DESIGN AND MANUFACTURE OF USABLE CONSUMER PRODUCTS : PART II - DEVELOPING
THE USABILITY-MANUFACTURING ATTRIBUTE LINKAGES
Majorkumar Govindaraju and Anil Mital
Department of Industrial Engineering
University of Cincinnati
Cincinnati, OH 45221-0116
ABSTRACT
Global competition, concern for the
environment, and the need for customization
are forcing manufacturers to produce usable
products at an affordable price. For a product
to be successful in the marketplace, it is
essential to determine what constitutes
usability and then to design it in the product
and ensure it through manufacturing. The
product features, which affect a product’s
usability, are affected by product and process
attributes. If a relationship between the design
of a product and its manufacturing attributes
can be developed, it would be possible to
enhance a product’s overall usability during
the course of its manufacturing. This paper,
second of the two-part paper, using two
consumer products as examples (a can opener
and a toaster), shows how the usability of a
product and its design and manufacturing
attributes can be related. The Quality Function
Deployment (QFD) methodology is used to
develop the usability and manufacturing
attribute linkages. In the first level of analysis,
QFD was used to extract information from the
user about those product characteristics which
dictate its usability (e.g. ease of cutting a can)
and determine the technical requirements (e.g.
torque) that are required to achieve it. In the
second level of analysis, various product
features (e.g. high blade hardness) were related
to the technical requirements. The third level
of analysis relates various process techniques
(e.g. heat treatment) needed to achieve usable
product features and shows the associated
costs. The fourth level relates each of the
process techniques to specific process
variables that make the process effective
(material, quenchant, etc.). Thus, a clear
relationship between product usability and
manufacturing process variables is established.
INTRODUCTION
In the last two decades, the concept of usability
has changed gradually to encompass the entire
life cycle of a product. As discussed in part
one of the paper (Govindaraju, 1998), the
attributes of product which make it usable are:
Functionality
Ease of Operation
Aesthetics
Reliability
Maintainability/Serviceability
Environment friendliness
Recylability/Disposability
Safety, and
Customizability
The market success of a manufacturing firm
depends on its ability to produce usable
products at competitive costs (Mital, 1992).
Achieving the twin goals of increasing the
usability and reducing cost, however, is neither
solely a marketing problem, nor solely a
design/manufacturing problem; it is a product
development problem involving all these
activities simultaneously. The simultaneous
engineering design philosophy is based on
concurrent integration of the consumer need
appraisal, development of product concept
design, and its manufacture. Figure 1 shows
the how the usability criteria are linked to the
design and manufacturing phases of a product.
Figure 1. Linkages between Usability Criteria,
Desing and Manufacturing Attributes.
95
Quality Function Deployment (QFD)
is one the most important tools available in
implementing
simultaneous
Figure 2: QFD-1st Stage for Can Opener Transformation from User Requirements to
Technical Requirements.
In the part deployment stage, technical
engineering
principles. QFD is a structured approach to
requirements
defining customer requirements and translating
specifications. During the process deployment
them into specific steps in order to develop the
stage, product characteristics are converted
needed products (Bergquist, 1996). It allows
into
customers’
requirements,
desires,
manufacturing
preferences
to
into
and
are
process
converted
characteristics.
deployment
into
During
stage,
part
the
various
account
manufacturing processes are related to specific
throughout all processes, beginning with the
process variables that control them (Day,
concept design activities and continuing
1993). Through such a stepwise transformation
throughout the production operations on the
of customer usability requirements into process
factory floor. QFD uses a series of relationship
variables, it is possible to control the usability
matrices
of a product. In order to demonstrate the
to
be
taken
document
and
analyze
the
relationships between various factors. The
relationship
basic structure and elements of the matrices are
attributes and the manufacturing attributes they
shown in the Figure 2.
are linked to, two case studies were carried
While the details of the matrices vary
from stage-to-stage within the shown four-
between
product
usability
out. The case studies involved two products: a
manual can opener and a bread toaster.
stage QFD process, the basics are the same. In
the
product
planning
stage,
customer
requirements are identified and translated into
technical design requirements.
Case Study I
Fourteen subjects participated in the study. The
preferences of these 14 users were obtained
through personal one-on-one interviews with
them. Each interview lasted approximately 20
minutes and was conducted at the home of the
user. The questions asked were open-ended.
