Cloth and Clothing
in Early Anglo-Saxon England,
AD 450-700
This book is dedicated to
the memory of my friend and mentor
Elisabeth Grace Crowfoot
1914–2005
Cloth and Clothing in
Early Anglo-Saxon England,
AD 450-700
Penelope Walton Rogers
CBA Research Report 145
Council for British Archaeology 2007
Published in 2007 by the Council for British Archaeology
St Mary’s House, 66 Bootham,York,YO30 7BZ
Copyright © 2007 Author, English Heritage and Council for British Archaeology
British Library cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978 1 902771 540
Cover designed by BP Design,York
Typeset by Archetype IT Ltd, www.archetype-it.com
Printed and bound in the UK by The Alden Press
The publisher acknowledges with gratitude a grant from English Heritage towards the
cost of publication
Cover: The amber beads and replica brooch were provided by Sandra Garside-Neville
and the woad-dyed diamond twill cloth by the author.The paintings on the back cover
are by Graham Sumner (see Chapter 5)
Contents
List of figures . . . . .
List of tables. . . . . .
Acknowledgements. .
Summary . . . . . .
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. vii
xiv
. xv
xvii
1 Setting the scene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Previous studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
The historical framework. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
A note on chronology and colour-coding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Textile production in the villages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Sheep and wool. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Flax and hemp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Wool preparation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Flax processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Spinning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Winding and warping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Weaving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Band-weaving, braiding and cord-making. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Bleaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Dyeing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Finishing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Laundering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Cutting and stitching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Textiles and the village economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3 The textiles from the cemeteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
The database. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Bias and preservation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Fibres and their identification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Dyes and dye identification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Weave structures and spin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
The main fabric types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Patterning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Specialist textiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Imported silks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Borders and other structural details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Tablet weaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Braids and cords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
contents Needlework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Animal skins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Regional distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4 Costume accessories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Dating Anglo-Saxon graves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Anglo-Saxon metalwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Brooches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Sleeve-clasps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Buckles and other belt fittings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Beads, pendants and other necklace accessories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Bangles, finger rings and ear-rings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Aglets and other metal tags. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Bags, chatelaines and other suspended items. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Artefacts in men’s graves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Knives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5 Reconstructing clothing from the Anglo-Saxon burial. . . . . . . . . . . 139
The costume survey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Paired shoulder brooches and the peplos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Single brooches at the shoulder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
The sleeved inner gown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
The veil and other coverings for the head and neck. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Cloaks, shawls and capes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
