TABLE OF CONTENTS
PRESENTING IDEAS: BECOMING CRITICAL
PRODUCERS AND CONSUMERS OF INFORMATION
UNIT I. LAYING THE FOUNDATION—IMMERSION
CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 2
Introduction to Communication
• Benefits of communication
o Personal
o Professional
o Social
• Defining Communication
o Communication Process
§ People
§ Messages
§ Channel
§ Interference
§ Feedback
§ Context
o Models of Communication
§ Actional
§ Interactional
§ Transactional
• Themes for the Text
o Communication Competence
o Communication Confidence
o Ethical Communication
o Critical Thinking
Communication Confidence
• Communication Apprehension Defined
• Causes of Communication Apprehension
o Heredity
o Learned
o Skills Deficit
• Effects of Communication Apprehension
o Internal
o External
• Treatments for Communication Apprehension
o Systematic Desensitization
o Cognitive Restructuring
o Visualization
o Skills Training
1
p. 9
p. 25
CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 4
Ethical Communication
p. 37
• Ethics and Ethical Communication
• Ethical Standards and Credo
• Becoming Ethical Producers of Information
• Becoming Ethical Producers and Consumers of Information
• Becoming Ethical Consumers of Information (Listening and
Evaluating Speeches)
• Ethical Norms (Classroom Code of Conduct)
Perception and Self-Concept
p. 53
• Process of Perception
o Select
o Organize
o Interpret
• Perception and Public Speaking
• Factors Affecting Perception
o Physical
o Past Experiences
o Current Situation
• Perception and Self
o Self-Awareness
o Self-Concept
o Factors Affecting Self-Concept
• Perception and Communication
UNIT II. MESSAGE CLARITY
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 6
Choosing Topics
• Selecting a Topic
o Generating Ideas
o Narrowing the Topic
• General purpose
o Speeches to Inform
o Speeches to Persuade
o Speeches to Entertain
o Speeches to Commemorate
• Specific purpose
o Guidelines for Specific Purposes
• Thesis statements
o Guidelines for Writing a Thesis Statement
Analyzing your Audience
• Considering Your Audience
• Identifying and Understanding Your Audience
• Determining Audiences Attitudes and Beliefs
2
p. 67
p. 87
CHAPTER 7
CHAPTER 8
o Analyzing Audience Characteristics
o Analyzing the Situation
§ Size
§ Setting
§ Type
§ Interests
§ Knowledge
§ Attitudes
• Gathering Information
o Informal Methods
o Formal Methods
• Adapting Your Message
Locating Supporting Material
p. 103
• Information Literacy
• Developing a Research Strategy
o Create Research Questions
o Generate a List of Synonyms
o Search Information Sources
§ Library Catalogs
§ Electronic Databases
§ Newspapers
§ General References
§ Government Documents
§ Internet
§ Interviews
• Types of Supporting Material
o Statistics
o Analogies
o Facts
o Examples
o Testimony
• Evaluating Supporting Materials
• Incorporating and Documenting Supporting Materials
o Internet Source with No Author
o Book
o Journal Article
Organizing Ideas
p. 123
• Importance of Organizing Your Ideas Clearly
• Organizing Your Ideas Strategically
o Chronological Order
o Spatial Order
o Topical Order
o Causal Order
• Incorporating Transitional Devices
3
CHAPTER 9
CHAPTER 10
CHAPTER 11
o Transitions
o Internal Previews
o Internal Summaries
o Signposts
Outlining the Presentation
p. 137
• Developing a Preparation Outline
o Identify Your Purpose, Thesis, Organizational Pattern, and
Title
o Label the Introduction, Body, Conclusion as Separate
Elements
o Use a Consistent Pattern of Symbols
o Include Transitions
o Integrate Supporting Material
o Provide List of References
o Use Complete Sentences
o Sample Preparation Outline with Commentary
• Developing a Speaking Outline
o Sample Speaking Outline with Commentary
Beginning and Ending the Presentation
p. 153
• Importance of Introductions and Conclusions
• Beginning the Presentation
o Capturing Attention
o Establishing the Relevance of the Topic to Your Audience
o Establishing Speaker Credibility
o Previewing the Presentation
• Ending the Presentation
o Providing a Summary
o o
Providing a Memorable Close
Using Appropriate Language
p. 167
• Importance of Language
• Oral Style and Written Style
• Choosing Language
• Clarity
§ Use Specific Words
§ Use Familiar Words
§ Use Active Voice
§ Avoid Clutter
• Accuracy
• Vividness
§ Analogy
§ Personification
§ Alliteration
§ Onomatopoeia
§ Repetition
• Appropriateness
4
CHAPTER 12
CHAPTER 13
Designing Presentation Aids
• Benefits of Visual Literacy
• Types of Presentation Aids
o Spoken/Written Language
o Data Graphics
§ Pie Charts
§ Line Graphs
§ Bar/Column Graphs
§ Data Maps
o Diagrams
o Illustrations/Paintings
o Photographs
o Films/Videos/Animations
o Objects
• Display Technologies
o Paper
o Screen
§ Overhead Transparencies
§ Computer/Video Projectors
§ Monitors
• Design Considerations
o Contrast
o Repetition
o Alignment
o Proximity
• Integrating the Presentation Aid Into the Speech
Delivering the Presentation
• Importance of Delivery
• Methods of Delivery
o Impromptu
o Manuscript
o Memorized
o Extemporaneous
• Verbal Delivery
o Articulation
o Pronunciation
o Volume
o Rate
o Pause
o Pitch
o Vocal Variety
5
p. 185
p. 207
•
Nonverbal Delivery
o Eye Contact
o Face
o Body
o Movement
UNIT III. MESSAGE RESPONSIVENESS
CHAPTER 14
CHAPTER 15
Communicating in Groups
p. 223
• Characteristics of Groups
• Group Norms and Roles
o Task Roles
o Maintenance Roles
o Disruptive Roles
• Leadership in Groups
• Meetings in Groups
o Six Steps to Reflective Thinking
o Being a Responsive and Responsible Member
o Accomplishing Tasks
o Planning the Presentation
Listening and Critical Thinking
p. 235
• Importance of Listening
• Process of Listening
• Barriers to Listening
• Types of Listening
• Critical Listening and Critical Thinking
• Improving Your Listening
UNIT IV. CONSTRUCTING PERSUASIVE MESSAGES
CHAPTER 16
Building Arguments
• Argument Model
o Claims
o Evidence
o Evidence Credibility Statements
o Warrants
o Qualifiers
o Rebuttals
• Persuading Through Logos, Ethos, and Pathos
o Logos
§ Inductive Reasoning
§ Deductive Reasoning
§ Causal Reasoning
§ Analogical Reasoning
6
p. 251
CHAPTER 17
CHAPTER 18
o Ethos
o Pathos
• Critically Evaluating Arguments for Fallacies
o Ad Hominem
o Bandwagon
o Slippery Slope
o False Dilemma
o Appeal to Authority
o Red Herringo
Understanding Persuasive Principles
