And it stays with you. You get to start over
again in college but that stays with you the rest of your life. I’m still doing things in
college and they still look at my transcript from day one. They look at all of the things I
have taken over the years. So just keep that in mind. I’m sure you will do well in
college. You are a good student. I wish you were going to be in American History and
Art Co-Study next year.
Charles: I did sign up for it but we’re moving.
Mrs. Doster: We’re going to miss you and I sure wish you were going to be in there
because I think you are a positive influence on the class, that you’re a good student, and
I’ve enjoyed watching you work this year and seeing your work. And we wish you luck
in your new home. Is there anything else you would like to add?
Charles: Nope, I liked the class. It was good.
Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you very much.
339
APPENDIX B-9
INTERVIEW WITH CHRISTINA
March 2, 2003
Mrs. Doster: Good morning, how are you?
Christina: I am great.
Mrs. Doster: Good. Christina, how would you characterize yourself as a student?
Christina: Uhm…a good student. I think I am a good student. I like to do my work.
Mrs. Doster: That is refreshing to hear. What year are you in now?
Christina: I’m a junior.
Mrs. Doster: What is your GPA?
Christina: A 2.5.
Mrs. Doster: What are your interests in school?
Christina: History is my favorite subject.
Mrs. Doster: Do you have any others?
Christina: Probably zoology and stuff like that…science.
Mrs. Doster: What don’t you like?
Christina: Math…I hate math.
Mrs. Doster: Are you doing okay in math?
Christina: Yeah…I’m doing good…Algebra 1B.
Mrs. Doster: Which Co-Study class did you take?
Christina: I took the World History and Art Co-Study and I also took the Art in Other
Cultures.
Mrs. Doster: Let’s talk about the World History and Art Co-Study. Was that last year
you took that, the 2001-02 school year? You were in the tenth grade?
Christina: Yes.
340
Mrs. Doster: What do you remember about that course?
Christina: Egypt. I remember studying Egypt. That was my favorite. I still have my
drawings and my notebook from that class.
Mrs. Doster: Do you really? What else do you remember…thoughts or feelings.
Christina: I remember the Mayans and just studying world history itself and having the
art to go along with it.
Mrs. Doster: I was going to ask you if you remembered the content of the course and that
is what I meant by…well, you already said it whether you know it or not…you were
talking about the specific content…the Egyptians, the Mayans..
Christina: Aztecs…
Mrs. Doster: Did you find that Co-Study was helpful to you?
Christina: Oh, yeah. It helped me to, you know, understand it…to have hands-on
activities…to learn it more. I like to learn from actually doing it…than just hearing a
lecture…actually seeing it on slides and stuff like that. It gave me hands-on study
material.
Mrs. Doster: Well, you mentioned quite a few things; you think it helped you to study.
Do you think it helped you to understand?
Christina: I took that class in middle school and I didn’t even realize how much was
actually in the course until I got into high school and took it again with the art. Co-Study
actually taught me stuff instead of just learning reading and lecturing and stuff like that.
You actually look at the stuff and see the art and understand the people more. You get
into what was in the people’s minds and how they were drawing.
Mrs. Doster: Ah…you go more in depth? You have a greater understanding?
Christina: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: Okay, you understand better, what about remembering? Does that help you
remember or not? What do you think?
Christina: Yeah, I can still remember sitting in class and drawing from the slides and the
overhead. It was fun.
Mrs. Doster: So, given that, do you think it improved your grade?
Christina: Yeah, because I actually could do it. It was an easy course but challenging.
(Knock on the door. Pause tape.)
341
Mrs. Doster: Okay, so you think it improved your grade?
Christina: Yes.
Mrs. Doster: That reminds me…as I think back on this class…you folks were something
called the Acceleration Academy and we inherited you in the tenth grade. The
Acceleration Academy is a ninth grade…thing…and then we inherited you as a group
during your tenth grade year.
Christina: A whole bunch of people that were together in the ninth grade...as a group.
Mrs. Doster: Could you tell me a little bit about your experience in the Acceleration
Academy and then how you made the shift from what you were doing into Co-Study?
Was it a difficult shift?
Christina: In the Acceleration Academy, you have two teachers; for your main courses
you have two teachers and then you have your elective teachers. You have to take
reading if you’re in the Acceleration Academy. You are in those classes all day until the
end of the day when you go to your gym classes and stuff like that.
Mrs. Doster: So there was a heavy emphasis on reading. Did they tell you how you got
placed in the Acceleration Academy?
Christina: They went through our records in middle school and FCAT in middle school.
We had a hard time doing the FCAT. We came to a summer school to see if we actually
liked it and if you liked you could sign up to be in the Academy. I liked it…I liked it…it
actually, you know…it was good during the summer. And then when I got into it I was
kind of like…I didn’t get to go around with other ninth graders and I was stuck with the
same people.
Mrs. Doster: And then ya’ll were given to us and, I believe, for your English you had to
stay as a group and with us in history, you had to stay as a group. Do you think that was
a beneficial setup?
Christina: Yeah, I think because you were around the same people you actually knew
how to work with those people. Then, when you got into the history and English you
were around those same people.
Mrs. Doster: How do you think the other students felt about being in the Co-Study?
Would they have rather been in a traditional history class or did they like the hands-on?
Christina: Everyone I talked to liked the Co-Study class. And I wanted to take it this
year.
Mrs. Doster: Well, let’s talk about that for a second. You wanted to take it this year,
American History and Art Co-Study, in the eleventh grade. What happened there?
342
Christina: They wouldn’t…they didn’t let us have that course this year.
Mrs. Doster: Yes, that was unfortunate. I’m like you; I didn’t know about it until the last
minute either. Everybody was signed up and ready to go and it was cancelled. I had
nothing to do with that. I want to tell you that we, ourselves, were very upset with that.
In fact, I’m not doing any American history this year. Was there a problem for you in
Co-Study? Which parts of it may have been a problem?
Christina: I don’t think I had any problems. It was, you know…as long as you did your
work, you were good. You had a good grade. Kept up your notebook and actually
listened to the teachers, you had a good grade.
Mrs. Doster: How do you think Co-Study could be improved?
Christina: I think it was good. It was a good course. I don’t think it could be improved;
it was really good.
Mrs. Doster: What type of student do you think benefits from having a Co-Study class?
Christina: A student that is willing to listen and be taught and wants to be taught. The
one that is willing to listen and do your work.
Mrs. Doster: Well, they might do well in a regular class, too. Don’t you think? Is there
anything else?
Christina: Likes art.
Mrs. Doster: So, it helps to like art. Is there anything else you might think of?
Christina: (No response)
Mrs. Doster: Well, maybe what you were trying to tell me and I didn’t get it was that,
maybe, they are more willing to listen if there was something like the art to look at? Is
that what you were trying to say? I wasn’t quite picking up on it.
Christina: Yeah, They are more willing to try to understand and, you know, you can
learn better by seeing it than just hearing it.
Mrs. Doster: Aha, that’s interesting. Is that how you learn better?
Christina: Yeah. I learn better by seeing something than just, you know, just listening to
it and not understanding it…until I actually see it.
Mrs. Doster: You know, I’m the same way. Maybe, that’s why I teach this way. I’ve
got to see before I understand it. Did I explain what integrated curriculum is at the
343
beginning of the class? Did we have a little talk about what we were doing in there? Do
you remember? (She nods affirmative). What do you remember from that?
Christina: Yeah, I remember you were talking about history…not only history but that it
has a connection to art, too…because people learn world history through art, through like
the Egyptians having paintings of what they went through and how they lived. Seeing it
on the wall shows you how they lived.
Mrs. Doster: So the integrated curriculum was bringing together two things that usually
are taught separately…history and art. Well, you know, sometimes, even inside
something like art, there are different groups of art. There is what we call studio art
which is doing things with your hands, like most of our art classes here at Rutherford.
But you can also study just art history and never make any art. You can also just talk
about art. You remember our art criticism we did, when we just talked about art? All of
these are different disciplines in the field of art and some people teach these separately.
You mentioned the Art in Other Cultures class. That is also a type of integrated
curriculum because when we did a project in that class we would, first, talk about the
history, and, then, talk about examples of the art itself before we made anything. So talk
to me about the Art in Other Cultures class. Tell me what you remember about that.
Christina: I remember going through and learning about the history of the art and then
seeing it on slides and the overhead projector, the art, and then we would draw pieces of
it and then we would actually draw a bigger project.
Mrs. Doster: Did you enjoy that class?
Christina: Oh, yeah.
Mrs. Doster: What did you learn from it?
Christina: I learned that history is not only people but it is art and other things that we do
in everyday life. We draw, we read, and we write and that is how we got those things.
We have time because we have history. It was a good course.
Mrs. Doster: I’m glad you enjoyed it. Talk to me, if you want, about anything else you
would like to say about Co-Study.
Christina: I think we should have American History and Art Co-Study (laughing).
Mrs. Doster: Well, you are going to be a senior now. What about an Economics and Art
Co-Study? (Seniors are required to take economics) That is something I have thought
about because I used to teach economics. It seems, in my mind, that art could be used
with a lot of different subjects. Do you thing there is any way you could do art and
algebra? Would that help you get through that math? (laughing) Is there anything else
you would like to say?
344
Christina: It was just a great, great, great course…awesome. I still have my notebook
and I always look at it and remember things I did in that class.
Mrs. Doster: Well, I want to tell you Mrs. Warren and I enjoyed your class a lot, too.
We always looked forward to you kids being in there. And it was always a lot of fun. It
seems like we were always having fun and we were always taking off in a direction and
doing something.
Christina: Yeah, we never had a dull day.
Mrs. Doster: No, we didn’t, did we? There was always something going on.
Christina: Just like in our art class.
Mrs. Doster: Always activity…always learning. Well, thank you very much.
Christina: You’re welcome.
345
APPENDIX B-10
INTERVIEW WITH CRYSTAL
March 7, 2003
Mrs. Doster: Good afternoon, Crystal. How are you?
Crystal: Fine. How about you?
Mrs. Doster: How would you characterize yourself as a student?
Crystal: I’m really committed and organized. I work hard at what I do…my work and
stuff. I get my work done…on time or ahead of time.
Mrs. Doster: Yeah, I agree, having had you in my classes. It is a pleasure to have you in
class. What year are you now?
Crystal: I am a senior.
Mrs. Doster: Getting ready to graduate. Are you excited about that?
Crystal: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: What is your GPA?
Crystal: 3.4
Mrs. Doster: Good…good for you. What kind of interests do you have?
Crystal: I like to read…Stephen King books…and Harry Potter. I like anime. I like to
write and play video games.
Mrs. Doster: What are you favorite subjects?
Crystal: English, mythology, art and that is about it.
Mrs. Doster: Do you have any least favorite?
Crystal: Math and gym. History and science are neutral…neither good nor bad.
Mrs. Doster: Which Co-Study class did you take?
Crystal: American History and Art Co-Study.
Mrs. Doster: I assume that was last year when you were a junior.
346
Crystal: Yes, 2001-2002.
Mrs. Doster: What do you remember most about the course?
Crystal: Doing lots of large packets and doing lots of art projects and Mrs. Warren
lecturing and talking to herself and stuff...watching videos.
Mrs. Doster: Oh, really. (laughing)
Crystal: Talking to the VCR.
Mrs. Doster: Do you remember the content of the course?
Crystal: Yes, I remember most of it. I remember more than in world history which I was
taking at the same time…except for World War I and II when both classes were studying
the same thing.
Mrs. Doster: Can you give me an example?
Crystal: I remember, like, studying the presidents and we had to do Hoover’s plan, and
like the different plans for how they handled the economic depression and stuff. Each
one had their own plan. I remember doing a tornado thing for, I think, it was Hoover.
Mrs. Doster: The funnel approach. I think we were doing a pop-up book on the 1930s,
weren’t we?
Crystal: Yeah, I couldn’t remember what we called it but it was a tornado. I remember it
was a tornado. Yeah, we were doing a pop-up book of that and the FDR stuff.
Mrs. Doster: Was Co-Study helpful to you?
Crystal: Yeah, it helped me remember the information a lot better. I understand by
reading; the Co-Study helped me remember. I could retain it more because we did so
many things over and over instead of, like, just doing questions and then taking a test.
But we did these packets and we did things like projects and it helped me remember it
better than just doing book questions and taking a test.
Mrs. Doster: Is there anything in particular you remember? I know you mentioned
Hoover, FDR, and the approaches to solving the economic depression and that was a
visual remembrance because of the funnel approach being represented as a tornado. Is
there anything that stands out in your mind as more important?
Crystal: The packets.
Mrs. Doster: What was in the packets?
347
Crystal: There was just a bunch of questions and activities, things to match up, fill-inthe-blanks and stuff. I can’t really remember very much but I remember they helped me
a lot more because I’d just do my work, get the answers and stuff, and then I’d remember
them on the test.
Mrs. Doster: Were there any art activities in the packet?
Crystal: Yeah, there were a bunch of them.
Mrs. Doster: Can you remember what types?
Crystal: Some of them were where we did things from the overhead, and we’d color
some, and we did posters one time and we made a world map one time. We did a lot of
different stuff—cut-out, draw, color.
Mrs. Doster: All of those activities, did they help you understand the subject matter
better?
Crystal: Yeah, because like the funnel approach shows how it starts from the top and
goes down. They help you remember better because when you see the funnel you see the
funnel approach. When you see the tornado and, then, you put the little things in there it
helps you to understand it.
Mrs. Doster: So, it’s almost like a diagram of something.
Crystal: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: So, it helped you understand it. Did it help you remember it better for the
test?
Crystal: Yeah, because if you would have just given us a diagram, I wouldn’t have
hardly, probably, looked over it as much but I would have looked over it. But actually
having to fill it in myself, it helps me remember it because I had to fill it in myself.
Mrs. Doster: Draw it yourself.
Crystal: Draw it myself. That helped me.
Mrs. Doster: Do you think it improved your grade?
Crystal: Yeah, the whole class improved my grade. My other friends had other teachers
and their grades were bad. Many people wanted to get into the Co-Study. Art would
help them do better. Lecturing and worksheets don’t work well for me.
Mrs. Doster: What was a problem for you in Co-Study? (No response) Were there any
problems?
