ADDRESSING THE SHAME OF HIGHER EDUCATION Programs that support college enrollment and retention of African‐American males Pamela Ellis on behalf of Level Playing Field Institute September 2004 543 Howard Street, 5th floor San Francisco, CA 94105
T 415-946-3030 F 415-946-3001 WWW.LPFI.ORG
Addressing the Shame i Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................................ii
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 1
Why focus on African‐American males? ................................................................................................ 2
What research says..................................................................................................................................... 4
Study Methods ........................................................................................................................................... 9
Intervention Programs ............................................................................................................................ 11
Black Male Leadership Symposium........................................................................................................ 13
Minority Achievement Committee (MAC)............................................................................................ 15
Project: Gentlemen on the Move ............................................................................................................ 17
Young Leaders’ Academy ....................................................................................................................... 19
Recommendations.................................................................................................................................... 21
References ................................................................................................................................................. 24
Appendix A: Summary of Programs for African‐American Males ................................................A‐1
Appendix B: Additional Programs that Support all African‐American Students ........................ B‐1
Appendix C: Networking Opportunities for LPFI ............................................................................C‐1
About the Author...................................................................................................................................D‐1
Level Playing Field Institute www.lpfi.org Addressing the Shame ii Abstract College enrollment and retention of African‐American males is in crisis. Strategies and solutions to these challenges require the collaborative efforts of students, family, community, philanthropic leaders, and corporations. Intervention programs that target this specific population are an important supplement to the education of African‐American males. This paper reports on the intervention programs in existence to increase their academic achievement. This paper offers a framework and some illustrative examples for understanding how programs respond to the challenges of educating African‐American males. There are specific recommendations for funders and policymakers who aim to create anew or support existing programs in these efforts. Level Playing Field Institute www.lpfi.org Addressing the Shame 1 ʺOur progress as a nation can be no swifter than our progress in education. The human mind is our fundamental resource.ʺ John F. Kennedy Introduction The president of Teachers College at Columbia University, Arthur Levine, referred to the low enrollment and graduation rates of African‐American males in America as the “shame of higher education”. In the world’s wealthiest country where an increasing number of students pursue postsecondary education and educational attainment has increased among the adult population, it really is a shame that African‐American males cluster at the bottom of almost every academic performance indicator. In 2000‐2001, African‐American males represented 8.6% of the national public school population, but comprised a disproportionate number of those placed in special education, suspended, and/or expelled. Even class privilege fails to inoculate African‐American males from low academic performance. Middle class African‐American males lag significantly behind White peers on grade point average and standardized tests (Jencks & Phillips, 1998; Noguera, 2003). This paper aims to serve the Level Playing Field Institute as it seeks to promote innovative approaches that remove barriers of higher education participation for African‐
American males. This report is an important addition to previous literature because very little research has compiled the strategies and solutions of interventions focused on college enrollment and retention of African‐American males. Three questions guide this research and my approach: •
What does current research say about meeting the academic achievement needs of African‐American males? •
Addressing the Shame 2 What existing programs are seeking to expand college enrollment for African‐
American males? •
What outreach and retention programs exist to support African‐American males during their college years, potentially increasing the rate of college graduation? Based on interviews and other qualitative data, I argue that well‐committed interventions targeting high risk youth can help stem the decline in college enrollment and completion of African‐American males. I rely on social science literature for elements of a conceptual framework but do not formulate or test hypotheses. Interviews and other qualitative data were gathered to learn about ideas and practices of programs that target African‐American males. While this paper is primarily about ideas and practices that seem to work, formal evaluations are still needed to carefully measure the impact of these programs. This report describes the strategies of four varied programs that specifically target the college enrollment and/or retention of African‐American males. While the examples and concerns of this report focus on African‐American males, some of the interventions can be applied to African‐American females and to other racial and ethnic groups as well. In closing, I offer practical recommendations for funders and policymakers. Why focus on African‐American males? Improving the status of all underrepresented youth, particularly African‐American males, is an economic, civic, and social imperative. Taking into account the costs to society of dropping out of school, potentially using drugs, or potentially becoming involved in the Addressing the Shame 3 criminal justice system, the estimated