p. 275
• Why Should I Study Persuasion
• Persuasive Public Speaking
• Claims of Fact, Value, and Policy
o Factual Claims
§ Burdens of Proof
§ Organizing Speeches on Claims of Fact
o Value Claims
§ Burdens of Proof
§ Organizing Speeches on Claims of Value
o Policy Claims
§ Burdens of Proof
§ Organizing Speeches on Claims of Policy
Using Communication in the 21st Century
p. 297
• Communicating in a Democracy
• Use Communication for the Common Good
• Consuming Messages
APPENDIX A
Outline for Informative Speech - Tornadoes
p. 309
APPENDIX B
Outline for Informative Speech - Roman Coliseum
p. 312
APPENDIX C
Outline for Informative Speech - Delta Blues
p. 315
APPENDIX D
Advice for Peer Evaluation
p. 318
7
Chapter One
Introduction to Communication
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
• List and describe the three benefits of
communication mentioned by the text.
• List and describe the six benefits of the
communication process.
• List and explain the three models of
communication.
• Explain the four goals the authors have set for them
as communicators.
Communication is everywhere! You have been
communicating from the time you were born. Even as a
baby, your cries communicated whether you were hungry,
in pain, or unhappy in some way. And since then, you
have been communicating on a daily basis.
Consider for a moment the number of times a day
you rely on communication. Before you leave your home
in the morning for work or school, you express ideas,
make plans, and manage relationships by speaking and
listening. Using technologies like a cell phone or e-mail,
you plan your work and leisure time by sending and
receiving messages. So, why study communication? You
should be an expert by now, right? It seems as natural
as breathing. We believe the quotation in the right
margin provides a justification for the formal study of
communication. How often have you had a strong opinion
or emotion about something and been unable to express
9
Anyone who forms a judgment
on any point but cannot explain
it clearly might as well never have
thought on the subject.
--Pericles
your ideas or feelings adequately? This can be quite
frustrating, but improving your communication skills can
help.
Benefits of Communication
There are many personal, professional, and social benefits
to studying communication.
Personal Benefits. First, studying communication has
many personal benefits. Effective communication can help
you develop more meaningful relationships. Improving
your communication skills will help you to become more
confident in expressing your ideas and justifying your
point of view.
In this book, you will learn why one communication
interaction works while another does not. You will be
able to identify when something goes wrong in the
communication process and enact strategies to repair
relationships when needed. Additionally, you will be
able to communicate better with people who may be
very different from you. Becoming a better listener will
motivate people to want to interact with you.
The skills you learn in this class will help you with
your other courses as well. Many college classes require
a presentation of some sort. Often you will be asked to
express and defend your ideas in conversation as well
as research and deliver a formal speech or report. This
class will give you the confidence and skills to stand and
deliver. For example, you may be asked to give a wedding
toast at your best friend’s reception, or to provide a eulogy
at a funeral. In fact, we have had students email us and tell
of their successes with such experiences. They expressed
how this course helped them with the confidence to
deliver a strong presentation. They also indicated that the
presentations were well received by their audiences.
10
Professional Benefits. There are also many
professional benefits to studying communication. You
will need communication skills to create a positive first
impression during a job interview. In fact, according to
the National Association of Colleges and Employers,
communication is the highest ranking skill that employers
look for in new recruits. According to the list, employers
also seek recruits with interpersonal and teamwork skills.
Employers also seek attributes such as honesty/integrity,
analysis/synthesis, and flexibility/adaptability—all of
which can be improved by knowing and practicing the
information you will learn in this course.
While most jobs also require company specific
skills such as the use of a particular technology, many
employers provide on site training for expertise particular
to the organization. Effective communication skills will
be crucial, however, in securing your opportunity to
get that on-the-job training.1 So, whatever your major
or career choice, you will be expected to be an effective
communicator to get and keep the job.
Social Benefits. Finally, there are many social benefits
to studying communication. You will learn how to
influence people—to persuade them to your point
of view. You will also become a critical consumer of
the information you receive from a variety of sources
including politicians, journalists, and advertisers. You
will be able distinguish a strong claim from a weak one
and make decisions in your and your community’s best
interest.
Strong communication skills are required if you wish
to be an effective and engaged participant in a democracy.
You may become more influential in social situations by
identifying problems and suggesting solutions to social
injustices. In short, the skills you acquire in this course
will help you to become a more effective producer and
11
Please refer to the following
media interaction:
http://www.mindtools.com/
CommSkll/CommunicationIntro.
htm
1
consumer of persuasive messages. For example, one of
your authors recently attended a school board meeting
where several high school students convinced the school
board that it would not be a good idea to change the
calendar to administer semester exams after the winter
break. They presented several arguments including
retention of information and the time necessary to travel
or visit with their families. Five minutes after their
impassioned and well-reasoned arguments, the school
board voted to retain the calendar as it was with exams
taking place prior to the winter break.