348
Crystal: I don’t think there were any problems, really. The tests were long and I’m not
good at matching. I did my work and I was usually ahead of everybody.
Mrs. Doster: I remember that…you were…how to keep you busy (laughing).
Crystal: I don’t remember. I don’t remember any problems. I would just sit there and do
my work. And I was ahead.
Mrs. Doster: How do you feel Co-Study could be improved?
Crystal: It was good because you worked at your own pace and were expected to meet a
deadline. Make, like, deadlines…more deadlines. You would tell us one week and then
it would get delayed or something. You need to put more deadlines in there.
Mrs. Doster: Or, maybe, stick to the original deadline.
Crystal: Yeah, I think that’s about it.
Mrs. Doster: That is always a problem for a teacher because not everybody moves at the
same rate. And you are always doing your work. In fact, you were the one I would look
to and say “How far along is Crystal? If she’s done, they need only one more day.” You
were ahead of the class the whole time.
Crystal: I like classes where you work at your own pace, too, though because then I
don’t have to sit and wait on everybody else to do everything…go ahead and get it done.
Mrs. Doster: Yeah, and some people are just the opposite. They like that, also, but in the
opposite manner…they do less work. They don’t get as much done. So what type of
student do you feel benefits from Co-Study?
Crystal: People who are self-paced and self-organized and people who are hardworking
and they’re committed to what they’re doing. Students who want to earn a good grade,
who are interested in art, and tired of lectures from teachers.
Mrs. Doster: Do you have to like art, to do Co-Study?
Crystal: No, because I didn’t really want to do art.
Mrs. Doster: But you did it anyway?
Crystal: That’s what you have to do.
Mrs. Doster: Do you remember art criticism?
Crystal: Yeah.
349
Mrs. Doster: What do you think that is, do you remember?
Crystal: Art criticism is where you take a piece of art and you evaluate it and you give
your opinion and use…I think it is properties or principles…and you evaluate it on the
elements and principles and see how well it was crafted and stuff like that.
Mrs. Doster: Do you think that related to the history? Or was that just extra, when we
would do that? (No response) I remember when we looked at one painting by an artist
who had done a painting of a group of immigrants in New York City. At that point in
time, we were studying the effects of immigration during the early 1900s and there were
a lot of social problems given industrialization, immigration, World War I—all of the
changes that had happened in American society—and in that unit we were looking at an
overview of all these problems. When we viewed this painting of an immigrant area in
New York City, we talked about it in terms of the elements and principles but we also
talked about it in terms of what it showed about American society. Do you remember
that and was it helpful?
Crystal: No, not looking at artwork like that. It doesn’t help me remember history very
much. I’m not a visual learner like that. I don’t look at art and remember it for a time
period, like that. I remember the carpetbaggers, though. I remember the artwork for that
because it was funny.
Mrs. Doster: That was a political cartoon.
Crystal: I can remember them. But I can’t remember someone going and making a
painting…like the guy who did the Spanish Rebellion…what’s his name?
Mrs. Doster: Goya?
Crystal: And he did that…and I remember that but I don’t remember, like, a lot of it
because I don’t like looking at it and remembering it came from this and it represented
this.
Mrs. Doster: So what you remember more, and what is more helpful to you is the
illustrating or diagramming of the knowledge.
Crystal: Yeah, like actually doing work and projects and stuff helps…like doing them
yourself.
Mrs. Doster: Is there anything else you would like to add?
Crystal: It was a good class. It was a little large. I almost switched out because it was a
large class. I really liked it a lot better than I would have liked any other class…like Mr.
Thompson’s class. He just lectures.
Mrs. Doster: Do you think other subject matter besides history could benefit from having
art associated with it? Such as?
350
Crystal: English. I like English but it could. It could help English. Math…it won’t help
math. Math is just terrible.
Mrs. Doster: It might. (laughing) I think it could help in geometry; I don’t know about
algebra. Okay, anything else you want to add?
Crystal: Nothing.
Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you very much.
351
APPENDIX B-11
INTERVIEW WITH ELIZABETH
March 19, 2003
Mrs. Doster: Hi, how are you today?
Elizabeth: Good.
Mrs. Doster: Characterize yourself as a student.
Elizabeth: Average…responsible…trying to work hard.
Mrs. Doster: What year are you in school?
Elizabeth: I’m a junior.
Mrs. Doster: What is you GPA?
Elizabeth: A 2.357.
Mrs. Doster: What are your interests in school?
Elizabeth: Art and science.
Mrs. Doster: How many art classes have you taken?
Elizabeth: One.
Mrs. Doster: Which one was that?
Elizabeth: I didn’t take it here.
Mrs. Doster: What are you favorite science classes?
Elizabeth: Zoology and biology.
Mrs.Doster: What are your least favorite subjects?
Elizabeth: English and math.
Mrs. Doster: Which Co-Study class did you take?
Elizabeth: The World History and Art Co-Study.
352
Mrs. Doster: That would be last year, 2001-2002 school year. What do you remember
most about the course?
Elizabeth: How much I learned and how easy it was to remember things because we
drew so much and were so involved with the subject.
Mrs. Doster: Do you remember the history part?
Elizabeth: Somewhat, yeah. (laughing)
Mrs. Doster: Do you remember the activities? Could you recall anything from last
year’s content?
Elizabeth: We did a lot of work on King Tut and the tomb…a lot of artwork on that.
Mrs. Doster: Did you find Co-Study to be helpful to you?
Elizabeth: Oh, yeah, because I know I wouldn’t have remembered if it wasn’t for the art
portion of the subject.
Mrs. Doster: So, you felt like the art helped you to remember?
Elizabeth: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: Did it help you to understand?
Elizabeth: A lot, yeah.
Mrs. Doster: Do you think it improved your grade?
Elizabeth: Oh, yeah. It got me more involved with it because if I hadn’t had it then I
wouldn’t have been so in tune with what was going on.
Mrs. Doster: Was there a favorite project you did or a favorite type of art that you did?
Elizabeth: The lettering…the lettering…was my favorite part.
Mrs. Doster: When did we do lettering?
Elizabeth: When we were studying the…I can’t even remember now…the
Egyptians…the hieroglyphics and when we were working on the Romans we did Roman
lettering.
Mrs. Doster: We may have done some other, too, when we got to the Middle Ages.
Were there any problems for you in that class?
353
Elizabeth: Not really.
Mrs. Doster: Do you think it could be improved? What would help you to remember and
learn better?
Elizabeth: Nothing, really. It was perfect. It’s the perfect class, really.
Mrs. Doster: What type of student, do you think, benefits from Co-Study?
Elizabeth: The kind of student who is, maybe, not slow per se but it’s kind of harder for
them to learn...unless you are doing hands-on activities. I’m the type of student where
it’s hard for me to learn unless I’m involved with the subject.
Mrs. Doster: And by involved, you mean doing something with your hands and your
eyes as opposed to just your ears?
Elizabeth: Yeah, when myself is more involved in other than just listening to the teacher
teach it.
Mrs. Doster: If you manipulate material somehow with, let’s say, a drawing it helps you
to remember it better and understand it better?
Elizabeth: Yes m’am.
Mrs. Doster: Are you taking history this year?
Elizabeth: Yeah, I’m in western civilization and American history.
Mrs. Doster: Are they doing any kind of artwork in there or is it strictly the lecture type?
Elizabeth: Strictly lecture and I’m failing that class really bad.
Mrs. Doster: Both of them or one of them?
Elizabeth: One of them…my American history class. I’m okay in my western civ class.
He mostly just lectures on everything. We don’t do anything hands-on or anything like
that.
Mrs. Doster: Do you take notes?
Elizabeth: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: And that’s it?
Elizabeth: Yeah.
354
Mrs. Doster: So, you prefer a Co-Study method over the lecture method?
Elizabeth: Oh, yeah. (laughing)
Mrs. Doster: Well, I wish we could have had that for you this year.
Elizabeth: I wish you could have, too.
Mrs. Doster: As I recall, your group came to us from another course of study in the ninth
grade called Acceleration Academy. We were given your class and the English teacher,
Ms. W, was given your class. And the rest of your classes were taken with the rest of the
sophomores, not just Academy students. Tell me a little bit about the Acceleration
Academy. How did you get put into it and what was it for?
Elizabeth: Well, we got put into it because we didn’t do well on the FCAT and they were
hoping it would improve our math and English scores as far as the FCAT goes….the
reading and stuff. For the most part it helped, but it really set us back as far as getting all
of our credits…the right credits as far as that goes. I found it to be really aggravating
because I don’t have all the classes that I should have as a junior. I’m a year behind. I
should have had American history over with already but I don’t.
Mrs. Doster: Well, now you take that in your junior year, generally.
Elizabeth: My math classes are behind.
Mrs. Doster: You’re really okay in history. But it’s the math…
Elizabeth: Yeah, it’s the math and English that are problems.
Mrs. Doster: So, how did you end up doing on the FCAT?
Elizabeth: Oh, I passed. The first time I took it I passed.
Mrs. Doster: Well, I guess in the long run, the Acceleration Academy paid off in that
respect. Do you think Co-Study helped at all?
Elizabeth: Oh, yeah.
Mrs. Doster: In what way?
Elizabeth: It helped with the reading. I was more interested in it…in reading by the time
the Co-Study was over with.
Mrs. Doster: So, your interest in reading improved with the Co-Study experience?
Elizabeth: Yes m’am.
355
Mrs. Doster: Was there anything else you would like to add?
Elizabeth: No.
Mrs. Doster: I appreciate your coming by and talking to me.
Elizabeth: Thank you.
Mrs. Doster: Thank you.
356
APPENDIX B-12
INTERVIEW WITH JACKSON
May 7, 2003
Mrs. Doster: Good afternoon. How are you Jackson?
Jackson: Pretty good, you?
Mrs. Doster: Fine, thank you. Jackson, characterize yourself as a student.
Jackson: Uh…like…I don’t know…I make normal grades, I guess.
Mrs. Doster: What is a normal grade to you?
Jackson: Cs.
Mrs. Doster: Cs. Do you feel like you are working up to your potential?
Jackson: Not in some subjects…most of them.
Mrs. Doster: Which subjects do you favor?
Jackson: Anything involving computers…and math. I enjoy math, Web design, biology.
Mrs. Doster: What do you not like?
Jackson: History, English…that kind of stuff. I am unwilling in some classes, namely
history, art, English.
Mrs. Doster: Do you have other interests?
Jackson: Computers.
Mrs. Doster: So, you are a computer person? Is that going to be your career?
Jackson: Yep.
Mrs. Doster: What year are you now?
Jackson: I’m a sophomore right now.
Mrs. Doster: What is your GPA?
Jackson: Last report card it was a 2.666.
357
Mrs. Doster: Which Co-Study class are you taking?
Jackson: The World History and Art Co-Study.
Mrs. Doster: So you’re in World History and Art Co-Study, 2002-03 school year. Well,
we’re winding down this year right now, in fact, we are nearly done. As you think back
over the course of the year, what is it you remember most about the course?
Jackson: Having to do art. Being forced to draw maps.
Mrs. Doster: Do you remember anything else? Do you remember any history?
Jackson: A little bit.
Mrs. Doster: What?
Jackson: Like the stone age drawings and that kind of stuff.
Mrs. Doster: That was at the very beginning. Did you like those?
Jackson: It was okay. That is not all I remember.
Mrs. Doster: Did you find Co-Study helpful to you?
Jackson: In some ways…I mean…I learned locations on a map.
Mrs. Doster: So drawing the map helped you learn locations better?
Jackson: Not the drawing of the map…the looking at the map.
Mrs. Doster: The looking at the map helped you to…
Jackson: I don’t like the drawing.
Mrs. Doster: You don’t like the drawing. Talk to me about that.
Jackson: It’s just not fun to draw.
Mrs. Doster: So you did not find the drawing helpful to you at all?
Jackson: No.
Mrs. Doster: So you don’t like to draw. Did you find the drawing helping you to
understand the subject matter any better, even though you didn’t like it?
Jackson: Maybe a little bit…parts of it…especially locations.
358
Mrs. Doster: Did it help you remember it any better?
Jackson: A little bit of the locations and stuff. That’s all. I’ve never been good in
history. I listen, usually always, but don’t do the work. I listen to the art but don’t do the
projects. I don’t like to do projects. I do some assignments and not other assignments.
Sometimes I remember…understand better because of the art. It is extra…more…in a
different way.
Mrs. Doster: So, you don’t like to draw but even though you did it and didn’t like to do
it, it may have helped a little bit.
Jackson: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: Did it hurt?
Jackson: No…hurt my hand.
Mrs. Doster: So you weren’t damaged by being in this class?
Jackson: Not mentally.
Mrs. Doster: How were you damaged?
Jackson: My hand hurts from drawing.
Mrs. Doster: Really?
Jackson: I don’t like drawing.
Mrs. Doster: Do you know why you don’t like drawing?
Jackson: Not fun…it has nothing to do with computers.
Mrs. Doster: So you are very singularly focused?
Jackson: Yep.
Mrs. Doster: Did you have art in elementary school?
Jackson: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: Did you enjoy it then?
Jackson: It was okay. The classroom smelled though. You couldn’t enjoy it.
359
Mrs. Doster: You didn’t like the smell of the room. Did the teacher actually instruct you
in how to draw or was it kind of like “Here it is…do your thing.”
Jackson: Sometimes we had stuff we were supposed to be drawing…not always.
Mrs. Doster: Was it a guided drawing where she showed you how to draw or did she just
expect you to draw it?
Jackson: It just depended on what we were doing…the kind of stuff we did.
Mrs. Doster: Did you have that in all years of elementary or just some years?
Jackson: It was every third day, every year.
Mrs. Doster: You have had quite a bit of background at the elementary level. Did you
have any art in middle school?
Jackson: No.
Mrs. Doster: So, in high school you are placed in the Co-Study and you took an art class.
How did that happen?
Jackson: I had to get out of other classes.
Mrs. Doster: And this is what you had left to take. Do you think if you had had more
drawing instruction at an earlier age you would like drawing better? Or is there some
reason why you think you would not like drawing at all?
Jackson: No, I’m into computers and stuff and drawing is a pencil and paper kind of
thing.
Mrs. Doster: The reason I ask is that there is a lot of art than can be done on the
computer, such as in doing a Web page. You need the art.