All users owned manual can-openers and were
very familiar with what would make it usable.
The questions mainly pertained to extracting
the primary needs of these users. The users
were also asked to rate the needs based on a
scale of 1-10; 1 being least important and 10
being most important.
The interviews revealed that users want a can
opener that should open without
skipping, jamming, or rolling off the track
The can opener should sever lids completely
and cleanly without leaving slivers of metal
behind.
A good can opener should not jiggle the lid
and cause it to splatter, or submerge the lid in
the liquid as the cutter progresses around the
can (Consumer Reports, 1994).
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They considered manual can opener
usable if it:
•
is easy to pierce,
•
is easy to turn,
•
is comfortable to grip,
•
rolls without slipping,
•
cuts smoothly and neatly,
•
is durable, and
•
has a good appearance.
Technical Requirements Deployment
The usability requirements and the overall
rankings obtained are listed in the horizontal
portion of the first stage of the QFD process
(Figure 2). The usability requirements and
rankings were then translated into the language
a company can use to describe its product for
design, processing, and manufacture. The
objective of this step was to develop a list of
technical requirements that should be worked
on to satisfy the customer’s voice. These
technical requirement are listed in the vertical
portion of the QFD and are: low crank torque,
low handle grip force, tight grip of drive
sprocket on the can rim, good ripping action of
the cutting wheel, high corrosion resistance,
good surface finish of the frame, and high
structural rigidity.
Next, the relationships between the
technical requirements and the user
requirements were established in order to
identify the relative importance of various
technical requirements. Every user requirement
in the horizontal portion was compared with
each technical requirement on the vertical
portion. The degree of relationship is marked
at the intersection - a black circle represents a
strong relationship, two concentric circles a
moderate relationship, and a blank circle a
weak relationship. These relationships are also
given a numerical value of 9, 3, and 1,
respectively. A strong relationship between a
technical requirement and a user requirement
means that changing the former would greatly
influence the latter. The overall weighting of
each of the technical requirement was obtained
by multiplying the customer weighting and the
numerical weighting of the relationship, and
then by summing up all such values of all the
relationships (Akao, 1990). For example,
overall weighting for low handle grip force is
99 (9x4 + 9x7). The values of all technical
requirements thus obtained were simplified
further by dividing and rounding up by a factor
of 10. The purpose of calculating the overall
weighting was to identify those technical
characteristics that influence usability to the
greatest extent.
The technical requirements may also
have relationship with each other. Attempting
to achieve or improve one technical
requirement may affect some other technical
requirement either positively or negatively. A
positive relationship between different
technical requirements means that improving
one aids the other. A positive relationship is
denoted with a + sign and a negative
relationship by - sign. One of the principal
benefits of generating these co-relationships is
that they provide a warning about negative
relationships. In other words, a warning is
issued indicating that any action to improve
one requirement may have adverse effect on
other requirements. It is important to examine
each of these negative relationships to
determine how the design
can be changed or desensitized to eliminate or
reduce these detrimental effects.
The competitive analysis evaluates how the
product satisfies each of the customer or
technical requirements and is rated using a 5point scale.
Competitive analysis can be used in
comparing the usability rating of the product
with those of the competitors. Thus, at the end
of the first stage of QFD we have a list of
customer and technical requirements, their
relationships, the overall weighting, and target
values, if any, to be achieved. The other three
stages proceed along steps analogous to the
first stage. These stages are product
deployment,
process
deployment
and
manufacturing deployment.
Product Deployment
Product deployment is the second stage of the
QFD process and it is shown in Figure 3. Its
purpose is to translate the previously
developed technical requirements into product
specifications. The technical requirements
taken from the vertical column of the previous
QFD stage are listed in rows at this stage.
Based on the previous design experience the
product features that were needed to satisfy
these technical requirements were identified
and listed in the vertical column. The
116
relationships
between
product
feature
requirements were identified and the overall
weighting of various product features were
established as before.
Figure 4: QFD-3rd Stage for Can Opener Transformation from Product Features to Process
Features.
Figure 3: QFD-2nd Stage for Can Opener Transformation from Technical Requirements to
Product Features.