The history of cloaks, mantles, capes and hoods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Costume ensembles in the Migration period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Graves without brooches or pins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Women after the peplos: the Later Phase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
The women of east Kent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Fashions in bead strings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Atypical graves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Men’s tunics and trousers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Men’s cloaks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Men’s headwear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Fighting gear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
The warrior jacket. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Clothing children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Hair styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Belts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Shoes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Leg and foot coverings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Pouches and purses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Soft-furnishings and beds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Textiles with weapons, knives and tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Carrying the knife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Textile wrappers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
v i c lo t h an d c lo t h i n g i n ear ly an g lo - saxo n e n g lan d
6 Cloth, clothing and Anglo-Saxon society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The early immigrants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Romano-British survival. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Regional variety in the Migration period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The transfer of textile technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Status and textiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Imported textiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Textiles in 7th-century royal burials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Between men and women. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Age matters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Women and marriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Changing costume in a changing society. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interpreting costume in the burial ritual. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The long view. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Notes for archaeologists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Costume and textile crafts in a new archaeology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
229
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236
238
240
241
242
244
245
247
248
250
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
contents vii
List of figures
1.1 Spinning and weaving depicted on a Hallstatt period vessel from Sopron, Hungary
1.2The Iron-Age inheritance: a checked twill from Falkirk, probably mid-3rd century AD
1.3A veteran of the Sixth Legion and his family wearing Gallic coats in a carved relief
from York, 2nd or 3rd century AD
1.4The two-beam vertical loom in a wall-painting in the hypogeum of the Aurelii at
Rome
2.1 Sheep in a pen, with women milking and carrying milk from the Luttrell Psalter, c 1340
2.2 Men pulling flax in Flanders in the 20th century
2.3Natural fleece colours
2.4Naturally dyed wool
2.5 Using a Roman woolcomb in a wall-painting at Pompeii
2.6A pair of 7th-century woolcombs from Wicken Bonhunt, Essex
2.7A woman combing wool with a pair of two-row, short-toothed woolcombs of the
Anglo-Saxon type, Chartres Cathedral, c 1200
2.8 Processing the flax plant
2.9Removing retted flax from a ‘lint hole’ in Northern Ireland in the early 20th
century
2.10 Wooden flax-processing tools
2.11 Processing flax: pounding, scutching and heckling
2.12A woman heckling flax with a foot heckle, Chartres Cathedral
2.13 Cross-sections through the flax stem
2.14 Flax at different stages of preparation
2.15 Spinning with short hand-distaff and suspended spindle
2.16Distaffs and spindles
2.17The short hand-distaff and spindle, ivory carving of the Carolingian Court School, early
9th century
2.18The development of spindle whorls from the Iron Age to the 7th century
2.19Yarn-winding equipment from the 9th-century ship burial at Oseberg, Norway
2.20 Preparing the warp on a warping frame
2.21 Weaving on the warp-weighted loom
2.22 Circular clay loomweights
2.23Two rows of clay loomweights at Grimstone End, Pakenham, Suffolk, in 1953
2.24Loomweights in situ in a timber building at Upton, Northamptonshire, and in the
remains of a hut at West Stow
2.25 Bone and antler tools used in weaving: double-ended pin-beaters, a single-ended pinbeater and a toothed weft-beater
2.26Iron weaving battens of sword-shaped and spear-shaped form
v i i i c lo t h an d c lo t h i n g i n ear ly an g lo - saxo n e n g lan d
2.27A Roman funerary sculpture from Baugy, France, showing the weaver, Genetiva,
holding a single-ended pin-beater