monetary value of saving a high risk youth ranges from $1.9 to $2.7 million dollars (Cohen, 1995). If indeed, Black males are more likely to be part of this high‐risk group, then there are significant economic benefits to programs that support these youth. The National Council on Education and the National Urban League both maintain that involving African American males in the higher education system is critical to reversing economic trends for our society (Polite & Davis, 1999). This report recognizes that high school graduation is no longer acceptable as a terminal credential and college completion is just as important as college enrollment. There must also be equity in the college pipeline so it is important that support systems function to improve the achievement of those students at most risk of failing, particularly African‐American males. According to a report by the American Council on Education, only 25% of the nearly two million African‐American men ages 18‐24 were enrolled in college in 2000. Women outnumber men at most colleges, however the gender gap among African American students is even wider. The dismal college graduation rate of African‐American males is a crisis throughout our nation. According to a recent report from the Civil Rights Project and the Urban Institute (Orfield et al., 2004), graduation rates for African‐American students is 23%. Table 1 shows that graduation rates for African‐American males in several states is lower than the rates for African‐American students overall. When looking at statistics across states, six‐year graduation rates for African‐American males in NCAA Div 1 schools was 35%, as compared to 46% for AA females and Latino males, 41% for Native American males and 59% for White males. Addressing the Shame 4 Table 1 Graduation rates for African‐American students overall and males in selected states Graduation Rates (2001) Alabama All African‐American Students 54.0 African‐American Males 45.0 California 55.3 49.2 (6.1) Colorado 49.0 33.8 (15.2) Illinois 47.8 40.8 (7.0) Mississippi 52.6 42.5 (10.1) Missouri 52.3 43.8 (8.3) New York 35.1 29.6 (5.5) North Carolina 53.6 44.9 (8.7) Ohio 39.6 32.4 (7.2) Texas 55.3 48.2 (7.1) National Average 50.2 42.8 Difference (9.0) Note. African‐American students represented 17% of all public school students, nationally. What research says Three areas of research were examined to understand the implications for programmatic strategies to support African‐American males. Understanding whether African‐American males even value or have an interest in college is an important first step before considering Addressing the Shame 5 interventions. The second body of research responded to the question of what impediments hinder college enrollment or completion for African‐American students. Thirdly, I examined research that focused on the quality of programs that could potentially meet the challenges of college enrollment and retention for African‐American students, particularly males. It is well‐documented that African‐Americans value education. The conceptual framework of this research does not assume the counterculture theory that African‐American males avoid academics because they don’t want to be perceived as “acting white”. There are numerous examples of African‐American students who excel in academics while maintaining a strong sense of racial and cultural pride (Hrabowski et al., 1998). Indeed, the spirit of this report is that when given the opportunity, African‐American males can succeed academically. Pedro Noguera (2003), in his research in Northern California schools, found that nearly 90% of African‐American male respondents indicated “agree” or “strongly agree” to the questions “I think education is important” and “I want to go to college”. Contrary to these beliefs, 22% of the same student group responded affirmatively that “I work hard to achieve good grades” and only 18% indicated affirmatively that “My teachers treat me fairly”. In another survey conducted by Noguera, African‐American males were least likely to respond affirmatively to the statement “My teachers support me and care about my success in their class”. Teachers’ expectations of students are especially important for students of color. Ferguson (2002) found that 47 percent of blacks cite teacher encouragement as crucial, as compared to 31 percent of whites who say that a teacherʹs encouragement motivates them to work hard. An analysis of the discrepancies between the desire to participate in higher education, the effort expended in school, and the support received from teachers suggests the Addressing the Shame 6 need for support structures beyond the confines of school. Noguera further notes that the school experiences for African‐American students, particularly males, may result in a leveling of aspirations. Fortunately, school experiences are only one aspect of an educational system that includes family and broader community supports. Noguera’s research is pivotal to understanding the value of education for African‐American males and considering the implications of school experiences on their academic achievement. Next, I moved to research that considered the roadblocks for African‐American students to enroll in or complete college. Researchers have concluded that the persistent gap in achievement indicators between African‐American and white students may be the most important factor in the underrepresentation of African‐Americans in higher education. Inequalities in the school experiences plays a crucial role in achievement differences, as well as other variables. The centerpiece of the federal government’s efforts to boost college enrollment is the student financial aid programs. In 1999‐2000, these programs subsidized two‐thirds of the $68B in federal, state, and institutional aid awarded to students. Given that the gaps in college enrollment have persisted in the 30 plus years that the financial awards have been available, it is evident that other variables contribute to the enrollment and completion of college. Adelman (1999) concluded that academic preparation – defined as the rigor of courses taken in high school – is the most important predictor of college completion for African‐
American students. Other variables that influence college enrollment behavior include lack of peer support for academic achievement, inequality of resources in neighborhoods and communities, and availability of information about college (Gandara, 2001; Perna & Swail, Addressing the Shame 7 2001). Reducing the saliency of any of these variables could potentially increase the college enrollment and completion for African‐American students. The third body of research examined for this report included studies that evaluated the effectiveness of intervention programs for underrepresented students, particularly African‐