While this situation had immediate benefits for the
students involved, communication can also be used in
more socially significant ways. For example, a doctoral
student from the University of Missouri produced a
documentary about a death row inmate who had been
wrongly convicted of murdering a fellow inmate. After
seeing the documentary and hearing the arguments it
presented, the State Supreme Court of Missouri released
the man from death row. Today, he is a free man.
Does that seem extreme or unrelated to your life?
Consider this. There is a strong likelihood that you will
serve on a jury in a criminal or civil trial during your
lifetime. The attorneys in the courtroom will present
evidence and arguments and it will be up to you and
your fellow jurors to weigh the information and reach
a conclusion. It is serious business and it is one of the
responsibilities we have as citizens in a democracy. This
course will help you hone the skills needed in this type of
situation.
Defining Communication
We know that communication happens all of the time
and that we use it on a daily basis, but what is it? It is not
something tangible that you can point to and say, “There it
is.” In fact, communication experts have offered multiple
12
definitions and debated the nature of communication for
years. We know that it involves messages that are sent
and received, but what if the meaning of the message gets
lost along the way? Is communication the meaning of the
message you intended or the one that was understood by
the listener? Unfortunately, sometimes what we mean and
what others think we mean are two different things.
Is communication always intentional? Or, can we
send messages to someone that we never intended? If
your stomach growls in class and a classmate hears it and
smiles at you, has communication taken place? Did you
intend to communicate your hunger? Probably not, but an
interaction between you and your classmate ensued.
Because many scholars still disagree on all of the factors
that constitute communication, we do not provide a
formal definition here. Rather, there are several elements
we can identify that are necessary for any communication
event. These include people (speaker and listener), the
message, channel, interference, feedback, and context.
The Communication Process
People. First, communication involves interactions
between people. It is important to understand that
the speaker and listener, or interactants, involved in
the communication event each bring to the encounter
their experiences, goals, values, attitudes, beliefs, and
knowledge that affect everything they say and interpret in
the event. Furthermore, our culture and gender permeate
our communication encounters. This is known as a frame
of reference. Later in this text, we’ll talk more about how
this frame of reference affects the entire communication
encounter (see Perception and Self-Concept). For now, it is
important to know that your life experiences are extremely
important to the outcome of your communication with
others. In turn, other people’s experiences will affect the
way they communicate with you.
13
Because the people involved in the communication
event have different frames of reference, they may
construct and interpret messages very differently. For
example, a professor asks some first-year students at the
beginning of the semester to share what sorts of things
they think are valued at the university. The professor is
surprised when the students list good looks, lots of money,
a nice car, etc. What he expected to hear was intellectual
curiosity, hard work, punctuality, etc. In the professor’s
social circles those are important values (though he has
nothing against good looks, money, or nice cars!). Not
surprisingly, because the professor didn’t specify whose
values the students were supposed to consider, they
answered with those of their peer group.
Messages. Communication also involves messages
which can be verbal or nonverbal. Verbal messages
include the words we use in the encounter. This is what
we say. As we construct our verbal messages, we make
choices about the words we use. Obviously, we want our
words to be appropriate, clear, descriptive, powerful, and
accurate. The goal is to construct a message in such a way
that the listener understands and interprets our intended
meaning. Given what we know about differing frames of
reference, this can sometimes be challenging.
You communicate nonverbally as well. This is how you
say your words and use gestures. Your tone of voice, face,
eyes, and body all serve to send messages that are either
consistent or inconsistent with your words.2 In addition,
your actions or behaviors may communicate nonverbally.
Just like verbal messages, nonverbal messages can differ
based on the communicator’s frame of reference. For
example, we all use symbolic gestures. Ask a toddler
how old she is, say hello to a hippie, or view a photo of
Winston Churchill during World War II and you will see
the same sign, but with three different meanings.
14
2
Burgoon, J. K. (1980). Nonverbal
communication research in the
1970s: An overview. In D. Nimmo
(Ed.), Communication yearbook 4.
New Brunswick, NJ: Transactio. See
also Knapp, M. L. & Hall, J. A. (2002).
Nonverbal communication in human interaction, (5th ed.). Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth.
In the 1965 science fiction novel Dune (later a movie
and television mini series) the character Duke Leto
Atreides is sent to govern the planet Dune. When a native
greets him by spitting at his feet, the Duke is terribly
offended until it is explained to him that since water is
a precious commodity on the planet, the act is actually
a sign of ultimate respect. Now, you probably won’t be
delivering many speeches on any other planet, but you
should be aware that your gestures may not be interpreted
as you intend. You can use nonverbal communication to
help support your verbal communication by emphasizing
your feelings associated with the message. You can also
use nonverbal communication to indicate sarcasm in a
message. It is important to note that you may not always
be aware of how your nonverbal communication may
support or betray the meaning of your message. Your
listener, however, will be more likely to believe how you
say something rather than what you say. For example, if
your roommate yells at you to “Go ahead, turn on your
stereo as loud as you want. I don’t really need to study”
do you dare push that button? In essence, what your
roommate says is inconsistent with how he/she has said
it. Knowing how verbal and nonverbal messages work
together to create meaning will help you to become a more
effective communicator.
Channel. We communicate through channels, and
those channels can affect the message. We may speak to
one another face-to-face or communicate through some
medium such as a telephone (voice or text message),
computer (email, instant message, website), or video.
By the time you read this book, there may be even more
channels to consider.
It is important to understand the implications the
channel has when you choose to communicate certain
messages. For example, if you decide to quit your job,
15
what is the most appropriate channel for doing so?
Should you talk with your supervisor face-to-face or
would an email message be appropriate? Which one of
these channels would increase your chances for a positive
recommendation in the future? Or, consider the best
channel for letting someone know that you don’t want
to date him/her anymore. Remember what happened on
Sex and the City when one of the characters broke up with
his girlfriend on a post-it-note? Very bad communication
choice!
Interference. Communication is not always easy and
is sometimes affected by interference. Interference is
anything that gets in the way of shared meaning between
the speaker and listener. Interference can be either external
or internal.