Jackson: I make my Web pages and pay someone else to do the images.
Mrs. Doster: Wouldn’t you want to do your own images, customizing your work?
Jackson: I’m not creative in that way. I couldn’t possibly make the images.
Mrs. Doster: What if I told you that is not true? You are creative enough.
Jackson: No, no.
Mrs. Doster: As an art teacher I have worked with too many people for too many years
and it is very rare that I find someone who is not a bit creative.
360
Jackson: It is the same as with music. Some people just don’t have…and…it’s the same
thing.
Mrs. Doster: You think so? As your art teacher, I don’t agree with that. I see what you
did in my class and I don’t agree with that. So I know that is what you think but it is not
what I think. One last question on this: Even though you didn’t like the art but you did it
any way—or most of it—and it may have helped you understand a little bit better and it
may have helped you remember a little bit better the locations, would that translate into a
better grade for you?
Jackson: I really don’t know. I always make bad grades in history.
Mrs. Doster: In middle school, what kind of grades did you have in history?
Jackson: Same as I have in your class now, Ds and Fs.
Mrs. Doster: So you can’t really compare.
Jackson: History is just not my subject.
Mrs. Doster: What was a problem for you in Co-Study besides the drawing?
Jackson: Not enough art supplies.
Mrs. Doster: What would you have liked?
Jackson: More.
Mrs. Doster: Such as?
Jackson: More colored pencils, markers.
Mrs. Doster: How else would you improve Co-Study?
Jackson: Let us trace the maps…more coloring by using a key…like color coding.
Mrs. Doster: Well, at the beginning of the year we did the “dot” method, which is like
tracing but instead you’re putting dots and you draw the line afterwards. Did you try
that?
Jackson: Yeah, and it was time consuming. Very time consuming…all those dots. I
have to be able to trace. I don’t want to do dots. My stuff looks really bad. I need a
straight edge and a compass…I can do anything thing with those…I take drafting.
Mrs. Doster: Well, you don’t put all the dots right next to each other. You separate them
and then later connect the dots.
361
Jackson: And then you get those jagged lines.
Mrs. Doster: And you don’t like jagged lines?
Jackson: No.
Mrs. Doster: Do you think that you are too critical of your drawing?
Jackson: No, I just don’t like to draw.
Mrs. Doster: I remember you told me that…that you didn’t like the way it looked.
Jackson: I don’t like the way it looks. It doesn’t mean that I am being too critical.
Mrs. Doster: Well, I thought it looked okay. What type of student do you think benefits
from Co-Study?
Jackson: A person who likes art, obviously. A person who likes to do things by
hand…who doesn’t like computers.
Mrs. Doster: You think you can’t do both…you can’t do art and computers?
Jackson: I think it’s possible but a lot of people are either…very…they like it one way or
the other. They are very organized…either that or they like art.
Mrs. Doster: Did you see any students that you felt benefited from Co-Study?
Jackson: Yes, that girl that just walked in the door.
Mrs. Doster: And what type of students are those?
Jackson: People who look like her and stuff…with papers hanging out of her book bag.
I saw others who were benefiting and enjoying the art…those who learn by doing more.
Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you very much, Jackson.
Jackson: Sure.
362
APPENDIX B-13
INTERVIEW WITH KELLIE
March 17, 2003
Mrs. Doster: Good afternoon, how are you?
Kellie: Good.
Mrs. Doster: Kellie, characterize yourself as a student.
Kellie: I’m responsible. I do my work on time. And I enjoy going to school.
Mrs. Doster: What year are you now?
Kellie: Junior year.
Mrs. Doster: And what is your GPA?
Kellie: About a 3.0.
Mrs. Doster: And what are your interests?
Kellie: Art, history.
Mrs. Doster: What are your favorite subjects?
Kellie: Art, history, and science.
Mrs. Doster: What are you least favorite?
Kellie: Math, English and all them…like that.
Mrs. Doster: Which Co-Study class did you take?
Kellie: World History and Art Co-Study.
Mrs. Doster: And what year was that?
Kellie: My sophomore year.
Mrs. Doster: So, that would have been last year…2001-02 school year. What do you
remember most about the course?
Kellie: It was fun. It kept me awake.
363
Mrs. Doster: Do you have a problem falling asleep in class?
Kellie: Not that one.
Mrs. Doster: In others?
Kellie: Yes, because, basically, the other ones were just reading books. Co-Study was
not just hearing but doing things…making it come alive.
Mrs. Doster: You remember having fun. Do you remember the history?
Kellie: Yeah, because it was hands-on and now when my teachers quote something I
remember it. It has helped me a lot this year. I can answer history questions this year.
Usually I was not able to do that…in the past.
Mrs. Doster: Really? Do you remember any particular projects that you did?
Kellie: Yes, any part of the world we were studying, we drew it, mapped it out, keyed it
out. It was pretty fun.
Mrs. Doster: So, we did maps and we had keys with the maps.
Kellie: We had to remember where temples were, and mountains were, and stuff like
that.
Mrs. Doster: Do you remember anything else? Any other projects?
Kellie: I remember, like, every section we did we always had something to do that was
hands-on. There was a mixture of activities—movies, drawing, bookwork. It was fun.
Mrs. Doster: So, did you find Co-Study to be helpful to you?
Kellie: Very much, yeah.
Mrs. Doster: In what way?
Kellie: Like now we just read through sections and then test. Then, we had things to do
with the sections, instead of just reading, like we did maps and section sheets. We spent
more time in sections than other classes.
Mrs. Doster: So, you’re talking about American History this year. It is all textbook
oriented?
Kellie: Yeah, he reads...boring…I usually fall asleep.
Mrs. Doster: So, you don’t get to do any hands-on?
364
Kellie: Nothing at all.
Mrs. Doster: Do you miss that?
Kellie: Yes.
Mrs. Doster: Do you think it helped you to understand? I know you had fun but did it
help you better understand what you were learning?
Kellie: Yeah, because teachers actually helped us. There were two of them there. It was
nice having two teachers. We got more help. It was very organized. I learned a whole
lot. We could see what we were doing. I learned geography.
Mrs. Doster: Did you like having both of us there...Mrs. Warren and I?
Kellie: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: Two different personalities?
Kellie: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: Did it help you remember better for the test?
Kellie: Definitely. Now we just get one worksheet. Then we had a bunch of worksheets
with different sections. We got to take them home. The time we spent on it and the art
are what helped. Now we have to do worksheets in class, so we can study and go over it
and stuff.
Mrs. Doster: Do you think it improved your grade?
Kellie: Definitely, my grade in there now is probably terrible. My grade in your class
was pretty high. It was usually in the 90s.
Mrs. Doster: Was there any problem for you in Co-Study?
Kellie: Besides people talking, no. But that’s in every class. There are always
distractions with people talking.
Mrs. Doster: Not just in Co-Study?
Kellie: No, not just in Co-Study
Mrs. Doster: I wondered…because there was some talking going on. How could CoStudy be improved for students?
Kellie: Nothing, it was great. If we could have it back, it would be even better.
365
Mrs. Doster: I know. That was unfortunate. We were all set for American History and
Art Co-Study together this year and it didn’t work out.
Kellie: I was ready for it, too.
Mrs. Doster: What type of student benefits from Co-Study?
Kellie: The kind that usually falls asleep in class and needs extra help because, now,
when you ask for help you usually don’t get it. The teacher is too busy with other
students but then you had two teachers. And they were always helping you instead of
doing their own thing. It was the only class that Walter did good in. It is for people who
like to do stuff rather than just reading out of a book.
Mrs. Doster: That’s interesting…although it was larger than an average class.
Kellie: You let us work in groups, too. That was helpful.
Mrs. Doster: You found that helpful?
Kellie: Definitely. If you didn’t understand something then your friend understood and
could help you. In my classes now if you help each other they think you are cheating.
But, then, you guys walked around and you helped us, too, so we weren’t cheating.
Mrs. Doster: You were a member of the Acceleration Academy before you came to our
class. We inherited you as a whole group. Was that a problem, all of you being
together?
Kellie: No, it wasn’t. Everybody who was in that class was my friend. And my sister
was in there and so, when we went home, we did it together. It was very helpful. We
were always talking about it. And when we got ready for midterms and stuff, we would
have a big study group.
Mrs. Doster: That is really good. It sounds like what you do in college when you have a
big test.
Kellie: We would go to my friend’s house and make little cards and stuff.
Mrs. Doster: How did people get put into the Acceleration Academy?
Kellie: I think it is because…something with FCAT or something…like if you got lower
grades. My FCAT grade this year was awesome.
Mrs. Doster: Really?
Kellie: I didn’t have to retake it all. I passed it the first time.
366
Mrs. Doster: Well, congratulations. So, it was a program of study designed for ninth
graders who had trouble with the eighth grade FCAT?
Kellie: Yeah, we had CCC labs where you get on the computer and it helps you step up
levels when you passed the lessons on there.
Mrs. Doster: So, ya’ll did that for a year in ninth grade and stayed together in the tenth
grade for history and English II?
Kellie: Yeah, I wish we could always stay together as a group because I hate having
classes with people I don’t know.
Mrs. Doster: So, this year, the eleventh grade, you are randomly placed throughout the
school just like any other student?
Kellie: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: Do you feel like you are having any problems anywhere?
Kellie: Definitely. My grades have fallen so much compared to my first two years. I
try…I try hard…but it is just not cuttin’ it.
Mrs. Doster: But you did okay on the FCAT. Do you think Co-Study helped prepare
you for that test in anyway?
Kellie: Definitely. It helped me in math and English.
Mrs. Doster: How would Co-Study play a part?
Kellie: Because we read out loud. People who don’t usually like reading out loud,
you’d encourage them to read out loud. Usually when I take FCAT, I hate reading. You
know how you have to read that long thing and answer all the questions. It just helped
me to read. I read at home normally now. Reading out loud is pretty fun.
Mrs. Doster: Is there anything else you would like to add.
Kellie: No, that’s about it.
Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you very much.
Kellie: You’re welcome.
367
APPENDIX B-14
INTERVIEW WITH MICHAEL
May 1, 2003
Mrs. Doster: Good morning, Michael. How are you?
Michael: I’m doing pretty good.
Mrs. Doster: Michael, how would you characterize yourself as a student?
Michael: Hard-worker. I try my best and I don’t sit there and play around too much. I
try to get down and get the work done.
Mrs. Doster: What year are you now?
Michael: I’m in the tenth grade and I graduate in 2005, I think.
Mrs. Doster: What is your GPA?
Michael: I’m thinking somewhere around a 3.0 to 3.3…somewhere in that area.
Mrs. Doster: Good. What are your interests? What are you interested in?
Michael: I’m kind of interested in technology and engineering and stuff. I also like to be
a kid outside and play basketball, baseball, and all the sports.
Mrs. Doster: What are your favorite subjects?
Michael: Favorite subjects…I kind of like math… a little…I kind of struggle sometimes.
I like history, a lot, sometimes. Then, I also like my technology class because that’s a fun
class.
Mrs. Doster: Do you have a least favorite subject?
Michael: A least favorite subject? My newspaper class.
Mrs. Doster: Really?
Michael: Yeah, really, I don’t like it…at all.
Mrs. Doster: Why not?
Michael: Because people play around too much. And I’ll write a story and it just won’t
get in the paper.
368
Mrs. Doster: Do you think you would enjoy it if you were published, if your articles
made the paper?
Michael: Yeah, and if I didn’t get criticized so much in the class saying my papers are
not “very well”.
Mrs. Doster: You mean not written well or they don’t agree with your viewpoint?
Michael: I think a little bit of both. I think the teacher just doesn’t like me.
Mrs. Doster: So, you are learning about politics, internal politics.
Michael: Basically.
Mrs. Doster: That’s unfortunate.
Michael: Yes, it is.
Mrs. Doster: Which Co-Study class are you in?
Michael: History and Art Co-Study class.
Mrs. Doster: That’s the world history and you’re taking it this year. So you are taking
World History and Art Co-Study in the 2002-03 school year. Well, our year is almost
over. Think back. What is it that you remember most about the course?
Michael: That we didn’t really just study out of the book. We drew pictures and we
discussed it in the class. We drew the pictures of the people and the things in the place
we were actually studying about.
Mrs. Doster: You remember the activity of it but do you remember the actual content?
Do you remember anything about the first few chapters we did during the first semester?
Michael: Not really, I don’t remember anything from the first semester. It’s been a long
year.
Mrs. Doster: Does Egypt ring a bell?
Michael: Yes, it does. I remember Egypt.
Mrs. Doster: Do you remember Ancient Greece?
Michael: Yes.
Mrs. Doster: Anything about the Roman Republic?
369
Michael: Not really…slightly. I mean it’s not because the teacher was bad or anything,
it is just because I just don’t really remember everything from back at the beginning of
the year.
Mrs. Doster: Was Co-Study helpful to you?
Michael: Actually, it was because it helped me understand what we were studying about
instead of reading it out of the book and trying to imagine it. We actually had to draw it.
We went over it in the class instead of me doing it by myself. It was like a whole group
activity thing.
Mrs. Doster: So it helped you to visualize the written word. Did it help you understand
any of it?
Michael: Yeah, it did. It helped me understand a lot better than the normal classes that
are not like the Co-Study. The Co-Study helped a lot.
Mrs. Doster: When you went to take a test, did it help you remember it better for the
test?
Michael: Basically, it did. Even though I didn’t study for most of the tests, it did help
me remember it…
Mrs. Doster: You didn’t what? (laughing)
Michael: Yeah, it helped me remember it.
Mrs. Doster: So, you didn’t have to study? Is that what you are telling me?
Michael: No, that is not what I’m saying. I’ve never been one to study for a test but the
Co-Study helped me remember it better. When I did look over it before the test, I
basically remembered everything that I knew.
Mrs. Doster: Do you think it improved your grade?
Michael: Yeah, it did. In all my other history classes I’ve had in the past, I always had a
low C in the classes and I have a B average in the Co-Study class. My grade has
improved a lot.
Mrs. Doster: So your grade has improved. Were there any problems for you in CoStudy?
Michael: I’m not a very great drawer; I can’t do art. But it has helped me to learn how to
and how to practice doing it.