American males. There are several familiar programs that have been in existence over the past four decades to expand college enrollment for low‐income, minority students, i.e. Upward Bound and Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID). These programs have supported thousands of students but, because of their mandates, they can not target any specific racial group. Gandara (2001) concluded that programs targeting a specific population were most effective. Programs that serve low‐income and under‐represented students provide a critical role in our educational and economic landscape. Because of the serious plight of African‐American males, it is imperative that there are also programs that focus specifically on the needs of this population. A Baton Rouge CEO states it well: “We see no shortage of young black males in the courtrooms being adjudicated, we now need to work to prepare as many as possible for the boardrooms.” (http://www.youngleaders.org/index.htm). Based on data from the National Educational Longitudinal Study, Horn and Chen (1998) showed that participating in an outreach program nearly doubled the chances of “at‐risk” students enrolling in a four‐year university. At risk (or “high risk”) students have been defined as being from single parent home, having an older sibling who is a high school dropout, having Cs or lower between grades six and eight, repeating a grade, and being from a low SES (Horn & Addressing the Shame 8 Carroll, 1997). All of these risk factors happen to be highly correlated with Black students, particularly males. Key features of successful intervention programs for college enrollment and completion of African‐American students are summarized in Table 2 (Gandara, 2001). Similar to the features expressed across programs for all African‐American students, there were several similar features in programs specific to African‐American males. Table 2 Key features of successful intervention programs Close, caring relationship with knowledgeable adult High quality instruction Long‐term investments in students Attention to students’ cultural background Supportive peer groups Source. Gandara (2001). In the research specific to African‐American males, there is a strong emphasis on the presence of male role models and/or mentors and incorporation of a developmental and comprehensive programmatic approach (Bailey, 2003; Mincy, 1994). Indeed, all of the programs cited herein emphasized close relationships between individual students and caring adult males. The adult male participants served as models of success and definitions of “what it means to be a man”. For many programs, the founders and/or directors were African‐American males. Each program attempted to incorporate the students’ cultural background and gender Addressing the Shame 9 into the structure and content of the program. Research has also cited impediments to greater program success which includes attrition, lack of data on measured achievement, lack of systemic impact, and lack of K‐16 comprehension. These impediments were also present in the programs cited herein. The recommendations later in this report will address them specifically. The programs that fill these pages are limited in their outreach capacity, however, they do respond to the serious institutional gaps for African‐American males. Study Methods The goals of this study were three‐fold: 1) review current research on academic achievement of African‐American males to assess the extent to which existing programs are meeting the needs of this student population 2) identify programs that seek to expand college access for African‐American males, and 3) identify outreach and retention programs that support African‐American males during their college years. To meet the goals of this study, I relied on research publications, popular media, advanced internet searches, site visits, and personal network. The most productive strategy I employed was casting a wide net of contacting everyone I knew professionally, academically, and socially. Surveying my personal network in several states yielded program nominations and additional contacts. These word‐of‐
mouth contacts also proved helpful because smaller programs may not have the resources to support a website and, therefore, would not have been found otherwise. Advanced internet searches generated other publicized programs. Addressing the Shame 10 The research publications helped to further ground the strategies that the existing programs are using. Often buried in these publications were examples of programs that were meeting the needs of African‐American males. Interviews with program directors and advisors were also instrumental to understanding particular program strategies. There are numerous programs that focus on social delinquency or athletic pursuits, but fewer focus exclusively on addressing the academic achievement of African‐American males. To be included in this study, the programs described herein had to meet certain criteria. These criteria included having evidence of a focus on academic achievement, having wide replication, and actively targeting African‐American males as part on their ongoing mission and programming. For several of the programs reviewed in this study, academic achievement is their primary objective. When I interviewed the educators/program directors, they often stated that the educational practices of these programs often extended into the more personal and social matters of attendance, relationships with teachers, and available resources. Because many of these programs receive very little oversight or outside funding, there were rarely any data‐
collection systems in place to track the program effectiveness beyond anecdotal reports of students enrolling or graduating from college. Rigorous evaluations of these programs are rare. Replicability is defined as the ability to duplicate the program and its results beyond its original site. Given the importance of replication, programs that would require significant start‐
up costs, i.e. all‐male academies, are not considered for inclusion here. All of the programs highlighted here have evidence of broad replicability. Addressing the Shame 11 While many funded programs are open to “low income”, “under‐represented”, or “first‐
