PRE-COMPETITION ANXIETY LEVELS IN INDIVIDUAL
AND TEAM SPORTS ATHLETES
Jamilah Ahmad Radzi
Faculty of Sport Science and Recreation
Universiti Teknologi Mara, UiTM Shah Alam
[email protected]
Sarina Md Yusof
Faculty of Sport Science and Recreation
Universiti Teknologi Mara, UiTM Shah Alam
[email protected]
Abdul Aziz Zakaria
Faculty of Sport Science and Recreation
Universiti Teknologi Mara, UiTM Shah Alam
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
This present study investigated pre-competition anxiety by using both psychological and physiological
measures of anxiety among individual and team sport athletes. Malaysian males back up athletes (N=52)
participated in this study. Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI-2), heart rate and salivary samples
were obtained from participants across three different times which at one week, one day and one hour
prior to the competition. Trait anxiety was obtained once, at one week prior to the competition. Result of
this study revealed that none of the variables except trait anxiety scores showed significant difference
(p<.05) between individual and team sport athletes. In addition, there is a significant effect for time
existed for heart rate level in team sports athletes which at one week and one hour prior to the
competition. Meanwhile, in cortisol response, a significant effect for time was found in individual sports
athletes only. The difference occurred at one week and one day prior to the competition. Future studies
should use physiological measure and psychological measure at the same time prior a highly competitive
situation in measuring anxiety on sport performance.
Field of Research:
Cortisol, heart rate, individual athletes, state anxiety, team athletes.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. Introduction
Competitive anxiety is one of the factors to decrease athletes’ performance (Esfahani & Soflu., 2010).
Feelings of tension, thinking of upcoming events in their mind, nervousness, worry and involved in
physiological changes such as increased in heart rate response are common response for the athletes
prior to the competition (Hackfort & Spielberger, 1989). Some athletes also involved with the feelings of
fear, unhappiness, guilt, discouragement, and focus distraction (Cerin, 2003; Kais & Raudsepp, 2005). All
of these conditions are a common conditions which is known as anxiety (Cerin, 2003; Hackfort &
Spielberger, 1989; Jarvis, 2006; Kais & Raudsepp, 2005; Martens, Vealey, & Burton, 1990; Wiggins,
1998). However, Hanton et al., (2008) noted that athletes perform best when they are at the preferred
Proceeding of the International Conference on Social Science Research, ICSSR 2013 (e-ISBN 978-96711768-1-8). 4-5 June 2013, Penang, MALAYSIA. Organized by WorldConferences.net
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anxiety level and how athletes interpret the anxiety situation, either anxiety can be facilitative or
debilitative to performance.
Generally, there are two types of anxiety that are state anxiety and trait anxiety (Cox, 2002). State
anxiety involved feeling of apprehension, tension, fear, and increase in physiological arousal (Cox, 2002).
This is an immediate emotional state response to specific situation. State anxiety also consists of
somatic and cognitive anxiety (Cox, 2002). Somatic anxiety is closely related to physiological aspects of
anxiety which involved physical symptoms such as rapid heartbeat, shortness of breath and muscular
tension (Cox, 2002; Leunes & Nation, 2002; Martens et al., 1990). Another component of state anxiety is
cognitive anxiety which refers to worry and emotional distress for upcoming events (Martinent, Ferrand,
Guillet, & Gautheur, 2010). Trait anxiety, which is involved with an experience of anxiety over a long
period of time towards the stressful environments (Filaire, Sagnol, Ferrand, Maso, & Lac, 2001). It is also
similar to a personality variable (Jarvis, 2006; Wann, 1997).
It has been found that, competing as individual or team sports moderate the anxiety levels when the
competition approaches. Previous literatures reported that state anxiety were higher in individual sport
compared to team sport participants (Craft, Magyar, Becker, & Feltz, 2003; Han et al., 2006; Martens et
al., 1990; Martin & Hall, 1997; Simon & Martens, 1979; Zeng, 2003) . However, self-confidence was
found lower in individual than team sport athletes (Martens et al., 1990; Zeng, 2003). It seems that
cognitive and somatic competitive anxiety is affected by social context of sport competition that is
competing as individual versus team event (Martens et al., 1990; Martin & Hall, 1997).