370
Mrs. Doster: You know that’s the key, don’t you? It’s a skill, like a basketball skill or
any of those skills you’ve learned. Drawing is a skill. Now some people are going to be
better than others, of course, but everyone can learn to draw. I think we need to get rid of
that mystery that only certain people can do art, or can draw, because we can all learn
how to…up to a point, for sure…at least enough to get through a Co-Study class. I hope
your drawing improved.
Michael: It did, to an extent. Because before, I would be lucky if I could draw a stick
person and now I can actually draw…somewhat of a person with two dimensions.
Mrs. Doster: You mean the person has two sides to the torso instead of one stick?
(laughing)
Michael: Yeah, something like that.
Mrs. Doster: Were there any other problems?
Michael: Not really. Everything else was great. It helped a lot.
Mrs. Doster: How could Co-Study be improved?
Michael: Well, you see, I have no idea. To me it seems like it’s better the way it is. I
don’t think there is anything they could really change about it. It worked for me.
Mrs. Doster: What type of student, do you think, benefits from Co-Study?
Michael: A person who likes looking at it, like a visual person instead of reading it out of
the book and trying to imagine it…you look at it…a hands-on person.
Mrs. Doster: A visual and a hands-on?
Michael: Yeah, because I guess when you draw it…honestly, it helps me like when I put
the points on the map or something, it helps me remember where everything’s at.
Mrs. Doster: Is there anything else you would like to add?
Michael: Not really.
Mrs. Doster: Have you signed up for American History and Art Co-Study?
Michael: Yes, I have.
Mrs. Doster: Well, here’s hoping it’s a go!
Michael: Yeah, really.
371
Mrs. Doster: I know. I’m looking forward to it.
Michael: Me, too.
Mrs. Doster: Thank you very much.
Michael: You’re welcome.
372
APPENDIX B-15
INTERVIEW WITH SAMANTHA
April 30, 2003
Mrs. Doster: Good morning. How are you?
Samantha: Fine.
Mrs. Doster: Samantha, characterize yourself as a student.
Samantha: I’m generally a good student. I work hard.
Mrs. Doster: What year are you in school?
Samantha: Tenth grade.
Mrs. Doster: So you are a sophomore. What is your GPA?
Samantha: 3.1
Mrs. Doster: What are your interests?
Samantha: Art, reading, sports.
Mrs. Doster: What are your favorite subjects?
Samantha: English, art, and mythology.
Mrs. Doster: Do you have any that you don’t like?
Samantha: Math.
Mrs. Doster: I think I have heard that before. Which Co-Study class are you in?
Samantha:
World history.
Mrs. Doster: World History and Art Co-Study, 2002-03 school year. As you think back
over the year, what is it that you remember most about the course?
Samantha: Greece and Rome.
Mrs. Doster: What do you remember about them?
Samantha: Just the political changes that were going on at that time.
373
Mrs. Doster: Okay, you remember the content of the course. Was Co-Study helpful to
you?
Samantha: Yeah, I really enjoyed it. The art was wonderful and it helped me understand
so much.
Mrs. Doster: That is what I was about to ask: In what way was it helpful to you?
Samantha: The art and especially the maps helped me to understand the projects we had
to do.
Mrs. Doster: So it helped you get a fix on your location in the world. Did it help you
understand the subject matter any better?
Samantha: Yes, a little…by looking at the art I could understand their culture more.
Mrs. Doster: When it came time to take a test, did it help you remember any of the
subject matter better?
Samantha: Oh, definitely. I have a pictographic memory and looking at pictures is easier
than reading it out.
Mrs. Doster: Would you call yourself a visual learner?
Samantha: Yes.
Mrs. Doster: And you remember pictures rather than words?
Samantha: Yes. This sort of class definitely helps visual learners.
Mrs. Doster: Do you think it improved your grade?
Samantha: Yeah, I’ve always been really bad in history and this year I’ve been doing
really good.
Mrs. Doster: Good. I had no idea…you are one of my better students. So you haven’t
done well before in history?
Samantha: No, I usually hate history but I’ve never had really good teachers. You know,
like it’s history out of the book. You know “Just read out of the book and your test is on
so and so date.” This helps me understand it better.
Mrs. Doster: Are you going to take the American History and Art Co-Study next year?
Samantha: Yes.
374
Mrs. Doster: Great. What was a problem for you in Co-Study?
Samantha: The other students…and…I had problems with when we had to do a timeline
because I am kind of a perfectionist and the assignments…I had trouble stopping
drawing. I had to stop drawing and I said, “No, I’m not done yet.”
Mrs. Doster: Oh, the time constraints we were under to get the illustrated timelines
done? Of course, we can always take work home and finish it up. Yeah, there is always
a problem between trying to get all the information we need to cover done in a survey
type course and also, at the same time, trying to do more depth to get more meaning out
of it. There is always a problem there, isn’t there? Given that, how would you improve
Co-Study?
Samantha: I think we need more time for the students…more time for visual learning
instead of trying to jump back and forth between the book and the art because jumping
like that tends to confuse some people and I am one of those people.
Mrs. Doster: What would you have me do differently? Just give more time for projects?
Samantha: Yes, because we have a lot of students that, you know, sit there and plan it
out, think about it, change, and jump back and forth. When it is time to turn in a project,
they are only half-sure what they are doing.
Mrs. Doster: Do you think that if they worked at home on their projects that would be
helpful? Or do they need input the whole time we are doing the project?
Samantha: It would be easier for some if they could go home with it. Some you need to
be over their shoulders the whole time or they won’t do anything.
Mrs. Doster: So what type of student benefits from Co-Study?
Samantha: A visual learner. People who are very visual and like hands-on activities.
Mrs. Doster: What do you think a visual learner is? What does that mean to you?
Samantha: A visual learner learns best from hands-on activities, looking at something
instead of just reading it from a book.
Mrs. Doster: When teachers are lecturing, do you have a problem understanding what
they are saying?
Samantha: Yeah, I’m not a very good audio learner. I tend to zone out a lot unless, you
know, I’m doing something right that moment.
Mrs. Doster: Your attention wanders?
375
Samantha: Yes, I think most teenagers do. We have, technically, the attention span of a
gnat.
Mrs. Doster: Is there anything else you would like to say about Co-Study?
Samantha: I think it is really great and we should have it more often. We should have it
year after year. A lot of students would benefit from it.
Mrs. Doster: What do you think is the best way to get the word out about it? We have
been doing this about five years.
Samantha: Yeah, a lot of students don’t know about it. I guess you just need to make it
more obvious to students…students who don’t generally do well in history classes should
take this class.
Mrs. Doster: So maybe the Guidance people could tell students they have an option of
how to learn history?
Samantha: Yeah, you know, people who like art should be able to know about this
beforehand.
Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you very much Samantha.
Samantha: You’re welcome.
Mrs. Doster: It’s been a good year.
376
APPENDIX C
PRESENT STUDY INTERVIEWS
377
APPENDIX C-1
INTERVIEW GUIDE
INTERVIEW #1: FOCUSED LIFE HISTORY
1.1 Where were you born?
1.2 Where have you lived?
1.3 What grade are you in?
1.4 Characterize yourself as a student.
1.5 What are your favorite subjects?
1.6 What are your least favorite subjects?
1.7 Do you participate in any extracurricular activities?
1.8 Do you have any hobbies, interests, or special talents?
1.9 What is your routine as a student?
1.10 Do you study regularly?
1.11 How do you study?
1.12 Who encourages you to do well in school?
1.13 Who has influenced you the most?
1.14 Have you had any favorite teachers? Why were they your favorite?
1.15 Have you enjoyed school? Elementary? Middle school? High school?
1.16 What would you change about high school?
1.17 Have you taken any art classes? Elementary? Middle school? High school?
1.18 What are your goals after high school?
1.19 What is your GPA?
378
INTERVIEW #2: THE DETAILS OF EXPERIENCE
2.1 Did you elect to take this co-study class or were you placed in it?
2.2 (If applicable) Why did you sign up?
2.3 Has the structure of the class been helpful to you?
2.4 Do the art activities help you to remember better the history?
2.5 Do the art activities help you to understand better the history?
2.6 Which activity stands out in your mind?
2.7 Do you like or dislike the class?
2.8 Tell me what you like about the class.
2.9 Tell me what you dislike about the class.
2.10 Tell me what you would change about the class.
INTERVIEW #3: REFLECTION ON THE MEANING
3.1 Were there any problems for you in American History and Art Co-Study?
3.2 Do you think the Co-Study Curriculum improved your grade?
3.3 Did the Co-Study Curriculum change you as a student?
3.4 What advantages does the Co-Study Curriculum have over a traditional history
class?
3.5 What disadvantages?
3.6 How could it be improved?
3.7 What type of student benefits from the Co-Study Curriculum?
3.8 Has your attitude toward art changed because of American History and Art
Co-Study?
3.9 If so, how?
3.10 Do you plan to take any art classes in the future?
379
APPENDIX C-2
Note: The following is a three interview series with Anna, a student in Doster’s class
INTERVIEW #1 WITH ANNA: FOCUSED LIFE HISTORY
March 4, 2003
Mrs. Doster: Good afternoon, Anna.
Anna: Good afternoon.
Mrs. Doster: How are you?
Anna: I am good.
Mrs. Doster: Where were you born?
Anna: I was born here, in Panama City.
Mrs. Doster: Where have you lived?
Anna: I’ve lived only in Port St. Joe and here.
Mrs. Doster: What grade are you in?
Anna: Eleventh.
Mrs. Doster: Characterize yourself as a student.
Anna: Um…I think I’m an average student and I try to do good work and I try to pass.
Mrs. Doster: What are your favorite subjects?
Anna: I like art and I like sign language.
Mrs. Doster: What are your least favorite subjects?
Anna: Definitely math.
Mrs. Doster: I think I’ve heard that before. Do you participate in any extracurricular
activities?
Anna: Other than work, no.
Mrs. Doster: Where do you work?
380
Anna: At Rodeo’s.
Mrs. Doster: Is that a restaurant?
Anna: Yes, it’s a restaurant.
Mrs. Doster: How many hours a week do you work?
Anna: Oh, probably about 18 or 20.
Mrs. Doster: Does that affect your studies?
Anna: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: I think it would have to. Do you have any hobbies, interests, or special
talents?
Anna: I used to be a cheerleader and I was in chorus for a while but not anything new
lately.
Mrs. Doster: What is your routine as a student?
Anna: I really don’t have a set routine. I try and study before I have tests when I know
about it. I try to get my homework done but not anything routinely.
Mrs. Doster: Do you study right before the test or the night before the test?
Anna: Usually the evening or a couple days before.
Mrs. Doster: Who encourages you to do well in school?
Anna: My parents.
Mrs. Doster: Who has influenced you the most?
Anna: My mom.
Mrs. Doster: What does Mom do?
Anna: She really wants me to do good. She talks to me about it and sets examples and
tries to talk to me about it and get involved with things that I am doing.
Mrs. Doster: Good. Have you had any favorite teachers?
Anna: Yeah, I’ve had a couple. One of my teachers this year teaches sign language.
She is real fun to be around.
381
Mrs. Doster: Any favorite teachers in elementary or middle school? And why favorite?
Anna: I’ve had one or two…in elementary school. We just had a lot of activities to do
and a lot of field trips and fun stuff.
Mrs. Doster: Have you enjoyed school?
Anna: I don’t really enjoy it but it hasn’t been nothing horrible for me.
Mrs. Doster: Was elementary school enjoyable?
Anna: Not really. I never really enjoyed it but it’s not been bad for me.
Mrs. Doster: What about middle school?
Anna: Middle school was okay.
Mrs. Doster: What about high school?
Anna: It’s better in high school.
Mrs. Doster: What would you change about high school?
Anna: I really wouldn’t change anything. I can’t think of anything specific.
Mrs. Doster: Have you taken any art classes?
Anna: The Art 3-D is the only one.
Mrs. Doster: Did you have any art in elementary school?
Anna: Other than basic art you have in classrooms…not nothing extra.
Mrs. Doster: So you did not have an art teacher come by your room. Your classroom
teacher maybe did some art with you.
Anna: Yeah, that was about it.
Mrs. Doster: Were you in Port St. Joe then or Panama City?
Anna: Port St. Joe.
Mrs. Doster: Did you have any art in middle school?
Anna: No.
382
Mrs. Doster: And you’ve had one art class in high school…the one you are taking now?
Anna: Yes.
Mrs. Doster: What are your goals after high school?
Anna: College. I’m definitely going into college. I’m not for sure about what exactly
I’m going to major in or go into…but definitely college.
Mrs. Doster: What is your GPA?
Anna: I believe it is a 2.8, maybe.
Mrs. Doster: Is there anything else you want to add?
Anna: That’s it.
Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you very much.
INTERVIEW #2 WITH ANNA: THE DETAILS OF EXPERIENCE
March 10, 2004
Mrs. Doster: Good afternoon, Anna.
Anna: Good afternoon.
Mrs. Doster: Did you elect to take American History and Art Co-Study or were you
placed in the class?
Anna: I signed up for it.
Mrs. Doster: Why did you sign up?
Anna: Well, I haven’t took any type of class where, you know, it combined art with it
and I didn’t know anyone else that did it too and it just seemed interesting.
Mrs. Doster: Who told you about it?
Anna: Last year, my teacher…my last history teacher.
Mrs. Doster: So your World History teacher told you about it. Has the structure of the
class been helpful to you?
383
Anna: Yes, I think so.
Mrs. Doster: In what way?
Anna: Some of the artwork you have shown us has helped me to remember it and just
different examples, different activities we have done.
Mrs. Doster: Do the art activities help you to remember the history better?
Anna: Yeah, I think so. It gets you the idea about how it was in that time era. So I think
it helps.
Mrs. Doster: Do the art activities help you to understand the history better?
Anna: Yeah…I think so.
Mrs. Doster: Which activity stands out in your mind?
Anna: I think most definitely the art pieces you brought in for us to look at helped a lot.
Mrs. Doster: I showed the slides or the overheads and we used the art criticism method.
And, I think what you’re saying is that it helped you more than the drawing.
Anna: Yeah, definitely, because we talk about it more and we look at someone else’s
instead of trying to make our own.
Mrs. Doster: So, you feel like the Co-Study Curriculum is more effective when you are
looking at art of the time period rather than when you are creating it yourself. Do you
like or dislike the class?