generation” students, the programs highlighted in this report have maintained a focus on the academic achievement of African‐American males in particular. These programs demonstrate that opportunities for supporting this target population of students exist in a myriad of ways and suggest that the effectiveness of these programs require support from schools, family, community, philanthropic funders, and corporations. Intervention Programs Intervention programs like those presented here are important examples of the comprehensive strategies required to close the college enrollment and graduation gaps. Each program is implicitly answering the question of “What does it take for these African‐American males to go to college?” The responses to this question are just as diverse as the African‐
American males represented in the programs. For some, the answer is advanced coursework while others would respond with self‐esteem, mentoring, or financial support. The very creation and success of these programs suggest a counter‐narrative to the statistics cited above and offer that intervention programs can make a difference in the academic success of African‐
American males. In my search, I found a concentration of programs in the Midwest, which is probably due in part to the oversight offices that link the various initiatives to local government, corporations and other community‐based programs. The states of Indiana and Ohio both have offices established through legislative mandates that oversee initiatives throughout the state to Addressing the Shame 12 support the educational well‐being of African American males. The commissions advocate, report, and serve as a resource hub for programs that support African‐Americans males throughout the respective states. The Indians Commission on the Social Status of African‐
American Males, for example, publishes an annual report and hosts a conference which brings together community leaders and supporters to network and attend workshops to support their Table 3 College Tours Counseling Mentoring Tutoring Corporate Partners Black Male Leadership Symposium (PA) x x x Minority Achievement Committee (OH) x Project: Gentlemen on the Move (GA) x x x x Young Leaders’ Academy (LA) x x Program programs. Their 2002 conference focused on “Educating African‐American Males”. While these commissions serve an important role in their respective states, an established commission is not necessary for the success of programs that support African‐American males, as evidenced by Addressing the Shame 13 the wide array of programs in other states throughout the US. These state commissions receive additional funding and support from corporations, as well as other community organizations such as 100 Black Men. Although many programs are located in large, urban area, many small communities are also hard‐hit by the low high school graduation rates of African‐American males. For example, in the community of Benton Harbor, MI, with a class of 223 African‐American graduates, only 80 (35.8 per cent) were male. This community also cited a contributing factor for these low graduation rates was the lack of exposure to positive African American role models (Governorʹs Benton Harbor Task Force, 2003). This lack of exposure is also the case in other larger communities where the critical component of several programs is providing role models. Not every program is detailed in this study but a selected few are highlighted because they exemplify the type of support that is necessary from multiple sources. Those programs described in more detail are Black Male Leadership Symposium (University Park, PA); Minority Achievement Committee (Shaker Heights, Ohio); Project: Gentlemen on the Move (Athens, GA); and Young Leaders’ Academy (Baton Rouge, LA). Appendix A summarizes all the programs targeting African‐American males that were discovered in my search. Black Male Leadership Symposium The Black Male Leadership Symposium (BMLS) is a collaboration of university and corporate support on behalf of African‐American males at Pennsylvania State University. Like many of the low graduation rates cited in the introduction to this report, Penn State was experiencing a high rate of attrition among its African‐American male students, most noticeably Addressing the Shame 14 in the business program. BMLS was created in 2003 to increase the retention of undergraduate African‐American male students in the Smeal College of Business. Currently, 75% of the students in the programs are business majors. According to the program director, when African‐American male students were surveyed to find out why they were leaving college, the top responses were feelings of alienation (“No sense of community”) and the lack of information on resources. The programming of BMLS directly addresses these concerns. The program has a phased‐in multi‐tier approach to retain males at Pennsylvania State University and recruit younger males into college. BMLS offers mentoring and instructional guidance to male students. Mentors for the undergraduate students can be graduate students, faculty, staff, or corporate partners. Unlike some programs where the corporate sponsors Black Male Leadership Symposium only have a funding role, BMLS involves its Academic Success – Unity ‐ Integrity corporate partners through breakfast meetings where students can develop professionally and learn about company culture and hopes to eventually establish internships through this program. The program participants meet monthly in men‐only sessions to discuss topics set by the students. Meetings are typically facilitated by graduate students, often in the MBA program. The director of the program is an African‐American woman but all other leadership roles are filled by African‐American men. The director has the responsibility of closely monitoring student progress and keeping parents informed of student experiences. An African‐
American male enrolled student works as the Student Coordinator. The responsibilities of the Addressing the Shame 15 coordinator are numerous. More importantly, this coordinator role positions the student to develop the leadership skills and network to succeed in business after college. The coordinator writes the annual funding proposal and will train new leaders into the program. In the next academic year, BMLS is partnering with a local middle school to establish mentoring relationships between its undergraduate program participants and younger African‐