2.28Tablet weaving: a tablet and the band-weaving shuttle from Chalton, Hampshire
2.29Dyeplants: woad, Isatis tinctoria L., and weld, Reseda luteola L.
2.30A woman doing her laundry by a river with a laundering bat, in the Holkham Bible
Picture Book, 1327–35
2.31A selection of shears of the 5th to the 7th centuries
2.32Needles, needle-cases and cylindrical boxes
2.33 Plan of the settlement at West Stow, showing the distribution of textile equipment
2.34 Scutching flax in Ponte de Lima, Portugal
3.1The sites from which textile records have been collected
3.2Textiles preserved in association with metal garment-fasteners
3.3The preservation of textiles does not follow the preservation of bone: complete
skeletons at Berinsfield; a ‘sand body’, where most of the bone has dissolved, at Snape
3.4 Fibres viewed with an optical (transmitted-light) microscope and fibres viewed by
Scanning Electron Microscope
3.5 Weave structures of Anglo-Saxon textiles
3.6Tying in the heddles for plain 2/2 twill, 2/1 twill and 2/2 diamond twill
3.7Yarns and cords: spin, ply and cable
3.8A plain ZZ tabby weave from West Heslerton
3.9Textiles woven in twill
3.10 Pattern effects: (a) checked, (b) striped, and (c) warp-weft contrast
3.11The thread-counts of Early Anglo-Saxon spin-patterned textiles
3.12 Some pattern repeats in Early Anglo-Saxon diamond twills
3.13The thread-counts of Early Anglo-Saxon 2/2 diamond twills with a 20 × 18 pattern
repeat
3.14 (a) Rosette twill from Finglesham and (b) the diamond-patterned, possibly composite,
twill from Howletts
3.15Anglo-Saxon coverlet weaves
3.16Tapestry weave from West Heslerton and Coptic tapestry from Cologne Cathedral
3.17 Soumak tapestry from Taplow, Sutton Hoo Mound 1 and Birka, and counted-thread
stem-stitch in an embroidery from Llan-gors crannog
3.18 (a) A piled textile from Broomfield; (b) the looped-pile weave technique; (c) the
inserted-yarn technique of Banstead Down
3.19 Borders on Anglo-Saxon whole cloths
3.20 (a) Plain selvedges on tabby-weave tape; (b) looped border on twill from Southampton
St Mary’s
3.21A weaving gore from Snape cremation C67
3.22Tablet weaves with simple corded effects
3.23Tablet-woven warp-patterned tabby weaves
3.24Tablet-woven double-faced repp-effect weave
3.25Tablet-woven (a) 2/1 twill on 2-hole tablets from West Heslerton, and (b) twill-like
ridges from Morning Thorpe also on 2-hole tablets
3.26Tablet-woven double-faced 3/1 twill
3.27Tablet weaves with probable weft-float patterns
list of figures ix
3.28Tablet weaves ornamented with soumak and weft-wrapping in horse hair
3.29A tablet weave from Sutton Hoo Mound 14, with soumak ornament, and similar bands
from St Cuthbert’s tomb at Durham
3.30Gold-brocading, divorced from its ground weave
3.31 Braids
3.32Needlework
3.33 Embroidery
3.34 Embroidery representing pendant necklaces and pectoral cross on the tabard-style tunic
of St Bathilde, Chelles
3.35 Early Anglo-Saxon textiles, grouped by weave and spin
3.36The three main textile types arranged according to date and by relationship to smalllong and annular brooches
3.37Regional boundaries derived from two trend surface maps
3.38The three main textile types divided by region
4.1The three main categories of saucer-shaped brooches
4.2Two typical disc brooches
4.3 Kentish disc brooches
4.4The three main categories of annular brooch
4.5 Penannular brooch and openwork brooch
4.6 Cruciform brooches
4.7The detached knob from a cruciform brooch from Scorton has been tied in place with
plied cords
4.8A selection of small-long brooches
4.9 Square-headed brooches
4.10 Supporting-arm brooch and a small equal-armed brooch
4.11 Continental bow brooches from Kent
4.12A selection of small Continental brooches, or Kleinfibeln, from Anglo-Saxon cemeteries
4.13 Safety-pin brooch
4.14 Sleeve-clasps
4.15A range of metal buckles
4.16A selection of strap-ends
4.17 (a) Migration period garment pins; (b) shorter pins of the Later Phase; (c) linked pins of
the Later Phase; (d) an iron ‘cutlery pin’ or ‘knife pin’; and (e) a set of toilet implements
including two pin-like objects
4.18 Beads from Early Anglo-Saxon graves
4.19 (a) A mid-7th-century necklace from Harford Farm; (b) a 7th-century gold necklace
from Desborough, Northamptonshire
4:20 Metal pendants, two bucket beads, a beaver-tooth pendant and two slip-ring necklaces
4.21 (a) A neck-ring or lunula, (b) a wire bangle, (c) a spiral bangle, (d) a selection of finger
rings
4.22 Metal aglets of the Later Phase and small metal hooked tags, probably purse fasteners
4.23 Men with typical Anglo-Saxon weaponry on the carved whalebone lid of the Franks
Casket
4.24 Male accessories from Norton-on-Tees
4.25 Sword from Dover Buckland I
c lo t h an d c lo t h i n g i n ear ly an g lo - saxo n e n g lan d
5.1 Similar suites of costume accessories in graves with differing preservation of the body
5.2The sites included in the costume survey
5.3Garment-fasteners in two women’s graves
5.4Graves with paired shoulder brooches, representing peplos fasteners
5.5 Methods of clasping the peplos
5.6 Knotted ends of a girdle, made from a tubular plait (sinnet) from West Heslerton
5.7Germanic women wearing the peplos on the 2nd-century column of Marcus Aurelius
5.8The tubular garment from Huldremose, Denmark, worn as a peplos with the top folded