Anna: I like the class.
Mrs. Doster: Tell me what you like about the class.
Anna: I like that we do more activities instead of just reading straight out of the book and
doing worksheets like most history classes. We get to do more activities and more
drawing and stuff like that.
Mrs. Doster: Tell me what you dislike about the class.
Anna: I can’t think of anything that I really dislike about it.
Mrs. Doster: Tell me what you would change about the class.
Anna: I can’t think of anything either that I would change about it.
384
Mrs. Doster: Is there anything else you would like to add?
Anna: No.
Mrs. Doster: Okay, well, thank you very much.
INTERVIEW #3 WITH ANNA: REFLECTION ON THE MEANING
March 12, 2004
Mrs. Doster: Good afternoon, Anna. How are you?
Anna: I’m good.
Mrs. Doster: Were there any problems for you in American History and Art Co-Study?
Anna: Um…personally, I don’t think I studied enough. But as far as like the structure of
the class or anything, I don’t think so.
Mrs. Doster: Do you think the Co-Study Curriculum improved your grade?
Anna: Actually, I think it stayed about the same.
Mrs. Doster: Compared to your history grade from last year.
Anna: Yeah. It’s been about the same.
Mrs. Doster: Did the Co-Study Curriculum change you as a student?
Anna: I don’t think so.
Mrs. Doster: What advantages does the Co-Study Curriculum have over a traditional
history class?
Anna: Well, I think with all of the maps and pictures and stuff you brought in, I think it
makes the work a lot clearer and easier to work on…easier to understand than just from
the book.
Mrs. Doster: What disadvantages are there?
Anna: I can’t really think of any.
Mrs. Doster: How could the Co-Study Curriculum be improved?
385
Anna: Maybe field trips or more hands-on activities.
Mrs. Doster: So, increase the number of projects and field trips are always welcome
Anna: Yeah. I think so.
Mrs. Doster: What type of student benefits from the Co-Study Curriculum?
Anna: I think any student, really, can benefit from it but I think the ones that would be
most interested are ones that are interested in art and can appreciate it more.
Mrs. Doster: So they would have an inclination to do better because they are interested
in art but, even if they weren’t, maybe they could still benefit.
Anna: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: Has your attitude toward art changed because of American History and Art
Co-Study?
Anna: I think so. I think I criticize it more and look at it more deeper than I would
normally. And…I think so…yeah.
Mrs. Doster: So, by criticism you mean the art criticism method that we did?
Anna: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: Do you plan to take any art classes in the future?
Anna: Yeah, I hope so.
Mrs. Doster: Do you have an interest in anything in particular?
Anna: Not in particular, just anything, really.
Mrs. Doster: Is there anything else you would like to add?
Anna: That’s it.
Mrs. Doster: Okay, thank you very much.
386
APPENDIX C-3
Note: The following is a three interview series with David, a student in Warren’s class
INTERVIEW #1 WITH DAVID: FOCUSED LIFE HISTORY
March 4, 2004
Mrs. Doster: Good morning, David.
David: Hey, how are you doing?
Mrs. Doster: I’m fine, thank you. Where were you born?
David: I was born in Sacramento, California.
Mrs. Doster: Where have you lived?
David: I’ve lived in California and I’ve lived in Florida.
Mrs. Doster: Two ends of the continent and nowhere in between?
David: Well, I lived in Alabama for…like for three months but…you know…
Mrs. Doster: That doesn’t count. What grade are you in?
David: I’m in the eleventh grade.
Mrs. Doster: Characterize yourself as a student.
David: I’m a good student. You know, I behave well. I have average grades.
Mrs. Doster: What are your favorite subjects?
David: I like art; I like history; and, I like science.
Mrs. Doster: What are your least favorite subjects?
David: I do not like drafting; I hate math; and, that’s about it.
Mrs. Doster: Do you participate in any extracurricular activities?
David: No.
Mrs. Doster: Do you have any hobbies, interests, or special talents?
387
David: I can…I can draw pretty well and I put together the little plastic model kits, you
know…yeah.
Mrs. Doster: Of what?
David: Of cars.
Mrs. Doster: Are you a mechanic type person?
David: Kind of…something like that.
Mrs. Doster: Do you work on your car at home?
David: Yeah, but I don’t like to because…we have a terrible car.
Mrs. Doster: Do you do anything art wise on it…any painting on it?
David: No…don’t paint the car.
Mrs. Doster: So, you do under the hood only. What is your routine as a student?
David: What do you mean?
Mrs. Doster: When do you study…how often?
David: Oh, I don’t never study. It’s…it’s just not happening.
Mrs. Doster: You do not study?
David: I do not study.
Mrs. Doster: How do you make good grades?
David: Well, if the teacher says you can go ahead and study for five minutes before the
test, I study then. I don’t study at home.
Mrs. Doster: Do you do the work?
David: Oh, yeah, I do just about all of my work.
Mrs. Doster: Do you do any homework?
David: I don’t usually get homework so I don’t do stuff at home.
Mrs. Doster: What about projects?
388
David: I haven’t gotten a project in forever.
Mrs. Doster: So, the projects we’ve done you’ve been able to complete them in class?
David: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: Who encourages you to do well in school?
David: My dad.
Mrs. Doster: Who has influenced you the most?
David: Probably, my dad.
Mrs. Doster: What has he done that…
David: I don’t know…he’s just…
Mrs. Doster: There for you?
David: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: Have you had any favorite teachers?
David: Yeah. I like Mrs. Riviere; I like Mr. Stapleton; and, I like you.
Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you. Why are they your favorite?
David: I don’t know…because they are not too mean to me. They don’t make me do too
much work.
Mrs. Doster: Have you enjoyed school?
David: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: Thinking back…all the way to the beginning. Did you enjoy elementary
school?
David: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: What about middle school?
David: That was all right.
Mrs. Doster: And what about high school?
389
David: I’m having a good time, you know. I’m not failing so everything’s all right.
Mrs. Doster: What would you change about high school?
David: I don’t know…just…nothing.
Mrs. Doster: Have you taken any art classes?
David: I’ve taken Art 2-D; I’ve taken Art 3-D; taken Drawing I; taken Painting.
Mrs. Doster: You’ve taken a lot. You have taken a lot of what we have to offer here.
Did you take any art in elementary school?
David: All the art classes I took was down here. It was at Southport Elementary.
Mrs. Doster: How often did you see an art teacher?
David: I think it was every two days or something.
Mrs. Doster: Did you take any art in middle school?
David: Nope. I don’t think they have any.
Mrs. Doster: What are your goals after high school?
David: I don’t know…become a cop, a fireman…something like that. Something that’s
easy and I get paid a lot.
Mrs. Doster: Do you really think those jobs pay a lot?
David: No, but it’s easy so that’s cool.
Mrs. Doster: How do you know those jobs are easy?
David: They’ve got to be. If I can’t become, you know, one of them, I’ll become like a
drafter or something like that…something that’s easy.
Mrs. Doster: I thought you didn’t like that drafting class.
David: I don’t like drafting but it’s easy. I just don’t like the class, I guess.
Mrs. Doster: What is this fixation with easy?
David: I don’t like things that are hard.
Mrs. Doster: In other words, you want to do things you are suited to do.
390
David: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: When you do something you are suited to do, it’s not hard to do. I think
that is what you are saying. What is your GPA?
David: I think a 2.1.
Mrs. Doster: Is there anything else you want to add?
David: Nope.
Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you very much.
INTERVIEW #2 WITH DAVID: THE DETAILS OF EXPERIENCE
March 10. 2004
Mrs. Doster: Good morning, David.
David: Good morning.
Mrs. Doster: Did you elect to take American History and Art Co-Study or were you
placed in the class?
David: Well, the first year, World History and Art Co-Study, I was placed in it and, then,
in the second year, I signed up for it.
Mrs. Doster: So you elected to take American History and Art Co-Study. Why did you
sign up?
David: Because I liked it the first time.
Mrs. Doster: Has the structure of the class been helpful to you?
David: Yeah, I guess; I’m getting’ an “A” so it’s helping me.
Mrs. Doster: Could you be a little specific? Is there anything in particular?
David: Well, it’s…you know…the art…well, see, I can draw…so when I draw I learn
stuff. So, we did the Battle of Something or Other, I forgot what is was, but we drew
and…I still remember it, so…
Mrs. Doster: But you don’t remember the name of the battle!
391
David: Shiloh…it was Shiloh.
Mrs. Doster: Okay, okay…good, I’m glad you remembered! So, you came to class with
drawing ability and experience and you were able to use it. Do the art activities help you
to remember the history better?
David: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: Do they help you understand it better?
David: I guess…I mean…I don’t know what you mean by that.
Mrs. Doster: Well, recall for a test—to remember a name or a place or a date for a test—
is one thing; to understand a concept is another. For instance, when we were doing the
Civil War Visual Vocabulary and the Reconstruction Visual Concept you had to illustrate
that you understood the meaning of the word or concept.
David: Oh, yeah…okay…yeah, yeah, it does.
Mrs. Doster: Did the art help you then?
David: Yeah, it did…I mean ‘cause it helps you get the concept.
Mrs. Doster: I have noticed that some of the people in my class have trouble thinking of
pictures to illustrate concepts with. So you don’t have any problem with that?
David: No.
Mrs. Doster: Which activity that we did stands out in your mind?
David: Um…well, we’re doing one now about how America isolated themselves. You
know, when we first started out…isolating ourselves and…you know, the Monroe
Doctrine and all that mess. We just…we just, you know, did that and…the Battle of
Shiloh.
Mrs. Doster: So, the foreign policy visual that we’re now completing stands out for you
and the Civil War Visual Vocabulary project.
David: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: Do you like or dislike the class?
David: I like it.
Mrs. Doster: Tell me what you like about it.
392
David: Well, it’s easy to do and…I just…enjoy it.
Mrs. Doster: We’re back to that “easy to do” thing again. In other words, you have the
ability to do it and it flows for you.
David: Yeah, that’s what it is.
Mrs. Doster: We discussed this last time. It is not because it’s easy but that you do well
at it because it…
David: It comes naturally.
Mrs. Doster: Yeah. Tell me what you dislike about it?
David: I don’t know. We work too much.
Mrs. Doster: Maybe I’m wrong about that easy thing! Tell me what you would change
about the class.
David: I don’t know…more presentations…because I’m good at those.
Mrs. Doster: You like to present?
David: Yes.
Mrs. Doster: I think you are in a minority for your age group. I think you do present
well. I enjoyed your presentations…especially when you have a visual to hold up and go
along with it. Any other projects from first semester you particularly enjoyed?
David: You had a picture…I don’t remember the name, what we were doing.
Mrs. Doster: What was the picture?
David: I forgot…I don’t know. I remember the Battle of Shiloh because I did a whole
presentation on it.
Mrs. Doster: Okay. Well, thank you very much.
INTERVIEW #3 WITH DAVID: REFLECTION ON THE MEANING
March 12, 2004
Mrs. Doster: Good morning, David.
393
David: Good morning.
Mrs. Doster: How are you today?
David: I’m all right.
Mrs. Doster: Were there any problems for you in the American History and Art CoStudy class?
David: No, I’ve taken art classes before and I just took to it.
Mrs. Doster: So you did not have any anxiety about having to draw.
David: No.
Mrs. Doster: Have you noticed any others in your class having anxiety about drawing?
David: Only like people who can’t draw. They don’t like doing it because they can’t
draw, you know?
Mrs. Doster: Do you think they just say they can’t draw and they can draw okay or they
really can’t draw?
David: Yeah, they say they can’t draw just so they don’t have to do the work.
Mrs. Doster: As you look around do you see their finished products?
David: Yeah, they are creative. They’re not good looking but they’re creative.
Mrs. Doster: Do you think the Co-Study Curriculum improved your grade?
David: Yeah, because, you know, we do a whole bunch of art projects and I can do it.
So, yeah, it has.
Mrs. Doster: Did the Co-Study Curriculum change you as a student?
David: I had an okay grade in history before. Not really, no.
Mrs. Doster: Does it make you look at things any differently or think differently?
David: Yeah, I mean like we’re doing Edgar Allen Poe in English class. And, you know,
like some of his stories are kind of insane. You can’t really get a good idea of what it
was like so some pictures would help in there. You know, just little stuff.
Mrs. Doster: What advantages does the Co-Study Curriculum have over a traditional
history class?
394
David: Well, instead of like listening to somebody talk, you know give a lecture on
history, or just reading out of the book you are taking part in…in the lesson, you know.
Mrs. Doster: That’s interesting. You feel some ownership in the lesson. What are some
disadvantages?
David: I don’t think there are any. I mean…it’s all good, you know.
Mrs. Doster: How would you improve the Co-Study Curriculum?
David: I don’t know, like…just…the people that didn’t want to be there…if they don’t
like doing it…bye, you know.
Mrs. Doster: They shouldn’t sign up for it or be placed in it. Do you think students
should be asked how they like to learn…listening to lecture, drawing or looking at art,
doing projects…and be placed accordingly?
David: It just kind of brings the whole class down. There’s a bunch of kids, like, that
want to do so but there’s always that three or four that just like, “I don’t want to do
nothing”, you know. They really stand out in this class because everyone takes part in
everything and then you have the ones that don’t do it.
Mrs. Doster: Does that put a damper on things for you?
David: Yeah, it does.
Mrs. Doster: I agree. It does for a teacher, too. When you registered over the last couple
of years, did anyone in Guidance mention to about the Co-Study Curriculum in history?
David: Yeah, it was. They had Art Co-Study and, you know, art and I’m good at it so I
just took it.
Mrs. Doster: But did they explain to you what it was?
David: Yeah, they explained it. You can look at drawings and pictures that were done
during that time period and all that stuff.
Mrs. Doster: What type of student benefits from the Co-Study Curriculum?
David: I guess those that like to express themselves or something, you know.
Mrs. Doster: Has your attitude toward art changed because of the Co-Study Curriculum?
David: Well, no. I mean…not really, you know.
Mrs. Doster: So you came in with a positive attitude toward art and it remains positive.
395
David: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: Do you look at art any differently?