External interference can be static or noise that distracts
the speaker or listener from the message such as loud
music, traffic, people laughing or talking, or a bad
connection on your telephone or email server. A room
that is too drab, hot, or cold, can cause interference in
communication.
Internal interference also affects our ability to listen or
communicate. These can cause speakers and listeners to
lack concentration and may include personal concerns,
physical ailments, stress, or conflict. Have you ever
found it difficult to listen to a lecture in one class because
you were getting ready to take a test in your next class?
Maybe you were up late studying and found it difficult
to stay awake. Or, when giving a speech, perhaps your
apprehension (internal interference) causes you to shake
or stammer. These mannerisms, in turn, become external
interference for your audience.
Feedback. Feedback is very important to the
communication process and involves both the speaker
16
and the listener simultaneously. As the speaker sends
the message, the listener is responding either verbally
or nonverbally. As we send messages, we look to see
whether our listeners understand or agree with us. Our
listeners may ask questions for clarification, nod their
heads in agreement, or express disagreement in their facial
expressions. This feedback tells us what we should say or
do next.
Feedback also tells us whether or not our listeners
received the message we intended. An unexpected
response from a listener (a raised eyebrow, a frown, a
confused look) can tell us that perhaps we should rephrase what we say. Recall that both the speaker’s and
listener’s frame of reference may affect the way each
responds to a message.
Context. Finally, communication happens in context. The
time of day, location, or social situation all provide context
to the communication encounter. For example, if you
enroll in an 8:00 a.m. class, is this going to have an effect
on your ability to concentrate on the instructor’s message?
As students, you have different types of conversations
in your dorm room than you do in class. While time and
place are important factors to consider, perhaps even
more important is the social context of the communication
event. What implications do the current economical,
political, and social climates have for your messages?
What has happened in the news lately that might affect
how people respond to your message? Consider the social
context of getting on a plane September 10, 2001 and then
after. Everything you say and do happens in a climate that
either makes your message appropriate or inappropriate,
effective or ineffective, at any given time or place.
As you consider how all of these elements of
communication work together, you are beginning
to develop your own ideas of how you can use
17
communication in your own life. We know that
communication can involve all of these elements, but
exactly how do they interact with one another to result
in a successful encounter? The following models of
communication describe how each of these elements may
or may not be present in every situation. Additionally,
they describe how communication encounters unfold.
Models of Communication
Actional Model. The way we think about how these
elements work together has evolved over the years.
Initially, communication scholars thought communication
was primarily a linear process.3 This is known as the
actional model of communication. That is, a speaker
sends a message to a listener who receives the message.
This model views communication as something a speaker
does to a listener. It also suggests that communication
has a beginning and ending. While we agree that
communication is often much more complex than this,
there are times when the actional model best describes the
communication event. For example, as you drive down
the highway, you see the “Golden Arches.” This symbol
(placed there by someone who wants to communicate
with you) represents something you are quite familiar
with and tells you that a McDonald’s restaurant is nearby.
Do you take the exit or continue driving? The sender of
that message may never know.
Another example of this kind of communication might
occur if you phone a friend only to get her answering
machine or voice mail. You leave your message. Your
friend may receive it, but may not. The power could go
out, another person may retrieve it first, and then erase
it. An important part of the communication process is
missing in this example. How will you know if your
friend retrieved the message? Even if she did, how will
you know if she understood it? How will you know if she
18
Laswell, H. D. (1948). The structure
and function of communication
in society. In L. Bryson (Ed.), The
communication of ideas. New York:
Harper & Row.
3
reacted to the message the way you intended?
Interactional Model. The interactional model of
communication takes into account the role of feedback
in the communication process.4 Feedback occurs when
the listener responds to the speaker’s message. In this
model, however, the message goes back and forth between
the speaker and listener. In other words, they take turns
sending and receiving messages. There are times, when
this model describes the communication event, but the
exchange is limited.
In this case, you and your friend are taking turns
playing phone tag. Your friend calls you back only to leave
a message on your machine. You retrieve the message, and
communication has taken place. Much like playing tennis,
communication goes back and forth between sender
and receiver. While you and your friend are taking turns
communicating, there is a delay in feedback.
Transactional Model. More recently, communication
scholars have considered the transactional model of
communication which takes into account the simultaneous
sending and receiving of messages which occur in
context. In this model, feedback is constantly being shared
verbally and nonverbally between both people involved
in the encounter. There is no one speaker or listener, but
transactions that take place between people. This model
also takes into account the context of the situation and
the relationship between individuals. This model best
represents all of the elements of the communication
process we described earlier (people, message, channel,
interference, feedback, and context).
This time, when you call your friend, she answers
the telephone. You want to invite her to dinner for her
birthday, and she says she would love to but doesn’t seem
too enthusiastic about it. You ask her if she is all right and
19
Schramm, W. (1955). The process
and effects of mass communication.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois
Press.
4
she says she is not feeling well. You understand that your
friend is under a lot of stress from school and work, so
you suggest that tomorrow night might be better for both
of you. She agrees and thanks you for your invitation.
This model characterizes communication as a much more
dynamic process.
Themes for the Text
In writing this book on communication, we have several
themes we will address to help you become a more
effective communicator. These themes can be stated
in terms of our goals for you. After taking this course
and reading and thinking about this text, we hope that
you become more competent, confident, and ethical
communicators, as well as be better critical thinkers
including media and information literacy. We will discuss
each of these briefly here and ask that you think about
how these themes apply to the rest of your readings and
discussions.
Communication Competence. Our first goal is
that you become a more competent communicator which
consists of four elements: knowledge, skill, motivation,
and judgment. After reading and thinking about this book,
you will have knowledge of the factors that affect your
communication personally, professionally, and socially.
Because the goal of public speaking is to communicate
effectively with an audience, you will have opportunities
to practice the skills of producing and consuming
messages to achieve your goals. Specifically, you will learn
to choose and narrow topics, conduct research, organize,
outline, and present your speeches. Hopefully, you will
become motivated to use communication effectively, and
you will use your judgment on how to adapt and adjust
your messages (or speeches) to your audience.