Product Architecture: The can opener has 5
main parts: upper handle, lower handle, blade,
crank, and the drive sprocket. The upper
handle is joined with the crank and drive
sprocket to form a subassembly. The lower
handle is joined to the blade to form the second
subassembly. These two subassemblies are
joined to form the overall assembly. The upper
and lower handles are used for holding the
opener and for providing the gripping force.
When mounted properly on to the can and
gripped with adequate pressure the blade
pierces the can and the sprocket wheel holds
on to the top outside rim of the can. The crank
wheel is used to apply a torque that helps the
blade to cut the can lid and rotate the can until
the lid is completely severed.
Process Deployment
Process planning is the third stage of the QFD
process represented in Figure 4.
Its purpose is to determine the manufacturing
processes that will actually produce the
product by relating various product features to
the specific manufacturing operations. The
critical product features identified in the
previous stage are listed in the horizontal
portion of the matrix. The major process
elements necessary to develop the product
were extracted from the process flow diagram
and are shown at the top of the column section
of matrix. The relationships between the
column and row variables were then
determined. The overall weight of various
process features was then determined in order
to find out those process features (variables)
that affect the usability the most.
Manufacturing
Process:
The
process
description of the can opener was obtained
from the manufacturer. The upper handle is cut
from SAE 1008 steel strip and the lower
handle is cut from SAE 1008 steel wire by
blanking operation. Both handles are
individually subjected to stamping operations
using progressive dies. The piercing and
bending operations produce two holes and a
twist in the upper handle. Two protrusions are
formed using a die pressing operation on the
lower handle. The blade is cut from SAE 1050
steel strip, swaged at the top to produce a
sharp cutting edge, bent 90 degrees twice, and
pierced to produce a hole at the center and two
holes at the bottom using a progressive die in a
punch press. The crank is cut from SAE 1008
steel strip and trimmed to achieve the desired
shape. To remove the burrs resulting from the
stamping operations on the upper handle,
lower handle, blade and crank, and to reduce
the surface roughness these pieces are tumbled.
117
The drive sprocket is cut from SAE 1050 steel
and stamped to obtain the gear shape. The
blade and drive sprocket are then heat treated.
All 5 parts are then nickel plated to promote
corrosion resistance and appearance.
The drive sprocket and the crank are
assembled with the upper handle and swaged
to produce a subassembly. The blade is
inserted into the two protrusions on the lower
handle and swaged to produce another
subassembly. The two subassemblies are
riveted together to produce the final assembly.
The main manufacturing operations involved
in this process are: blanking, piercing, bending,
heat treatment, nickel plating, riveting,
swaging and tumbling. The processes that have
the most influence in the manufacture of the
can
opener are the progressive die operations, heat
treatment process, and inorganic surface
coating.
Manufacturing Deployment
Manufacturing planning is the culmination of
the work done in the three previous stages. In
this stage, the various manufacturing
techniques necessary to make the product were
related to process attributes that affect them
either positively or negatively. For example,
the hardness of the blade is affected by the rate
of cooling during the heat treatment process.
The rate of cooling, in turn, is controlled by the
properties of the quenchant. Even though the
manufacturing process adopted for producing
the can opener is affected by numerous process
variables, only those variables that affect can
opener’s usability are considered here. The
manufacturing techniques are listed in the
horizontal portion and the process variables are
listed in the vertical portion of the QFD matrix.
The relationship between them are shown in
the matrix along with the target values, if any,
at the bottom of Figure 5.
Figure 5: QFD-4th Stage for Can Opener Transformation from Process Features to Process
Variables.
Progressive Die Operations: The blanking,
punching, trimming, and piercing operations
are performed using a progressive die on a
punch press. Progressive die performs different
operations as the stock passes through the
press. The progressive die press working
operations influence several basic design
parameters:
•
Dwell is the portion of the press stroke
necessary to completely clear the die
from the part so that the part may be
advanced
•
Pitch is the distance between work
stations in the die and must be constant
between all stations
•
Press stroke (inches)
•
Drawing speed (fpm) for the material
to be fabricated
•
Press speed (strokes per minute)
•
Ram speed (fpm)
•
Die materials are wrought and cast
tool and die steels, wrought and cast
carbon and low-allow steels, plain and
alloyed cast irons, plain and alloyed
ductile irons, sintered carbides, cast
aluminum bronzes and zinc alloys, and
various
non-metallic
materials
(Cubberly, 1989).