David: Yeah, like I can just notice…like, yeah, we were doing something with people
from way back when and they had big eyes. And they believed the eyes were the
windows of the soul or something like that. I just look at stuff and I think of history, you
know. Because I look at some of the Japanese drawings, Japanese anime, right, and the
eyes are huge and I think of the Sumerians.
Mrs. Doster: So, you’re making connections. That’s interesting. Do you plan to take
any art classes in the future?
David: Yeah, I do. I just can’t take anymore at this school because I’ve taken all of
them.
Mrs. Doster: Art will be a part of your life in the future?
David: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: What do you think you will get into?
David: I just want to learn how to draw cars, you know. I just want to do that really
well.
Mrs. Doster: Do you want to paint or draw?
David: I can draw really well but when I paint it, it all goes downhill from there.
Mrs. Doster: So, you want to stick to drawing and focus on cars. Do you have anything
else you would like to add?
David: No.
Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you for participating in this.
396
APPENDIX C-4
Note: The following is a three interview series with Ernest, a student in Warren’s class
INTERVIEW #1 WITH ERNEST: FOCUSED LIFE HISTORY
March 3, 2004
Mrs. Doster: Good afternoon, how are you?
Ernest: Doin’ O.K.
Mrs. Doster: Ernest, where were you born?
Ernest: Panama City.
Mrs. Doster: And…where have you lived?
Ernest: Panama City.
Mrs. Doster: So, you’ve never lived anywhere else?
Ernest: No m’am.
Mrs. Doster: What grade are you in?
Ernest: The eleventh.
Mrs. Doster: Characterize yourself as a student.
Ernest: A good one.
Mrs. Doster: What do you mean by “a good one”?
Ernest: I guess because I am all around good in most of my classes and stuff like that. I
have like…good habits.
Mrs. Doster: So you do well in class and what else do you do…?
Ernest: Um…I guess I consider myself a normal student. I’m like a little above average
but not totally above average.
Mrs. Doster: What are you favorite subjects?
Ernest: Even though I’m struggling, geometry is my favorite subject.
Mrs. Doster: Really? So, you are a math person?
397
Ernest: Yes m’am.
Mrs. Doster: That’s good! What are your least favorite subjects?
Ernest: Science.
Mrs. Doster: Do you participate in any extracurricular activities?
Ernest: No.
Mrs. Doster: Do you have any hobbies, interests, or special talents?
Ernest: My hobby is like playing basketball. And I am a music type person.
Mrs. Doster: Do you play basketball for Rutherford?
Ernest: No.
Mrs. Doster: Do you just play for fun?
Ernest: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: And what do you mean by music? Do you play an instrument?
Ernest: Yeah, I play the drums…and I make a lot of music for people.
Mrs. Doster: Do they hire you?
Ernest: No, I just do it because they ask.
Mrs. Doster: Do you mean like live music or do you record it?
Ernest: I create the music and then they’ll put words to it.
Mrs. Doster: Are you in the (RHS) band?
Ernest: No.
Mrs. Doster: What is your routine as a student?
Ernest: Study and that’s about it.
Mrs. Doster: When do you study?
Ernest: After school and sometimes before a test.
398
Mrs. Doster: So, when you go home do you study right then?
Ernest: No, I have to wait a little while.
Mrs. Doster: Do you study everyday?
Ernest: No, I don’t study everyday. I study…like whenever we get ready to have a test.
I will study the night before.
Mrs. Doster: So, you plan when you are going to study…or is it haphazard?
Ernest: Yeah…I’m more of a crammer type person.
Mrs. Doster: Oh, you do…you wait until the last minute?
Ernest: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: Do you work outside of school?
Ernest: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: Where do you work?
Ernest: In the mall at Burlington Shoes.
Mrs. Doster: How many hours a week do you work?
Ernest: A little over twenty.
Mrs. Doster: Well, that is a healthy part-time job. Does that detract from your studies?
Ernest: No…’cause I study when I come home.
Mrs. Doster: Do you get home late? What time do they let you off?
Ernest: It is like in between 9:15 and 10:00.
Mrs. Doster: And that is on a school night?
Ernest: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: You come home and you still study?
Ernest: Yeah.
399
Mrs. Doster: Well, good for you. So, to sum it up, you study regularly before tests but
you don’t study a little bit every night. Who encourages you to do well in school?
Ernest: My mom.
Mrs. Doster: So Mom keeps after you. Who has influenced you the most?
Ernest: I’d have to say my cousin…yeah, he has.
Mrs. Doster: Is he older than you?
Ernest: Yeah, he’s twenty.
Mrs. Doster: And how has he influenced you?
Ernest: He has always tried to tell me like right and wrong and stuff like that.
Mrs. Doster: Does he talk to you about school?
Ernest: Yeah, he talks to me about school and about everyday things.
Mrs. Doster: You really look up to him?
Ernest: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: That’s nice. Does he live here in town?
Ernest: Yes, m’am.
Mrs. Doster: Have you had any favorite teachers?
Ernest: My geometry teacher.
Mrs. Doster: Why is that person your favorite?
Ernest: She makes it easy for me to understand what’s going on.
Mrs. Doster: So, you enjoy learning it and she helps you to learn…that’s great. Do you
enjoy school in general?
Ernest: Yeah, for the most part of it.
Mrs. Doster: What about all through…did you like elementary school?
Ernest: Yeah.
400
Mrs. Doster: What about middle school?
Ernest: It was okay. It was not as good. I like high school probably more than all of it.
Mrs. Doster: What would you change about high school?
Ernest: A longer lunch period.
Mrs. Doster: Have you taken any art classes?
Ernest: This year I have.
Mrs. Doster: What are you taking?
Ernest: Art 2-D.
Mrs. Doster: Did you have art in elementary school?
Ernest: I guess that was art.
Mrs. Doster: Did you have someone called an art teacher who came by or was it just
with your classroom teacher?
Ernest: It was an art teacher. We had to paint and stuff like that.
Mrs. Doster: Do you remember how often you did that?
Ernest: I think it was like once every week.
Mrs. Doster: What about middle school?
Ernest: I didn’t have any art in middle school.
Mrs. Doster: So, you had art once a week in elementary school, none in middle school,
and this—Art 2-D—is the first art class you’ve taken in high school?
Ernest: Yes m’am.
Mrs. Doster: Are you enjoying it?
Ernest: Yeah, it’s fun…’course I have a good grade in it. I have an “A”.
Mrs. Doster: What are your goals after high school?
Ernest: To do something in music…hopefully.
401
Mrs. Doster: What about some sort of training after high school?
Ernest: There is a school down in Orlando called Full Sell. I might go there.
Mrs. Doster: A music school?
Ernest: A music production school.
Mrs. Doster: What is your GPA?
Ernest: I’m not sure…I think it is maybe a 2.0…something like that.
Mrs. Doster: Well, Ernest, thank you very much.
Ernest: All right.
INTERVIEW #2 WITH ERNEST: THE DETAILS OF EXPERIENCE
March 4, 2004
Mrs. Doster: Good morning, how are you?
Ernest: I’m doing all right.
Mrs. Doster: Did you elect to take American History and Art Co-Study or were you
placed in the class?
Ernest: I elected to take it.
Mrs. Doster: How did you find out about it?
Ernest: My history teacher. My tenth grade history teacher had told me about it.
Mrs. Doster: Why did you sign up?
Ernest: Because I like pictures. I like seeing stuff in pictures.
Mrs. Doster: Has the structure of the class been helpful to you?
Ernest: Yes.
Mrs. Doster: In what way?
402
Ernest: It like just helps me see what’s going on instead of just having to think it in my
mind. It gives me a better picture.
Mrs. Doster: Do the art activities help you to remember the history better?
Ernest: Yes.
Mrs. Doster: Do the art activities help you to understand the history better?
Ernest: Yeah, a little more...than usual.
Mrs. Doster: So it helps you to remember and helps you, somewhat, to understand.
Ernest: I can…I can remember what the picture looks like then and…then…so I just
adapt to what it is saying…like what the questions are saying.
Mrs. Doster: Of the art activities we did first semester, which one stands out in your
mind?
Ernest: The one where we had to look at the picture and we had to summarize what the
picture was about. I don’t recall the name of it but I remember it was one thing we had to
do. I don’t quite remember. I got a 93 on my…uh… semester exam.
Mrs. Doster: Well, good for you. Do you like or dislike the class?
Ernest: I like it. It’s challenging…interesting.
Mrs. Doster: Tell me what you like about it.
Ernest: I like mainly…I guess ‘cause I like looking at pictures. I guess that’s one reason
why I like it. Because I like seeing stuff more than having to picture it in my mind.
Mrs. Doster: Tell me what you dislike about it.
Ernest: Nothing, really. There is nothing bad about the class.
Mrs. Doster: Tell me what you would change about it.
Ernest: Um…I would say we should be able to use the visuals on the test.
Mrs. Doster: Is there anything else you would like to add?
Ernest: I just like being in class. It’s fun…enjoyable.
Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you very much.
403
INTERVIEW #3: REFLECTION ON THE MEANING
March 12, 2004
Mrs. Doster: Good morning, Ernest. How are you?
Ernest: I’m doing okay.
Mrs. Doster: Are you glad it’s Friday?
Ernest: Yes, I am.
Mrs. Doster: Were there any problems for you in American History and Art Co-Study?
Ernest: No, there wasn’t.
Mrs. Doster: Do you think the Co-Study Curriculum improved your grade?
Ernest: Yeah, it improved it a whole lot.
Mrs. Doster: Why do you think that?
Ernest: Because like before when I was taking history I wasn’t really doing too good. I
had like a “C” average but now this year I have a “B” average.
Mrs. Doster: You took world history last year but it was not a Co-Study Curriculum. So
you enjoy the visuals we use in class?
Ernest: Yes m’am.
Mrs. Doster: And you feel it has improved your grade.
Ernest: Yes m’am.
Mrs. Doster: Did it change you as a student?
Ernest: Well, in somewhat way, it kind of did. I mean…I have better study habits.
Mrs. Doster: What advantages does the Co-Study Curriculum have over a traditional
history class?
Ernest: Um…it gives you a better idea of where the history comes from. You can
actually see what’s going on in the history instead of just having to think it.
Mrs. Doster: What disadvantages does it have?
404
Ernest: It really don’t have…it doesn’t have disadvantages. To me, it’s just better
overall.
Mrs. Doster: How could the Co-Study Curriculum be improved?
Ernest: More visuals and less text.
Mrs. Doster: You are trying to get rid of the textbook, aren’t you?
Ernest: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: I don’t think that is going to happen. We do have to read.
Ernest: Read the pictures.
Mrs. Doster: Yes, we do, don’t we? What type of student benefits from the Co-Study
Curriculum?
Ernest: Um…a student that, you know, does better learning with a visual than just
hearing about something…well, that likes to see what’s going on instead of just hearing.
Mrs. Doster: When did you figure out that you learn better that way?
Ernest: When I got a “B”.
Mrs. Doster: So you learned that this year in American History and Art Co-Study. Has
you attitude toward art changed because of the Co-Study Curriculum?
Ernest: I’ve always liked art and this like made me see...it made me realize how
important art is…to everyone.
Mrs. Doster: Do you plan to take any art classes in the future?
Ernest: Um…I don’t think so because like my career…it doesn’t really have anything to
do with art. But I still like to look at art. I’m not a good art person. I like to look. I’m a
spectator.
Mrs. Doster: You would rather look that do?
Ernest: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: In our last interview when we were discussing the projects, you said you
enjoyed “summarizing what the picture was about.” Did you mean the art criticism that
we did?
Ernest: Yeah, I believe that was it…right there…the art criticism.
405
Mrs. Doster: Half of the projects we did required drawing and the other half required
viewing art. So, you enjoyed the viewing projects better than the drawing projects?
Ernest: Yes m’am. I like looking at the art. It was very nice.
Mrs. Doster: Do you have anything else you would like to add?
Ernest: No.
Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you very much.
406
APPENDIX C-5
Note: The following is a three interview series with James, a student in Doster’s class
INTERVIEW #1 WITH JAMES: FOCUSED LIFE HISTORY
March 4, 2004
Mrs. Doster: Good morning, James.
James: Good morning.
Mrs. Doster: Where were you born?
James: Tampa, Florida.
Mrs. Doster: Where have you lived?
James: Here…and Japan…Washington, that’s about it.
Mrs. Doster: Washington State?
James: Yeah, State.
Mrs. Doster: I guess you are military…Air Force?
James: Yes.
Mrs. Doster: What grade are you in?
James: Eleventh.
Mrs. Doster: Characterize yourself as a student.
James: I think I’m an average person. I don’t know; I do what most kids do as a student.
Mrs. Doster: And what’s that?
James: I’m not like above grade level, but I’m not right on it…I’m not in IB. I
study…every now and then.
Mrs. Doster: What are your favorite subjects?
James: Science, that’s about it.
Mrs. Doster: Any particular area in science?
407
James: No, I just like doing the things in science…anything. It’s pretty fun.
Mrs. Doster: And what are your least favorite subjects?
James: English and math.
Mrs. Doster: Do you participate in any extracurricular activities?
James: Um…soccer.
Mrs. Doster: Are you junior varsity or varsity?
James: Last year I was junior varsity and I didn’t do it this year because I got a job.
I was going to…I didn’t know if I was going to do track.
Mrs. Doster: So your job has taken over?
James: Yes, taken over…
Mrs. Doster: Where do you work?
James: Pizza Hut.
Mrs. Doster: How many hours a week?
James: Uh…right now, it’s 25.
Mrs. Doster: That’s a lot. Does that interfere with your studying?
James: No.
Mrs. Doster: Do you have any hobbies, interests, or special talents?
James: I go skim boarding…about it.
Mrs. Doster: What is your routine as a student?
James: Normally, I just go home, do my homework, and then I leave for work. That’s
about it.
Mrs. Doster: So, you do homework everyday after school?
James: Not everyday. It depends how important it is. Like if I know the stuff or I don’t
think I really need to do it, I won’t do it.
Mrs. Doster: What about studying for tests?
408
James: Um…I try to study but… sometimes I don’t.
Mrs. Doster: So do you study regularly or irregularly?
James: Uh…irregularly.
Mrs. Doster: When you do study, how do you study?
James: Um…I just read over the notes I took. Sometimes I read from the book.
Mrs. Doster: Who encourages you to do well in school?
James: My parents.