20
Communication Confidence. Our second goal is
that you become more confident communicators. Because
you will be afforded the opportunity to practice your skills
in a variety of settings, you will begin to increase your
communication confidence and decrease apprehension
in public, personal, and professional contexts. In
Chapter 2, we will discuss the causes and treatments for
overcoming apprehension in your communication with
others. We will talk about how learning the process of
public speaking will help you to feel more confident in
giving presentations. By developing relationships with
classmates and conducting audience analyses, you will
feel more comfortable and confident in communicating in
the classroom.
Ethical Communication. Our third goal is that
you become more ethical communicators. Ethical
communication is characterized by honesty, clarity,
accuracy, open-mindedness, and willingness to listen to
others. Ethical communicators are sensitive to the needs
of the people they communicate with. These needs may be
based on a speaker or listener’s past experiences, gender,
culture, race, sexual orientation, and so forth. In Chapter
3, we will discuss ethical communication concerns when
producing and consuming messages. As you prepare your
speeches in this class, you will be continually faced with
making ethical decisions on which sources to use as well
as how to represent this information to your audience.
You will be making these decisions while at the same time
considering the needs of your audience. As you listen to
your classmates present their speeches, you will consider
what they say, listen ethically, and make decisions about
what is an appropriate response to their messages.
Critical Thinking. In addressing all of these previous
goals, you will inevitably become a more critical thinker.
21
You’ve probably heard this term before. What exactly
does it mean? To us, critical thinking is characterized
by the ability to defer judgment until you have enough
information on which to act. Thinking critically means that
you don’t eagerly accept everything you are presented, yet
you don’t reject everything out-of-hand. It is a wait and
see attitude. It involves a tolerance for ambiguity. It is a
curiosity that drives you to seek high quality information
and recognize it when you find it.
Many people refer to this ability as information literacy
and you will learn more about it in Chapter 7. Critical
thinking is also the attitude that leads you to ask others
to “prove it” with a smile on your face and the courage to
accept it when they do.
In addition, we will point you to several messages in
the mass media and ask you to critically consider what
the producers of those messages are saying That is,
who are these people that are producing this content and
what are they trying to accomplish? What motivates the
filmmaker, journalist, politician, blogger, or advertiser to
communicate, what biases might they or the industry they
work in have, and what constraints are placed on their
ability to speak? This is referred to as media literacy, and
we hope to show you how the communication principles
and behaviors you will learn in this course can be used
to critically evaluate all that you see and hear in the mass
media.
Closer to home, you will also be provided many
opportunities to reflect on and evaluate you and your
classmate’s communication behaviors.
Summary
In this chapter, we have discussed how you can use
communication to benefit you personally, professionally,
and socially. We have also discussed how understanding
22
the process of communication will enable you to become
more competent communicators.
While there are many models and definitions of
communication, scholars agree that the elements of
communication (people, message, channel, feedback,
interference, and context) will ultimately affect what is
communicated or understood in any encounter. When our
communication doesn’t work for us, we can look back at
these elements to determine what went wrong and where.
This will make our future interactions more successful.
23
Chapter Two
Communication Confidence
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
• Define communication apprehension.
• List and explain the causes of communication
apprehension.
• Describe the effects of communication
apprehension.
• Explain and implements the four treatments for
communication apprehension.
Chances are you are taking this course in communication
because you are required to do so. We as authors and
instructors of this course realize that students are not
flocking to our classes for the mere opportunity to give
that first speech. Rather, you like many others before you,
are dreading the thought of it. But did you ever stop to ask
why? Why is it that—as so many lists indicate—people
are more afraid of public speaking than any other fear?1
What happens to people who are anxious? And, more
importantly, what can be done about it? Before we answer
these questions, it is important for you to know that being
nervous while speaking in public is a very normal thing.
Even the most skilled public speakers will admit to a
few butterflies every now and then. Sometimes the extra
adrenaline we feel because of our nervousness will make
our senses more accurate and aware. Thus, we believe that
a little nervousness provides speakers with the necessary
energy to give successful presentations. It is important
25
Wallenchinksy, Wallace, & Wallace,
1977 as cited in Dwyer, K. K. (1998).
Conquer your speechfright. Fort
Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace.
1
to know that your nervousness can be managed. In this
chapter, we will begin addressing one of the overall
goals for this course which is communication confidence.
But first, we need to understand what communication
apprehension is as well as the causes, effects, and
treatments of this anxiety.
Communication
Apprehension Defined
Communication apprehension is one of the most widely
studied phenomena in our discipline. James McCroskey
and his colleagues have been exploring people’s fear of
communication for over 40 years.
At first, scholars studied public speaking or oral
communication apprehension, but have since explored
the more general concept of communication apprehension
in multiple contexts such as interpersonal, groups, and
meetings – as well as public speaking. Communication
apprehension is defined as “an individual’s fear or anxiety
associated with real or anticipated communication with
others.”2 In public speaking situations, this anxiety is
heightened by the outcome of the performance (being
evaluated or graded) and the uncertainty of the situation
(not knowing how the audience will react).
In conducting these studies over the years, McCroskey
and his associates have created measurements for you
to assess your level of fear in each of these areas. The
personal report of communication apprehension can
be found on McCroskey’s website at http://www.
jamescmccroskey.com/measures/. If however, you are
more concerned with your public speaking anxiety, you
can access the personal report of public speaking anxiety
located at the same website. Thanks to the research of
these scholars, communication apprehension can be
understood and managed effectively.
26
McCroskey, J. C. (1977). Oral
communication apprehension:
A review of recent theory and
research. Human Communication
Research, 4, 78-96. (p. 78)
2
The following sections summarize the research efforts
of many scholars so that you may better be able to reduce
your anxieties and increase your confidence in the tasks
ahead of you in this class.3
Causes of
Communication Apprehension
The real question is—are we born with communication
apprehension or do we learn to become apprehensive?
And if so, how?