down
5.9 Menimane wearing three garments fastened with brooches
5.10A hand-made reconstruction of the costume of a woman in an early 11th-century
grave from south-west Finland
5.11Reconstruction of the different ways of wearing the Anglo-Saxon peplos, based on
archaeological evidence and Continental sources
5.12The peplos clasped on the left shoulder in mortuary reliefs at (a) Palmyra, Syria, and (b)
Mainz, Germany
5.13A probable girdled mantle-dress in an early 6th-century mosaic in the basilica of Sant’
Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna
5.14Reconstruction of the garments worn with single and non-matching shoulder
brooches
5.15Tablet-woven cuff and sleeve-clasps from Mildenhall
5.16A woman from Roman Pannonia in a long-sleeved dress, and peplos with the hem
hitched up, from a tombstone in Klagenfurt Museum, Austria
5.17Remains of a head-veil on a woman’s skull from West Heslerton
5.18A hip-length veil picked out in gold thread, in the burial of a man, woman and child,
Mill Hill
5.19Textiles on an annular brooch from Cleatham, viewed from the front
5.20Tight pleats running down an iron key at the left waist in Harford Farm
5.21 Pairs of metal rings and staples from either side of the head in women’s burials
5.22The position of the pin in women’s graves
5.23 Short veils from other periods
5.24 Pleated women’s garments in an ivory panel from a book cover, from St Martin’s,
Genoels-Elderen, Belgium
5.25Headbands across the forehead
5.26A reconstruction of the cuffie, coif, binde, headband, and rift, veil, based on surviving
Viking-Age caps and headbands, and the traditional nun’s habit
5.27 Byzantine veils and coifs
5.28The ‘velamen’ of St Harlindis, in early documents referred to as a palliolum
5.29Reconstruction of short Migration period veils
5.30Reconstruction of the long Later Phase veils
5.31Graves with a single large cloak-fastener
5.32Graves with paired downward-pointing cloak-fasteners
5.33Reconstruction of Anglo-Saxon women of the Migration period wearing cloaks, capes,
shawls and head-veils
5.34Germanic cloaks and capes
list of figures xi
5.35The Empress Theodora and women of her court in a mosaic of 546–48 in the basilica
at San Vitale, Ravenna
5.36 Women wearing mantles over the head and cloaks in images from the Stuttgart Psalter,
c 800
5.37Reconstruction of the female costume at Scorton
5.38Reconstruction of the female costume at Alton
5.39Reconstruction of the female costume at Snape
5.40Two graves with cloak-fasteners but no peplos brooches
5.41A reconstruction of the textile evidence from Sutton Hoo Mound 14
5.42The Arnegunde burial in the Cathedral at Saint-Denis, near Paris
5.43 Women’s graves and unsexed graves with female accessories dated to the 7th century
5.44Reconstruction of the four-brooch dress
5.45The position of brooches in Kentish Dress Style IV in the Dover Buckland II cemetery
5.46Textiles on the back of some of the brooches from Fig 5.45, showing the vertical tabletwoven borders of the front-opening garments
5.47Reconstruction of the fastening of a front-opening garment in Grave 105 at Waging am
See, Lkr Traunstein, Oberbayern, Germany
5.48A 7th-century impressed gold foil from Helgö, Ekerö, Uppland, Sweden
5.49 Fashions in bead strings in Early Anglo-Saxon graves
5.50The garment accessories on an elderly woman at Holywell Row
5.51A man with female garment accessories at Andover Portway
5.52 Men’s graves have fewer garment accessories than women’s
5.53 Men’s tunics and trousers
5.54 (a) The thigh-length tunic from Thorsberg, dated no later than the 3rd century; (b) the
knee-length tunic from Bernuthsfeld, Germany, dated to the later 7th century
5.55The trousers with belt loops from Thorsberg and a bare-chested Germanic warrior in
trousers with a rolled-over waistband on the 2nd-century column of Marcus Aurelius
5.56Anglo-Saxon men’s clothing reconstructed
5.57 (a) Maltese Vandals wear capes of piled weave or animal skin over V-neck tunics and
footless trousers in a 5th-century ivory diptych; (b) John the Baptist wears a piled cloak
with broad collar in a mid-6th-century carving from Ravenna; (c) men on the early
8th-century Franks Casket wear a variety of cloaks
5.58The Pannonian cap
5.59An iron boar’s-crest helmet from the male burial at Wollaston
5.60The warrior jacket
5.61A sketch of the Taplow grave made during the excavation of 1882
5.62Garments with a front opening worn by men of the Sasanian empire
5.63Reconstruction of the male costume at Morning Thorpe
5.64How the man buried at Taplow might have dressed
5.65Hair styles
5.66Reconstructed belts from Dover Buckland I
5.67 Shoes made from a single piece and tentatively reconstructed turnshoes
5.68Reconstructed bags and purses
5.69The construction of a pillow from a 10th-century prince’s burial at Mammen
(Bjerringhøj), Denmark
5.70Graves with the knife parallel to the forearm
x i i c lo t h an d c lo t h i n g i n ear ly an g lo - saxo n e n g lan d
6.1The distribution of 2/1 twills, tubular selvedges and soft-finished textiles in Migration
period graves
6.2Regional map of Early Anglo-Saxon England and the regions of the textile and
costume study
6.3The distribution of fine spin-patterned tabby and the wics
6.4The madder plant, Rubia tinctorum L.