American males to encourage them to enroll in college. This type of peer‐mentoring is characteristic of other programs that support African‐American males. In another example, Auburn University has a mentoring program whereby African‐American males at the college are matched with African American male students in junior high school (Jackson, 1999). This program, Target Success Mentor Program, has a goal of increasing the retention of students in the Auburn, Alabama public schools and fostering the skills necessary for higher education. Another brand of peer mentoring is offered through the Minority Achievement Committee. Minority Achievement Committee (MAC) The Minority Achievement Committee (MAC), operating out the Shaker Heights High School since 1990, was initiated, developed, and implemented by high achieving African‐
American male students. Shaker Heights High School is part of the recently established Minority Student Achievement Network, which is a consortium of 14 superintendents formed to support strategic solutions to the racial achievement gap (See Noguera, 2001 for more information). A volunteer counselor works with the students but all programming is academically focused and run by the students at the high school. Upper class African‐American male Addressing the Shame 16 students (referred to as “Scholars”) have the task of guiding 9th and 10th grade male students who are performing below C average (“Potential Scholars”) through the passages of becoming successful students. The title of “potential scholars” is significant because it indicates the older students’ and school’s beliefs that these younger students have the intellectual capacity, beyond what is reflected in their low GPAs. Just as research has shown that teacher’s beliefs are important to the achievement of African‐American students, peers in this program are demonstrating their high expectations of fellow students (Ferguson, 2002; Ford, 1996). The success of this program also contrasts with John Ogbu’s (2003) study in the same high school, which assumes that African‐American students adopt oppositional identities that undermine their value for education. The peer mentors in MAC encourage students to enroll in challenging courses. Researchers have found that one of the strongest indicators of achievement in high school is the rigor of the high school coursework. Scholars and potential scholars meet every two weeks during the school year to discuss such topics as advocating for oneself, confronting discipline issues, developing good study habits, approaching MAC Scholars Program teachers, and being an African‐American male in the US. Other high schools around the country have considered Students leading students to greater success in school adopting a MAC model to close the achievement gap for African‐American males in their respective communities. The MAC program advisor has developed a resource guide in response to these requests. The replicability of this program is far‐reaching, given its low budget and high impact on students. The operating budget for this program is minimal and local foundations have offered support. Addressing the Shame 17 Of the features of successful programs mentioned in a previous section of this report, the MAC program is clearly focused on providing these African‐American males students with a supportive peer group. Success of this program is judged not only by grade point average outcomes, but also observable changes in attitude, commitment to academic achievement, and belief in long‐term fulfillment. The program materials do not explicitly mention college enrollment as a goal, but the program advisor noted that, of the 275 former MAC Scholars, all have matriculated in college, with the exception of one who enlisted in the military for family reasons (McGovern, personal communication, June 24, 2004). Project: Gentlemen on the Move African‐American males represented only 8 percent of the total University System undergraduate student population of nearly 205,000 students. The University System of Georgia (USG) commissioned a task force to develop recommendations for increasing the number of African‐American males who enter and graduate from their member institutions. Project: Gentlemen on the Move The task force proposed an integrated K‐16 approach to solving the key problems of high school dropout rates, school funding disparities, Develop and nurture excellence in African‐
American males through an empowerment and transformation process and the low number of African‐American male teachers. Under this African‐American Male Initiative (AAMI), the USG has provided funding to several programs throughout Georgia that are already aimed at enhancing the college participation of African‐American males. Addressing the Shame 18 One of the programs that received funding through AAMI was Project: Gentlemen on the Move, founded in North Carolina in 1989 by Deryl Bailey. When Bailey moved to a faculty position at the University of Georgia, the program also moved there. PGOTM is a comprehensive program that seeks to have impact on the academic and social aspects of the student’s life. According to Bailey, this approach is critical to ensuring that the academic progress of the program is not “undone at home”. When asked about contributors to the program success, Bailey responded with three main ingredients: 1) acceptance of all interested students (however, no documented learning disabilities); 2) trusting relationships; and 3) clear boundaries (Bailey, personal communication, August 10, 2004). Two core assumptions of PGOTM’s mission is that all young people are capable of learning and there must be positive images of African‐American males as mentors and community members. This program is an example of the importance of high expectations for African‐American males and the reliance on caring relationships with adult males that the research has confirmed in several studies (Ferguson, 2002; Ford, 1996; Gandara, 2001). PGOTM offers intensive Saturday academies to middle and high school students. These sessions include curriculum in math, science, vocabulary, reading, and character education. All program staff are graduate student or teacher volunteers who must commit to three of four Saturdays during the academic year. The teacher‐student ratios are typically maintained at 1 to 10. PGOTM staff bridge important links between schools and parents and students. The program supports parents by facilitating and attending parent‐teacher conferences. The Saturday academies are supplemented by weekly progress reports prepared by the participant’s Addressing the Shame 19 school teachers. To address the communication barriers between African‐American males and teachers, PGOTM staff sponsors retreats for teachers who work with these students and/or PGOTM participants. The retreats facilitate dialogue between students and teachers with the goal that “if teachers can understand their impact on the academic and social performance of African‐American male students, they may begin to question barriers that exist in their classroom and possibly begin to remove them” (Bailey, 2003, p. 16). PGOTM is changing its name to Empowered Youth Programs as it will soon expand its offerings to other underrepresented students. Young Leaders’ Academy This fourth program has already received extensive media coverage. It is featured here because it still meets the criteria for this study – focus on academic achievement and African‐