Heredity. Some people experience anxiety because it
is hereditary. That is, you may be born with an enduring
personality trait that causes you to be apprehensive. In
other words, you may have a genetic predisposition for
feeling anxious when communicating. Perhaps one of
your parents or grandparents passed along this trait. This
is known as traitlike communication apprehension and
results in people feeling anxious in most situations. This
form of apprehension can be very limiting in a person’s
relational and professional success but can be managed
with proper training. The good news is that most people
are not born with communication apprehension, but
rather learn to become anxious.
Learned Apprehension. Most forms of
communication apprehension are due to the
particular situation, audience, or context in which the
communication occurs. Situational based apprehension
occurs when you are anxious temporarily due to the
particular encounter.
For example, you are called to deliver the eulogy at
a funeral for a dear friend and your grief intensifies
your apprehension. Or, you could be nervous during
a job interview because you really want or need the
job. In this class, you may be nervous because you are
27
Daly, J. A., & McCroskey, J. C., (Eds.).
(1984). Avoiding communication:
Shyness, reticence, and communication apprehension. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
3
See also
McCroskey, J. C. (1977). Oral
communication apprehension:
A review of recent theory and
research. Human Communication
Research, 4, 78-96.
McCroskey, J. C. (1982). Oral communication apprehension: A
reconceptualization. In M. Burgoon
(Ed.), Communication Yearbook 6.
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Richmond, V. P., & McCroskey, J. C.
(1995). Communication: Apprehension, avoidance, and effectiveness.
(4th ed.). Scottsdale, AZ: Gorsuch
Scarisbrick.
being evaluated on your speeches. Audience based
apprehension occurs when you are nervous because of
who you will be communicating with. You may be more
nervous talking to adults rather than children. Or, you
may be nervous in front of people you don’t know.
Students are often more nervous to speak in front of
their peers than their teachers. If your main concern is
that your classmates might not be interested in your topic
or find you unintelligent, then your nervousness comes
from the audience. If your main concern is that you get a
good grade on your speech, then your nerves stem from
the situation. Context based apprehension causes you to
be anxious in certain settings such as one-on-one, groups,
meetings, or public speaking.
In these cases, we are socialized into thinking we are
supposed to be apprehensive. In other words, we are
not born with communication anxieties, rather, we are
taught to be apprehensive. Perhaps you have known
and admired someone (a teacher or friend) who was
apprehensive about public speaking and you have learned
to model that apprehensive behavior.
Another explanation could be childhood reinforcement.
Perhaps something in your past (a “show and tell”
that went awry or a negative response from a teacher)
has caused you to become apprehensive about future
communication encounters. Any negative past experience
can cause uncertainty and fear about future encounters
related to that experience. For example, if you fear visiting
the dentist because of a painful childhood experience, this
past negative experience will likely cause you uncertainty
about future dental experiences and this uncertainty leads
to fear.
Skills Deficit. But perhaps the source of your
apprehension is not because you were born with it or not
because you learned it. Maybe you are fearful of public
28
speaking because you simply do not know how to do it.
That is, you lack the skills and therefore the confidence to
be a good public speaker. This is known as skills deficit
and is probably the reason you were required to take this
course.
As you will see in the rest of this text and through your
experience in your class, public speaking requires a certain
set of skills that by themselves are not difficult. Once you
learn each step in the process of public speaking, you
should become more comfortable with the prospect of
your first speech.
Now that you understand why communication
apprehension occurs, it is important to discuss what
happens to people when they are nervous. While this
discussion may at first cause you some anxiety, it is only
when we identify the symptoms of apprehension that we
can begin to talk about treatments.
Effects of
Communication Apprehension
Communication apprehension can manifest in many
ways. Let’s brainstorm what might happen. We’ll start the
list and you can add to it. When we ask our students what
happens to them when they get nervous, this is the list
they usually generate:
• Shortness of breath
• Sweaty palms
• Butterflies in the stomach
• Hands or legs shake
• Forget what to say
• Break out in a rash
• Use filler words (like, um, or you know)
Usually when we ask them to ponder these things,
they actually begin to feel some of these symptoms.
Ask yourself, what are you feeling now? Can you add
something to the list? It is important for you to be able
29
to identify what happens so you can begin to develop
strategies for dealing with your symptoms. For example,
are your ailments internal or external, psychological or
physical?
Internal. The internal effects of your apprehension stem
from psychological issues which may become physical. If
you suffer psychological discomfort while you anticipate
a speaking situation, this internal state may actually
lead to physical symptoms such as sweaty palms, shaky
hands, and butterflies. It’s easy to identify these physical
effects, but the psychological effects can cause more than
just physical symptoms. You may completely forget
your presentation or even convince yourself that you
are physically ill and cannot possibly show up for your
presentation. It happens!
We call these internal effects because most of the
time, the audience is unaware of our nervousness. In
our experiences, there have been many times when a
student sits down after a presentation and says, “I was
so nervous” only to find the audience surprised by the
statement.
External. External effects of communication
apprehension stem from behavioral issues such
as avoidance or disfluency. First, you may avoid
communication altogether. If you were not required to
take this course, would you? How long did you put it
off—until your senior year? Were you previously enrolled
in a communication course and withdrew prior to your
first presentation? Or, do you avoid social situations
because you are uncomfortable communicating with
people you don’t know very well?
Another external effect may come in the form of vocal
disfluencies such as the repetition of filler words. Which
do you tend to use? That is, if your friends were to tally
30
the number of times you said, like, you know, um . . ., how
many times would you be recorded? And to what extent
do you think these vocal fillers would detract from your
message or your credibility as a speaker?
Speaking from experience as instructors of this course,
we have seen both the internal and external effects of
public speaking apprehension and the limitations they
place on a person’s ability to communicate effectively.
Now that we know and have talked about what happens
to us when we are nervous, let’s talk about what can be
done about it.
Treatments for
Communication Apprehension
There are several ways to treat your communication
apprehension: systematic desensitization, cognitive
restructuring, visualization, and skills training. We’ll
address each of these in this section. Please keep in mind,
however, that the goal is to manage your apprehension,
not eliminate it. Recall from our earlier discussion,
that nervousness is quite normal, and if managed
appropriately, beneficial to a successful speech.