Heat Treatment Processes: Heat treatment is
applied to parts to impart certain properties
that make a product more usable. These
properties are:
•
Increased surface hardness
•
Production of necessary microstructure
for desired mechanical properties such
as strength, ductility and toughness
118
•
•
•
Releasing residual stresses
Removal of inclusions such as gases
Alteration of electrical and magnetic
properties
•
Improvement in wear and corrosion
resistance
Some of the heat treatment processes are:
austenitizing,
equalizing,
quenching,
annealing, normalizing, carburizing, nitriding,
carbo-nitriding,
chromizing,
boronzing,
resitance hardening, induction hardening,
flame hardening, elctron-beam hardening and
laser hardening. The factors which affect the
result of heat treatment process are: 1.
composition of the metal to be treated, 2.
critical
time-temperature
transformation
relationship of the metal, 3. response of the
metal to quenching, 4. method of quenchant
application, and 5. temperature control and
timing.
Inorganic Surface Coating: Inorganic coating
is intended to impart the following properties
to the surface of the metal substrate:
•
Corrosion protection
•
Prepainting treatment
•
Abrasion resistance
•
Electrical resistance
•
Cold forming lubrication
•
Anti-friction properties
•
Decorative final finish
•
Easy cleanability
Some of the methods of surface coating are:
conversion coating, anodizing, thermal
spraying, hard facing, porcelain enameling,
chemical vapor deposition, ion vapor
deposition, vacuum metallizing, sputtering,
flexible overlays, and ion implantation (Dallas,
1976).
Conversion coating is the formation of
a coating on a ferrous or nonferrous metal
surface as a result of controlled chemical or
electrochemical attack. Anodizing is the
electrolytic treatment of metals that forms
stable films or coating on the metal’s surface.
Thermal spraying is the process of depositing
molten or semi-molten materials so that they
solidify and bond to the substrate. Porcelain
enameling
is
a
highly
durable,
alkaliborosilicate glass coatings that are
bonded by fusion to various metal substrates at
temperatures above 800o F. Hot dipping is a
process by which a metal is coated onto the
surface of the metal product by immersion in a
bath of molten metal. Chemical vapor
deposition is a heat-activated process, relying
on the reaction of gaseous chemical
compounds with suitably heated and prepared
substrates. The ion-vapor deposition process
takes place in an evacuated chamber in which
an inert gas is added to raise the pressure and
to ionize when a high negative potential is
applied to the parts to be coated. In vacuum
metallizing, a metal or metal compound is
evaporated at high temperature in a closed,
evacuated chamber and then allowed to
condense on a workpiece within the chamber.
Ion implantation is a process by which atoms
of virtually any element can be injected into
the near-surface region of any solid by a beam
of charged ions.
Discussion
Through a QFD analysis, a clear progression
of relationships linking product usability
features and process variables that affect
manufacturing were established. The QFD
matrices show that the overall usability of a
product can be enhanced by adopting the
optimum range of values for the process
variables. Thus, in order to enhance usability
those process variables that affect highly
ranked usability features must be tightly
controlled.
The critical can opener usability
features and the manufacturing processes
necessary to achieve them were determined to
be:
Ease of cutting. Harder the blade easier it is to
cut. This can be achieved by proper heat
treatment of the blade. As low carbon steels
lack hardenability, medium carbon steels
should be used for making the blade and drive
sprocket. Both are made of SAE 1050 steel
with a carbon content of between 0.48 and
0.55%. Temperature and the method of
quenchant application are the other major
process variables. These parameters should be
chosen such that the problems, such as
decarburization, scaling, quench cracking,
residual stresses, and dimensional changes,
that are normally associated with heat
treatment are controlled.
Smoothness of lid cutting. The cutting edge
should be sharp enough to rip through the can
lid. This can be achieved by appropriate
119
swaging of the blade’s edge. Swaging
improves the tensile strength and surface
hardness as it results in improved flow of
metal and in finer grain structure.
Slip-free operation. This depends on how
tightly and smoothly the drive sprocket rolls on
the outside of the can rim. Movement of
sprocket roll depends on the hardness and wear
resistance qualities of the drive sprocket. These
properties can be improved by heat treatment
and nickel plating.