6.5The tablet-woven bands attaching this seal to a 12th/13th-century document have been
made in the same patterning technique as seen in Dover Buckland II in the 6th century
6.6Detail from the 11th-century Bayeux ‘Tapestry’, really an embroidery, worked in dyed
wool on linen
list of figures xiii
List of tables
2.1 Fleece types of the Roman and Early Anglo-Saxon period
3.1List of sites from which textile records have been collected
3.2The preservation of wool and linen with iron and copper-alloy artefacts
3.3Net-like wool tabby weaves (‘veil weaves’) from Anglo-Saxon graves
3.4 Colour-patterning in wool textiles of the 5th to 7th/8th centuries
5.1The sites included in the costume survey
5.2Garment accessories and age in women’s graves of the Migration period, Region 3
x i v c lo t h an d c lo t h i n g i n ear ly an g lo - saxo n e n g lan d
Acknowledgements
F
unding for this research was provided by English Heritage and the author would
like to thank Chris Scull and the staff at the Archaeology Commissions office,
English Heritage, for their support throughout the project. She is also indebted
to the publishers, The Council for British Archaeology, and especially to Frances
Mee for her patience and diligence during the editing of the manuscript and to Jane
Thorniley-Walker who oversaw the early stages.
Bryan Alvey, Cultural Heritage Information Consultants, is to be thanked for the
skill with which he recast the author’s private database into a format suitable for use
by others, and Bruce Lamden and Tom Srahan also gave assistance in IT. Clerical
and administrative support was provided by staff at The Anglo-Saxon Laboratory,
namely, Lynda Barraclough, Elizabeth Cox, Gillian Fox, Deborah Gurden and Nicola
Walton.
The text has benefited greatly from the contribution of the major illustrators,
Anthony Barton, Rob Oldfield and Graham Sumner, and from additional material
provided by Glenys Boyles and Tom Srahan. The images taken from other publications
are acknowledged in the text, but I am especially grateful to the following for help
in tracking down sources and copyright permission: Professor Lise Bender Jørgensen,
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (Trondheim), Dr Dominique Cardon,
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Dr Regina Hofmann, University of
Applied Arts (Vienna), Dr Michael Klein, Mainz Landesmuseum, Patricia Mclean,
Ulster Museum Picture Library, Dr Gale Owen-Crocker, University of Manchester,
Jaana Riikonen, Nordic Graduate School in Archaeology (Finland), Sue Ross, Shire
Books, and Else Østergård, National Museum of Denmark (Copenhagen).
The following have kindly read sections of the text and provided feedback:
Professor Lise Bender Jørgensen, Dr Carole Biggam, University of Glasgow, Dr
Birte Brugmann, University of Oxford, Dr Tania Dickinson, University of York,
Dr Allan R Hall, University of York, Professor John Hines, University of Cardiff,
Frances Pritchard, The Whitworth Art Gallery, and Dr John Peter Wild, University
of Manchester. Any errors that remain are undoubtedly my own. Others generously
gave access to unpublished work: Dr Birte Brugmann, the late Elisabeth Crowfoot, Dr
Tania Dickinson, the late Glynis Edwards, Christine Haughton, Susan Hirst, Kenneth
Penn, Dominic Powlesland, Ian Riddler and Chris Scull. The text has also benefited
from conversations with Angela Evans, Dr Kevin Leahy, Dr Sonja Marzinzik, Ian
Riddler and Chris Scull, and a special thank-you goes to Dr Peter Addyman for
access to his private library.
Finally, I should like to thank all those clients who put up with delays in schedules
while I was writing the book, and last, but not least, Tom Srahan, for always being
ac k nowle dg e m e nt s xv
there to flap a towel in my corner, and Gill Fox, Bruce Lamden, Ken Pickering, Sara
Stancliffe, Caroline Thompson and Alan Wilkinson, for their constant good humour
and late-night friendship during the long haul.
xv i c lo t h an d c lo t h i n g i n ear ly an g lo - saxo n e n g lan d
Summary
T
his volume reviews the archaeological evidence for clothing and its manufacture in the early Anglo-Saxon period. It draws on material excavated from
settlements and cemeteries, and places it within the context of current studies
concerning women, immigration, economy and the meaning of costume within
Anglo-Saxon society.
