THE EFFECT OF ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY ON CONSUMER PURCHASE
INTENTIONS IN THE FOOD PRODUCT SECTOR IN LITHUANIA
A Thesis
Presented to the Faculty
of ISM University of Management and Economics
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master in International Marketing
by
Vaiva Ungulaitytė
May 2015
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
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Abstract
This study examined the country of origin (COO) effect in terms of the impact that its antecedents of
ethnocentrism and animosity have on consumer intentions to purchase. The relationship between
ethnocentrism and animosity was also examined. The research design of the study consisted of an
online survey, where individual levels of ethnocentrism and animosity against Russia of Lithuanian
consumers were measured, along with their intentions to purchase imported Russian dairy and meat
products. After analyzing the results, it was found that both ethnocentrism and animosity had a
significant negative effect on consumer intentions to purchase Russian products. Moreover, there was
also an evident positive impact of animosity on the level of ethnocentrism demonstrated by the
respondents. It was also found that the levels of ethnocentrism and animosity differed significantly
between groups of respondents when divided by demographic variables of age, income and education.
The findings of the study suggest that the COO effect is still an important factor, which should be
considered by both local and foreign companies when developing their marketing strategies, as it
directly affects consumer intentions to purchase domestic versus imported production.
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
Table of Contents
List of Tables and Figures .................................................................................. 4
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 6
Literature Review ............................................................................................... 11
The Evolution of Research on Country-of-origin .................................. 11
The Complexity of the COO Construct ................................................. 16
Ethnocentrism ........................................................................................ 19
Animosity ............................................................................................... 24
COO Effect in Lithuania ........................................................................ 29
Problem Definition ................................................................................. 30
Research Methodology ...................................................................................... 34
Theoretical Framework .......................................................................... 34
Independent and Dependent Variables .................................................. 38
Context of the Study .............................................................................. 39
Research Design ..................................................................................... 40
Questionnaire Structure.......................................................................... 42
Sample Description and Methods of Data Collection ............................ 45
Empirical Research Results ............................................................................... 48
Validity and Reliability of the Data ....................................................... 48
Profile of the Participants ....................................................................... 49
Descriptive Statistics .............................................................................. 51
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ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
Testing the Hypotheses .......................................................................... 52
Discussion and Conclusions............................................................................... 62
Summary of the Findings ....................................................................... 62
Implications of the Findings .................................................................. 67
Limitations of the Study......................................................................... 69
Suggestions for Future Research............................................................ 70
Conclusions ............................................................................................ 72
References .......................................................................................................... 74
Appendix ............................................................................................................ 82
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ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
List of Tables and Figures
Table 1: Authors Examining the Static versus Dynamic Nature of COO Effect ........... 15
Table 2: The Complexity of the COO Construct ........................................................... 16
Table 3: The Classification of Animosity ...................................................................... 26
Figure 1: The Conceptual Model of the Study. .............................................................. 35
Table 4: The Questionnaire Structure ............................................................................ 44
Table 5: The Demographic Profile of Participants ........................................................ 50
Table 6: The Descriptive Statistics of the Variables ...................................................... 52
Figure 2: The correlation between ethnocentrism and intention to purchase (ITP)....... 53
Figure 3: The correlation between animosity and intention to purchase (ITP) ............. 54
Figure 4: The correlation between animosity and ethnocentrism. ................................. 55
Table 7: The Summary of the Empirical Testing of Hypotheses. .................................. 60
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Introduction
Research Problem Definition
Country of origin (COO) effect in relation to consumer behavior has been extensively
researched for more than several decades now. One of the most widely researched topics in relation to
COO has been its effect on consumer purchase intentions towards imported products from foreign
countries. Prior research has revealed that the two main endogenous antecedents of COO affecting
consumer intention to purchase are their individual levels of ethnocentrism (Balabanis &
Diamantopolous, 2004) and animosity (Nijssen & Douglas, 2004) towards the foreign country.
Multiple studies over the years have demonstrated that higher levels of ethnocentrism and animosity
can negatively impact consumer intentions to purchase goods imported from foreign countries (Klein &
Ettenson, 1999; Papadopoulos, 1993). Demographic variables such as age, education and income have
also been found to have a significant impact on the level of country of origin effects demonstrated by
individual consumers (Sharma et al., 1995).
Even though multiple studies have already examined the COO effect in diverse contexts, there
are several limitations and gaps in the research that still need to be addressed further. First of all, there
is a disagreement between various authors on whether COO still remains an important factor affecting
consumer intentions to purchase in today's markets of globalization and internationalization. It is
suggested that more detailed investigations into the concept of COO and its antecedents are necessary
in order to determine its relevance today (Pharr, 2005). Moreover, mixed results have been
demonstrated by prior research in terms of the relationship between the concepts of ethnocentrism and
animosity. Some authors have found animosity to be positively related to ethnocentrism (Klein &
Ettenson, 1999), while others claim them to be two distinct concepts (Nakos & Hajidimitriou, 2007).
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
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According to Balabanis et al. (2001), ethnocentrism and animosity are also especially subject to change
in various cultural contexts. Therefore, there is still a need for further research to be conducted in the
field, where the impact of consumer ethnocentrism and animosity on intention to purchase would be
measured in novel and different contexts.
This study aims to examine the topic of COO effect and its antecedents of ethnocentrism and
animosity further in the context of the food product sector in Lithuania. This particular context has not
yet been widely investigated in relation to COO. The research study is also looking to examine the
effects that the occurring animosity between Lithuania and Russia might have on consumer intentions
to purchase products originating from the other country. Based on prior research, it could be
hypothesized that Lithuanian consumers with higher levels of ethnocentrism and animosity should have
lower purchase intentions of Russian products. However, up to this day there have not been any
scientific attempts to examine the relationship any further in this specific context. Consequently, the
aim of the study is to measure whether the level of ethnocentrism and animosity has a significant
impact on Lithuanian consumers' intentions to purchase food products originating from Russia. The
results of such study would have significant practical implications for the foreign firms looking to enter
the Lithuanian market, by revealing the importance of COO when marketing their products. Moreover,
the possible correlation between ethnocentrism and animosity is examined in more detail, which could
potentially lead to new insights into the concept of COO as a whole.
Thesis Goal
The thesis goal is to identify whether ethnocentrism and animosity have an effect on Lithuanian
consumers' intentions to purchase food products originating from Russia.
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Thesis Objectives
The main objectives of the following research study are:
1. To analyze and describe previous research in relation to COO and its antecedents of
ethnocentrism and animosity, the relationship between them and the effect that they have on consumer
intentions to purchase, as well as to identify the relevant gaps in existing literature.
2. To conduct the empirical research in order to find out if ethnocentrism and animosity against
Russia have a significant effect on consumer intentions to purchase in the food product sector in
Lithuania.
3. To compare the literature analysis and the empirical testing results, and to discuss whether
the found effects of ethnocentrism and animosity on intentions to purchase in Lithuania are consistent
with prior research in other contexts, along with the practical implications of the findings and
suggestions for future research.
Research Design
The study uses the quantitative research method in order to investigate the effect of
ethnocentrism and animosity on consumer intentions to purchase. The food product sector in Lithuania
has been chosen to be used as the context in this study. Firstly, the individual levels of ethnocentrism
and animosity of each participant are measured. To measure consumer ethnocentrism, a 10-item
CETSCALE is used (Shimp & Sharma, 1987). For measuring consumer animosity towards the foreign
country, a scale developed by Nijssen and Douglas (2004) is applied. The participants are then asked to
indicate their intentions to purchase food products that are imported from Russian manufacturers
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
9
(specific companies or brands are not named in the survey). In order to measure purchase intentions a
version of the scale developed by Klein et al. (1998) is used. Finally, demographic information about
the participants' age, gender, education and income is collected. The described research method allows
to determine the effect that ethnocentrism and animosity have on consumer intentions to purchase in a
novel context of food products in Lithuania, and also to see how the two concepts are related to each
other. In addition, to gain a deeper understanding of the concepts, the differences in levels of
ethnocentrism and animosity are examined and compared between distinct demographic groups of
participants.
Methods of Data Collection and Analysis
In order to collect the data, convenience sampling technique is used and participants are
selected because of their convenient accessibility and proximity to the researcher. The questionnaire is
carried out in electronic format via the internet. Several statistical tests are employed to analyze the
data and answer the research questions, such as analysis of variance, independent t-test, correlation and
regression analysis.
Thesis Sequence
The first step of the thesis sequence is the literature review, where the current state of
knowledge about COO is presented and the concepts of ethnocentrism and animosity are clearly
defined based on prior research. The central research question and problem definition are also
presented.
Secondly, the empirical research is carried out. It consists of measuring participants' levels of
ethnocentrism and animosity, as well as their intentions to purchase food products imported from
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
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Russia. Subsequently, the next step is to process the data collected and perform the statistical data
analysis. In the following stage, the results of the study are presented.
The final stage of the research sequence entails the comparison of the reviewed literature and
the empirical testing results. Scientific and managerial significance of the study are described here,
along with recommendations and implications for further research.
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Literature Review
This section of the research paper is dedicated to describing the evolution of research on the
country of origin (COO) effect and consequently, defining its psychosocial antecedents of
ethnocentrism and animosity, which are two of the main concepts used in the empirical study.
The following literature review is thus divided into three main sections. In the first section the
evolution of research on the COO construct is described along with its definition. Then the antecedents
of ethnocentrism and animosity are presented and analyzed in more detail with regard to prior research.
The final part of the chapter aims to summarize the findings, identify the existing gaps in the literature
and define the main research problem.
The Evolution of Research on Country-of-origin
Researchers and marketing practitioners have been examining the topic of how consumer
intentions and behavior are affected by the country a product is made in for more than several decades
now. Multiple authors in the literature define the country of origin as “the country of manufacture or
assembly of a product” (Bilkey & Nes, 1982; Lee & Schaninger, 1996; Papadopoulos, 1993). However,
some other definitions are prevalent as well, for example, Johansson et al. (1985) describe country of
origin as the location of the corporate headquarters of the company. These definitions take on
significantly different views towards COO, as in many cases the location of the company's
headquarters differs from the place of manufacture or assembly of the product. Such differences
become especially important during this age of internationalization and globalization of trade and
businesses, when many products are often assembled and produced in several distinct countries.
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However, despite their differences most researchers in the literature agree that COO becomes an
essential factor for companies when entering new markets. This is due to the fact that it can create
intangible barriers because of the negative bias that consumers may hold towards the products coming
from a particular foreign country (Wang & Lamb, 1983). The constant dynamic changes in the world of
business are affecting the way researchers look at the country of origin effect with a growing need to
examine it further, especially in relation to a number of different attributes and in a variety of new
contexts. The following part of the literature review will thus be focused on the evolution of research
on country of origin up to this day, in order to more clearly define and describe the constructs that were
chosen to be used in this particular study.
Static Nature of the COO Effect. The first approach taken by scholars to examine the COO
effect occurred during the seventh decade and can be seen as rather simplistic in the eyes of today's
research. This is due to the fact that the studies, which were conducted in this primary period of
research, employed methods that did not reveal the true complexity of the construct (Bilkey & Nes,
1982). The COO effect was examined only at a single point in time, thus assuming its static nature and
not taking into account any changes that might occur over time. The method used was often a singlecue approach, which looked at COO as the only product cue that was affecting consumer behavior in
empirical manipulations and was also the only characteristic presented for consumers to base their
decision about the product on. Therefore, the results of such studies tended to underestimate the
complexity of COO and at the same time to overestimate the effect that it had on consumers' purchaserelated behavior (Pharr, 2005).
The country of origin based research first began with the work of Schooler in 1965, who was
the first author to define and scientifically examine the COO effect. Schooler carried out his study on a
student sample in South America and asked them to rate products that were indicated to supposedly be
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
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originating from four different countries. The results revealed that products from less developed
countries were evaluated less positively by the respondents and thus it could be concluded that the
country of origin effect did in fact exist and that it had an impact on consumer perceptions of products.
In the following years, many similar studies followed the work of Schooler and continuously attempted
to analyze the country of origin topic in more depth. The next major author who took the COO research
a step further was Reierson in 1967. He examined the topic in the context of American students and
several different product categories, with products originating from the USA and multiple foreign
countries. Reierson found that the country of origin and the national stereotypes associated with it had a
significant impact on the American respondents’ opinions as well.
Another important advance in the primary COO research was the identification of regional
versus national labeling of products (Schooler & Sunoo, 1969). Regional labeling meant that instead of
naming a particular country of origin, a region of origin was mentioned (“made in Europe”, “made in
North America”, etc.). The authors noticed that while consumers often had negative bias towards
products labeled nationally (as coming from a particular country), regional labeling did not seem to
have any noticeable impact on consumer behavior. Such findings brought an important revelation for
manufacturers coming from developing countries, which often had to face the negative perceptions
consumers from other parts of the world held towards their products. In the years to follow other
authors consistently found similar results that the country of origin effect had a major significant
impact on consumers’ evaluations of products in a variety of different contexts (Schooler, 1971).
However, as it has been mentioned before, the first studies often underestimated the complexity
of the topic, by using simplistic research methods where the COO was seen as a static construct and
was also the only characteristic of the product provided for the consumer to evaluate. Such
manipulations did not reflect the real-life environment in which consumers actually made purchase-
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related decisions and therefore, the results of such studies now could not be deemed as entirely accurate
(Bilkey & Nes, 1982).
Dynamic Nature of the COO Effect. The researchers that followed the work of pioneers in the
field of COO effect began to realize the drawbacks and disadvantages that this simplistic approach had.