Mrs. Doster: Who has influenced you the most?
James: Probably my aunt. Because when she was little they didn’t have a lot of money
and now she is really rich. She’s in the top rich people in America. And she said she
studied. She said she wasn’t the best person in school but she told me her career plan and
how she did it.
Mrs. Doster: She influences you to do well in school?
James: Nah…sort of.
Mrs. Doster: She influences you in other areas of life?
James: Yes, like…like I do well in most areas…like as in workwise. She told me to
work really hard. And right now I’m almost becoming assistant manager at Pizza Hut,
so...
Mrs. Doster: Have you had any favorite teachers?
James: Um…I don’t really know.
Mrs. Doster: Have you enjoyed school?
James: Yeah, I’m not one of those people that hate school. I like going to school
everyday. There is every now and then…I don’t want to come…but yeah.
Mrs. Doster: Have you enjoyed it all along, as in elementary, middle school, and high
school?
James: I didn’t really like middle school that much. Elementary and high school are
pretty good. I don’t know why I didn’t like middle school; I just didn’t.
409
Mrs. Doster: What would you change about high school?
James: Uh…I don’t really like the electives they have. I don’t know which ones I would
like to take but it seems like every time I try to take one it’s either filled up or all they
have is gym classes left.
Mrs. Doster: So, not enough to choose from?
James: Yeah, there are not a lot of them I would take.
Mrs. Doster: Have you taken any art classes?
James: Yeah, I’m taking one right now.
Mrs. Doster: Oh, that’s right. You are in my Art 3-D class. Have you taken any other
art classes during high school?
James: No, I haven’t. I took some in elementary.
Mrs. Doster: Where were you living during your elementary school years?
James: I was living here. Then I moved to Japan; that’s when I was taking art, though.
Mrs. Doster: Here, during elementary, did you have an art teacher?
James: Yes…I don’t know what her name was.
Mrs. Doster: How often did you see the art teacher?
James: Everyday. They made us go everyday.
Mrs. Doster: Did you take art in middle school?
James: No.
Mrs. Doster: Have you had any other art classes in high school besides the one, Art 3-D,
that you are taking with me now?
James: No.
Mrs. Doster: What are your goals after high school?
James: Um…right now I’m taking an engineering class and then I’m going to go into the
military and while I’m there I’ll be going to college. And I think they help out with
college so I’m going to take engineering classes in college, too. I want to be an officer.
410
Mrs. Doster: Are you going to apply for an ROTC scholarship for them to send you to
college first and then go in and pay back? Or do you want to join immediately after high
school?
James: I don’t think I want to join right after high school. I was thinking about going to
college first.
Mrs. Doster: Are you in ROTC?
James: No.
Mrs. Doster: Have you ever been in?
James: No.
Mrs. Doster: It doesn’t matter. You can still apply for a scholarship. It depends on what
the military needs. If you want to study something that they need, they will consider you
for a scholarship. They look at your grades and their needs and decide whether or not to
offer you a scholarship…full or partial.
James: Really, I didn’t know that. My dad has been in for almost twenty years. He is
not an officer.
Mrs. Doster: What is your GPA?
James: 3.0.
Mrs. Doster: Do you have anything else you would like to add?
James: No.
Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you very much, James.
INTERVIEW #2 WITH JAMES: THE DETAILS OF EXPERIENCE
March 5, 2004
Mrs. Doster: Good morning, James.
James: Good morning.
Mrs. Doster: Did you elect to take American History and Art Co-Study or were you
placed in the class?
411
James: I elected it.
Mrs. Doster: Why did you sign up?
James: I had World History and Art Co-Study with you last year.
Mrs. Doster: Has the structure of the class been helpful to you?
James: Yes.
Mrs. Doster: In what way?
James: Um…just all the art and stuff we do helps me to learn it a lot better.
Mrs. Doster: Do you know why?
James: Yeah…like normally when I see something…um…it just helps me to learn it. If
I like read it I’m not going to know what I am reading or I can’t get a picture of it in my
head and I don’t know what it looks like.
Mrs. Doster: So, the art activities help you to remember the history better?
James: Yes.
Mrs. Doster: Does it help you understand it better?
James: At a point. There are sometimes…like…I don’t know what I am doing…no
matter what. But most of the activities, they help me.
Mrs. Doster: So they definitely help you to remember and they help you to understand to
a point. Which activity we did this year stands out in your mind?
James: I think the one that really stands out is the one where we had to make a tree with
the branches.
Mrs. Doster: I remember your Constitutional Tree.
James: Yes, my tree was excellent.
Mrs. Doster: Yes, it was. Overall, do you like or dislike the class?
James: I like it.
Mrs. Doster: Tell me what you like about it.
412
James: I like how we get to discuss everything. We look at stuff on the overhead and,
then, everybody gets to put in their opinion on what they think it is.
Mrs. Doster: Tell me what you dislike about the class.
James: Um…there’s not really a lot I dislike about it. I can’t really think of anything off
the top of my head.
Mrs. Doster: Well, then tell me what you would change about the class.
James: Um…um…I don’t know. We could maybe do something with the vocab.
Because I know a lot of people are lazy like me and they don’t do the vocab. Maybe…I
don’t know…I don’t know if we could do anything about that or not.
Mrs. Doster: Well, you know, we did the Civil War Visual Vocabulary. Did you find
that helpful?
James: Yeah, I liked that where we made the path leading to Civil War.
Mrs. Doster: The Road to War…yeah, that we visualized in a timeline and a path with
vocabulary words and illustrations.
James: Since we had to visualize it, it made me want to do it. So it made me learn a lot
more.
Mrs. Doster: What about the next project—the Civil War Visual Vocabulary—where
you had to take one vocabulary word, illustrate it, and then stand up in front of the class
and explain it?
James: Yeah…and then…and then I pay attention when people are up there and talking
about it. So I have my vocab list out and I’ll just jot down notes of what they are saying.
It’s a lot easier.
Mrs. Doster: So that was helpful to you?
James: It was.
Mrs. Doster: Then we, essentially, did the same thing with Reconstruction. Instead of a
vocabulary word we did a vocabulary concept, like Lincoln’s 10% Plan, which had to be
illustrated and explained to the class. Was that helpful, too?
James: Yeah.
Mrs. Doster: Vocabulary is a stumbling block for you in history?
James: Yeah.
413
Mrs. Doster: And we have a lot of it. I was wondering if there was a connection between
taking the World History and Art Co-Study last year and signing up for Art 3-D this
year?
James: I decided because I like doing things hands-on and there are not a lot of classes
where you can do that so I picked Art 3-D. I was going to take drawing but Art 3-D
sounded more interesting.
Mrs. Doster: Did taking World History and Art Co-Study last year influence you to take
an art class this year?
James: It probably did influence me. I like doing all the drawing pictures and stuff.
Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you, James.
James: You’re welcome.
INTERVIEW #3 WITH JAMES: REFLECTION ON THE MEANING
March 10, 2004
Mrs. Doster: Good morning, James.
James: Good morning.
Mrs. Doster: I was reading over our last two interviews and I had a couple of questions.
During the first interview, you said that during your elementary years you saw the art
teacher everyday at school. Where did you go to elementary school?
James: Callaway, Tyndall, and Solars Elementary was…which was in Japan.
Mrs. Doster: At which of those schools did you see an art teacher?
James: Japan.
Mrs. Doster: Did you have an art teacher at either of the other two schools?
James: I may have in Callaway but I’m not really sure about that. I just remember the
Japan one really well.
Mrs. Doster: And you saw the art teacher everyday?
James: Yeah.
414
Mrs. Doster: Do you remember what you did?
James: We did little paintings and we made magnets. My mom still has one of those that
I made…from a long time ago.
Mrs. Doster: Was it a Japanese person teaching or an American?
James: It was an American school. It was on base.
Mrs. Doster: I didn’t know if they brought in any Japanese art teachers for the school.
James: Um…they had….um…they had a cultural class and we did art in there
sometimes. But we didn’t really just do art the whole time.
Mrs. Doster: What type of art activities did you do in the cultural class?
James: Origami and calligraphy with a brush and ink. It was kind of hard.
Mrs. Doster: How old were you in Japan?
James: Seven or eight up to ten then we moved back here. I went to Callaway, then we
moved to Japan, and then we came back here…when I went to Tyndall because we were
living on base.
Mrs. Doster: Another question I had was during the second interview when you said that
you enjoyed looking at “stuff on the overhead” and talking about it. I wasn’t sure what
you were referring to in that remark. Could you clarify that for me?
James: Um…yes…I was talking about when you like put a picture on the overhead and
everybody gets to guess what it was or say what they think it is.
Mrs. Doster: So, when we were doing art criticism…reacting, describing, interpreting,
and judging. You enjoyed that? You found it helpful?
James: Yeah, because...I don’t know…a lot of times if I just look at it I’m not going to
know what it is and when everybody is saying what they think it is I get better ideas.
Mrs. Doster: Were there any problems for you in American History and Art Co-Study?
James: No, not really.
Mrs. Doster: Do you think the Co-Study Curriculum improved your grade?
James: Um…probably if I was in a normal history class it would be down but I haven’t
been in a normal one in high school yet. I didn’t take it in ninth grade.
415
Mrs. Doster: That’s a good point. When you were in ninth grade, history was not
required as it is now. In tenth grade, you took a Co-Study Curriculum as well as this
year. Did you take history in middle school?
James: Yes, in middle school I did and it was a lot more difficult just ‘cause we didn’t
have pictures. We just went from the textbook.
Mrs. Doster: Did the Co-Study Curriculum change you as a student?
James: Um…no, not really.
Mrs. Doster: Did it make you do anything differently in the way you study, or how you
study, or how you look at things?
James: Well, it made me want to do more of the projects and stuff. And, every time we
got one of those I felt like…I don’t know…I felt better…like happier. I don’t know…I
got excited.
Mrs. Doster: Well, good! So, it felt good to complete a project?
James: Yeah, because we don’t really do many of those in high school.
Mrs. Doster: So, in most of your classes you’re not doing many projects?
James: Yeah, we just do textbook stuff and after a while that gets boring…like the same
old thing everyday.
Mrs. Doster: What advantages does the Co-Study Curriculum have over a traditional
history class?
James: In the traditional one, I’m guessing just from my middle school years, that they
just read out of the textbook and go home and study and they don’t have any visual art to
learn. And…um…when I see the art I can actually put it in my head and know what
happened. In the other history classes you just have numbers thrown in your head and
you don’t know where they go or…
Mrs. Doster: What disadvantages are there to the Co-Study Curriculum?
James: I don’t know if there are any disadvantages…not any that I can think of. It is a
pretty good class.
Mrs. Doster: How could it be improved?
James: I don’t know. I have said this before…just the vocab.
416
Mrs. Doster: Yeah, when I graded those notebooks the other day, I realized how few
students were completing the vocab.
James: I did the vocab this time.
Mrs. Doster: What type of student benefits from the Co-Study Curriculum?
James: Um…probably the student that actually likes to see things. I know there are
some students…they don’t…they don’t care for art and they would rather do everything
out of the book. It’s easier to them. Some people like to actually see it. I guess those
students.
Mrs. Doster: You know, there is a name for that. It is called a learning style, a
preference for learning. Some people prefer just to read a book and others prefer to see
it…visual learning. Has your attitude toward art changed because of the Co-Study
Curriculum?
James: Well, it made me appreciate it a lot more because I didn’t know it could be used
to teach. I knew people did art and stuff and sometimes I draw pictures but I never knew
it would like help or anything.
Mrs. Doster: You never knew it could be useful in other ways?
James: Yeah, I didn’t know it helped a lot in history and probably in other classes but
they don’t ever use it.
Mrs. Doster: So, does it make you think that art is something that everybody can do or is
it just for the talented ones?
James: Well, I know that everybody can do it. I mean…it’s just that…I mean you can
draw little stick figures or whatever and label them and you can know what it is.
Everybody can do it. There are more people that prefer to do it. I think they should do it.
Mrs. Doster: Do you plan to take any art classes in the future?
James: Well, I’m taking one right now and…uh… next year I don’t think I’m taking any
but I walked into the Greek mythology class and I’m taking that and they do a lot of
crazy things in there…like a lot of art. I’ve seen masks of people with their eyes bleeding
and I don’t know, it’s just a lot of crazy things.
Mrs. Doster: Well, the mask making skill that you learned in Art 3-D will help you in
that class.
James: Some people used the papier-mâché and I’m pretty sure they were in Art 3-D
before.
417
Mrs. Doster: Is there anything else you would like to add?
James: Not really.
Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you very much.
James: You’re welcome.
418
APPENDIX D
STUDY APPROVAL FORMS
419
APPENDIX D-1
420
APPENDIX D-2
421
APPEN
422
APPENDIX D-3
423
APPENDIX D-4
424
APPENDIX E
CONTACT & FEEDBACK INFORMATION
425
APPENDIX E-1
This appendix provides information for those individuals who wish to ask
questions or provide feedback regarding their development or use of the Co-Study
Curriculum process in classroom instruction or professional activities. My contact
information is:
Mail: Jennifer R. J. Doster
Rutherford High School
1000 School Avenue
Panama City, FL 32401
Email: [email protected]
426
REFERENCES
Addiss, S. & Erickson, M. (1993). Art history and education. Chicago: University of
Illinois Press.
American history transparencies. (1991). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
American history visual resources. (1995). Austin, TX: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Anderson, T. (2000). Real lives: Art teachers and the cultures of schools. Portsmouth,
NH: Heinemann.
Anderson, T. (1997). A model for art criticism: Talking with kids about art. School
Arts, September, 1997.
Anderson, T. & Milbrandt, M. (2005). Art for life: A framework and strategies for
authentic instruction in art. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Anderson, T. & Taylors, J. (Eds.). (1993). Multicultural arts education: Guidelines,
instructional units, and resources for art, music, dance, and theater, grades K-12.
Tallahassee, FL: Florida Department of Education.
Applefield, J., Huber, R., & Moallem, M. (2000). Constructivism in theory and practice:
Toward a better understanding. The High School Journal. Vol. 84, No. 2,
Dec. 2000/Jan. 2001, pp. 35-53 [Online]. Available http://firstsearch.oclc.org
[2001, June 2].
Artsedge (2003). [Online]. Available: http://www.artsedge.kennedy-center.org
[2003, June 19].