American males and have broad replicability. Moreover, Young Leaders’ Academy (YLA) is a strong example of the type of community‐wide support necessary to ensure long‐term program success. Based in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, YLA is an outgrowth of an INROADS initiative, called Youth Leadership Academy. (INROADS is a national program that prepares minority youth for business and community leadership.) A former headmaster from Milwaukee brought the concept to the Louisiana community. In creating this academy, the founder partnered with the business community, public school system, and local foundations. YLA is comprised of two programs essentially. The core program serves 100+ African‐
American males ages 8‐14. The components of YLA are after‐school tutorials, Saturday academies, summer academy, and mentoring by older/adult males. The African‐American male Addressing the Shame 20 students are nominated by their elementary school principals as 3rd, 4th, or 5th graders. All of the schools partnered with YLA are inner‐city. The summer program and Saturday academies are held on local college campuses ‐ Louisiana State University and Southern University, respectively. The participant costs of $2000 per year are paid by corporate and philanthropic sponsors. Graduates of the program participate in YLA’s Senior Academy. YLA has a community service program whereby students in the Senior Academy volunteer their time to local organizations. The Senior Academy focuses on college preparation and corporate internships. Young Leaders’ Academy The mentoring component of the program is staffed by African‐American males throughout the community as well as participants in the If in my mind I can conceive it, and in my heart I can believe it, then certainly I can achieve it. Senior Academy. Given the difficulty of finding mentors who can make such a committed investment, not all students can participate in the one‐on‐one mentoring program. The Black Male Leadership Symposium, mentioned in the previous section, also expressed this same concern of finding mentors. However, BMLS solves this problem by providing every student with a mentor and each mentor with several students. Potential YLA mentors from the community must pass rigorous screenings which include background checks and references. YLA mentors are supported through initial training and ongoing workshops during the year. Addressing the Shame 21 Recommendations These community and university‐based programs are important supplemental structures for increasing the college enrollment and retention of African‐American males. Effective programs provide trusting, caring relationships with adults, often males. These relationships provide consistent attention to academic progress. Likewise, they set the high expectations for African‐American males that the school experience may lack. Each program seeks to offer a comprehensive approach to enriching the lives of these students. None of the programs seemed systemic from a long‐term perspective in the sense of linking high school and postsecondary education or beyond. Given the size and budget of these programs for African‐American males, it would be understandably difficult for programs at the secondary level to support student progress beyond college. Enrollment‐focused programs rely on later visits by the student to know the student’s fate. When these students do matriculate in college, hopefully they will find the necessary networks and structures in the post‐secondary environment to graduate. Even a quick scan of Appendix A and B alerts us to the fact that far more retention programs are needed. Despite these common features, however, each program has unique capacities and preferences for achieving their goals. As evidenced by the plethora of programs offered across the nation, there is no one “right way” of supporting African‐American male students. Moreover, the success strategies of these programs are just as multiple – combined strategies and mobilized resources from community, home, schools, and universities. LPFI has a selection of strategies from which to choose in order to plays its role in closing the achievement gap and sending more African‐American males to college. Taking a look at these programs recognizes the heterogeneity of African‐American males and calls for context‐specific Addressing the Shame 22 interventions. Current program directors could offer ideas for providing the care and services that the research suggests are the most important for African‐American males. Both new and existing programs could also benefit from assistance with staff training, curriculum development, and outcome measurements. Programs are often limited in their capacity to support these areas well. Funders, like LPFI, could provide very useful support by sponsoring and disseminating research on African‐American males, producing curriculum materials, and providing networking opportunities for program staff. There are a few annual conferences specific to the college enrollment and retention of African‐American males that could be instrumental for potential funders to attend and/or host program staff. These programs are run on minimal funding which limits the quality and quantity of services available to serve these African‐American males. Nevertheless, these programs do provide a structure that youth development practitioners, funding agencies, and policymakers can test, modify, and improve. The most difficult aspects of starting a new program will be securing a permanent location and people resources. Many of the programs are based on college campuses. These settings are ideal for students to learn about the college experience and aspire to be there. Programs in both large and small communities must actively and continuously recruit committed adult mentors and volunteers to the program. Schools, universities, and other community agents can assist with this search. Likewise, potential funders would be well‐