During the period of 1970-1990, a multiple cue approach to examining COO emerged, based on the
idea that in the natural environment the consumer is faced with and affected by many more cues than
just the location where the product is made in (Bilkey & Nes, 1982). This led to the consequent
development of numerous mufti-faceted design studies, which examined the COO effect in context
with other product attributes, such as price, quality, reliability and others. The results of such studies
revealed that when COO was investigated together with other cues, it had a less significant effect on
consumer behavior than it had been believed before (Darling & Puetz, 2002; Papadopoulos et al.,
1987). Moreover, the findings of multiple cue studies suggested that the country of origin effect was
more of a dynamic construct rather than a static one as it had been seen by single cue research
(Nagashima, 1970; Nagashima, 1977). The dynamic nature of the construct meant that it was subject to
change over time due to the constantly shifting beliefs and attitudes that people had in general.
Nagashima's research during the period of 1970-1977 entailed the comparison of Japanese and
American consumers' perceptions of national and foreign products over a period of time. The research
revealed that the attitudes of Japanese and American consumers towards the same products differed
based on the different national stereotypes that they possessed. For instance, while the Japanese rated
German originating products the most positively, the American consumers had the most positive
attitudes towards their own domestic production. Nagashima replicated the study seven years later and
found that the country of origin image had in fact changed over time. The results showed that the image
of USA had deteriorated in the minds of consumers during that time, whereas the images of other
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countries used in the research (Japan, Germany, France and UK) had improved. Other authors
continued to follow the work of Nagashima and their research consistently confirmed the dynamic
nature of the country of origin construct (Darling & Puetz, 2002; Lampert & Jaffe, 1998; Papadopoulos
et al., 1987). The table below presents the main authors in the literature who examined the static versus
dynamic nature of country of origin effect.
Table 1
Authors Examining the Static versus Dynamic Nature of COO Effect
Authors Examining the Static Nature
Authors Examining the Dynamic Nature
Schooler (1965); Reierson (1967);
Nagashima (1970); Nagashima (1977); Bilkey &
Schooler & Sunoo (1969); Schooler (1971).
Nes (1982); Papadopoulos et al. (1987); Lampert
& Jaffe (1998); Darling & Puetz 2002.
In the years to follow, the multiple-cue approach for measuring COO was further developed and
widely used. Along with country of origin, researchers used multiple other attributes (price, reliability,
durability, workmanship, etc.) that consumers were asked to consider and rate when making their
judgments about the presented products. The results of such research consistently showed that the
country of origin effect on consumer behavior was less significant than it had been believed before. It
was demonstrated that price and other quality-related attributes were rated as more important than COO
to most consumers when making a product evaluation (Ettenson et al., 1988; Johansson et al., 1985).
Another important study in the history of COO research is one that was performed by Han in
1989. He conducted interviews with consumers from three countries (USA, Japan and South Korea) in
order to examine the role that country of origin had on their perceptions of certain products. After
analyzing the results, Han came to the now widely cited conclusion that COO can be used as either a
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
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halo or a summary construct by consumers in their product evaluations. According to the author, the
halo effect occurs when consumers are not familiar with the product category or have limited
knowledge about it. In such conditions, the country of origin serves as a source of information and
consumers attribute the characteristics of country image to their evaluation of the product. On the other
hand, if the consumers are familiar with the product category and also the country of origin itself, then
COO can be used as a summary construct, which summarizes their attitudes towards the product
characteristics (Han, 1989).
The Complexity of the COO Construct
With the advancement of research that has been described previously (from static to dynamic
image; from single to multiple cue approach), the understanding of what the overall construct of COO
is has been shifting as well. It is important to note that the COO construct is perceived differently by
various authors in their work as it is demonstrated in Table 2 below.
Table 2
The Complexity of the COO Construct
Definition of the COO Construct
Authors
The country where the product was assembled.
Papadopoulos (1993)
The country where the majority of components of the
Insch & McBride (2004);
product were made.
Lee & Schaninger (1996)
The country where the product was manufactured.
Bilkey & Nes (1982);
Lee & Schaninger (1996)
The country where the company owning the product is
based.
Johansson et al. (1985)
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As this particular study is carried out in the food product sector, in most cases the goods are
produced in a single country. Therefore, in this case it would not be logical to look at COO as the
“country of assembly of the product“ or the “country of components of the product“. Moreover, when it
comes to food products, consumers are usually more concerned with the country where the product was
actually made in rather than the country where the brand is established. Consequently, the following
study takes on the views of the authors, who claim that country of origin can best be defined as the
country of manufacture of a product (Bilkey & Nes, 1982; Lee & Schaninger, 1996). However, in order
to understand the construct of COO that exists today deeper, it is also important to look at the main
antecedents and precursors, which determine the variations in the COO effect. It has been suggested by
prior research that the antecedents of COO can be divided into two main parts – exogenous and
endogenous (Pharr, 2005), both of which are described in more detail in the following part of the
chapter.
First of all, the exogenous antecedents investigate the COO effect in relation to external factors
that occur outside of the consumers. They seek to explain the differences in individual COO effects by
looking at the structural and cultural dimensions of the particular country in question. One of such most
commonly used exogenous variables is the level of economic development of the country. However, as
demonstrated by prior research, the exogenous antecedents have produced rather mixed results in terms
of their impact on consumer intentions to purchase and have not been found to be as influential as the
endogenous variables (Pharr, 2005).
While exogenous antecedents have received extensive attention from scholars over the years,
the endogenous traits have been examined much less and are still relatively new concepts in the
literature of COO. These factors focus on the traits that are found within consumers and impact the
individual level of COO effect in each consumer, for instance such as demographic and psychosocial
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variables (Balabanis & Diamantopoulos, 2004). Country image is one of the main factors that falls
under the psychosocial category of antecedents. Previous research has demonstrated that if consumers
have a more positive image of a country, consequently they will have higher purchasing intentions of
the products originating from that country (Roth & Romeo, 1992). As indicated by Pharr (2005),
country stereotypes are also considered as another antecedent of the endogenous type. Stereotypes as
such can be either of a favorable or unfavorable nature and that can determine the positive or negative
bias that consumers will hold towards that country and its products.
Consumer ethnocentrism and country-specific animosity are two other examples of the
psychosocial antecedents that have been examined less in the context of country of origin research. It
has been demonstrated that the concepts of ethnocentrism and animosity are especially subject to
change in different cultural contexts and the findings are not consistent across various countries
(Balabanis et al., 2001). The research on post-Soviet bloc countries in terms of ethnocentrism and
animosity is particularly scarce, despite of their interesting and unique historical context. In addition,
although several authors have already investigated the existence of a correlation between ethnocentrism
and animosity, they have found mixed and inconsistent results (Klein & Ettenson, 1999; Nakos &
Hajidimitriou, 2007). A clear and more comprehensive approach to an empirically confirmed
relationship between the two concepts is still missing (Pharr, 2005). As a result, there is still a lack of
studies in the literature of COO that focus both on consumer ethnocentrism and animosity and examine
the correlation between them in novel contexts, which is essential because of the mentioned cultural
sensitivity of the concepts. It is important to identify a more precise nature of the relationship between
these antecedents and the overall effect that they have on consumer purchase intentions, in order to
gather a deeper insight into the concept of COO. Due to such gaps in the current literature,
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19
ethnocentrism and animosity have been chosen as the main concepts in the study and are described in
more detail in the following part of the chapter.
Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism (CET) as a concept in the field of marketing was first applied and defined by
Shimp and Sharma in 1987 as “the home country bias portion of the country-of-origin effect”. Another
well-known and widely accepted definition was proposed by Papadopoulos (1993) who states that it is
“the phenomenon of a preference of one’s ‘kind’ and concomitant dislike of others”. Essentially both of
these definitions indicate that it is a belief that is held in the minds of consumers concerning the
morality and suitability of purchasing products that are produced in foreign countries. Consumers that
are more ethnocentric may hold the belief that purchasing imported products is unpatriotic in the sense
that it hurts the domestic economy. Therefore, the construct of ethnocentrism can have a negative effect
on consumers' intentions to purchase foreign products and in turn have them biased in favor of
domestic production (Balabanis & Diamantopoulos, 2004).
The idea of ethnocentrism is also supported by social identity theory, which says that people
tend to categorize themselves as belonging to some social groups (in-groups) and others as belonging
to different social groups (out-groups) (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). According to the authors, members of a
certain in-group are likely to have negative perceptions of the out-group, in order to enhance their own
self-perception. With regards to consumer ethnocentrism in marketing, the in-group becomes the
domestic country of consumers, whereas the out-group is the foreign country. Consequently,
consumers perceive their in-group as superior and hold prejudiced negative views against the outgroup, leading them to believe that their domestic goods are the best and thus increase their willingness
to purchase such products.
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Shimp and Sharma (1987) can be given credit for not only defining the concept of
ethnocentrism but also for developing an important tool, which is used by researchers to measure the
level of consumer ethnocentrism up to this day – the CETSCALE (Consumer Ethnocentric Tendencies
Scale). The scale was first developed with 225 questions, however, during periods of multiple testing it
was reduced to a final version of 17 items. The scale measures the tendency of consumers to
consistently behave towards domestic and foreign productions. Respondents, whose scores are
distributed in the upper half of the scale are then categorized as highly ethnocentric, meanwhile those
who have scores on the lower half of the scale are said to be less ethnocentric. The scale was originally
validated in the US by Shimp and Sharma but during the years and research that followed, it has been
validated in multiple other countries as well. For example, the UK (Balabanis & Diamantopoulos,
2004), Netherlands (Douglas & Nijssen, 2003), Poland (Supphellen & Rittenburg, 2001), China
(Pereira et al., 2002) and others. Moreover, shorter versions of the original 17-item scale have also been
used and validated by other researchers. One of the most popular of such shortened versions is the 10item CETSCALE, with its main advantage being the smaller amount of questions that the respondents
have to answer (Balabanis et al., 2001). Another even shorter version that consisted of 4-items was also
introduced to the research literature and was demonstrated to have high (0.96) correlation with the 10item scale (Klein, 2002).
Demographic variables. The following study is also looking to compare how the levels of
ethnocentrism may differ within various demographic groups of consumers. This category of variables
was chosen because of its expected significant impact on ethnocentric tendencies. It is interesting to
examine the demographic variables in the context of post-Soviet countries mainly because of the
predictable significant variations between the different generations of consumers. The older generation
was born and grew up under the Soviet regime, meanwhile, the younger one has already spent the
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21
biggest part of its conscious life in independence and has not directly experienced the Russian
occupation. Therefore, such differences between the two demographic groups should also result in
important implications in terms of their effects on ethnocentric tendencies. In addition, there is also the
existence of mixed findings by different authors when it comes to the demographic variables of
education and gender (Bailey & Pineres, 1997; Insch & McBride, 2004; Ruyter et al., 1998; Sharma et
al., 1995). As a result, it would be interesting to see the effect that these variables have in the particular
context of this study. In the further part of this chapter, the existing findings on each of the
demographic variables are going to be described in more detail in order to provide a clearer picture of
how each of them may influence the level of consumer ethnocentrism in individuals.
It has been demonstrated by prior research that demographic variables such as age and
education can have an impact on the individual levels of ethnocentrism exhibited by consumers (Shimp
& Sharma, 1987). When it comes to the age factor of consumers, researchers have demonstrated that as
people get older, they become more ethnocentric and as a result, more biased against purchasing
foreign production (Wetzels et al., 1996). On the other hand, younger people in general hold more
cosmopolitan views and possess lower levels of patriotism. Consequently, such consumers are usually
more open-minded and in favor of purchasing foreign products than the elder part of the population
(Sharma et al., 1995).
Furthermore, education has also been demonstrated to be one of the most influential
demographic variables in terms of affecting the individual levels of consumer ethnocentrism. Most
authors have found that the higher the level of education is, the less ethnocentric tendencies the person
possesses and so is more in favor of foreign production (Bailey & Pineres, 1997; Festervand et al.,
1985). The rationale behind this is that education broadens the minds of people, in turn making them
more open and less prejudiced towards the ideas and values of other cultural groups. However, there
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22
have also been some inconsistent findings provided by other authors. Among others, Insch and
McBride (2004) found that education did not have a significant impact in the context of some product
categories and also in particular country contexts (for instance, with American consumers).
Gender was another demographic variable that has been widely examined in relation to
consumer ethnocentrism and has demonstrated some mixed results. A portion of the researchers who
investigated this relationship found women to show more ethnocentric tendencies than men (Bruning,
1997; Sharma et al., 1995). This was explained by the authors to be due to the fact that women in
general are more empathetic, conservative and care about maintaining harmony and well-being within
their social groups. However, as demonstrated by some other researchers, gender was found to be a
relatively unimportant factor when it comes to the effect on consumer ethnocentrism (Ruyter et al.,
1998).
Finally, in terms of demographic variables, income has also been found to have a significant
impact on levels of ethnocentrism by multiple researchers. Most studies have demonstrated that there is
a negative correlation between the level of income and ethnocentrism of an individual (Bruning, 1997).
Such a relationship can be explained as due to the fact that higher levels of income allow for more
opportunities of foreign travel and interactions with other cultures. Consequently, people that earn
higher income levels are usually better traveled and more cosmopolitan, which causes them to be less
ethnocentric and hence have more positive attitudes towards buying imported goods (Sharma et al.,
1995).