Still, most of studies, often measured competitive anxiety using the self report inventory such as
Competitive State Anxiety Inventory -2 (CSAI-2). Thus, physiological changes like hormones level and
heart rate should be used in related above studies to better understand and verified the anxiety levels
prior to the competition among individual and team sports athletes. One of the hormones, that is
cortisol is release from adrenal cortex which from the hypothalamic pituitary adrenocorticol axis (HPAA)
and released in response related to psychological state (Filaire, Alix, Ferrand, & Verger, 2009; Alix-Sy,
Scanff and Filare, 2007) like anxiety (Chiodo et al., 2011). Recent studies showed, cortisol response was
related with pre-competition anxiety (Filaire et al., 2009 Sal ador, Suay, on le -Bono, & Serrano,
2003). According to Filaire et al., (2009) a significant positive relationship also was found between
cortisol and both somatic and cognitive anxiety in competition. This shows that when psychological
measure like cognitive anxiety was affected, cortisol hormones also affected at the same time. There are
two methods can be used to measure cortisol hormones that are using blood samples or salivary
samples. However, sample of saliva is the best method because it is proven to measure the cortisol
response as a non-invasive method and easier to researcher for data collection (Kim et al., 2010; Gatti &
De Polo, 2010; McKay, Selig, Carlson, & Morris, 1997). Cortisol was found increases prior to competition
in individual sports (Filaire et al., 2001; Filaire et al., 2009; Kim Kwang-Jun et al., 2010; Luopos et al.,
2008; Mckay, 1998; Salvador et al., 2003) as well in team sports (Haneishi et al., 2007). Yet, it seems that
researchers have investigated the sports separately without looking into the potential differences of
salivary cortisol response between the sport categories. So, regarding a lack of studies on salivary
cortisol response among individual and team sport athletes, which may give a good marker in
understanding of anxiety levels, this study, therefore, will examine both psychological and physiological
measures of anxiety levels prior to the competition.
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2. Methodology
2.1 Participants
Fifty-two (N=52) Malaysian back up athletes were participated voluntarily in this present study.
Malaysian back up athletes is defined as Malaysian's best young athletes that are selected to ensure the
country always has athletes to support the existing elite athletes. These comprised of males’ athletes
whose aged ranging from 16 to 23 years old. There were divided into two groups that are individual
sport athletes and team sport athletes. Individual sports comprised of athletes from squash, table
tennis, lawn ball, bowling and track and field athletes. Team sport comprised of athletes from volleyball,
cricket and petanque.
2.2 Instrumentation
Psychological measures: State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) questionnaire has utilized to measure trait
anxiety. This inventory was developed by Spielberger, Gorsuch & Lushene, (1970) which consisted of
two subscales that measure state and trait anxiety. Each subscale consists of 20 items and rated on a 4point Likert scale of 1 (almost never) to 4 (almost always).The scores ranging from 20 to 80 for each
subscale. However, for this study, only the trait scale was used to measure the trait anxiety level.
Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) that developed by Martens et al., (1990) was used to
measure pre-competition cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and self-confidence of the participants. The
CSAI-2 has 27 items, with nine items in each subscale and arranged in a 4-point Likert scale format. The
response scale requires the participants to rate the intensity of each symptom on a scale of 1 (not at all)
to 4 (very much), so resulting in scores ranging from 9 to 36 for each subscale.
Physiological measures: To measure heart rate, polar heart rate (RS100) was used. Additionally, salivary
cortisol response was determined using the Salimetrics Salivary Cortisol Enzymes Immunoassay Kits.
2.3 Procedures
Participants were briefly explained on the purpose of present study and all procedures involved in the
study. Present study was approved by UiTM research ethical committee. Informed consent form was
obtained from participants at one week prior to the competition to waive any accidental occurs during
the test that does not related with the test procedures. At the same day, participants also required to
answer the STAI questionnaire.