Systematic Desensitization. One of the first
ways to treat apprehension of any type is systematic
desensitization. This is a formal term for learning how
to relax using a number of strategies. This strategy is
most useful when your symptoms are physical. For
example, you could listen to some calming music. In
fact, while writing this book, your authors often listen
to their favorite music to help them concentrate on their
conversations with you. You may require the sounds of
the ocean or the chirping of birds in nature to calm you,
whereas, a classmate might think better to the rhythms of
Hip Hop. Use any music that encourages you to relax.
You may also use muscle relaxation techniques. This
31
is where the identification of your symptoms comes
in. If you tend to get shortness of breath, then try deep
breathing exercises before your presentation. If your
hands or legs get shaky, then try tensing and releasing the
muscles in your hands and legs for 10 seconds—repeating
the exercise three times prior to your speech. These
techniques allow you to release the extra adrenaline you
have associated with your nerves. Try walking up or
down a flight of stairs or drinking a glass of water (room
temperature is best)—whatever works for you.
Another way to use systematic desensitization is to
gradually introduce yourself to the source of your fear
over time. You may have seen television shows where
people are exposed to their worst fears to overcome them.
A person afraid of flying could use an airplane simulator
before taking their first, short distance flight. Gradually,
this person would become more comfortable with flying
and might even be able to make that long awaited trip
over seas. In the case of public speaking, it would mean
giving your speech initially to just a few people and then
repeating the speech several times, gradually adding more
members to the audience.
Cognitive Restructuring. Another strategy for
dealing with apprehension is cognitive restructuring
which can be directly linked to the psychological effects
of apprehension. In other words, this treatment deals with
getting people to think differently about their fears. The
strategy is to identify the irrational thoughts associated
with the fear and then replace the irrational thoughts with
rational ones.
This is how it works. Ask yourself, what is the worst
thing that can happen to you when you give a speech?
Again, we’ll start the list and you can finish it with your
own ideas:
32
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
I could forget my speech.
The audience will laugh at me.
My speech will be boring.
I could pass out.
I could get sick.
I could trip in front of everybody.
I will get a bad grade.
One student even responded by saying he thought he
would spontaneously combust, but that would be very
unlikely—right? This example is a perfect illustration of
an irrational thought where cognitive restructuring could
be helpful. Once you identify your worst fears (irrational
thoughts), you can begin to logically replace them with
rational ones.
For example, if you think that the audience will laugh at
you, then consider the fact that the audience will be in the
same position in another class period and will most likely
sympathize with you rather than laugh at you. Another
thing to remember about the audience is that they are not
judging or evaluating you as a person. They are evaluating
the quality and presentation of your information. If you
have carefully planned your speech, this evaluation will
be positive.
Or, if you think you will pass out or get sick, then
tell yourself that if you get a good night’s rest and eat a
healthy meal, this will make you feel better. If you are
afraid your speech will be boring, remind yourself that
you conducted an audience analysis and already know
that members of your class were curious about your topic.
Of course, this only works if you actually do what you
propose.
Finally, reframe your thinking about public speaking
by focusing on how fun it can be to inform, persuade, or
entertain an audience. This class will likely be unique in
your higher educational experience in that you will be
33
given the opportunity to speak to your peers about topics
that you care deeply about. In what other classes will you
have a block of class time set aside for you exclusively to
speak to the class? In terms of persuasive topics, it can
be empowering to realize that your words may actually
change the attitudes, values, beliefs, or behaviors of your
classmates. Maintaining such a positive attitude will
go along way toward helping you manage the anxiety
associated with public speaking.
Visualization. Another technique that is used often
with athletes is that of visualization. If you suffer from
the psychological effects of communication apprehension,
perhaps visualization is an appropriate technique for you.
For example, if you were to visualize yourself giving
a successful presentation, then you may boost your
confidence before your presentation. Most likely you have
seen athletes before a competition go through this process.
They visualize themselves performing well and winning
the competition. Basketball players visualize themselves
making that free throw. Figure skaters run through a
successful routine in their head, making and landing every
jump. You can do the same with public speaking. As you
learn the steps to public speaking, try visualizing yourself
giving a great presentation which is received well by the
audience and the instructor. In fact, you got an “A.” Good
for you!
Skills Training. The final strategy is one we will deal
with for the rest of this text and this course—skills
training. Skills training involves learning about the steps
necessary to plan and present a public speech. Once you
learn one skill, you move on to the next. No one skill is
very difficult and once you put them all together, you
may even reduce the internal and external effects of
communication apprehension.
34
This class will provide you with the skills you need to
become competent communicators in everyday life as well
as good public speakers. You will be provided instruction
on how to plan, prepare, and present confident speeches.
It is important to know that the more you prepare and
practice, the less nervous you become. Think about it—
waiting until the last minute to write your speech does not
allow you the time to become comfortable with it.
Through audience analysis (see Chapter xx), you
will get to know your audience and become more
comfortable with them. Through class discussions, you
will have opportunities to articulate and defend your
ideas regularly. Consequently, you will be provided
opportunities to practice your new skills. In doing so, it is
our hope that you become more confident communicators.
Many of our students have shared their experiences
with us about nervousness over the years. In the
beginning of the semester (usually the second day of
class), our students prepare and present an introductory
speech. They share information about themselves to
begin the process of getting to know one another. They
often comment on how this first speech was the most
“nervewracking” because they did not know the audience
or how to give a speech. By the time they reach the first
graded speech, they feel much better. Our hope is that this
course will reduce your apprehension too.
Summary
In this chapter, we have discussed the causes and effects
of communication apprehension. While this chapter may
bring about feelings of anxiety at the thought of giving
that first presentation, it is important for you to be able
to identify exactly what happens to you when you are
nervous.
For example, if your hands shake or you get weak
in the knees, perhaps you could try tension/release
35
exercises in your hands and legs. If you tend to talk too
fast or get breathy and lightheaded, then try taking a few
deep breaths before you begin your presentation. While
there are several causes and effects of communication
apprehension, there are also several treatments to help
you work through your worries. Taking this course is the
first step toward the developing the skills necessary to
make you a more competent communicator.