The effect of ethnocentrism on consumer behavior. As it has been mentioned, the topic of
ethnocentrism and the use of the CETSCALE in different contexts had become a popular area and tool
of investigation for many researchers in the years to follow. One of such examples where the relation
between ethnocentrism and consumer intentions to purchase was empirically examined by using the
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
23
CETSCALE was that of Lantz and Loeb (1996). They investigated it in the context of American and
Canadian consumers’ preferences of computer mouse-pads. The authors motivated that such a product
was chosen for the study because it was a low-involvement, generic product for which country of
origin effects would not generally occur. The results of the survey-based research revealed that
consumers with higher levels of ethnocentrism were not only more willing to purchase domestically
made mouse-pads but also to pay larger sums of money for them. Such findings support the theory of
ethnocentrism acting as an important factor with regard to consumer decisions of purchasing domestic
versus foreign production. However, it is argued by some researchers that the implications of the Lantz
and Loeb study are limited because of their use of the sample of undergraduate students as respondents
(Watson & Wright, 1999).
Another major study that examined ethnocentrism in relation to consumer intentions to
purchase was performed by Baker and Michie (1995). They used five different automobile
manufacturers in the research in order to examine the effect of British drivers' ethnocentrism on
product perceptions and intentions to purchase. The automobiles used in the study were of four foreign
producers and one domestic producer. The results revealed that ethnocentrism had a significant effect
on the preferences of consumers: 18% of the respondents demonstrated a strong preference, whereas
48% showed a general preference towards their domestic brand. According to Baker and Michie, such
results indicate that consumer ethnocentrism can act as an important source of competitive advantage
for a domestic brand, especially when other product attributes (such as price and quality) are of similar
level between the foreign and domestic competitors.
Balabanis and Diamantopolous are two other major authors in the literature on ethnocentrism,
especially well-known for their study in 2004, where they found that consumer perceptions and
preferences for foreign and domestic products depend not only on the country of origin, but on the
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
24
product category as well. They examined the preferences of British consumers towards domestic
products and foreign ones from five well-developed countries (USA, Japan, Italy, Germany, and
France). The authors motivate their exclusion of less-developed countries from the research by
claiming that products from such countries are usually perceived of lower quality in general and thus
this could lead to biased results of the study. Eight different product categories were also chosen by the
researchers to be part of the study, they included: cars, food products, toiletries, TV sets, toys, fashion
wear, furniture and do-it-yourself tools. The respondents of the study were then asked to rank the
countries of origin for each product category indicating their preferences. The individual level of
ethnocentrism of each participant was also measured by use of the CETSCALE. Results of the study
revealed that consumers did not consistently favor their home country in their preferences. However,
there was a strong positive relationship between ethnocentrism and participant preference for domestic
products; and a negative one between ethnocentrism and the negative bias against foreign goods.
Animosity
The second concept examined in this study is that of animosity. In the recent years, it has
gained a lot of interest in the field of marketing research, particularly due to the growth of international
trade and product alternatives from many different countries now being available for consumers to
choose from. Animosity is defined as consumers' antipathy towards a foreign country, caused by the
past or present economic, political, military or diplomatic activities (Klein et al., 1998). In today's
context of international markets, this construct becomes of special importance because it can have a
significant negative effect on consumers' purchase intentions of foreign products. In most cases
animosity is event-triggered, meaning that it can arise from historical, national or even personal events
that are negatively associated with a particular country (Jung et al., 2002). Consumer animosity
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
25
towards a foreign country can also be of dual dimensions – cognitive and affective. The cognitive
perspective is caused by rational underlying reasons, such as historical events and is more of a stable
nature. Meanwhile, the affective dimension is more situational and unstable, however, it has also been
found to have a more significant influence on consumer purchase intentions (Leong et al., 2008).
Consumer animosity has been found to be positively related to ethnocentrism by some authors, as both
concepts can have significant effect on consumer intentions to purchase products from foreign
countries. However, it is also claimed to be a rather distinct construct from consumer ethnocentrism by
others (Nakos & Hajidimitriou, 2007). The rationale behind this is that while ethnocentric consumers
may be less willing to purchase goods that are imported from foreign countries in general, consumers
with high levels of animosity usually tend to have negative purchase intentions towards products
coming from one country in particular (Klein & Ettenson, 1999).
Animosity is a relatively new concept in the marketing literature as it was first empirically
investigated with regards to consumer behavior only in 1998 by Klein et al. They examined the
perceptions of Chinese consumers towards Japanese products, by using the Nanking massacre of 1937
(when Japanese troops murdered thousands of Chinese civilians) as underlying rationale for animosity.
The authors revealed that even though many years had passed since the cruel event, the Chinese
consumers still held negative feelings of animosity towards the Japanese, which had negative effects on
their intentions to purchase products imported from Japan. As it has been mentioned previously,
animosity can be classified into several different types, with two of the main types being – economic
and war animosity (Klein et al., 1998). Economic animosity relates more to the fear of economic
domination of a foreign country over the consumers' home country. It can also be associated with
unjustified power in the market gained by one country, unfair trade or even losing one's job to due to a
negative economic situation that has been influenced by another country. On the other hand, war
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
26
animosity is related to military disagreements between countries, which can result in the physical harm
of citizens of one country or even occupation.
Furthermore, Klein et al. (1998) developed a scale, which has been used to measure animosity
by many of their subsequent authors. The original scale consisted of three different parts: general
animosity revealing total hatred towards a country and measured by a single variable, military
animosity measured by three variables and economic animosity measured by five variables. However,
over the years modified and shortened versions of the scale have also been validated and used by
researchers. Later studies also tended to exclude the general animosity part and focused solely on the
war and economic animosity (Witkowski, 2000; Wood & Darling, 1993).
Most authors in their research studies have investigated the animosity of the consumers of one
country towards the products originating from another country and have aimed to duplicate the findings
of Klein et al. (1998) in different contexts. Based on the research that has been carried out in the field,
animosity can be classified as being of several different types depending on its origin, an overview of
which is presented in the table below.
Table 3
The Classification of Animosity
Authors
Type of animosity
Countries examined
Klein & Ettenson (1999)
Situational – Economic
USA's animosity against Japan
Ettenson & Klein (2005)
Situational – Economic
Australia's animosity against France
Cici et al. (2005)
Situational – War
Animosity between Bosnia, Serbia, Croatia
Shoham et al. (2006)
Situational – War
Israel's animosity against Palestine
Witkowski (2000)
Stable – Economic
USA's animosity against China
Russel (2004)
Stable – Economic
Animosity between USA and France
Wood & Darling (1993)
Stable – War
Central and Eastern European countries
Klein et al. (1998)
Stable – War
China's animosity against Japan
Nijssen & Douglas (2004)
Stable – War
Netherlands' animosity against Germany
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
27
Sources of animosity. As it is demonstrated in Table 3, animosity for a particular country can
be of multiple types and thus it can be triggered by multiple different sources. Most authors in the
literature on animosity divide the sources into few general groups such as war-based, economic-based,
social-cultural based or personal-based (Klein & Ettenson, 1999).
In terms of the war-based animosity, in most cases it has been found to be of a more cognitive
and stable nature when military conflicts are involved. This has been demonstrated by authors such as
Nijssen and Douglas, who in their paper of 2004 found that animosity had a significant influence on
Dutch consumers' intentions to purchase as they were more reluctant to purchase cars that were
produced in Germany. This behavior was positively correlated to the animosity levels felt towards
Germany, which as explained by the authors, was probably due to the German aggression during World
War II. However, it is important to note here that war-related animosity can also be of a situational and
unstable nature, especially when it comes to feelings of extreme nationalism between several ethnic
subcultures. Cicic et al. (2005) demonstrated such types of situational animosity between the Bosnians,
Serbs and Croats, who all felt high levels of animosity towards each other during the time of military
conflict between the groups. After some time had passed and when the physical conflicts had ceased,
the animosity levels were seen to go down as well. Similar types of situational animosity can also be
seen evident between other ethnic groups around the world as well (Shoham et al., 2006).
When it comes to the economic-based precursors of animosity, it is usually caused by the
perceived economic threat or dominance of one nation towards another (Klein et al., 1998). For
instance, Witkowski (2000) found that American consumers' purchase intentions of Chinese products
were negatively impacted by their animosity towards China. Such animosity was most likely caused by
China's rapidly growing economy, which could be perceived as a threat to the domestic economic and
well-being of the American consumers. Similar results were demonstrated by Ettenson and Klein
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
28
(2005), in the context of Australians' animosity towards France, during the time that France was
performing nuclear research in the South Pacific close to the shores of Australia. The results of the
study indicated that at the time of the nuclear research Australian consumers' animosity towards France
had significantly risen and consequently, negatively affected their willingness to purchase imported
production from France. However, it is important to note here that the authors performed their study
once again in a year, when the nuclear research had already been finished. This time they found that the
animosity towards France in Australia had decreased as compared to the results of the first study. Such
findings provide evidence for the suggestion of Leong et al. (2008) that animosity can also be of a more
affective situational nature and unstable over time.
Animosity of one nation towards another or between nations can also be caused by socialcultural factors, as for example, differences in culture, religion and mentality (Klein & Ettenson, 1999).
One of the most prominent examples of such animosity in the world is the one felt between the
American and the French nations. Moreover, such animosity can be of a stable nature and occur even
without the two sides ever being involved in any military conflicts. Russel (2004) demonstrated the
existence of this type of animosity in the context of the film industry by comparing each country's
consumers' preferences of American and French films. He found that there was a positive correlation
between the level of animosity felt towards the foreign country and the preference for locally produced
films rather than imported ones, which by most consumers was perceived as “cultural invasion”. This
was explained by the author as due to the clear mentality differences between the two nations, with the
French being extremely proud of their culture and being derogatory towards the American culture and
values.
Finally, the origins of animosity can also be of a more personal nature based on the specific
traits and experiences of a particular individual (Klein & Ettenson, 1999). For example, animosity
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
29
towards another country can be brought on and impacted by factors such as age, nationalism, patriotism
and collectivism (Shoham et al., 2006). The personal type of animosity can also be generated by a
simple factor like a negative individual experience with a particular country. It can either be caused by
a single experience in time or during multiple similar experiences, which lead to a more stable nature of
animosity (Jung et al., 2002). Personal-based sources of animosity can also include the environment
and demographic characteristics of the individual consumer. For instance, in terms of the relationship
between age and animosity, it has been demonstrated by previous research studies that age has a
significant effect on the level of animosity. As a result, consumers who are older tend to hold
significantly higher levels of animosity towards a particular foreign country (Klein & Morris 1996;
Klein & Ettenson 1999). With regards to other demographic variables such as gender, no significant
influence in relation to animosity has been demonstrated by researchers up to this day (Klein & Morris
1996; Klein & Ettenson 1999). The findings on the effect of education on animosity have been similar,
with no significant correlation found between the two concepts (Klein & Ettenson, 1999). Meanwhile,
in the same study, income was found to have a marginally significant impact on the level of animosity.
Consumers who earned higher levels of income were less likely to show high levels of animosity
towards a foreign country (Klein & Ettenson, 1999).
COO Effect in Lithuania
During the later years, one of the most prevalent topics in COO research had become the
comparison of consumer attitudes towards foreign and domestic products. Different researchers
consistently demonstrated similar results – consumers from developing countries were more in favor of
foreign goods coming from more developed countries, whereas consumers from developed countries
rated their own domestic production more positively (Kaynak et al., 2000; Krishnakumar, 1974;
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
30
Sharma, 2011). After the fall of the Soviet Union and with the opening of new emerging markets, the
post-Soviet countries became a new area of interest for country of origin researchers, who
demonstrated that consumers from those markets consistently rated products from Western countries
more positively (Cumberland et al., 2010; Ettenson, 1993).
Lithuanian consumers were no exception to such findings as Mockaitis et al. successfully
demonstrated in 2013. They found that Lithuanian consumers rated products from USA, Western
Europe and Japan as those with the highest quality and most attractive for purchasing.
Meanwhile, domestic products and those imported from closer neighbors (such as Latvia, Estonia,
Poland, etc.) were rated far less positively by the respondents. However, slightly different results were
found by similar research carried out on another product category – vitamins and dietary supplements
(Smaiziene & Vaitkiene, 2013). Their study revealed that Lithuanian consumers’ perceptions of
domestic products were of a similar level to those from Western developed countries. However.
products from neighboring countries were rated significantly less positively than domestic goods.
Therefore, it can be assumed that the results of such comparative studies in the Lithuanian market are
strongly impacted by the choice of product category and the particular context under investigation.
Further research into the field is still needed in order to gain a deeper understanding of the COO effect
on Lithuanian consumers’ behavior and intentions to purchase.
Problem Definition
As the nature of business is getting more dynamic and complex, especially with the
internationalization of products and services, some scholars have started to question if the COO impact
is still a critical factor affecting consumer behavior these days. They argue that due to the larger
amounts of information about products available for consumers, they are becoming less aware of COO
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
31
and it does not play an important part in the decision making process anymore (Samiee et al., 2005).
However, it is agreed between most authors that further research is still needed into the construct of
COO in order to be able to determine its relevance in today's markets. Pharr (2005) suggests that future
researchers should focus more on the antecedents of COO and the correlation between them, so as to
gain more comprehensive knowledge about the construct and its precursors.
First of all, in terms of ethnocentrism and its effect on consumer intentions to purchase, a
significant impact has been demonstrated by multiple prior researchers. It has been shown that higher
levels of consumer ethnocentrism can be associated with higher intentions to purchase domestic
production instead of foreign one (Baker & Michie, 1995; Balabanis & Diamantopolous, 2004; Lantz
& Loeb, 1996). This is explained by the assumption that highly ethnocentric consumers are likely to
hold the belief that buying foreign goods is unpatriotic and has a negative effect on the domestic
economy. Thus they may believe that it is immoral and selfish to purchase imported products from
other countries and consequently, refuse to do so (Balabanis & Diamantopolous, 2004). Even though
ethnocentrism can be seen as a reliable predictor of consumers’ intentions to purchase local goods, it is
not able to explain and predict the patterns of foreign production purchasing behavior.