advised to consider obtaining early support from other funding agencies to ensure long term viability. Addressing the Shame 23 The academic performance of African‐American males is both a shame and in a state of crisis. Existing programs must increase their coverage and new programs must be created in communities across our country. The status of African‐American males affects the economic and social status of our society at large. The potential for these men to contribute to our society is unlimited and we must act now. Support for improving the status African‐American males must come from schools, community, family, philanthropic funders, and the private sector. Addressing the Shame 24 References Adelman, C. (1999). Answers in the Tool Box. Academic Intensity, Attendance Patterns, and Bachelorʹs Degree Attainment (No. PLLI‐1999‐8021). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement. Bailey, D. (2003). Preparing African‐American males for postsecondary options. Journal of Menʹs Studies, 12(1), 15‐24. Cohen, M. (1995). The monetary value of saving a high risk youth. Nashville: Vanderbilt University, Owen Graduate School of Management. Ferguson, R. F. (2002). What Doesnʹt Meet the Eye: Understanding and Addressing Racial Disparities in High‐Achieving Suburban Schools. Oak Brook, IL: North Central Regional Educational Lab. Ford, D. Y. (1996). Reversing underachievement among gifted black students : promising practices and programs. New York: Teachers College Press. Gandara, P. (2001). Paving the Way to Postsecondary Education: K‐12 Intervention Programs for Underrepresented Youth. Report of the National Postsecondary Education Cooperative Working Group on Access to Postsecondary Education (No. NCES‐2001‐
205). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Governorʹs Benton Harbor Task Force. (2003). Benton Harbor, A plan for positive change: Final report of the Governorʹs Benton Harbor Task Force. Benton Harbor, MI. Horn, L. J., & Carroll, C. (1997). Confronting the odds: Students at risk and the pipeline to higher education (No. NCES‐98‐094). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Horn, L. J., & Chen, X. (1998). Toward resiliency: At‐risk students who make it to college (No. PLLI‐98‐8056). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement. Hrabowski, F. A., Maton, K. I., & Greif, G. L. (1998). Beating the odds: Raising academically successful African American males. New York: Oxford University Press. Jackson, J. F. L. (1999). Mentoring Program at Auburn University: Reducing Risk Factors for African‐American Male Students. Journal of Educational Opportunity, 17(2), 25‐30. Addressing the Shame 25 Jencks, C., & Phillips, M. (1998). The black‐white test score gap. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. Mincy, R. B. (1994). Nurturing young Black males: Challenges to agencies, programs, and social policy. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute Press. Noguera, P. A. (2001). Racial Politics and the Elusive Quest for Excellence and Equity in Education. Education and Urban Society, 34(1), 18‐41. Noguera, P. A. (2003). The trouble with Black boys: the role and influence of environmental and cultural factors on the academic performance of African American males. Urban Education, 38(4), 431‐459. Ogbu, J. U. (2003). Black American students in an affluent suburb: a study of academic disengagement. Mahwah, N.J.: L. Erlbaum Associates. Orfield, G., Losen, D., Wald, J., & Swanson, C. B. (2004). Losing our future: How minority youth are being left behind by the graduation rate crisis. Cambridge, MA: The Civil Rights Project at Harvard University. Contributors: Advocates for Children of New York, The Civil Society Institute. Perna, L. W., & Swail, W. S. (2001). Pre‐College Outreach and Early Intervention. Thought & Action, 17(1), 99‐110. Polite, V. C., & Davis, J. E. (1999). African American males in school and society : practices and policies for effective education. New York: Teachers College Press. Appendix A: Summary of Programs for African‐American Males State Program Grades/Ages Affiliations African‐American Male Achievers Network High school N/A High Achievement Wisdom and Knowledge (HAWK) Federation High school Academic Program Funding Sources Emphasis Foundations, private Enrollment Institute for the Mentoring Adv Studies of Rites of Passage Black Family Life & Culture Private Enrollment Middle school through college‐
aged Omega Boys Club Foundations, private Enrollment Project BEST Middle to high school Kern County District Private, school district, Enrollment See a Man, Be a Man Middle school N/A Private Enrollment FL Black Male College Explorers Middle to high school Florida HBCUs Tutoring Counseling State Enrollment GA Project: Gentlemen on the Move Elementary to high school Univ of GA Mentoring, tutoring, counseling, Private Enrollment A‐1 Single‐sex tutoring, counseling, placement, tuition assistance Counseling, tutoring, mentoring Mentoring African‐American Male Programs A‐1 CA Main Components Mentoring Tutoring State Program Grades/Ages Affiliations Main Components college tours Funding Sources Emphasis Band of Brothers
College Iowa State University Peer mentoring Private Retention IN African‐American Achievers Youth Corp
Middle to high school N/A Tutoring Counseling Private Enrollment Project MR. (Male Responsibility)
High school Indiana University Self‐exploration Private Enrollment Young Men, Inc. Ages 10‐16 Church 8‐week summer session Private Enrollment KS Brother’s Keeper Middle school through College University of Kansas Conference Private Enrollment Retention LA St Augustine High School High school Catholic Diocese Full day academy Private Enrollment Young Leaders’ Academy Elementary to high school LSU, Southern, school district Foundations, private Enrollment MI My Brother’s Keeper High school Michigan State Univ Mentoring, tutoring, counseling, Mentoring Private Enrollment NC Movement of Youth Middle to High School 100 Black Men Mentoring Tutoring Private Enrollment A‐2 African‐American Male Programs A‐2 IA State Program Grades/Ages Affiliations Main Components Support services Private Retention Funding Sources Emphasis Freshman Seminar College Medgar Evers College OH African American Male Mentoring Program College Wright State University Mentoring Private Retention African American Male Resource Center College Ohio State University Support services Private Retention Black Male Initiative College Cleveland State University Peer mentoring Support services Private Retention Gentlemen Organized for Achievement & Leadership College Xavier University Peer mentoring Private Retention Minority Achievement Committee (OH) High school Shaker Heights High School Peer mentoring Foundations, school district Enrollment REACH Middle to high school University School Foundations, private Enrollment OR Prospective Gents Club High School Bridge Builders Private Enrollment Retention PA Black Male Leadership Symposium (PA) Middle school and College Penn State University Tutoring Counseling Peer mentoring Mentoring Tutoring Rites of passage Mentoring Support services Private Enrollment Retention SC March to Manhood High school Benedict College Tutoring Counseling Private Enrollment A‐3 African‐American Male Programs A‐3 NY State Program Grades/Ages Affiliations Main Components Support services TN Empowered Men of Color College University of Memphis WI Brothers of Kwanzaa High school Nati