Safety in handling The can opener should be
free from sharp edges and burrs. Various
manufacturing processes such as blanking
produce burrs and sharp edges. This
necessitates secondary operations such as
tumbling. This process is used for the removal
of burrs from corners, holes, slots and surfaces
of parts and for smoothening of edges by
radiusing.
Comfortable grip. This is ensured by the
smoothening of surface of the handle and edge
radiusing. Tumbling process results in general
reduction of the plane surface roughness from
20 to 5 micro inches rms and in generation of
radii in the order of 0.015 inch on the exposed
edges.
Appearance and durability. This depends on
the surface preparation and coating. Nickel
plating is used to impart luster and corrosion
resistance. While the former improves the
appearance, the latter enhances its durability.
Some of the processes produce results which
reduce the usability of the product and care
must be taken to minimize detrimental effects
of such processes. For instance:
(1) The blanking operation produces
burrs. These are sharp edges along the shearing
lines of the cut parts. Production of burrs
depends on the excessive die-punch clearance
and dull cutting edges of the die. The diepunch clearance should be properly designed
and worn die edges should be eliminated.
(2) When specifying the rivet for
joining the two subassemblies, the relationship
between the diameters of the rivet body and
the work hole must be determined to maximize
shear strength. An oversized work-hole
diameter will prevent the rivet from filling the
hole to form a solid assembly and will result in
improper fastening. On the other hand, an
undersized work-hole diameter slows up
automatic feeding and clinching of the rivet.
CASE STUDY II
Thirteen subjects participated in the second
case study involving a bread toaster. A toaster
works by applying radiant heat directly to a
bread slice. When the bread’s surface
temperature reaches about 3100 F, a chemical
change known as the Maillard reaction begins
(Consumer Reports, 1990). Sugars and
starches start to caramelize and turn brown and
take on intense flavors characterizing a toast. If
the heating is excessive, the underlying grain
fibers start turning into carbon giving a burnt
toast. A toaster’s primary job, then, is to
control the amount, and placement of the heat
it delivers to a slice of bread.
User Requirements:
Based on the interview with the users
(customers), the following were identified as
the primary usability requirements:
1. Functional Requirements:
•
A toaster should produce toast of ideal
golden brown color.
•
The toast should be uniformly
browned over the entire slice on each
side.
•
Once color control is set, it should turn
out toast of the same color batch after
batch.
•
The toaster should accept thin bread
slices as well as thick bagels.
•
The toasting time should not be very
high.
2. Ease of Use:
•
The controls, such as push-down lever
and sliding knob, should be easy to
operate.
•
The controls should be conveniently
located. (In some designs, the slidedown lever is placed along the side
panel. The position of the lever makes
the appliance poor in balance while in
use and a downward push tends to tip
the toast over.)
3. Aesthetics:
•
The overall external appearance
120
should be pleasant and stylish.
4. Maintainability:
•
Removal of breadcrumbs should be
easy.
•
The outside of the toaster should not
stain permanently. It should be
possible to clean the outside by wiping
with a damp towel.
5. Reliability:
•
As a toaster is intended for daily use of
the entire family, it should be sturdy
enough to perform reliably. It should
be durable.
6. Energy Consumption:
•
The electrical energy consumption
should be minimized. Although a
toaster does not cost much to run, it
does draw a fairly large amount of
current. Most two-slicers draw 5 to 9
amperes.
7. Safety:
•
The outside of the toaster should not
be hot enough to burn the skin.
•
It should protect the user from being
electrocuted. Using a toaster when
another appliance, such as an electric
frying pan, is running on the same
circuit could blow a fuse or trip a
circuit breaker. The toaster should be
free from causing such electrical
hazards.
8. Recylability:
•
At the end of life of the toaster it
should be easy to dismantle and
dispose off. The parts of the toaster
should be recyclable.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The time of exposure for slice to heat
should be adequate to produce a fine
toast.
The force required to push the lever
should be within acceptable limits
even for small children and the elderly.
The locations of the controls and
knobs should facilitate easy access.
The color and gloss of external finish
should be pleasant to look at. The
shape of the product should be stylish.
The case of the toaster should be stainresistant and cleanable with water.
The outer casing and inner frames
should have high impact resistance and
resist breakage on falling.
The thermal insulation should be high
enough so that the toaster does not feel
hot outside.