Consumer animosity on the other hand, measures one's antipathy towards a foreign country and
hence can act as a predictor of intentions to purchase foreign products coming from particular
countries. In most cases it is caused by the past or present economic, political, military or diplomatic
activities of one country towards another (Klein et al., 1998). As a result, if an individual feels a high
level of animosity towards a particular country, this can have a negative impact on the person's
intentions to purchase products imported from that country (Klein et al., 1998; Leong et al., 2008;
Nakos & Hajidimitriou, 2007). However, it is important to mention that both ethnocentrism and
animosity are particularly culturally dependent concepts, which are unable to clarify the prevalent
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
32
overall patterns of consumer intentions to purchase across multiple countries and cultures. For that
reason, it is necessary to carry out further research on ethnocentrism and animosity, especially in less
examined cultural contexts, in order to deepen the understanding of the extent to which these concepts
have a significant impact on consumer purchase intentions.
In terms of the relationship between the constructs of consumer ethnocentrism and animosity,
the findings of prior research have been rather mixed and controversial. As it has been mentioned
previously, some authors have already attempted to determine that the individual level of animosity
could be positively related to ethnocentrism (Klein & Ettenson, 1999). They have found that
individuals with higher levels of animosity are likely to demonstrate respectively higher levels of
ethnocentrism as well. Meanwhile, other authors argue that consumer ethnocentrism and animosity are
two distinct concepts, which are determined by different conditions in the consumer's environment
(Nakos & Hajidimitriou, 2007). It is important to examine this topic further and in a variety of contexts
due to its cultural sensitivity and in order to define a more precise nature of the relationship between
the two concepts (Balabanis et al., 2001). While many studies have examined ethnocentrism and
animosity in the context of Western nations or even “third world” countries, little attention so far has
been paid to the emerging and fast growing economies of the post-Soviet bloc countries. Such countries
make for an especially interesting context for investigation in terms of ethnocentrism and animosity
because of their historical background – having undergone both economic and war conflicts rather
recently.
Having defined the relevant gaps in the literature, this empirical study aims to examine the
effect that consumer ethnocentrism and animosity may have on consumer purchase intentions in the
context of food products imported from Russia in Lithuania. The research also aims to investigate the
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
33
effects of COO deeper, by examining the relationship between animosity and ethnocentrism and
confirming the existence of any correlation between the two concepts. In addition, the study is going to
provide a more detailed understanding of COO in a scarcely examined environment of post-Soviet bloc
countries and Eastern Europe. The way that consumers evaluate and tend to purchase local production
in comparison to foreign one is a critical factor for companies facing international expansion. It raises
challenges such as choosing the correct entry mode into a particular country, as well as a suitable
advertising and promotion approach for it. Therefore, the findings of this study will help foreign
companies that are either considering entering Lithuania as a new market or are already established
there, regarding the importance of COO when marketing their product offerings or developing
positioning strategies. The findings of the study will have important practical implications for local
companies as well, because it will determine the ethnocentric tendencies held by Lithuanian
consumers, which in turn have an impact on their purchase intentions towards domestic products and
services.
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
34
Research Methodology
The following chapter of the research paper covers the theoretical framework of the study and
the chosen hypotheses for empirical testing. Moreover, each of the dependent and independent
variables used in the study are indicated and discussed. Finally, the design of the research is described
and justified, along with the sample of participants and the instruments for collecting data.
Theoretical Framework
As it has been mentioned, the research study aims to investigate whether consumer
ethnocentrism and animosity have a significant effect on intentions to purchase in the context of food
products in Lithuania. In order to do so, the ethnocentric tendencies demonstrated by Lithuanian
consumers are examined along with their individual animosity levels felt against Russia. In addition,
the study seeks to examine the relationship between the two variables of ethnocentrism and animosity
in more detail and to determine if there is any correlation between them. Finally, the differences in
levels of ethnocentrism and animosity between various demographic groups of respondents are
analyzed to gain a better understanding of the extent to which demographic variables can have a
determining impact on these constructs. The whole research study is based on the conceptual model
presented below in Figure 1. It has been developed according to the author's investigation of existing
literature sources and in particular the work of Shimp and Sharma (1987), Klein et al. (1998) and
Nijssen and Douglas (2004).
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
35
Figure 1. The Conceptual Model of the Study.
Based on the presented conceptual model and the indicated goals of the study, the following
hypotheses have been identified for the empirical research and are described in the next part of the
chapter.
First of all, it has been demonstrated by previous research performed in different product and
country contexts that consumers with high levels of ethnocentrism believe that purchasing imported
products is unpatriotic and hurts the domestic economy. Therefore, ethnocentrism has a negative effect
on their intentions to purchase foreign-made products (Balabanis & Diamantopoulos, 2004; Shimp &
Sharma, 1987). Based on such findings, the first hypothesis (H1) has been developed for this empirical
study:
H1: Consumer ethnocentrism will have a significant effect on the intentions to purchase
Russian products.
The second hypothesis (H2) of the study is based on the relationship between consumer
animosity towards a foreign country and their intentions to purchase products originating from there.
Animosity is defined as the antipathy towards a particular country and as such can have a negative
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
36
impact on consumers' purchase intentions (Klein et al., 1998), hence the following hypothesis has been
developed for this study:
H2: Consumer animosity will have a significant effect on the intentions to purchase Russian
products.
Moreover, the research study further examines the relationship between consumer
ethnocentrism and animosity. There have been inconsistent results provided by different authors in
terms of the correlation between the two concepts. In this study, the positive correlation between
animosity and ethnocentrism as proposed by Klein and Ettenson (1999) is tested. They claim that
higher levels of consumer animosity have a positive impact on the level of ethnocentrism, consequently
the following hypothesis (H3) is proposed:
H3: Consumer animosity towards Russia will have a significant effect on consumer
ethnocentrism.
The next part of the study investigates how the levels of ethnocentrism and animosity vary
between demographic groups of participants, based on differences in age, gender, education and
income. First of all, the levels of ethnocentrism and animosity in participants of different ages are
examined. The hypothesis (H4) has been developed based on the assumption that older people usually
tend to show more ethnocentric tendencies in their purchasing behavior, whereas younger consumers
are more open minded and thus should be less ethnocentric (Sharma et al., 1995; Wetzels et al., 1996).
In terms of age and animosity, this relationship so far has been investigated far less as compared to the
amount of research on ethnocentrism. Nonetheless, it has been demonstrated by some prior researchers
that older consumers tend to show significantly higher levels of animosity towards the foreign country
under investigation (Klein & Morris, 1996; Klein & Ettenson, 1999).
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
37
H4: Ethnocentrism (H4.1) and animosity (H4.2) levels will differ significantly between
participants from various age groups.
In terms of differences in gender and the effect on ethnocentrism and animosity, the findings of
other authors have been mixed up to this day. Some researchers have found women to demonstrate
higher levels of ethnocentrism (Bruning, 1997; Sharma et al., 1995). Meanwhile others have not found
a significant effect of gender on consumer ethnocentrism (Ruyter et al., 1998). In relation to gender and
its effect on consumer animosity, the research is rather scarce up to this day. However, the authors that
have examined this relationship have not been able to find any significant effect of gender on the level
of animosity (Klein & Morris, 1996; Klein & Ettenson, 1999). Therefore, it can be assumed that in the
context of Lithuanian consumers' intentions to purchase Russian products the findings should be
similar and so it is hypothesized that:
H5: Ethnocentrism (H5.1) and animosity (H5.2) levels will not vary significantly between
participants of different genders.
The effect of education on consumer ethnocentrism and animosity has also been found to be
inconsistent among different researchers. While most authors have demonstrated that higher levels of
education lead to lower levels of ethnocentrism (Bailey & Pineres, 1997; Festervand et al., 1985),
others found that education did not have a significant impact on ethnocentrism (Insch & McBride,
2004). Meanwhile, the impact of the level of education on consumer animosity can be assumed to have
a similar negative effect as on ethnocentrism, due to the fact that more educated consumers should be
more open-minded and hold favorable perceptions of foreign production (Sharma et al., 1995). On the
other hand, after empirically testing such assumptions Klein and Ettenson (1999) could not validate any
significant relationship between education and animosity. In this study it is assumed that higher levels
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
38
of education should broaden the minds of consumers, causing them to be more open-minded and less
prejudiced, thus it is hypothesized as follows:
H6: Ethnocentrism (H6.1) and animosity (H6.2) levels will vary significantly between
participants with different levels of education.
The final demographic variable to be examined in relation to consumer ethnocentrism and
animosity is that of income. Previous research has suggested that higher level of income leads to lower
levels of ethnocentrism demonstrated by consumers (Bruning, 1997; Sharma et al., 1995). Whereas the
relationship between income and animosity has been examined rather scarcely up to this day. In one of
the few studies it was found that the level of income had a significant effect on animosity and
respondents with higher income demonstrated lower levels of animosity (Klein & Ettenson, 1999).
Therefore it can be hypothesized that consumers who earn more tend to be more cosmopolitan and
have more positive attitudes towards purchasing foreign products, hence the hypothesis (H7):
H7: Ethnocentrism (H7.1) and animosity (H7.2) levels will vary significantly between
respondents with different levels of income.
Independent and Dependent Variables
For the purpose of achieving the indicated research goals the following variables were used in
the empirical study: ethnocentrism, animosity, intention to purchase, age, gender, education and
income. It is important to note that the classification of independent and dependent variables depended
on each particular hypothesis that was tested, as some of the variables were used interchangeably.
Therefore, the variables for each of the seven hypotheses will now be identified in this next part of the
chapter.
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
39
The first two hypotheses (H1, H2) respectively tested the effect of ethnocentrism and animosity
on the intention to purchase. Thus the independent variables in this case can be defined as
ethnocentrism and animosity, and the dependent variable as intention to purchase. In the third
hypothesis (H3), the relationship between ethnocentrism and animosity was tested to see if animosity
had a positive effect on ethnocentrism. Consequently, the independent variable here is animosity with
the dependent variable being ethnocentrism. The final four hypotheses of the study (H4, H5, H6 and
H7) investigated demographic variables in relation to ethnocentrism and animosity. In turn it can be
stated that the independent variables for these hypotheses respectively are age, gender, education and
income, meanwhile, the dependent variables are ethnocentrism and animosity.
Context of the Study
This particular study focuses on the context of Lithuanian consumers’ ethnocentrism and
animosity towards Russia. The relationship between the two countries has always been tense because
of the multiple military and political conflicts which have occurred during the course of history. The
most recent of which are the Soviet occupations during the last century and Lithuania becoming the
first Soviet-bloc country to declare its independence. However, recently the tensions have risen even
more mainly caused by Russia's military actions in neighboring Ukraine and the fear of the Lithuanian
people that the Baltic countries might also become a target. Russia has also introduced trade sanctions
and bans on the import of some Lithuanian products such as dairy, which struck local producers
particularly hard as the Russian market accounts for about 85% of Lithuania's total dairy exports
(Scrutton & Sytas, 2014). Despite that, according to the Lithuanian Department of Statistics, Russia
still remains one of the most important economic partners for Lithuania with 16.6% of exports going to
Russia and 32.8% of imports coming from Russia. There are clear signs of animosity and hostility
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
40
demonstrated towards Russia in Lithuania, with it being referred to as an aggressor in the media and
even by the president of the country. Some initiatives in the social media have also been introduced
encouraging consumers to stop purchasing products that are imported from Russia. However, it is not
clear whether such political tensions have an evident effect on the actual consumer behavior and
purchase intentions as the topic has not been empirically investigated yet. In addition, Lithuania is an
attractive country for research on consumer ethnocentrism and animosity because of the high levels of
trade it demonstrates and the increasing amount of imported goods from foreign countries, as stated by
the Lithuanian Department of Statistics. Due to such tendencies, the Lithuanian consumers are exposed
to many products being available from abroad and therefore, it is interesting to see whether
ethnocentrism and animosity have an impact on their purchase intentions. The food industry in
particular has been chosen for the study because it is relevant for all consumers and with a variety of
products imported from Russia being available in local supermarkets. Moreover, it is interesting to
examine food products in terms of COO because of the strict labeling laws that were introduced in the
EU recently. From December 2014, mandatory country of origin labeling was introduced for some
products such as for example, meat and unprocessed foods, possibly making COO one of the most
important factors that consumers may base their purchase decisions upon.
Research Design
The design of the research study is carried out in the form of a quantitative questionnaire. This
particular type of research method was chosen because it has already been validated by previous
researchers in the field and the goal of the study was to test the concepts in a novel context and to be
able to compare them with previous findings. The questionnaire design of the study allows for more
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
41
objective and measurable results as the responses of participants are gathered in a standardized way and
thus reduce the potential of researcher bias, as identified by Creswell (2013). Consequently, after
analyzing such quantitative data, it is then easier to compare and contrast it to the results of prior
research. The ability to make such comparisons is especially important for the study at hand in order to
see how the concepts used in the study are subject to change under a different cultural context.
Moreover, by using the questionnaire method data can be collected rather quickly, cost-efficiently and
from a large amount of respondents, which act as a representative of the general population. Finally,
questionnaires are less intrusive than other means of data collection such as interviews or experiments,
as they do not interrupt the respondent and allow completing the research at a time that is most
convenient for them (Wright, 2006).