onal Consortium on High Achievement and Success College Milwaukee High Mentoring School of the Arts 34 private, liberal Conference arts colleges Funding Sources Emphasis Private Retention Private Enrollment Foundation Retention African‐American Male Programs A‐4 A‐4 Additional Programs B‐1 Appendix B: Additional Programs that Support all African‐American Students State AZ Program Coalition to Increase Minority Degrees Affiliation Arizona State University Emphasis Retention CA College Bound Private Enrollment College Match Community Partners Enrollment College Track Private Enrollment Early Academic Outreach Program University of California Enrollment East Palo Alto Tennis and Tutoring Private, Stanford University Enrollment Eastside College Prep Private Enrollment First in the Family Private Enrollment Foundation for a College Education Private Enrollment Fulfillment Fund Private Enrollment Making Waves Education Program Private Enrollment Mentor Bay Area Youth 100 Black Men Enrollment Posse Foundation Private Quest Scholars Private, Stanford University Menlo‐Atherton High School Realizing Intellect through Self‐
Empowerment (RISE) Stanford Medical Youth Science Program Enrollment
Retention Enrollment
Retention Enrollment Stanford University Enrollment Young Scholars Private Enrollment DC Black Student Fund Private Enrollment FL College Reach Out University of South Florida, Tampa Promoting College‐Bound Success Program University of South Florida, St. Petersburg Enrollment Enrollment State Additional Programs B‐2 Program Urban Scholarʹs Outreach Program IL College Readiness Program Affiliation University of South Florida, Tampa Associated Colleges of IL Link Unlimited Private Enrollment IN 21st Century Scholars IN State Enrollment High School College Access Program Martin University Enrollment Self‐Discovery/Career Exploration
Indiana University Enrollment KY Murray State University Enrollment Harvard University Enrollment Private Enrollment Governor’s Minority Student College Preparation Program College Opportunity and Career Help (COACH) Math and Science for Minority Students (MS Square) Steppingstone Academy Steppingstone Foundation Enrollment MD Academic Champions of Excellence Morgan State University Enrollment Meyerhoff Scholars Univ of Maryland, Baltimore Retention MI Central Michigan University Enrollment MN King/Chavez/Parks (KCP) Extended College Day Program Admission Possible Private Enrollment NC Communities in Schools Private Enrollment Durham Scholars Program Private Enrollment NY East Harlem Tutorial Program Private Enrollment Harlem Center for Education Private Enrollment Let’s Get Ready Enrollment On Point for College Colleges and universities in NY, MA and RI Private Options Program Prep for Prep Goddard Riverside Community Ctr Private Youth on the Move Abyssinian Baptist Church MA Emphasis Enrollment Enrollment Enrollment
Retention Enrollment Enrollment Enrollment Additional Programs B‐3 State OH Program Cincinnati Opportunity And College Help Affiliation Cincinnati Youth Collaborative Emphasis Enrollment I Know I Can Private Enrollment Student Support Services Cincinnati State Univ Retention Young Scholars Enrollment OK Higher Learning Access Program Ohio State University, School districts OK State PA Private Enrollment Penn State University Enrollment Negro Educational Emergency Drive (NEED) Summer College Opportunity Program in Education (SCOPE) The Scholars Program Steppingstone Foundation Enrollment SC SAT Workshop for Minority Students Clemson University Enrollment WI Minority Precollege Scholarship Program WI State Enrollment National Pre‐college Enrichment Opportunity Program for Learning Excellence (PEOPLE) Algebra Project University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee and Racine Private Enrollment
Retention Enrollment College Summit Private Enrollment I Have A Dream Foundation Private Enrollment Minority Affairs Program American Chemical Society Enrollment National Achievers Society and NULITES National Urban League Enrollment Pre‐College Initiative Enrollment SECME, Inc National Society of Black Engineers Private Summer High School Apprenticeship Program NASA Enrollment Enrollment Enrollment Networking Opportunities C‐1 Appendix C: Networking Opportunities for LPFI In my experience of working on this project, having a strong personal network has been most beneficial to locating these programs and developing support for ongoing research. I can not stress enough the importance for LPFI to continue nurturing this network to ensure its program success. The information below is included to assist with developing those resources. During October 2004, a conference sponsored by Grantmakers for Education (GFE) will be held in Atlanta. The conference theme is “Keeping Democracyʹs Promise: Class, Race, Gender & National Origin in Education”. This conference would be particularly useful for LPFI or its associates to attend because there will be sessions focused specifically on gender‐based programming and its opportunities and setbacks. More information on the conference can be found at GFE’s website: www.edfunders.org. Other conferences specific to enrollment and retention of African American Males are sponsored through University of Kansas’ Brother’s Keepers and Consortium for High Achievement and Success. The National College Access Network may also be another outlet for consideration. D‐1 About the Author Pamela Ellis is currently a doctoral candidate at Stanford University with a focus on the out‐of‐school literacy practices of minority adolescents. She earned her bachelor’s degree at Stanford University and her master’s in business administration from The Tuck School at Dartmouth College. She has over 15 years of experience in after‐school programs for under‐
represented students.