The thermal insulation should also be
high enough to avoid heat dissipation.
This conserves the electrical energy.
The electrical insulation should be
good enough and the electrical circuit
should not come in contact with the
metal frame.
The toaster material should provide
adequate structural integrity to the
product. Also, after the end of life, the
toaster should be recyclable or
reusable.
Technical Requirements:
The customer requirements were translated
into appropriate technical requirements as
follows, in Figure 6:
•
The temperature attained inside the
toaster should be just adequate to
brown the slice. It should not be too
hot to burn the bread nor should it be
too cold to turn the color.
•
The application of heat should be
uniform enough to brown the slice
uniformly.
•
The width of the toaster opening
should be adequate to accept both thin
slices of bread and thick slices of
bagels.
Figure 6: QFD-1st Stage for Bread Toaster Transformation from User Requirements to
Technical Requirements.
121
Product Deployment:
During the next stage, the conceptual design of
the product was chosen to implement the
technical requirements listed above. This
involved the functional mechanism, the
component sub-assemblies related to these
functions, and the product architecture seen in
Figure 7.
weight to fall. The falling weight in turn
releases the metal strip holding the lever down.
On being released the lever moves up, carries
along the weight, and also causes the bread
holder to pop up. Adjusting the color control
knob changes the length the bimetallic strip
has to expand before it could cause the toast
lever to be released. The duration of heating is
thereby controlled by the color control knob.
The U-frame housing is enclosed on
its sides by two side covers and at its ends by
two end covers. At the bottom of the U-frame,
a crumb-tray is attached to retain falling
breadcrumbs.
Process Deployment:
The product features developed through the
selection of the concept design can be
implemented only through appropriate
selection of process features such as materials,
machines, and tools; see Figure 8.
Figure 7: QFD-2nd Stage for Bread Toaster Transformation from Technical Requirements to
Product Features.
Product Architecture: The toaster used in this
study is mechanically operated. It has an inner
U-frame. On one end of the U-frame a steel
rod is attached. The pushdown lever moves on
this rod. The pull force exerted by a steel coil
attached to the toast-lever always tries to keep
the lever at the top. As the lever is pushed
down, the bread holder inside the frame is
lowered. A copper rod runs through bottom of
the toaster with one of its ends connected to a
contact switch. This contact switch assembly
comprises of a heating coil and completes the
electrical circuit. The other end of the copper
rod is activated by the toast lever as the latter
is lowered to the bottom. The heating filament
is wrapped on two sheets of mica, held in place
vertically by attachments on the U-frame.
As the toast lever is lowered to the
bottom, the metal strip moving against the
vertical rod locks it in place. The lowering of
the lever also closes the circuit and heats up
the coil. A bi-metallic strip attached to the
bottom of the U-frame acts as a thermostat.
The bimetallic thermostat strip expands when
heated and pushes a rod which releases a
Figure 8: QFD-3rd Stage for Bread Toaster Transformation from Product Features to Process
Features.
Manufacturing Process: As the end bracket
gives structural rigidity, it is made of
galvanized steel 40 milli inches thick. The end
brackets and the base plate are stamped using a
punch press. The end brackets are then
mounted vertically on both ends of the base
plate by spot welding. The assembly
containing the coil and the weight is tabbed on
to the left end bracket. The vertical rod is
clamped between the coil assembly and the
base plate and holds the toast lever. The bread
holder rod is made of steel and coated with
copper to prevent rusting and contaminating
the food. Three mica sheets, with heating coil
122
wound on them, are mounted on to the base
plate one at the center and the other two on the
sides.The heating element is made of nichrome
and is wound on mica sheets of 15 milli inches
thick. Mica is highly heat resistant and
withstands the temperature of the heating coil.
As it is also a non-conductor of electricity, it
can be safely mounted on to the endbracket.The electrical switch assembly is
tabbed to the right side of the end-bracket and
is connected to an electrical cord. The
thermostat assembly is tabbed with the base
plate. The crumb tray is made of galvanized
steel sheet 18 milli inches thick and is pivoted
with the base plate using a thin steel rod.