On the other hand, the use of such design of the study may lead to several weaknesses of the
research as well. Most importantly, with the use of questionnaires it is not clear whether the respondent
is answering truthfully, and if the answers reflect the real-life behavior of the participant. In addition,
such quantitative research design can be seen as superficial by some, as only a limited amount of
information is gathered from the respondents without the possibility for any in-depth explanations into
their answers (Creswell, 2013). The participants may also understand and interpret the questions
provided differently leading to some inconsistencies occurring across the results. Finally, it is important
to mention that the current tense state of the geo-political situation in the region may also have an
impact on the results of the study. As it has been mentioned previously, these days Lithuania's
relationship with Russia is particularly strained due to the import ban that has been placed on
Lithuanian products and the crisis in Ukraine, which threatens the whole Baltic region. Due to such
factors, the animosity levels demonstrated by participants might be higher than usual and this can be
reflected in their answers provided for the research study causing some bias in the results.
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
42
Questionnaire Structure
The questionnaire that was used was conducted based on the conceptual model of the study and
the hypotheses that were developed to be empirically tested. First of all, in line with the goals of the
study, it was necessary to test the effect that ethnocentrism and animosity have on Lithuanian
consumers' intentions to purchase products imported from Russia. Then the relationship between
animosity and ethnocentrism had to be investigated in order to see if there is any correlation between
the two variables. Finally, demographic information about the respondents had to be collected, with the
aim of finding out whether the levels of ethnocentrism and animosity differed based on demographic
variations between groups of participants.
In order to achieve the indicated research goals, each respondent was asked to answer 31
specifically constructed questions, which are presented in the table at the end of this part of the chapter.
The questionnaire was first formed in the English language and was based on already existing and
validated scales by previous research. Then the questions were slightly modified to fit the context of
the study and translated into the Lithuanian language by a native speaker. All of the questions were
designed in a way so that the following variables used in the study would be measured: ethnocentrism,
animosity, intention to purchase and demographics.
Firstly, during the study, the individual level of ethnocentrism of each respondent had to be
measured. The CETSCALE (Consumer Ethnocentric Tendencies Scale) developed by Shimp and
Sharma (1987) was chosen as the mean of achieving that. The original version of the scale was
validated in the US and consisted of 17 items, all of which measure the tendencies that consumers
demonstrate towards domestic and foreign products. Respondents are categorized as highly
ethnocentric if they score on the upper half of the scale. The CETSCALE has been validated in both
developed and less developed countries and shortened versions of it have been used (Balabanis &
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
43
Diamantopoulos, 2004; Douglas & Nijssen, 2003). One of the most prevalent of the shortened versions
is the 10-item scale, which has already been found to be reliable in different cultural contexts as well
(Balabanis et al., 2001). The 10-item version of the scale was chosen to be used in this study because of
the smaller amount of questions that respondents needed to answer and its established validity across
multiple countries. In addition, the ten statements of the scale had to be modified to fit the context of
the study. Lastly, the respondents of the questionnaire were asked to rate their opinions of each of the
ten statements on a 5-item Likert scale.
The following part of the questionnaire was dedicated to measuring the individual level of
animosity towards Russia of each participant. For this purpose, a modified version of the original Klein
et al. (1998) scale was used (Nijssen & Douglas, 2004). This specific version was also chosen due to
the reduced number of questions and the maintained validity of the original version. In this version two
items were used to measure war animosity and five items were used to measure economic animosity.
Some researchers tend to exclude either war or economic animosity, however, in the particular context
of the study it seemed appropriate to measure both types of animosity, as there can be seen both warrelated and economic threats coming from Russia towards Lithuania. The answers to each of the
statements had to be rated on the same 5-item Likert scale.
After collecting the data for both consumer ethnocentrism and animosity, the respondents were
asked to indicate their purchase intentions of imported Russian products. In particular, two categories
of food products were chosen as the objects for analysis – dairy and meat products. These two
categories were chosen due to a couple of reasons. First of all, they represent two of the main food
product categories that are purchased and used regularly by the majority of consumers. Secondly, as it
has been previously mentioned, Russia has recently banned the import of some Lithuanian dairy and
meat products. Therefore, it is interesting to see whether such opposing actions have caused Lithuanian
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
44
consumers to boycott the same types of Russian products in return. In order to measure the intentions to
purchase of each of the product categories, a scale developed by Klein et al. (1998) was used. The scale
consists of five statements that are constructed to measure a respondent's intentions to purchase
products made in a particular foreign country. The statements had to be answered on a 5-item Likert
scale and were also modified to represent Russian products as the object of interest. Each of the
participants was asked to first answer the five questions in relation to Russian dairy products and then
answer the same questions with regard to Russian meat products.
In the final part of the questionnaire, the demographic information about each of the
participants was collected. Four questions were constructed where the respondents were asked to
provide the information about their age, gender, education and income for the research purposes.
Table 4
The Questionnaire Structure
Variable
Questions
Ethnocentrism
1) Only those products that are unavailable in Lithuania should be
imported.
2) Lithuanian products, first, last, and foremost.
3) Purchasing foreign made products is unpatriotic.
4) It is not right to purchase foreign products because it puts fellow
Lithuanians out of jobs.
5) A real Lithuanian should always buy only local-made products.
6) One should purchase products manufactured in Lithuania instead of
letting other countries get rich off us.
7) Lithuanians should not buy foreign products because it hurts
Lithuanian business and causes unemployment.
8) It may cost me more in the long run but I prefer to support
Lithuanian products.
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
45
9) Only those products should be obtained from other countries that
cannot be obtained within Lithuania.
10) Lithuanian consumers, who purchase products made in other
countries are responsible for putting their fellow Lithuanians out of
work.
Animosity
1) I feel anger because of Russia's past military actions in Lithuania.
2) I will never forgive Russia for Lithuania's occupation.
3) While doing business with Russians one should be careful.
4) Russian companies are unreliable trading partners
5) Russia wants to gain economic power over Lithuania.
6) Russia has too much influence on Lithuania and its economy.
7) Russian companies are doing business unfairly with Lithuanian
companies.
Intentions to purchase
1) I would feel guilty if I bought a dairy/meat product made in Russia.
2) I would never buy a dairy/meat product made in Russia.
3) I do not like the idea of purchasing a dairy/meat product made in
Russia.
4) Whenever available, I would prefer to buy dairy/meat products
made in Russia.
5) If two dairy/meat products were of equal quality, I would prefer to
buy another product over the one made in Russia.
Sample Description and Methods of Data Collection
In order to investigate the effect that ethnocentrism and animosity have on the intentions to
purchase of Lithuanian consumers, an appropriate sample and sample size of respondents had to be
selected to participate in the research study.
To begin with, it is important to mention that the questionnaire was conducted and data was
collected via the means of an internet survey. This particular method of data collection was chosen
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
46
because of its accessibility and ease of data gathering. Internet questionnaires are fast and convenient
for the respondent, as the questions can be completed at their own pace and schedule (Couper, 2000).
In addition to that, the data that is collected is automatically stored in an electronic format, thus
minimizing the potential for errors when having to enter the data into a computer manually. Moreover,
it allows reaching the respondents in a wider variety of locations than would be possible when
conducting face-to-face research (Wright, 2006).
Convenience sampling was also chosen as the method for collecting respondents for the
research study. By using this non-probability sampling technique, the respondents are selected due to
their proximity to the researcher and because of their accessibility for recruitment as they are already
willing to respond. In convenience sampling, there are no specific criteria that would be identified for
the selection of the respondents, as all respondents who are available are invited to participate. Even
though, it would be ideal to test the entire population, this is not possible due to the time and cost
constraints and because the chosen population is too large to be able to test every person individually
(Hultsch et al., 2002; Salkind, 2010). Convenience sampling is a technique, which allows for relatively
fast and cheap data collection. This is important when the researcher is faced with a time limitation
because it allows spending more time focusing on the essential aspects of the research rather than
spending significant amounts of time on finding the most optimal way to calculate and obtain a sample
of participants for the study (Farrokhi & Mahmoudi-Hamidabad, 2012).
However, convenience sampling also introduces the possibility of negative bias because the
respondents chosen for the study may not be representative of the general population. This can occur
due to the inaccurate representation of the regional differences within the population, as the researcher
often includes only the respondents that are located close by (Salkind, 2010). Furthermore, different
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
47
demographic groups of the population may not be represented equally, as in convenience sampling
there is the tendency for one group to be over-represented because of the way the participants are
chosen by the researcher (Hultsch et al., 2002). As a result of such factors, it can be difficult for
researchers to draw concrete conclusions from their study results, as the data collected may not be truly
representative of the opinions and behavior of the general population.
Due to the context of the research and the method of data collection, the population of the study
could be defined as all Lithuanian consumers with an internet connection. As it has been indicated, the
context chosen for analysis in the study was that of dairy and meat products, which are purchased on a
daily basis by the wide majority of consumers. Moreover, according to the research performed by The
International Telecommunications Union, Lithuania ranks as the 50th in the world in terms of internet
usage, with 68% of the population having access to internet in 2012. Because of such facts, it can be
concluded that the population of the research is around 68% of the consumers in Lithuania. In addition,
only respondents that are of ages 18 and over are included in this sample because they are the ones with
real purchasing power. In order to determine the exact population sample that is necessary for the
research study, Slovin’s formula as described by Krejcie and Morgan (1970) is used, where the
calculation is based on the confidence interval and confidence level that the researcher wishes to
achieve. In this particular case, for large populations of over 100 000 people, with a chosen confidence
level of 95% and a chosen confidence interval of 6, it can be calculated that approximately 267
respondents are needed in order to objectively represent the general population in the study.
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
48
Empirical Research Results
In this chapter of the thesis, the empirical findings of the survey which was carried out by the
researcher are presented. The collected raw data was first prepared in Excel format and then analyzed
using SPSS software, with statistical operations such as correlation, one-way analysis of variance and
independent-samples t-test carried out. First of all, in this chapter the methods for cleaning the data and
testing its reliability are described, followed by the descriptive statistics and a detailed profile of the
participants who took part in the research. Finally, the chapter is rounded up with the presentation of
the findings for each of the tested hypotheses of the study.
Validity and Reliability of the Data
In order to check the validity of the answers to the survey provided by the respondents, reverse
wording questions were included when constructing the questionnaire. This particular technique was
used in order to avoid the possibility of response bias, when some participants do not read the questions
carefully enough and tend to choose the same answer option regardless of the content of the question.
For example, these are the two reverse wording questions that were used in the study when measuring
purchase intention of Russian products: “I would never buy a product made in Russia”/ “Whenever
available, I would prefer to buy products made in Russia”. After collecting the data from all the
participants, it was checked for outliers who responded to the reverse wording questions in the same
way, suggesting that those participants were not attentive enough when filling out the questionnaire and
that their answers might not be valid and representative. When such analysis of the data was carried
out, a total of 12 respondents were categorized as outliers and thus their answers were removed from
further analysis in order to ensure the validity of the collected data.
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
49
Internal consistency and reliability. Once the data was cleaned from outliers, the internal
consistency and reliability of the scales that were used to construct the questionnaire were analyzed.
The statistical procedure of Cronbach's Alpha in SPSS was used for this purpose. In the first analysis,
the reliability of the CETSCALE, which was used to measure consumer ethnocentrism and consisted of
a total of 10 items, was investigated. The Cronbach's Alpha coefficient was found to be at 0.902 for this
scale, which indicates a high level of internal consistency and reliability (a coefficient of 0.70 or higher
is usually considered as an indicator of good reliability in survey research). Moreover, by looking at the
Cronbach's Alpha if a particular item was deleted from the survey, it can be seen that the coefficient
would be lower in all cases except for questions 2 and 3, when it would be slightly higher (0.910 and
0.917 respectively). Therefore, for future uses of the scale the removal of these items should be
considered.
The Cronbach's Alpha coefficient of the 7-item scale that was included in the questionnaire to
measure consumer animosity, also revealed a high reliability with the score of 0.857. When using this
scale, future researchers might consider the exclusion of question 6 as its removal would result in an
increase of Cronbach's Alpha to 0.871. Finally, the same statistical procedure was performed for the
Klein et al. (1998) 5-item scale of intentions to purchase. A high reliability of this scale was also found
with the Cronbach's Alpha coefficient equal to 0.876. Further analysis of the questions revealed that the
removal of any item would in turn result in a lower coefficient, suggesting that all of the items were of
importance to the reliability of the survey.
Profile of the Participants
A total of 271 respondents participated and completed the research survey. However, as it has
been mentioned previously, 12 participants' answers had to be removed from the data due to response
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
50
bias that was found when analyzing the responses. Therefore, this resulted in the total number of 259
participants' answers that were deemed as valid and included in the final analysis. A detailed profile of
the final participants can be found in table 5, which is presented below.

Age – the majority of the participants were aged from 18 to 44 (89.57%), with 57.91% being
between the ages of 25-34.

Gender – the distribution of gender between the participants was close, with slightly more
females (57.92%) than males (42.08%).

Education – the majority of the participants had completed higher education (89.2%) with either
a Bachelor's (52.12%) or a Master's (37.08%) degree.

Income – the distribution of monthly income was rather similar between the three groups of
300-600, 601-900 and 901-1200 Euros (adding up to a total of 83.78%), meanwhile, 16.22% of
the participants reported higher level of income of 1200 Euros and more.