Then, CSAI-2 questionnaire was later administered to the participants and were collected after
participants finished answering the questionnaire. The standardized instructions were used to
administer the CSAI-2 questionnaire, which were anti-social desirability instructions as suggested by
Marten et al. (1990). Physiological measures of anxiety were conducted immediately after participants
returned the questionnaire. Heart rates of participants were recorded and saliva samples were
collected. CSAI-2, heart rate and saliva samples collection procedure were repeated in the same manner
for one day and one hour prior to the competition. All the measurements were obtained before the
beginning of any warm up activity in order to minimize any effect of exercise or physical activity on
cortisol levels (Salvador et al., 2003).
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For the heart rate measure, participants were asked to wear polar heart rate, sit quietly and recorded
for one minute. For the collection of saliva, participants were advised not to take any food or drinks for
30 minutes prior and no brushing teeth two hours before collection session. Besides, participants were
not allowed taking alcohol the night before or the day of saliva collection. All of these guidelines
(Salimetrics, 2010; Gatti & De Palo, 2010) were given to participants at the first meeting and were
reminded to participants at pre-saliva collection day. On the day of collection, participants also were
asked to rinse their mouth with water before accumulate the saliva (Filaire et al., 2007) to avoid any
contamination in their mouth. Participants were asked to tilt their head forward and spit their saliva
directly into the plastic tubes (Salvador, 2003; Filaire et al., 1999). All the samples were labelled and
were sent to laboratory to analyse using Salimetrics Salivary Cortisol Enzymes Immunoassay Kit.
3. Finding & Discussion
3.1 Results
Means and standard deviation of the variables examined in the present study are presented in the Table
1. The results of the data showed that the mean of cognitive anxiety and somatic anxiety scores at three
different times (one week, one day and one hour prior to the competition) were higher in individual
sports athletes compared to team sports athletes. But, the mean of self-confidence scores at one week
and one day prior to the competition were higher in team sports compared to individual sports. On the
other hand, only the mean of self-confidence scores at one hour prior to the competition were higher in
individual sports compared to team sports. In addition, the mean of heart rate level at one week prior
to the competition were higher in individual sports compared to team sports. The mean of heart rate
level at one day and one hour prior to the competition were higher in team sports compared to
individual sports. In term of cortisol response, the result demonstrated that the mean of cortisol
response at one week, one day and one hour prior to the competition were higher in team sports
compared to individual sports.
To test if there is a significant difference between individual and team sport athletes in physiological and
psychological measure of anxiety across the three different times (one week, one day and one hour)
prior to the competition, mixed between-within subjects’ analysis of ariance was performed. The
results revealed that, none of the variables showed significant difference between individual and team
sport athletes. However, Independent samples t- Test was utilized to compare trait anxiety between
individual and team sport athletes. A significant difference was found in trait anxiety scores between
individual (M=44.35, SD=3.90) and team sport athletes, (M=41.54, SD=5.47); t (50) =2.13, p<0.05 (Table
2). The result indicated that higher trait anxiety scores was found in individual sports then team sports
athletes.