The U-frame attached to the endbracket serves as the intermediate enclosure,
covering the top and sides of the toaster. It is
made of galvanized steel of 25 milli inches
thick and is chrome plated on top of a nickel
coating. The chrome and nickel coating makes
the cover rust proof and the polish helps retain
the heat inside the toaster due to high
reflectivity. The U-frame is enclosed on its
sides by side covers and on its end by end
covers. The U-frame and the side covers are
made by cold rolling. The end covers are made
by plastic molding using a thermoset polyester.
The U-frame, side covers, and end covers are
assembled on to the base plate using screws.
The steel covers are painted on the outside to
enhance appearance. The high reflectivity due
to the aluminized paint on the inside of the side
covers keeps the external body temperature
down. The thermosetting material is a poor
conductor of heat and, as a result, the end
cover remains cool. The color of the end cover
is chosen to match the user preferences.
Manufacturing Deployment:
The processes and the machine tools used to
manufacture the parts should be tightly
controlled in order to achieve the desired
quality (Juran, 1974). The desired goal of
producing usable products will not be realized
unless the manufacturing process is made
robust by controlling the manufacturing
variables as in Figure 9.
Figure 9: QFD-4th Stage for Bread Toaster Transformation from Process Features to Process
Variables.
Some of the important processes that are
relevant to the toaster manufacture are
progressive die operations, plastic molding,
assembly processes, painting and inorganic
coating. The factors controlling progressive die
operations and inorganic coating have already
been discussed.
Plastic Molding: The end-covers are made of
thermoset polyester by compression molding.
Thermosets are normally used as insulators in
electrical/electronic applications, and they
offer a wide range of capabilities in resistance
to heat and other environmental conditions.
Typical distinctive properties of thermosets
include dimensional stability, low-to-zero
creep, low water absorption, good electrical
properties, high heat deflection temperatures,
minimal values of coefficient of thermal
expansion, and low heat transfer.
The types of thermoset materials that
are capable of being molded include phenolic,
urea, melamine, melamine-phenolic, diallyl
phthalate, alkyd, polyester, epoxy, and the
silicones. The manufacturing processes
adopted for making thermoset plastic parts are
compression molding, transfer molding,
injection molding, rotational molding,
thermoforming, reaction injection molding,
casting, foam molding, reinforced plastics
molding, and laminating.
Organic Coating: The outside of the side
covers is painted with an organic coating
123
whereas the inside is coated with aluminized
paint. The following are various coating
methods:
•
Dip coating
•
Flow coating
•
Curtain coating
•
Roll coating
•
Spray coating
•
Powder-coating
The material components which affect the
quality of paint are: binder, pigment, diluent or
thinner, and additives. The binder is normally a
resinous material dispersed in a liquid diluent,
and it holds the pigment on the surface. The
binder is of following types: oils and
oleoresins, phenolic resins, alkyd resins and
polyurethanes. The pigment is a solid material
and nonsoluble in the binder and its diluent. It
adds color to the finish and increases the
opacity of the coating. Some classes of the
pigments are: white pigments, red pigments,
iron oxides, yellow and orange pigments,
green pigment, and blue pigments. The diluent
initially serves to dissolve the resin binder, but
when added in varying amounts and types it
may serve to control viscosity and evaporation
rate of the coating film. Broad classes of
thinners are: aromatic, tepenes, and acetates.
Additives are compounds added in small
quantities to impart special properties to the
coating. Some important types are: paint
dryers, metallic soaps, plasticizers, stabilizers,
wetting agents, viscosity and suspension
control
agents,
antiskinning
agents,
preservatives, fungicides, and moldicides.
Quality of painting depends on the surface
preparation, temperature of ambience, flow
rate of paint, speed of conveyor holding the
articles, etc.
Assembly Process: Assembly in manufacturing
often involves some type of mechanical
fastening of a part to itself, or two or more
parts or subassemblies together, to form a
functional product of a higher level
subassembly. Selection of a specific fastening
method depends on the materials to be joined,
the function of the joint, strength and
reliability requirements, weight limitations,
dimensions of the components, and the
environmental conditions. Other important
factors that must be considered include
available installation equipment, appearance,
and whether the assembly has to be dismantled
for repair, reuse or recycling.
Some of the fastening methods
include: 1. integral fasteners, 2. threaded
fasteners, 3. rivets, 4. industrial stitching and
stapling, 5. shrink and expansion fits, and 6.
adhesive joining. Snap fit or slide fit assembly
is commonly used in plastic parts when
frequent disassembly is needed for parts
replacement.