Table 5
The Demographic Profile of Participants
Demographic variables
Number of Participants (out of 259)
Age
18-24
40 (15.44%)
25-34
150 (57.91%)
35-44
42 (16.22%)
45-54
14 (5.40%)
55+
13 (5.03%)
Gender
Male
109 (42.08%)
Female
150 (57.92%)
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
Education
Incomplete secondary education
51
0 (0%)
Secondary education
14 (5.40%)
Vocational school
14 (5.40%)
Bachelor's degree
135 (52.12%)
Master's degree
96 (37.08%)
Doctor's degree
0 (0%)
Monthly Income (EUR)
Less than 300
0 (0%)
300-600
82 (31.66%)
601-900
81 (31.27%)
901-1200
54 (20.85%)
1201-1500
28 (10.82%)
More than 1500
14 (5.40%)
Descriptive Statistics
The questionnaire of the study was constructed to measure the following three main variables
within the responses of each participant: ethnocentrism, animosity and intentions to purchase. It is
important to report on the overall descriptive results for each of the variables in order to better
understand the general average levels that are demonstrated by the Lithuanian consumers' population as
a whole. The responses to the questions measuring every variable were recorded on a 5-item Likert
scale. The mean values along with the standard deviations for each of the variables are presented in
table 6. From the results it can be seen that the general level of ethnocentrism within the Lithuanian
population is slightly higher than the average score of the items of 2.5 (M = 2.75, SD = 0.87) but it is
also lower than the level of animosity against Russia (M = 3.58, SD = 0.68). Furthermore, the
intentions to purchase Russian products in total are lower than the average score of 2.5 (M = 2.39, SD
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
52
= 0.75), with intentions to purchase dairy products (M = 2.37, SD = 0.86) in particular being slightly
lower than meat products (M = 2.41, SD = 0.70).
Table 6
The Descriptive Statistics of the Variables
Variable
Mean
Standard Deviation
Ethnocentrism
2.75
0.87
Animosity
3.58
0.68
ITP (Total)
2.39
0.75
ITP (Dairy)
2.37
0.86
ITP (Meat)
2.41
0.70
Testing the Hypotheses
Ethnocentrism and intention to purchase. The first hypothesis that was tested in the research
study (H1) suggested that consumer ethnocentrism would have a significant impact on the respondents'
intentions to purchase Russian products. In order to examine this relationship statistically, a Pearson
product-moment correlation coefficient was calculated to evaluate if the higher level of ethnocentrism
of the respondent resulted in lower purchase intentions of imported products from Russia. After
carrying out the analysis, a negative correlation between the two variables was found,
r = -0.838, n = 259, p = 0.000 (the full output tables from SPSS can be found in the Appendix). When
the Pearson's r is negative and close to 1 as in this case, it is an indicator that the correlation between
the two variables is negative and strong. A negative correlation suggests that as the first variable
increases in value, the second one decreases. Since the p value is less than 0.05, it can also be
concluded that the correlation between the two variables is statistically significant and the increases in
one variable are significantly related to the decreases in the other variable. The results of the correlation
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
53
between ethnocentrism and intention to purchase are summarized in the scatter-plot presented in figure
2.
Figure 2. The correlation between ethnocentrism and intention to purchase (ITP).
In order to test this relationship further and to determine if ethnocentrism has a significant effect
on the intention to purchase, a linear regression analysis for the two variables was carried out. The
results indicated that even 70.2% of the dependent variable (intention to purchase) could be explained
by the independent variable (ethnocentrism), R2 = 0.702, p = 0.000. All in all, such findings confirm
the hypothesis that consumer ethnocentrism has a significant effect on the intentions to purchase and
when the level of ethnocentrism is higher, the intentions to purchase imported products are lower as a
result.
Animosity and intention to purchase. The second hypothesis (H2) that was tested in the study
was focused on the impact that consumer animosity against Russia had on the respondents' intentions to
purchase Russian products. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was also calculated to
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
54
test if higher levels of consumer animosity resulted in lower intentions to purchase imported products
from Russia. When the Pearson's r was computed, it revealed that there was in fact a negative
correlation between animosity and intention to purchase, r = -0.872, n = 259, p = 0.000. Once again the
p value is very small and well below the 0.05 cut-off point, thus it is evident that the negative
correlation between the variables is statistically significant. Consequently, there is a strong negative
correlation between animosity and intention to purchase and increases in animosity against Russia are
correlated with the decreases in intentions to purchase Russian products. The negative correlation
between the two variables is also demonstrated in the scatter-plot in figure 3.
Figure 3. The correlation between animosity and intention to purchase (ITP).
Since there was a significant correlation found between the two variables, a linear regression
analysis had to be conducted so as to determine if animosity against Russia had a significant impact on
Lithuanian consumers' intentions to purchase. The statistical analysis showed that animosity could be
held as an accountable variable for 76.1% of the intentions to purchase Russian products, R2 = 0.761,
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
55
p = 0.000. Therefore, it can be claimed that the second hypothesis, which states that consumer
animosity against Russia has a significant impact on the intentions to purchase Russian products, is
confirmed by the empirical research results.
Animosity and ethnocentrism. The third hypothesis (H3) which was raised when conducting
the research, was aiming to examine the relationship between consumer animosity and ethnocentrism.
It was hypothesized that the level of animosity against Russia would have a significant impact on the
level of consumer ethnocentrism. In order to test this hypothesis, another variation of the Pearson
product-moment correlation coefficient was computed, this time with animosity as the independent and
ethnocentrism as the dependent variable. The statistical analysis demonstrated that a positive
correlation between the two variables was existent, r = 0.715, n = 259, p = 0.000. Since the Pearson's r
in this case is positive and close to 1, it can be stated that the changes in one variable are strongly
correlated with the changes in the other variable. The p value here is also very small, indicating that the
positive correlation that was measured is statistically significant. This positive correlation can also be
seen by examining the scatter-plot which is shown in the following figure 4.
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
56
Figure 4. The correlation between animosity and ethnocentrism.
As demonstrated in the figure, there is a clear positive correlation between the variables of
animosity and ethnocentrism. After conducting a linear regression analysis on the two variables, it was
also found the effect of animosity on consumer ethnocentrism was statistically significant and that
51.1% of ethnocentrism could be explained by animosity, R2 = 0.511, p = 0.000. As a result, it can be
concluded that the level of animosity does have a significant effect on the level of ethnocentrism and so
the hypothesis H3 can be confirmed.
Differences between products. Since there were two product categories included in the
research study, it is important to investigate if there were any significant differences in the empirical
results between them. The same kind of Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient analysis was
carried out for each of the categories – dairy products and meat products. First of all, the relationship
between ethnocentrism and the intention to purchase dairy versus meat products was analyzed. There
were no significantly large differences found between the two product categories, with the correlation
coefficient for dairy products equal to: r = -0.875, n = 259, p = 0.000, and for meat products equal to:
r = -0.730, n = 259, p = 0.000. Such findings indicate that the negative correlation between
ethnocentrism and dairy products is slightly stronger than for ethnocentrism and meat products, as it is
a value closer to 1. However, both coefficients are significant and close to 1, therefore it is not possible
to find any further implications of the intentions to purchase between the different product categories
and their relationship with consumer ethnocentrism.
The same type of statistical analysis was also performed in terms of the intentions to purchase
dairy versus meat products and their relationship with animosity against Russia. The results of the
analysis were similar to those that were received when consumer ethnocentrism was investigated.
Intentions to purchase for both dairy and meat product categories had a significant negative relationship
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
57
with animosity: r = -0.859, n = 259, p = 0.000 for dairy products; r = -0.824, n = 259, p = 0.000 for
meat products. As it can be seen, the coefficient scores between the two product categories are very
close, and as such do not lead to any assumptions that the intention to purchase one product would have
a significantly stronger relationship with animosity than the other.
Differences between age groups. The next step of the statistical analysis was to investigate the
variations in ethnocentrism and animosity levels that occurred between different age groups of the
participants. It was hypothesized by the researcher that the levels of both ethnocentrism and animosity
will vary significantly between the different age groups. To begin with, in order to test the first part of
the hypothesis with regard to ethnocentrism and age, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was
conducted. The findings of the analysis revealed that there was a statistically significant difference at
the p < 0.05 level in the degree of ethnocentrism demonstrated by participants of different age groups
[F(4,254) = 33.635, p = 0.000]. Because the differences found between the groups were significant,
post-hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test were carried out to find out which groups had
significant differences between them in particular. The results demonstrated that the mean
ethnocentrism scores of age groups 35-44 (M = 3.33, SD = 1.24) and 55+ (M = 4.50, SD = 0.05) where
significantly higher when compared to all of the other age groups. Meanwhile, there were no
significant differences found between age groups 18-24, 25-34 and 45-55 (p = 0.803, p = 0.833,
p = 0.337). Such findings indicate that the level of ethnocentric tendencies does differ between separate
age groups of Lithuanian consumers, with ones between the ages of 35-44 and 55+ showing
significantly more ethnocentrism than others.
The second part of the hypothesis is focused on the differences in animosity levels that are
demonstrated by participants of various age groups. In order to test whether the results between age
groups in relation to animosity do in fact differ significantly, a one-way ANOVA was also conducted.
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
58
After carrying out the analysis, it was found that there were significant differences in the levels of
animosity exhibited by distinct age groups of respondents [F(4,254) = 5.334, p = 0.000]. The post-hoc
Tukey HSD test revealed that the average level of animosity demonstrated by the age group of 35-44
(M = 3.95, SD = 0.72) was significantly higher when compared to the groups of 18-24 (M = 3.46,
SD = 0.69), 25-34 (M = 3.55, SD = 0.68) and 45-55 (M = 3.14, SD = 0.15). There were no significant
differences found between any other of the age groups as the p values exceeded the cut-off point of
0.05.
Differences between gender groups. Based on the findings of prior research, it was
hypothesized that the ethnocentric and animosity tendencies of participants should not vary
significantly based on gender. For the purpose of statistically comparing the results between groups
based on gender, an independent-samples t-test procedure was carried out. The findings from the
statistical analysis indicated that in fact there were no significant differences in the levels of
ethnocentrism demonstrated by male (M = 2.73, SD = 0.96) and female (M = 2.77, SD = 0.80)
participants, t(257) = -0.377, p = 0.707.
Another independent-samples t-test was conducted in order to test the hypothesis in relation to
animosity. The results of the analysis revealed similar findings to those of ethnocentrism, as there were
no significant differences recorded between the male (M = 3.57, SD = 0.96) and female (M = 3.59,
SD = 0.66) respondents of the study, t(257) = -0.224, p = 0.823. As a result, it is evident that the
hypothesis can be confirmed and there are no significant variations in the levels of ethnocentrism and
animosity exhibited by males and females.
Differences between education levels. Hypothesis 6 of the study is concentrated on the
differences in ethnocentrism and animosity that can occur between participants with varying levels of
education. First of all, it was hypothesized that the levels of ethnocentrism exhibited by participants
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
59
should be significantly different between groups with distinct education backgrounds. The hypothesis
was statistically confirmed by performing a one-way ANOVA, which revealed that the results did
differ significantly between the groups [F(3,255) = 20.286, p = 0.000]. As found when performing the
Tukey HSD test, the mean scores of participants with a Master's degree (M = 3.14, SD = 1.01) were
significantly higher than all other education groups. There were also significant differences found
between the group with a Bachelor's degree (M = 2.64, SD = 0.67) and vocational education (M = 1.60,
SD = 0.21). It can be summarized from the findings that participants with higher levels of education in
the study demonstrated higher levels of ethnocentrism as well.
Furthermore, the same type of one-way ANOVA was carried out in order to examine the
differences in animosity against Russia that might occur between the selected education groups.
The statistical analysis confirmed the hypothesis that there would be significant differences in
animosity levels between the groups [F(3,255) = 16.915, p = 0.000]. To examine this relationship
further, a Tukey HSD test was also carried out. The findings demonstrated that the mean scores on the
animosity scale were significantly higher for participants with a Bachelor's (M = 3.80, SD = 0.61) and
a Master's degree (M = 3.47, SD = 0.71) than any other educational backgrounds. Therefore, such
results are similar to the ones when ethnocentrism was examined and participants with higher levels of
education seem to exhibit higher levels of animosity towards Russia.
Differences between income levels. The final hypothesis, which was raised for the research
study, is focused on the ethnocentric and animosity tendencies between groups with different income
levels. The hypothesis states that ethnocentrism and animosity levels should differ depending on the
level of income of the participants. Once again a one-way ANOVA was used to first examine the
relationship between ethnocentrism and income level. After performing the analysis, it was found that
there were in fact significant differences in ethnocentrism between some of the groups based on income
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
60
[F(4,254) = 4.265, p = 0.002]. The results of the post-hoc Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean
scores of ethnocentrism were significantly lower for income levels of 1201-1500 (M = 2.30, SD = 0.10)
and more than 1500 Euros (M = 2.20, SD = 0.05) when compared to groups with levels of 300-601
(M = 2.83, SD = 0.86) and 601-900 Euros (M = 2.90, SD = 0.94). Consequently, it can be stated that
the participants with higher income levels are likely to demonstrate lower levels of ethnocentric
tendencies.
Another one-way analysis of variance needed to be conducted so as to test the hypothesis from
the perspective of animosity and how it differed between participants with various income levels.
Similarly to ethnocentrism, it was found that the levels of animosity were significantly different
between groups based on income [F(4,254) = 17.859, p = 0.000]. Moreover, the results of the Tukey
HSD test revealed that the group with income level of 1201-1500 Euros (M = 2.79, SD = 0.36) was
significantly less ethnocentric than the groups with lower income levels. In addition to that, the group
that earned more than 1500 Euros (M = 3.14, SD = 0.10) also demonstrated significantly lower
ethnocentric tendencies when compared to groups that earned 300-601 (M = 3.80, SD = 0.70) and 601900 Euros (M = 3.74, SD = 0.82). To sum up, it seems that the participants who earn higher amounts of
income per month also tend to exhibit lower levels of animosity towards Russia. An overview of all of
the hypotheses that were empirically tested and either supported or rejected by the research carried out
are presented in the table below.