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Table 1: Mean and standard deviation (SD) of variables examined in individual and team sports athletes
One week before
Mean
SD
One day before
Mean
SD
One hour before
Mean
SD
Individual Sports
Cognitive
Somatic
Self-confidence
Heart rate
Cortisol
20.92
17.08
26.04
82.08
0.132
6.33
4.24
4.60
11.46
0.066
21.65
17.65
25.73
81.96
0.101
5.87
4.17
4.49
10.34
0.072
21.69
18.73
25.54
83.19
0.130
6.82
5.39
4.49
14.10
0.089
Team Sports
Cognitive
Somatic
Self-confidence
Heart rate
Cortisol
18.92
15.65
26.73
80.27
0.170
5.15
4.58
5.23
10.11
0.094
19.73
17.38
25.81
82.19
0.120
4.57
4.74
4.57
12.33
0.137
20.81
17.46
24.31
87.38
0.155
4.77
5.42
4.70
9.45
0.089
Variables
Table 2: Trait anxiety scores between individual and team sport athletes
Variables
Trait anxiety
Individual sport
Mean
44.35
SD
3.90
Team sport
Mean
41.54
SD
5.47
t-value
2.13*
p
.038
*Significant level (p<.05)
In addition, in order to investigate if there is a significant difference in physiological measures of anxiety
across the three different times prior to the competition within each sport categories, one way repeated
measure ANOVA was used. The assumption of sphericity was violated in some cases; therefore GreenHouse Geisser correction was reported. The result showed that there is no significant effect of time for
heart rate le el existed in indi idual sports athletes, Wilk’s Lambda = .99, F (2, 24) = 0.10, p>0.05. Mean
while, there is a significant effect of time for heart rate le el existed in team sports, Wilk’s Lambda = .70,
F (2, 24) = 5.05, p<0.05. Bonferroni pairwise comparisons further verified that there is a significant
difference at one week (M=80.27) and one hour (M=87.38) prior to the competition in team sports
athletes. A significant higher of heart rate level was found at one hour compared to one week prior to
the competition. Whereas in cortisol response, there is a significant effect for time, Wilk’s Lambda = .77,
F 1.43, 35.79) = 1.60, p<0.05 in individual sports athletes. Bonferroni pairwise comparisons further
verified that there is a significant difference in one week (M=0.132) and one day (M=0.101) in individual
sports. A significant higher of cortisol response was found at one week compared to one day prior to the
competition. Mean while, there is no significant effect of time existed was found in team sports, Wilk’s
Lambda = .92, F (2, 24) = 1.07, p>0.05. The changes of pre-competition cortisol response can be seen in
Figure 1.
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Cortisol hormone (µg/dL)
0.2
0.15
Individual sports
0.1
Team sports
0.05
0
One week
One day
One hour
Prior to competition
Figure 1: Pre-competition cortisol response in individual and team sport
3.2 Discussion
This study highlighted the anxiety levels by utilized both psychological and physiological measures of
anxiety as the competition approached among individual and team sports athletes. The mean and
standard deviation for cognitive anxiety and somatic anxiety scores shown higher in individual sport
compared to team sport athletes. However, the results are not statistically significant difference
between individual and team sport athletes. These results in lined with previous meta-analysis study by
authors, Woodman & Hardy, (2003) who reported that no significant differences between individual and
team sport for cognitive anxiety and somatic anxiety scores. However, the results not supported the
previous studies which reported that cognitive and somatic anxiety scores prior to competition was
statistically significant difference between individual and team sports athletes with cognitive and
somatic anxiety were found greater in individual sport compared to team sport athletes (Han et al.,
2006; Marten et al.1990; Martin & Hall, 1997; Zeng, 2003). The difference findings could be at least
partially attributed with the used of different type of sports. Most of previous literatures have not
control the factor of contact and non-contact, as well as subjective and objective sport as in this present
study.
In addition, even though the mean of heart rate level and cortisol response seemed to slightly difference
between individual and team sport athletes across the three different times, the result also found to be
not statistically significant difference between individual and team sport athletes. The results indicated
that both sport categories showing no significant changes of physiological measures across three
different times. However, physiological measures of anxiety levels seemed to be higher in team sports
athletes compared to individual sports athletes.
A significant difference in trait anxiety scores between individual and team sport athletes also found in
this study. Individual sport athletes demonstrated a significant higher in trait anxiety scores compared to
team sport athletes. The result in lined with previous study who did found similar results (Han et al.,
2006; Marten.,1990). The findings of this present study, however, were contradicting disagreed with the
findings of Zeng, (2003) which indicated that no significant differences was exists in trait anxiety scores
between individual and team sport athletes. The author stated that the trait anxiety scores between
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individual and team sport in their study seemed to be similar. The different time used for measuring the
trait anxiety may partially contribute to the contradicting findings.