Chapter 1 provides an introduction to the study and a review of the historical background. Chapter 2 describes the processes of production, from raw material to finished
cloth. Cloth making was made up of a series of crafts, mostly organised by the women
of the community and managed alongside other agricultural and domestic duties. The
work began outside in the summer and moved indoors into the pit-huts or ‘sunkenfeatured buildings’ in the winter and spring. Chapter 3 surveys the main cloth types,
based on 3,800 records from 162 sites, collected in a database, accessible via the ADS
website.They are mostly standard forms of twill and tabby, in wool and linen, although
the ratios of one type to another change with time. Tablet weaves and needlework,
including embroideries, are described, as well a small number of specialist weaves.
Chapter 4 reviews costume accessories, including brooches, pins, buckles and
necklaces, most of which come from women’s graves. Chapter 5 presents a detailed
study of costume styles, based on the evidence from the cemeteries. The findings from
the graves are compared with the representation of Germanic men and women in
Roman art and with later historical evidence. Accessories such as belts, bags and shoes
are described, along with bedding and other soft furnishings.
Chapter 6 considers the evidence under thematic headings.The Anglo-Saxon textile
culture arrived in two or more waves from the Continent, but the survival of native
British skills can be seen in certain regional pockets. Costumes show regional and
chronological variation, and age and social status also play a part: markers for age and
marriage have been tentatively identified. Specialist textiles follow affluent or highstatus people, and in the 7th century these shift from mostly female to exclusively male
graves. The role of textiles in the funerary ritual is considered and notes are provided
on ways in which the archaeologist can improve the study of costume in the future.
summary xvii
Résumé
C
e volume fait un compte-rendu des indices archéologiques concernant les
vêtements et leur fabrication au début de la période anglo-saxonne. Il utilise le
matériel découvert lors des fouilles de peuplements et de cimetières, et il situe
ce matériel dans le contexte des études courantes concernant les femmes, l’immigration,
l’économie, et la signification du costume au sein de la société anglo-saxonne.
Le chapitre 1 introduit cette étude et fournit aussi un compte-rendu du contexte
historique. Le chapitre 2 décrit les procédés de production, des matières premières
au tissu fini. La fabrication du tissu était le produit d’une série d’artisanats, organisés
pour la plupart par les femmes de la communauté, et gérée côte à côte avec d’autres
activités agricoles et ménagères. Le travail commençait à l’extérieur en été et continuait
à l’intérieur, dans les cabanes mi-souterraines ou les ‘bâtiments à structures enfouies’ en
hiver et au printemps. Le chapitre 3 examine les principaux types de tissu, sur la base
de 3 800 notations tirées de 162 sites, réunies dans une base de données, laquelle est
accessible par le biais du site Internet ADS. Ces tissus sont pour la plupart des formes
normales de sergé et de armure toile, en laine et en lin, bien que les proportions entre
un type de tissu et un autre changent dans le temps. Les armures aux cartons et les
travaux d’aiguille, y compris les broderies, y sont décrits, ainsi qu’un petit nombre de
tissus spécialisés.
Le chapitre 4 examine les accessoires du costume, y compris les broches, les épingles,
les boucles, et les colliers, dont la plupart proviennent de sépultures de femmes. Le
chapitre 5 présente une étude détaillée des styles de costumes, sur la base des indices
retrouvés dans les cimetières. Les découvertes extraites des sépultures sont comparées
avec la manière dont sont représentés les hommes et les femmes germaniques dans l’art
romain et avec les indices historiques ultérieurs. Les accessoires comme les ceintures,
les sacs et les chaussures sont décrits, ainsi que la literie et autres tissus de maison.