Table 7
The Summary of the Empirical Testing of Hypotheses
Hypotheses
Results
H1 (Consumer ethnocentrism will have a significant effect on the
Supported
intentions to purchase Russian products)
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
61
H2 (Consumer animosity will have a significant effect on the
Supported
intentions to purchase Russian products)
H3 (The level of consumer animosity towards Russia will have a
Supported
significant effect on the level of ethnocentrism)
H4 (Ethnocentrism (H4.1) and animosity (H4.2) levels will differ
Supported
significantly between participants from various age groups)
H5 (Ethnocentrism (H5.1) and animosity (H5.2) levels will not vary Supported
significantly between participants of different genders)
H6 (Ethnocentrism (H6.1) and animosity (H6.2) levels will vary
Supported
significantly between participants with different levels of education)
H7 (Ethnocentrism (H7.1) and animosity (H7.2) levels will vary
significantly between respondents with different levels of income)
Supported
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
62
Discussion and Conclusions
In this final part of the thesis, the findings of the empirical study are summarized in relation to
the main research questions and the relevant external literature sources. Furthermore, the theoretical
and practical implications are then discussed along with the limitations of the research study. Finally,
the author's ideas and suggestions for future research are provided and the chapter is ended with the
general conclusions of the study.
Summary of the Findings
The COO construct has been a topic of extensive investigation during the recent years of
research. However, some authors have now started to question the importance of COO and whether it
can still be claimed that it has a significant impact on consumer intentions to purchase domestic and
foreign production (Samiee et al., 2005). The aim of this study was to examine the COO construct in
more detail in the rarely explored context of Lithuania, in order to determine its relevance for this
particular market. As it has been suggested by Pharr (2005), more research in the field is needed,
especially focusing on the antecedents of COO and the correlation between them. Therefore, the author
has chosen to examine the COO concept from the perspective of its antecedents of ethnocentrism and
animosity, and their effect on the consumer intentions to purchase.
The effect of ethnocentrism. First of all, multiple authors in the past have found ethnocentrism
to have a significant effect on consumer intentions to purchase foreign production (Baker & Michie,
1995; Balabanis & Diamantopolous, 2004; Lantz & Loeb, 1996; Shimp & Sharma, 1987). The findings
consistently indicated that as the level of consumer ethnocentrism increased, the intentions to purchase
foreign products decreased. The results of this research study have also demonstrated similar
tendencies to those found by other authors (Douglas & Nijssen, 2003; Klein, 2002; Watson & Wright,
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
63
1999). After statistically analyzing the relationship between the two variables, a negative correlation
was found and the regression analysis confirmed that there was a significant effect of ethnocentrism on
the intentions to purchase. Consequently, it can be stated that ethnocentrism is an important factor
affecting Lithuanian consumers' intentions to purchase domestic and foreign production. For instance,
when the level of ethnocentrism is higher, the intentions to purchase imported products are lower as a
result. Such behavioral tendencies can be explained by the reasoning that ethnocentric consumers hold
the beliefs that by purchasing foreign production, one hurts the domestic economy and the well-being
of the whole country and fellow citizens (Lantz & Loeb, 1996; Pereira et al., 2002; Supphellen &
Rittenburg, 2001). As a result, such consumers refuse to act in what they perceive as a selfish way and
thus their intentions to purchase imported goods are lower (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). As the findings of
the study have demonstrated, Lithuanian consumers are no exception to these assumptions and their
intentions to purchase are also significantly affected by the level of ethnocentrism. Overall, as
measured by the survey, on average Lithuanian consumers tend to exhibit more ethnocentric tendencies
in their purchasing behavior.
The effect of animosity. In terms of the relationship between animosity and intentions to
purchase foreign products, similar findings have been revealed by prior researchers as those in relation
to ethnocentrism. Consumer animosity is described as antipathy that is felt towards a particular country
and it has also been found to have a negative impact on the intentions to purchase products coming
from that country (Klein et al., 1998; Leong et al., 2008; Nakos & Hajidimitriou, 2007). Animosity can
be of different types and originating from various sources, such as economic, political, military or
diplomatic activities of one country towards another (Jung et al., 2002; Klein et al., 1998; Klein &
Ettenson, 1999). In this particular study, the goal was to examine the impact of Lithuanian consumers'
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
64
animosity against Russia on the intentions to purchase Russian products. The animosity against Russia
can be assumed to originate from both military actions that have occurred in the past and hostile
economic activities that are continuing up to this day. The findings of the empirical study that has been
carried out are in-line with the results of prior research (Klein et al., 1998; Klein & Ettenson, 1999;
Leong et al., 2008; Nakos & Hajidimitriou, 2007). It has been demonstrated that Lithuanian consumers'
intentions to purchase Russian products are significantly negatively affected by the level of animosity
they feel towards Russia. It is interesting to note that the level of animosity felt by Lithuanian
consumers is noticeably higher than their level of ethnocentrism and the correlation between animosity
and purchase intentions is stronger. The high level of animosity that has been revealed could be due to
the especially rising tensions between the two countries at the moment. Because of the Russian ban on
imports of the dairy and meat products from Lithuania, it seems that Lithuanian consumers are also
refusing to purchase the same products that are being imported from Russia. It is evident that the
political and economical conflicts do not go unnoticed by the consumers, and they do have an
important negative effect on their decisions to purchase imported products from certain foreign
countries.
The relationship between animosity and ethnocentrism. During the empirical study which
was carried out, it was found that in the context of Lithuanian consumers, the concepts of animosity
and ethnocentrism are closely related. The findings indicated that the animosity against Russia felt by
an individual consumer does have a significant effect on the level of ethnocentrism as well. Such
results align with the tendencies noticed by Klein and Ettenson (1999) who have determined a positive
relationship between the two concepts. They have found that as the level of animosity held by an
individual increases, so does the level of ethnocentrism. However, such findings are also in conflict
with what is stated by some other researchers. For instance, Nakos and Hajidimitriou (2007) claim that
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
65
consumer ethnocentrism and animosity are two distinct and unrelated concepts, which do not have any
significant relationship between them. As stated by Balabanis et al. (2001) in their work on animosity
and ethnocentrism, these concepts are highly culturally sensitive and thus the nature of their
relationship might differ depending on the context of the research. Therefore, it seems that in the
context of Lithuanian consumers, animosity against Russia does have a significant positive impact on
the level of ethnocentrism that is felt. A possible explanation for the findings of such a positive
relationship could be based on the social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979), which talks about the
idea that individuals categorize themselves as parts of some social groups (in-groups) and others as
parts of different groups (out-groups). Consumer ethnocentrism originates from the feeling of
belonging to a particular in-group and the responsibility to do what is best for the group (hence
purchase domestic rather than foreign production). Meanwhile, consumer animosity is related more to
the out-groups and the fear that they may cause harm and threaten the well-being of the in-group. As a
result, it could be stated that such animosity felt towards the out-group can reinforce the feeling of
belonging to the in-group, and thus have a positive impact on the level of ethnocentrism (Tajfel &
Turner, 1979).
The effect of demographic variables. The final part of the research study examined how the
levels of ethnocentrism and animosity vary between the demographic groups of participants, based on
differences in age, gender, education and income. To begin with, as it had been predicted based on the
findings of previous researchers, the demographic variable of age had a significant impact on both
consumer ethnocentrism and animosity. In terms of ethnocentrism, it was found that the level of it
increased with older participants. The level of ethnocentrism of participants who were older than 35
was significantly higher than the level of younger participants. Such findings are consistent with other
literature sources that have found similar age-related effects between different demographic groups of
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
66
respondents (Sharma et al., 1995; Wetzels et al., 1996). The findings on animosity were not entirely
consistent with previous research, as it was shown that the highest level of animosity against Russia
overall was demonstrated by the group of participants who were aged from 35 to 44 years old.
According to other relevant literature sources, as the age of consumers increases, they should show
significantly higher levels of animosity towards the foreign country under investigation (Klein &
Morris 1996; Klein & Ettenson 1999). However, in the case of Lithuanian consumers, it seems that the
level of animosity peaks at around middle-age and then starts to decrease again. Such an unusual
pattern could be related to the especially tense current situation between Lithuania and Russia, which is
probably most felt by the working middle-age group of consumers. For instance, students and the
elderly retired consumers might not feel such a big economic effect of the Russian import ban on some
of the Lithuanian products. On the other hand, this would be more felt by people of the middle age
group, who are working and aiming to provide not only for themselves but also for their families.
The next demographic variable that was examined in relation to consumer ethnocentrism and
animosity was gender. The findings indicated that there were no significant differences in the level of
ethnocentrism and animosity in terms of Lithuanian male and female consumers. These results are inline with the work of some other authors, who have also not found a significant effect of gender on
consumer ethnocentrism (Ruyter et al., 1998) or animosity (Klein & Morris, 1996; Klein & Ettenson,
1999). Therefore, it seems that for Lithuanian consumers gender does not play a determining role with
regards to this topic.
According to the literature, the relationship between education and consumer ethnocentrism and
animosity has shown inconsistent results among different researchers. Most authors who examined the
topic found that higher levels of education did determine lower levels of ethnocentrism (Bailey &
Pineres, 1997; Festervand et al., 1985). Meanwhile, in terms of animosity, Klein and Ettenson (1999)
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
67
did not find any significant relationship with education. It is interesting to note that in this particular
study, it was demonstrated that participants who were more educated showed higher levels of
ethnocentrism as well. Similar tendencies have also been found in relation to animosity and education,
as respondents with higher levels of education seemed to feel higher levels of animosity towards Russia
as well. This contradicts the findings of previous authors, who claim that more educated consumers
should be more open-minded and thus less biased when it comes to the purchasing of imported goods
(Klein & Ettenson, 1999; Sharma et al., 1995). Such an opposite effect could once again be explained
by the fact that the current political situation between Lithuania and Russia is especially tense, and this
may cause Lithuanian consumers to feel higher levels of ethnocentrism and animosity than they would
in other circumstances.
Finally, the findings on the effect that the level of income has on ethnocentrism and animosity
are in-line with what has been demonstrated by other authors. Prior research has shown that consumers
who earn higher levels of income, show lower levels of ethnocentrism (Bruning, 1997; Sharma et al.,
1995) and animosity (Klein & Ettenson, 1999). In the context of Lithuanian consumers, it was also
found that the groups of participants, who earned more on average also demonstrated significantly
lower ethnocentric and animosity tendencies when compared to the groups that earned less per month.
Consequently, it could be assumed that consumers in Lithuania with higher income are also more
cosmopolitan and open-minded than those who earn lower amounts. As a result, consumers that earn
more are also more likely to hold less biased and more positive attitudes towards purchasing foreign
products.
Implications of the Findings
As it has been mentioned, the COO effect has been examined for several decades now and
multiple authors have demonstrated its significant impact on consumer evaluations of products and
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
68
intentions to purchase (Han, 1989; Nagashima, 1970; Nagashima, 1977; Schooler, 1965). However,
with the rise of globalization and large amounts of product-related information available for consumers,
some researchers have begun to argue its relevance in today's markets (Pharr, 2005; Samiee et al.,
2005). Moreover, as internationalization is increasing, more and more companies are seeking to import
their products and services to foreign markets. Therefore, it is essential to determine if COO is still an
essential factor impacting the effectiveness of their marketing strategies and international success. At
the same time, the political and economic environment is constantly shifting as the tensions between
some countries are increasing, due to financial or military reasons. Consequently, it is important for
companies to know the extent to which these tensions can have an impact on consumer intentions to
purchase products imported from particular countries.
This study has aimed to answer the above questions by examining the COO effect deeper from
the perspective of its antecedents of ethnocentrism and animosity and the effect that they have on
consumer intentions to purchase. The results of the research have confirmed that both ethnocentrism
and animosity still have significant effects on purchase intentions and thus they are important factors to
consider for both companies seeking to enter new markets or those that are already established
internationally. It also provides both researchers and practitioners with a basis for deeper insights into
the concept of COO by revealing a more precise nature of the relationship between ethnocentrism and
animosity. As shown in the study, higher levels of animosity cause higher levels of ethnocentrism, and
so it can be claimed that the political tensions between countries can cause consumers to start favoring
their domestic production significantly more than foreign one. The particular context of the study set in
a post-Soviet Baltic state, also gathers a deeper understanding of these effects in a scarcely examined
environment up to this day. It reveals that the current political animosity in the region towards Russia
has an evident negative effect on consumer intentions to purchase imported Russian products. As a
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
69
result, such findings lead to a better understanding of consumers' purchasing behavior and their
preference for domestic production versus foreign one. Consequently, for practitioners this knowledge
can serve as a basis for developing and maintaining more effective promotional strategies of their
products. In order to be internationally successful, it is critical for companies to understand the
underlying reasons of why consumers may choose the products of one country over the products of
another. Such understanding can help when choosing whether to enter a particular market and also the
most suitable marketing strategy for it.
In the case of this study, it has been revealed that Lithuanian consumers tend to show higher
ethnocentric tendencies in their purchase intentions of domestic products. In addition, they are also
significantly affected by the occurring political and economical actions, which cause a decrease in the
intentions to purchase products imported from countries with which the relationships are tense. These
findings are of special importance for local companies, which in this situation can take advantage of
their domestic position in the market and thus put more emphasis on the home country of origin when
communicating their offerings to consumers. Meanwhile, for foreign companies looking to enter
Lithuania or already established there, the findings should signal to be more careful with the inclusion
of COO in their marketing strategy, especially if there might be a basis for any consumer animosity
towards the country of origin of the product.