•
Integral fasteners are formed areas of
the component part or parts that
function by interfering or interlocking
with other areas of assembly. This type
of fastening is commonly applied to
formed sheet metal products and is
generally performed by lanced or
shear-formed tabs, extruded hole
flanges, embossed protrusions, edge
seams, and crimps.
•
Threaded fasteners are separate
components having internal or external
threads for mechanically joining the
parts. The common types of threaded
fasteners include bolts, studies, nuts
and screws. Threaded fasteners are
used for joining or holding parts
together
for
load-carrying
requirements,
especially
when
disassembly and reassembly may be
required.
•
Rivets are used for fastening two or
more pieces together by passing the
body through a hole in each piece and
then clinching or forming a second
head on the body end. Once, set in
place, a rivet cannot be removed
except by chipping off the head or
clinched end.
•
Stitching and stapling are fastening
methods in which U-shaped stitches
are formed from a coil of steel wire by
a machine that applies the stitch to the
materials being joined together. This
low cost method is not applicable
when repetitive, fast, and easy removal
or the fasteners is required.
•
Shrink or expansion fit is composed of
two normally interfering parts in
which the interference has been
eliminated during assembly by
dimensional change in one or both of
the parts by heating only one part or
by heating one part and cooling the
124
other. Some of the factors that affect
this method include dimensional
change required for the assembly,
effect of shrinking on the physical
properties and surface conditions of
the parts, and size and shape of the
parts.
aluminized coating on the inside of the side
cover. This helps energy conservation.
Safety: Use of aluminized coating on the inside
of the frame reduces heat transfer and prevents
the exterior from getting very hot. Use of
three-pin cord instead of a two-pin electrical
cord improves electrical safety.
Discussion:
The QFD process was used to link customer
usability requirements of a bread toaster with
the associated design and manufacturing
attributes. It is shown that by carefully
choosing manufacturing parameters and their
levels, a high degree of product usability can
be ensured. The following discussion shows
how this was achieved in the case of bread
toaster.
Functional requirement: The bread holder
keeps the slice vertical, enabling it to receive
heat uniformly. The width of the slot is at least
13/8 inches to accept even thick bagels. By
controlling the composition of the bimetal strip
(width, thickness, and length and the brazing
process), consistency in temperature control
can be obtained.
Ease of use: The tension of the toast lever coil
is determined by the width, thickness, and the
material. By controlling these three factors, the
force of application to lower the lever can be
controlled. The temperature control knob can
be located along the left end of the toaster,
below the lever, to facilitate visibility and easy
access.
Aesthetics: The color of the thermoset material
for the end covers and the paint on the side
covers can be chosen to match the user
preferences.
Maintainability: The crumb tray design enables
the removal of bread crumbs. By incorporating
a self-cleaning inner lining, removal/disposal
of bread crumbs can be made easy. Use of a
moisture proof paint for the side cover and the
thermoset can lead to easy exterior cleaning
with a damp cloth. A removable bread crumb
holder tray can also enhance ease of cleaning
the toaster.
Energy Conservation: Heat loss is reduced by
the reflectivity of the U-frame and the
Recyclability: The most important material
constituents are steel, thermoset polyester, and
mica. Use of screws makes separation of steel
components easy. Use of thermoplastics, in
place of polyester, improves recylcability. The
insulating sheets of mica can be easily
separated and reused.
FINAL REMARKS
This paper, part two of the two-part paper,
utilizes two case studies to show how the
concerns of users (usability requirements) can
be addressed by controlling manufacturing
attributes (manufacturing process variables).
The QFD methodology was employed to
develop the transformations linking the
usability requirements to manufacturing
attributes. The transformation is gradual, from
usability
requirements
to
technical
requirements, from technical requirements to
product features, from product features to
process features, and, eventually, from process
features to manufacturing variables. Such
transformations and relationships, between the
process variables and the usability features,
can help designers and manufacturing
engineers develop products the customer
needs, wants, appreciates, and uses. Needless
to say, products that are needed, wanted, and
used will sharpen the competitive edge of any
company
that
produces
them.
The
methodology described in part two of the twopart paper is an effort to develop ways to
enhance manufacturing competitiveness of
organizations.
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