Le chapitre 6 examine les indices sous des rubriques thématiques. La culture textile
anglo-saxonne arriva du continent européen en deux vagues ou plus, mais la survie des
techniques autochtones britanniques peut se voir dans certaines petites zones régionales. Les costumes témoignent des variations régionales et chronologiques, et l’âge et le
standing social ont également un rôle à jouer: des marqueurs pour l’âge et le mariage
ont été provisoirement identifiés. Les textiles spécialisés accompagnent les personnes
riches ou de grand standing social et, au 7ème siècle, ils passent de sépultures principalement féminines à des sépultures exclusivement masculines. Le rôle des textiles dans
les rites funéraires est pris en considération et des notes sont fournies sur les manières
dont les archéologues pourront améliorer l’étude du costume à l’avenir.
xv i i i c lo t h an d c lo t h i n g i n ear ly an g lo - saxo n e n g lan d
Übersicht
D
ieser Band präsentiert eine übersicht über archäologische Funde von
Gewändern und deren Herstellung in der frühen angelsächsischen Zeit von
AD 450–700. Für diese Studie wird Ausgrabungsmaterial aus Siedlungen und
Friedhöfen hinzugezogen und anschließend mit Studien integriert, die sich mit der
Rolle von Frauen, Immigration, Wirtschaftsstruktur und der Bedeutung von Trachten
in der angelsächsischen Gesellschaft beschäftigen.
Das 1. Kapitel besteht aus einer Einleitung und vermittelt eine übersicht über
den historischen Hintergrund. Kapitel 2 beschreibt den Herstellungsprozess, vom
Rohmaterial bis zum gefertigten Stoff. Die Stoffherstellung bestand aus einer Reihe
von handwerklichen Vorgängen, die hauptsächlich von Frauen durchgeführt wurden
und mit anderen Arbeiten in der Landwirtschaft und im Haus verbunden wurden.
Die Arbeit begann im Sommer im Freien und wurde im Winter und Frühling in
Grubenhäusern weitergeführt. Kapitel 3 enthält eine Inventur der wichtigsten
Stoffarten, dessen Kenntnis auf 3800 Aufzeichnungen aus 162 Ausgrabungsstätten
beruht. Diese Information ist in einer Datenbank zusammengetragen die über die
Webseite des ADS zugänglich ist. Sie am meisten verbreitetsten Stoffarten bestehen
aus Köper und Tuchbindungen aus Wolle und Leinen, welche Arten vorherrschen ist
zeitlichen änderungen unterworfen. Brettchenwebereien und Nadelarbeiten, wie zum
Beispiel Stickereien werden beschrieben, sowie eine kleine Anwahl von außergewöhnlichen Webearbeiten.
Das 4. Kapitel beschäftigt sich mit Trachtenschmuck, wie zum Beispiel Broschen,
Nadeln, Schnallen und Halsschmuck, die meist aus Frauengräbern stammen. Im 5.
Kapitel wird eine detaillierte Studie von Gewändern beschrieben, die aus Grabfunden
bestehen. Die Grabfunde werden mit den Darstellungen von Germanen aus römischer
Kunst und späteren historischen Quellen verglichen. Accessoires wie Gürtel, Taschen
und Schuhe werden beschrieben, sowie auch Bettzeug und andere Textilaustattungen.
Im 8. Kapitel werden die Befunde unter verschiedenen thematischen Kategorien
diskutiert. Die angelsächsische Textilkultur kam durch zwei Einwanderungswellen vom
Europäischen Festland, in bestimmten Gebieten überlebten vereinzelt auch einheimische Handarbeiten. Trachten unterliegen regionalen und zeitlichen Abweichungen
und das Alter und die soziale Stellung der Träger spielen auch eine Rolle: bestimmte
Kennzeichen, die Hinweise auf Alter oder Heiraten geben, wurden provisorisch identifiziert. Spezielle Textilien geben Hinweise auf Wohlstand und hohen Status und ab
dem 7. Jahrhundert werden solche Textilien ausschließlich in Gräbern von Männern
gefunden. Die Rolle von Textilien bei Begräbnisritualen wird diskutiert und es werden
Vorschläge gemacht, wie die Methoden der Textilarchäologie für zukünftige Studien
verbessert werden können.
summary xix
There are three slender things that best support the world:
The slender stream of milk from the cow’s teat into the pail;
The slender blade of green corn upon the ground;
And the slender thread across the hand of a skilled woman.
The Triads of Ireland (9th century)
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