Limitations of the Study
The main limitation of the research study that was carried out is the unequal distribution of
participants in the groups split by demographic variables. The majority of the respondents that
participated in the study were of a younger age (mostly from 25 to 34 years old) and over half of the
participants had achieved a Bachelor's degree in education. Consequently, some demographic groups in
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
70
the study were over-represented, while others in turn were under-represented. As a result, this could
lead to not entirely accurate comparisons that were performed between different demographic groups in
order to determine the differences in the levels of ethnocentrism and animosity. The lack of participants
from some of the demographic groups could deprive the research from more detailed insights and from
gaining a deeper understanding of the COO effect in the Lithuanian market. Furthermore, it should also
be noted that almost all of the respondents who took part in the study, were current residents of the
capital city Vilnius. It could be assumed that consumers who live in different areas of the country, such
as cities compared to rural locations, should have developed different attitudes and behavioral patterns
as well. Therefore, the findings of the present study may not be applicable to the whole population of
consumers in Lithuania, but only to those living in urban and more developed locations. In addition,
during this empirical study the intentions to purchase goods from only two categories were examined –
dairy and meat products. For this reason, the area of research was rather narrow and it is not clear if the
consumer tendencies that were noticed in the study could be extended to other product categories as
well. Lastly, as it has already been mentioned previously, the current political and economic relations
between Lithuania and Russia are more tense than usual at the moment, due to the events in Ukraine
and Russia's import ban on Lithuanian products. It is possible that the rising tensions could have made
an impact on the respondents' answers to the questions of the survey, in a way that they indicated
higher levels of ethnocentrism and animosity and lower intentions to purchase Russian production than
they normally would. Because of this, the findings of the study might not accurately represent the
general attitudes and purchase intentions of the Lithuanian consumers in the long-run.
Suggestions for Future Research
The present study focused only on two of the antecedents of COO – consumer ethnocentrism
and animosity. However, in order to better understand the complexity of the COO construct, it would
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
71
be necessary to examine it in relation to other antecedents as well, together with ethnocentrism and
animosity. For instance, concepts such as patriotism, collectivism and conservatism could also be found
to have a significant influence on consumer intentions to purchase foreign products. It would also be
interesting to examine the relationships between these antecedents, in order to see if there are any
positive correlations between them, as it has been found with animosity and ethnocentrism in this
study. Moreover, as it has been mentioned, the current study focused only on two product categories
and so it is necessary to see if similar findings could be demonstrated in terms of other product
categories as well. In addition to that, the services industry has been becoming a major part of the
economy globally and its importance is only expected to grow in the upcoming years. Nonetheless, the
research in terms of the COO effect on services remains rather scarce and in the context of Lithuania, it
is practically non-existent. For this reason, future researchers examining this area should focus more on
the services industry, in order to be able to determine if the findings from the product sector could be
applied for services as well.
Furthermore, experimental or qualitative design research in the field of COO is also rather rare
to find, as most authors so far have relied on quantitative surveys and questionnaires. It is essential for
future researchers to extend the methodologies that are used when investigating this particular field.
Especially because the use of experimental or qualitative design may bring more in-depth and
analytical insights into the concepts under investigation and thus help to better understand the
importance of COO and the effect of its antecedents on purchase intentions. Finally, it can also be
suggested for further research to expand the context of the study into other Eastern European countries,
as not much investigation on the topic has been done so far in this particular region. For example,
future authors could think about the inclusion of other Baltic states into the study as this might also
generate some interesting comparisons in the findings between countries.
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
72
Conclusions
All in all, it can be concluded that the goals of the study which were raised prior to the
conduction have been successfully carried out and fulfilled. First of all, the literature review has been
performed, which focused on the analysis of previous research in the field of country of origin and in
particular - its antecedents of ethnocentrism and animosity. During the investigation on the work of
other authors, the known effects of ethnocentrism and animosity on consumer intentions to purchase
were revealed. Moreover, existing gaps and inconsistent results in the literature were found and
identified, which became the basis for the empirical research that was conducted by the author. During
the empirical testing, the respondents’ individual levels of ethnocentrism, animosity and intentions to
purchase of Russian food products were measured. This allowed to answer the main research question
of the study of whether ethnocentrism and animosity had a significant effect on consumer intentions to
purchase in Lithuania. Lastly, after comparing the literature analysis and the empirical testing results,
the findings were deemed to be consistent with the work of other authors, who have demonstrated that
ethnocentrism and animosity have a significant effect on consumer intentions to purchase, and so the
hypotheses which were raised by the researcher have been confirmed and the main research question
answered. Moreover, it has been shown that there is a positive relationship between the concepts
under investigation, with animosity against a particular country having a significant impact on the level
of consumer ethnocentrism. The demographic variables which were investigated in relation to the
levels of ethnocentrism and animosity have revealed that age and income had evident effects within
different consumer groups as it had been expected. It was demonstrated that older consumers showed
more ethnocentric and animosity tendencies in their behavior, while higher income levels had the
opposite effect. In addition, surprisingly it was found that consumers with higher levels of education
tended to show more ethnocentric and animosity tendencies, which contradicts the findings of prior
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
73
research. That being said, the practical application and generalizability of the findings of this study
should be exercised with caution, as further and more extensive research into the topic is still
necessary, which would include larger and more precise respondent samples, additional product and
service categories and improved research design.
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
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ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
Appendix
SPSS Output Tables from the Statistical Analysis
Model Summary
Model
R
Std. Error of the
Square
Estimate
R Square
,838a
1
Adjusted R
,702
,701
,41205
a. Predictors: (Constant), Ethnocentrism
ANOVAb
Model
1
Sum of Squares
Regression
Mean Square
102,976
1
102,976
43,635
257
,170
146,611
258
Residual
Total
df
a. Predictors: (Constant), Ethnocentrism
b. Dependent Variable: ITP
Model Summary
Model
1
R
,872a
R Square
,761
a. Predictors: (Constant), Animosity
Adjusted R
Std. Error of the
Square
Estimate
,760
,36962
F
606,497
Sig.
,000a
82
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
ANOVAb
Model
1
Sum of Squares
Regression
Mean Square
111,501
1
111,501
35,110
257
,137
146,611
258
Residual
Total
df
F
Sig.
,000a
816,158
Multiple Comparisons
a. Predictors: (Constant), Animosity
b. Dependent Variable: ITP
Model Summary
Model
R
,715a
1
R Square
Adjusted R
Std. Error of the
Square
Estimate
,511
,509
,60822
a. Predictors: (Constant), Animosity
ANOVAb
Model
1
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
Regression
99,376
1
99,376
Residual
95,071
257
,370
194,447
258
Total
F
Sig.
,000a
268,636
a. Predictors: (Constant), Animosity
b. Dependent Variable: Ethnocentrism
ANOVA
Ethnocentrism
Sum of Squares
Between Groups
df
Mean Square
67.331
4
16.833
Within Groups
127.116
254
.500
Total
194.447
258
F
Sig.
33.635 .000
83
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
Ethnocentrism
Tukey HSD
95% Confidence Interval
Mean
(I) Age
(J) Age
1.00
2.00
-.13933
.12589
.803
-.4852
.2065
3.00
-.90333*
.15629
.000
-1.3327
-.4739
4.00
.23000
.21968
.833
-.3736
.8336
5.00
-2.07000*
.22585
.000
-2.6905
-1.4495
1.00
.13933
.12589
.803
-.2065
.4852
3.00
-.76400*
.12350
.000
-1.1033
-.4247
4.00
.36933
.19770
.337
-.1738
.9125
5.00
-1.93067*
.20453
.000
-2.4926
-1.3687
1.00
.90333*
.15629
.000
.4739
1.3327
2.00
.76400*
.12350
.000
.4247
1.1033
4.00
1.13333*
.21832
.000
.5335
1.7332
5.00
-1.16667*
.22453
.000
-1.7835
-.5498
1.00
-.23000
.21968
.833
-.8336
.3736
2.00
-.36933
.19770
.337
-.9125
.1738
3.00
-1.13333*
.21832
.000
-1.7332
-.5335
5.00
-2.30000*
.27248
.000
-3.0486
-1.5514
1.00
2.07000*
.22585
.000
1.4495
2.6905
2.00
1.93067*
.20453
.000
1.3687
2.4926
3.00
1.16667*
.22453
.000
.5498
1.7835
4.00
2.30000*
.27248
.000
1.5514
3.0486
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
Difference (I-J)
Std. Error
Sig.
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
ANOVA
Animosity
Sum of Squares
Between Groups
df
Mean Square
9.126
4
2.281
Within Groups
108.636
254
.428
Total
117.762
258
F
Sig.
5.334 .000
84
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
Multiple Comparisons
Animosity
Tukey HSD
95% Confidence Interval
Mean
(I) Age
(J) Age
1.00
2.00
-.09275
.11638
.931
-.4125
.2270
3.00
-.48875*
.14448
.007
-.8857
-.0918
4.00
.32125
.20308
.510
-.2367
.8792
5.00
-.10875
.20879
.985
-.6824
.4649
1.00
.09275
.11638
.931
-.2270
.4125
3.00
-.39600*
.11417
.006
-.7097
-.0823
4.00
.41400
.18276
.160
-.0881
.9161
5.00
-.01600
.18908
1.000
-.5355
.5035
1.00
.48875*
.14448
.007
.0918
.8857
2.00
.39600*
.11417
.006
.0823
.7097
4.00
.81000*
.20183
.001
.2555
1.3645
5.00
.38000
.20757
.358
-.1903
.9503
1.00
-.32125
.20308
.510
-.8792
.2367
2.00
-.41400
.18276
.160
-.9161
.0881
3.00
-.81000*
.20183
.001
-1.3645
-.2555
5.00
-.43000
.25189
.431
-1.1221
.2621
1.00
.10875
.20879
.985
-.4649
.6824
2.00
.01600
.18908
1.000
-.5035
.5355
3.00
-.38000
.20757
.358
-.9503
.1903
4.00
.43000
.25189
.431
-.2621
1.1221
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
Difference (I-J)
Std. Error
Sig.
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
ANOVA
Ethnocentrism
Sum of Squares
Between Groups
df
Mean Square
37.465
3
12.488
Within Groups
156.982
255
.616
Total
194.447
258
F
Sig.
20.286 .000
85
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
86
Multiple Comparisons
Ethnocentrism
Tukey HSD
95% Confidence Interval
Mean
(I) Education
(J) Education
1.00
2.00
.70000
.29656
.088
-.0669
1.4669
3.00
-.33778
.22030
.419
-.9075
.2319
4.00
-.83750*
.22447
.001
-1.4180
-.2570
1.00
-.70000
.29656
.088
-1.4669
.0669
3.00
-1.03778*
.22030
.000
-1.6075
-.4681
4.00
-1.53750*
.22447
.000
-2.1180
-.9570
1.00
.33778
.22030
.419
-.2319
.9075
2.00
1.03778*
.22030
.000
.4681
1.6075
4.00
-.49972*
.10475
.000
-.7706
-.2288
1.00
.83750*
.22447
.001
.2570
1.4180
2.00
1.53750*
.22447
.000
.9570
2.1180
3.00
.49972*
.10475
.000
.2288
.7706
2.00
3.00
4.00
Difference (I-J)
Std. Error
Sig.
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
ANOVA
Animosity
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
Between Groups
19.545
3
6.515
Within Groups
98.216
255
.385
117.762
258
Total
F
Sig.
16.915 .000
Multiple Comparisons
Animosity
Tukey HSD
95% Confidence Interval
Mean
(I) Education
(J) Education
Difference (I-J)
Std. Error
Sig.
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
1.00
2.00
-.14000
.23457
.933
-.7466
.4666
3.00
-.93785*
.17425
.000
-1.3885
-.4872
4.00
-.60948*
.17755
.004
-1.0686
-.1503
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
2.00
3.00
4.00
1.00
.14000
.23457
.933
-.4666
.7466
3.00
-.79785*
.17425
.000
-1.2485
-.3472
4.00
-.46948*
.17755
.043
-.9286
-.0103
1.00
.93785*
.17425
.000
.4872
1.3885
2.00
.79785*
.17425
.000
.3472
1.2485
4.00
.32837*
.08286
.001
.1141
.5426
1.00
.60948*
.17755
.004
.1503
1.0686
2.00
.46948*
.17755
.043
.0103
.9286
3.00
-.32837*
.08286
.001
-.5426
-.1141
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
ANOVA
Ethnocentrism
Sum of Squares
Between Groups
df
Mean Square
12.238
4
3.060
Within Groups
182.209
254
.717
Total
194.447
258
F
Sig.
4.265 .002
Multiple Comparisons
Ethnocentrism
Tukey HSD
95% Confidence Interval
Mean
(I) Income
(J) Income
1.00
2.00
-.07072
.13268
.984
-.4353
.2938
3.00
.05027
.14843
.997
-.3575
.4581
4.00
.52805*
.18539
.038
.0187
1.0374
5.00
.62805
.24492
.080
-.0449
1.3010
1.00
.07072
.13268
.984
-.2938
.4353
3.00
.12099
.14880
.926
-.2878
.5298
4.00
.59877*
.18568
.012
.0886
1.1089
5.00
.69877*
.24514
.038
.0252
1.3723
1.00
-.05027
.14843
.997
-.4581
.3575
2.00
-.12099
.14880
.926
-.5298
.2878
4.00
.47778
.19724
.113
-.0641
1.0197
5.00
.57778
.25402
.157
-.1201
1.2757
2.00
3.00
Difference (I-J)
Std. Error
Sig.
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
87
ETHNOCENTRISM AND ANIMOSITY EFFECT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS
4.00
5.00
1.00
-.52805*
.18539
.038
-1.0374
-.0187
2.00
-.59877*
.18568
.012
-1.1089
-.0886
3.00
-.47778
.19724
.113
-1.0197
.0641
5.00
.10000
.27724
.996
-.6617
.8617
1.00
-.62805
.24492
.080
-1.3010
.0449
2.00
-.69877*
.24514
.038
-1.3723
-.0252
3.00
-.57778
.25402
.157
-1.2757
.1201
4.00
-.10000
.27724
.996
-.8617
.6617
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
88