Arts education for a changing world. (2001). In Getty ArtsEdNet [Online]. Available:
http://www.artsednet.getty.edu/ArtsEdNet/Read/Life/changing.html
[2001, June 27].
Beane, J. (1992). Creating an integrative curriculum: Making the connections.
Bulletin: National Association of Secondary School Principals. November, 1992,
pp.46-54. Reston, VA: National Association of Secondary School Principles.
Behaviorism and constructivism. (1999). In University of Utah [Online]. Available:
http://www.gse.utah.edu [2001, April 9].
427
Beyond the three Rs: Student achievement through the arts (2001). In Getty ArtsEdNet
[Online]. Available: http://www.artsednet.getty.edu/ArtEdNet/Read/beyond.html
[2001, June 27].
Bigge, M. & Shermis, S. (1999). Learning theories for teachers. New York: Addison
Wesley Longman, Inc.
Brown, M. & Korzenik, D. (1993). Art making and education. Chicago: University of
Illinois Press.
Bruner, J. (1960). The process of education. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Burton, J., Horowitz, R. & Abeles, H. (2000). Learning in and through the arts: The
question of transfer. Studies in Art Education. Vol. 41 (3), pp. 228-257, 2000.
Reston, VA: National Art Education Association.
Butler, D. (1968). Four philosophies and their practice in education and religion.
New York: Harper and Row.
Cahn, S. (1977). New studies in the philosophy of John Dewey. Hanover, NH:
The University Press of New England.
Caine, R. & Caine, G. (1994). Making connections: Teaching and the human brain.
New York: Addison-Wesley.
Clark, G. (1985). Integrated art education. Art Education. Vol. 38 (6), p. 4, 1985.
Reston, VA: National Art Education Association.
Colburn, A. (2000). Constructivism: Science education's "grand unifying theory".
The Clearing House. Vol. 74, No. 1, Sept./Oct. 2000, pp. 9-12 [Online].
Available http://firstsearch.oclc.org [2001, June 2].
Cuban, L. (1993). How teachers taught: Constancy and change in American
classrooms, 1890-1990. New York: Teachers College Press.
Czerniak, C., Weber, W., Jr. & Sandmann, A. (1999). A literature review of science and
mathematics integration. School Science and Mathematics. Vol. 99, No. 8,
Dec. 1999, pp. 421-430 [Online]. Available://firstsearch.oclc.org [2001, June 20].
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Dewey, J. (1934). Art as experience. New York: Perigee Books.
Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of
education. New York: The Free Press.
428
Dewey, J. (1910). How we think. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications.
DiPaolo, C. (1985). Teaching for wholeness. Virginia Beach, VA: A.R.E. Press.
Dobbs, S. (1998). Learning in and through art: A guide to Discipline-Based Art
Education [Online]. Available: http://www.artsednet.getty.edu/ArtsEdNet/
Read/Liata.html [2001, June 27].
Doll, R. (1982). Curriculum improvement: Decision making and process. Boston:
Allyn and Bacon.
Doster, H. (1991). Expert learning system. Unpublished manuscript, IPANAgroup.com,
Panama City, FL.
Doster, H. (2003). “Working with and through others to identify
and achieve common goals”. Leaderistics. [Online]. Available:
http://www.Leaderistics.com. [2003, January 1].
Doster, J. (2001). Integrated curriculum and art education. Educational Resources
Information Center (ERIC). Specialist thesis, The Florida State University,
Tallahassee, FL.
Doster, J. & Warren, J. (2000). Co-study program report. Panama City, FL: Rutherford
High School.
Doster, J. & Warren, J. (1999). Co-study program report. Panama City, FL: Rutherford
High School.
Double, R. (1999). Beginning philosophy. New York: Oxford University Press.
Drake, S. (1993). Planning Integrated Curriculum. Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Driscoll, M. (2000). Psychology of learning for instruction. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Easton, F. (1997). Educating the whole child, "head, heart, and hands": Learning from
the Waldorf experience. Theory into Practice. Vol. 36, Spring 1997, pp. 87-94
[Online]. Available: http://newfirstsearch.altip.oclc.org [2001, February 22].
Edens, K. & Potter, E. (2001). Promoting conceptual understanding through pictorial
representation. Studies in Art Education. Vol. 42 (3), pp. 214-233, 2001.
Reston, VA: National Art Education Association.
Edwards, B. (1986). Drawing on the artist within: An inspirational and practical guide
to increasing your creative powers. New York: Simon and Schuster.
429
Efland, A. (2002). Art and cognition: Integrating the visual arts in the curriculum.
New York: Teachers College Press and Reston, VA: National Art Education
Association.
Eisner, E. (2002). The arts and the creation of mind. New Haven: Yale University
Press.
Eisner, E. (2001). Educating for tomorrow's jobs and life skills [Online]. Available:
http://www.artsednet.getty.edu/ArtsEdNet/Read/Life/skills.html [2001, June 27].
Eisner, E. (1998). The enlightened eye: Qualitative inquiry and the enhancement of
educational practice. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Eisner, E. (1994). The educational imagination: On the design and evaluation of
school programs. New York: Macmillan College Publishing Company.
Ellis, A., Cogan, J. & Howey, K. (1981). Introduction to the foundations of education.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Emerson, R., Fretz, R. & Shaw, L. (1995). Writing ethnographic fieldnotes. Chicago:
The University of Chicago Press.
Feldman, A. (2003). An existential approach to science teaching and learning [Online].
Available: http://www-unix.oit.umass.edu [2003, December 6].
Fishman, S. & McCarthy, L. (1998). John Dewey and the challenge of classroom
practice. New York: Teachers College Press.
Florida Department of Education. (1997). Connections: A curriculum system for school
restructuring. Tallahassee, FL.
Florida Department of Education. (1996). Florida curriculum framework: The arts.
Tallahassee, FL.
Fowler, C. (2001). Strong arts, strong schools. In Getty ArtsEdNet [Online]. Available:
http://www.artsednet.getty.edu/ArtsEdNet/Read/strong.html [2001, June 27].
Frankfort-Nachmias, C. & Nachmias, D. (1992). Research methods in the social
sciences. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Freyberger, R. (1985). Integration: Friend or foe of art education. Art Education.
Vol. 38 (6), pp. 6-9, 1985. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association.
Gardner, H. (1994). The arts and human development. New York: Basic Books.
430
Gardner, H. (1990). Art education and human development. Los Angeles: The Getty
Education Institute for the Arts.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York:
Basic Books.
Gardner, H. (1982). Art, mind, & brain: A cognitive approach to creativity. New York:
Basic Books.
Gruber, F. (1973). Historical and contemporary philosophies of education. New York:
Thomas Y. Crowell Co.
Gutek, G. (1988). Philosophical and ideological perspectives on education. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hendley, B. (1986). Dewey, Russell, Whitehead: Philosophers as educators.
Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press.
Hillway, T. (1964). Introduction to research. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Hwang, Dae-Yeop & Henson, R. (2002). A critical view of the literature on Kolb’s
Learning Style Inventory with implications for score reliability. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED 466 696).
Jackson, P. (1998). John Dewey and the lessons of art. New Haven: Yale University
Press.
Jacobs, H. (Ed.). (1989). Interdisciplinary Curriculum: Design and Implementation.
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Johnson, A. (1962). Whitehead's philosophy of civilization. New York: Dover
Publications.
Kasschau, R. (2001). Understanding psychology . Columbus, Ohio: McGraw-Hill.
Kattsoff, L. (1953). Elements of philosophy. New York: The Ronald Press
Kemmis, S. & McTaggart, R. (2000). In Denzin, N. & Lincoln, Y. (Eds.). (2000).
Handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Kolesnik, W. (1976). Learning: Educational applications. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Kovalik, S. & Olsen, K. (1994). ITI: The model: Integrated thematic instruction. Kent,
WA: Books for Educators, Inc.
431
Kunhardt, D. & Kunhardt, P. Jr. (Eds.). (1977). Matthew Brady and his world.
Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books.
Lake, K. (1994). Integrated curriculum [Online]. In School Improvement Research
Series (SIRS), Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. Available:
http://www.nmrel.org [2001, April 22].
Leedy, P. & Ormrod, J. (2001). Practical research: Planning and design. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Lefrancois, G. (1972). Psychological theories and human learning: Kongor's report.
Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.
Lindgren, H. (1980). Educational psychology in the classroom. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Linskie, R. (1977). The learning process: theory and practice. New York:
D. Van Nostrand Co.
Lowenfeld, V. & Brittain, L. (1987). Creative and mental growth. New York:
Macmillan.
Luftig, R. (2000). An investigation of an arts infusion program on creative thinking,
academic achievement, affective functioning, and arts appreciation of children at
three grade levels. Studies in Art Education. Vol. 41 (3), pp. 208-227, 2000.
Reston, VA: National Art Education Association.
Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary. (10th ed.). (1993). Springfield, MA:
Merriam-Webster.
Mildbrandt, M. (1996). An authentic instructional model for fifth grade art using
postmodern content. Doctoral dissertation, Florida State University,
Tallahassee, FL.
Miller, P. (2001). Learning styles: The multimedia of the mind. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED 451 140).
Oliva, P. (1982). Developing the curriculum. Boston: Little, Brown, and Co.
Oliver, A. (1977). Curriculum improvement: A guide to problems, principles, and
process. New York: Harper and Row.
Ornstein, A. (1977). An introduction to the foundations of education. Chicago:
Rand McNally College Publishing Company.
432
Parsons, M. (2000). Editorial: The arts and other subjects. Studies in Art Education.
Vol. 41 (3), 2000. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association.
Parsons, M. (1998). Integrated Curriculum and Our Paradigm of Cognition in the Arts.
Studies in Art Education. Vol. 39 (2), pp. 103-116, 1998. Reston, VA:
National Art Education Association.
Phelps, M. (1997). Teaching history through fine art. United States History.
Chicago, IL: West.
Plotnik, R. (1999). Introduction to psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth
Publishing Co.
Preston, J. (1996). Cognitive processing of visual and verbal stimuli. Paper
presented at the Meeting of the International Communication Association.
Chicago, Illinois.
Price, K. (1963). Education and philosophical thought. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Rettig, P. & Rettig, J. Linking brain research to art. Art education. Vol. 52 (6),
Nov. 1999, pp. 19-24. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association.
SACS Report, Rutherford School Improvement Plan, 1994-95. (1995). Panama City,
FL: Rutherfrod High School.
Sagor, R. (1992). How to conduct collaborative action research. Alexandria, VA:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Sahakian, W. (1968). History of philosophy: From the earliest times to the present.
New York: Barnes and Noble.
Schiller, M. (1995). Reggio Emilia: A Focus on emergent curriculum and art.
Art Education. Vol. 48 (3), May 1995, pp. 45-50. Reston, VA: National Art
Education Association.
Schmoker, M & Wilson, R. (1993). Total quality education: Profiles of schools that
demonstrate the power of Deming’s management principles. Bloomington,
Indiana: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.
Scholl, A. (1992). United States history and art. Westerville, OH: Glencoe.
Schramm, S. (2000). Genetic Robots: An integrated art and biology curriculum.
Art Education. May, 2000.
Seidman, I. (1998). Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers
in education and the social sciences. New York: Teachers College Press.
433
Shanahan, T., Robinson, B. & Schneider, M. (1995). Avoiding some pitfalls of
Thematic units. The Reading Teacher. Vol. 48 (8), pp. 718-719, 1995.
International Reading Association.
Silver, R. (2000). Developing cognitive and creative skills through art: Programs for
children with communication disorders or learning disabilities. Lincoln, NE:
iUniverse.com, Inc.
Stell, M. (1981). A descriptive survey of attitudes toward art classes. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED 391 764).
Stumpf, S. (1966). Socrates to Sartre: A history of philosophy. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Success=technology, education, & the arts (2001). In Getty ArtsEdNet [Online].
Available: http://www.artsednet.getty.edu/ArtsEdNet/Read/success.html
[2001, June 27].
Sur, M. & Thomson, E. (1996). Brain processing of visual information.
MIT News—MIT Research. December 19, 1996 [Online]. Available http://
web.mit.edu/newsoffice/nr/1996/43144.html [2003, October 21].
Synder, S. (2001). Connection, correlation, and integration. Music Educators Journal.
Vol. 87 (5), March 2001. [Online]. Available: http://firstsearch.oclc.org
[2001, June 20].
Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and practice. New York:
Harcourt, Brace and World.
The spirit of American art and music. (1996). Glencoe social studies teaching aids.
Westerville, OH: Glencoe.
Thilly, F. (1957). A history of philosophy. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Thomas, R. (1992). Art Education: Program Evaluation Report. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED 357 057).
Tranquilli, P. (1999). Improving student attitudes through increased confidence
and accountability in art. Master’s Action Research Project. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED 438 229).
Ulich, R. (1961). Philosophy of education. New York: American Book Co.
Unit digest transparencies: Strategies and activities. (1992). History of a free nation.
Westerville, OH: Glencoe.
434
What kinds of jobs? What kind of skills? (2001). In Getty ArtsEdNet [Online].
Available: http://www.artsednet.getty.edu/ArtsEdNet/Read/Life/kind.html
[2001, June 27].
Whitehead, A. (1929). The aims of education and other essays. New York: Macmillan.
435
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Jennifer Ruth Jones Doster, a native Floridian, earned a BA (1970) and MA
(1971) in International Affairs from Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida. For
the next two decades, she, along with her husband, owned and operated three retail stores
in Florida, while raising their three children. After leaving the business world, she
returned to Florida State University and earned a BS in Social Studies Education (1994).
She was hired as an art teacher and, subsequently, became certified in the field of art
education. Her first teaching position was at West Bay Elementary School where she
was awarded Teacher of the Year in 1994-95. She furthered her education by earning a
Specialist in Art Education (2001) at Florida State University.
Ms. Doster is presently teaching at Rutherford High School in Panama City,
Florida. She divides her time between the Social Studies and Art Departments. Along
with Ms. Jean Warren, they have been able to utilize the Co-Study Curriculum process
within two of the school’s course offerings—American History and Art Co-Study and
World History and Art Co-Study. Ms. Doster holds Florida certifications in both Art (K12) and Social Studies (9-12).
436