Also, no significant effect of time for heart rate level was found in individual sports athletes, mean while,
a significant effect of time for heart rate level existed in team sports only. A significant higher of heart
rate level was found at one hour compared to one week prior to the competition. The result from this
study supported the study by Luopos et al., (2008) which reported a significant increase in heart rate
prior to competition. Cottyn et al., (2006) and Robazza et al., (1999) also indicated a significant increase
in heart rate during the competition session compared to training sessions.
Whereas in cortisol response, the result revealed that there is a significant effect for time in individual
sports athletes. Partial accordance with findings by Chiodo et al., (2011) and Fillaire et al., (2007) who
reported a significant different of cortisol response prior to the competition compared to resting day.
However, Fillaire and colleagues studied elite male paragliders and claimed that cortisol response is
higher when nearer to the competition compared to resting day. Agreed by Chiodo and colleagues who
reported salivary cortisol was significantly higher before the competition than at rest. However,
surprisingly, in present study cortisol reponse at one week prior to the competition was found
significantly higher than one day prior to the competition. However, the mean difference is slightly
small. Thus, even though the previous research above found significant difference between resting and
competition, the mean of cortisol response was found difference in the present study which is higher at
one week compared to closed to competition that is one day prior to competition. A possible
explanation is the different temporal used in investigating cortisol response prior to the competition.
For instance, Eubank et al., (1997) also found significant increases in cortisol response in their study, but
cortisol was found significantly elevated at two hours to one hour prior to competition, which differed
from present study. Also, the contrasts findings might be affected by the used of type of sports in the
previous studies. It also can be explained with different of energy systems that required by the sport
itself had influenced on salivary cortisol changes (Fillaire et al., (1999).
Mean while, there is no significant effect of time existed was found in team sports athletes although
cortisol response demonstrated a slightly different for each of three times of measurement. Present
result was in line with previous authors of Moreira et al., (2007). Even though they found a continuous
increase of cortisol in players but it is not statistically significant difference. Besides, there are no
significant changes of times for cortisol response in hockey players also reported by Thatcher et al.,
(2004). However, this finding is in contrary to the findings of Alix-Sy et al., (2008) that reported a change
of cortisol response which is increasing response from baseline value to nearer the competition with all
players shows the same result. However, soccer can be classified as contact sport which may partially
contribute to the different findings with current study. In addition, high level of both aerobic and
anaerobic abilities as physiological demands that required by soccer contribute to the greater hormonal
response to the competition compared to other sports (Alix-Sy et al., 2008).
Study by Eubank et al., (1997) reported that cortisol response was elevated in the group of canoeist who
interpret anxiety as debilitative prior to the competition. The authors also indicated that, athletes
demonstrated stable and low levels of cortisol response if they interpret anxiety as facilitative towards
their performance. Sanchez et al., (2010) also indicated that, high anxiety was benefit to performance
and it is proven associated to performance. From the result of present study, it can be speculate that,
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even though individual sport athletes experienced higher state and trait anxiety scores, they might
interpret the anxiety as facilitative and adequate. Besides, Thacher and colleagues also claimed that as
cognitive anxiety and somatic anxiety increases, the level of hormonal response decreased. Even though
their study investigated hormonal response using adrenaline and nor adrenaline, from the study it is
suggests that, it is possible that cortisol response as hormonal response can demonstrate the decreased
response too.
4. Conclusion and Future Recommendation
Although the findings showed no significant difference of cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, selfconfidence scores, heart rate levels and cortisol response between individual and team sports athletes,
more detail investigation is recommended to seek and better clarify other physiological measures
similar to this study. The findings of this study also limited only to single status event which is the result
of anxiety levels may varied in different competition. It is recommended that, sport type classification
need to properly identify in order to avoid any complexity regarding to anxiety and sport performance.
Other criteria should be look into in determining and measuring anxiety for type of sport, such as the
intensity of the sport itself. It would be advisable to measure anxiety prior or closer to the final of the
competition which might produce higher level of anxiety.
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