36
Chapter Three
Ethical Communication
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
• Distinguish between ethics and ethical
communication.
• Identify and apply ethical standards to decision
making.
• Understand the principles involved in becoming
ethical producers and consumers of information.
• Listen to and evaluate speeches.
• Create a classroom code of conduct.
Recall from the first chapter that one of our overarching
goals for you in this course is that you become more
ethical communicators. But why would that be so
important to us? I mean, who are we to tell you what is
ethical? Well, as a communicator, you make choices about
what to say and how to respond to what others say. And
with these choices comes responsibility. This is where
ethics comes in.
We all know that the First Amendment protects our
right to free speech, but does that mean that we can say
anything anywhere? In other words, it may be legal
for you to say something, but it may not be ethical.
This chapter will discuss the distinction between ethics
and ethical communication, highlight various ethical
standards, and present information on becoming ethical
producers and consumers of information.
37
Finally, you will be presented with an opportunity to
consider a classroom code of conduct.
Ethics and Ethical Communication
Ethics helps to explain a great deal about the choices
we make and why we behave as we do. We often make
choices about what we “ought” to do as opposed to what
“we want to do” in certain situations. To understand why
we behave as we do, it is necessary for us to learn about
ethics. According to Chen and Starosta, “[ethics] asks what
is right or wrong, good or bad, and what standards and
rules should guide our conduct.”1 Ethical communication
then is how we apply ethical standards to the messages
we produce and consume. The question becomes,
what standards do we use to make decisions about our
messages? As you will read in the next paragraphs,
there are different ways of approaching ethical decisions.
Choosing one standard over another may result in a
different conclusion. Oftentimes, there are no universal
answers to an ethical dilemma.
1
Chen, G. M., & Starosta, W. J.
(1998). Foundations of intercultural
communication. Needham Heights,
MA: Allyn & Bacon. (p.284)
Ethical Standards and Credo
When thinking of ethical guidelines that help us make
responsible decisions, we often think in terms of what
is legal or moral. But there are many standards that
can be applied to ethical decision making. Johannesen
discusses ethical responsibilities of communicators
in contemporary society. He argues that we should
“formulate meaningful ethical guidelines, not inflexible
rules, for our communication behavior and for evaluating
the communication of others.”2 In other words, we should
consider our ethical practices as we both produce and
consume messages. He describes various standards
or guidelines to use in making ethical communication
decisions. These standards may vary by culture and by
individuals within a culture.
38
Johannesen, R. L. (2002). Ethics in
human communication, (5th ed.).
Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland.
2
The first standard, a political perspective, helps us to
understand this. The first step in using a political system
as a standard for making decisions is to understand the
values of that political system.
For example, many democracies in the western world
put a premium on freedom of speech, the press, and
religion.3 We will go to great lengths to defend our own
freedom, but what happens when our values conflict with
those of other political systems?
For example, in the fall of 2005 a Danish newspaper
published a series of political cartoons that featured
images of Muhammed. Some people in the Arab world
reacted violently with protests and bombings. Some
Muslims were deeply offended by the cartoons because
they felt their sacred beliefs were being mocked and
because their religion prohibits visual representation of
Muhammed.
Even within our own political system and culture,
we do not always agree on which view should prevail
when competing values come into conflict. For example,
filmmakers in the United States have often provoked
religious controversy by exercising their rights of free
speech. Mel Gibson’s 2004 film The Passion of the Christ
upset many people in the Jewish community; Kevin
Smith’s 1999 comedy Dogma caused some Catholics to
picket and protest; and Martin Scorsese’s 1988 film The
Last Temptation of Christ infuriated many Christians
because of its depiction of the life of Jesus. Of course,
if free speech is valued in a society, audiences have the
right – and responsibility – to make their voices known,
especially if they disagree with the filmmaker, author,
journalist, or politician.
Johannesen also discusses the dialogic perspective
first articulated by Martin Buber.4 Buber argued that
interactions between people should promote the
development of self, personality, and knowledge. That
39
Congress shall make no law
respecting an establishment of
religion, or prohibiting the free
exercise thereof; or abridging the
freedom of speech, or of the press;
or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition
the Government for a redress of
grievances.
- First Amendment
to the Constitution
of the United States
3
4
Buber, M. (1970). I and thou. (W.
Kaufmann, Trans.). New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts.
is, each participant in a communication event should
make decisions based on the ability to improve mutual
understanding and dialog between participants.
Participants should have sound motivations for
communicating and listen to all sides of an issue before
making an ultimate decision.
Under this perspective, instructors might engage
students in lively discussions about controversial issues.
For example, the popular movies we mentioned earlier
about Christ and Christianity have provoked much
controversy in this country. Documentary films such
Michael Moore’s Fahrenheit 9/11, don’t leave too many
audiences without strong political opinions. Religion
and politics often touch us very deeply because they
go to the heart of what we believe about ourselves as a
people and how we go about creating our culture. At first,
these discussions might be uncomfortable because of the
controversy and conflict that may arise, but the resulting
understanding of the issues becomes the ultimate goal.
As in the case of the Muhammed cartoon, the dialogic
perspective would conclude that the cartoon needs
to be printed to communicate a point of view. French
playwright and philosopher Voltaire perhaps summed
up the intellectual tolerance necessary for a dialogic
perspective best when he said, “I do not agree with a word
that you say, but I’ll defend to the death your right to say
it.”
Another standard that might be used to guide our
decisions is a human perspective. This perspective says
that we have a responsibility to ourselves and to others to
be open, gentle, compassionate, and critically reflective in
our choices. For example, according to the values of the
dialogic perspective above, the Danish newspaper had
every right to publish cartoons critical of Islam. However,
as a result, Danish citizens and other westerners were
put in danger and even died in the ensuing protests.
40
Therefore, the human perspective requires us to consider
the implications of our message making and to weigh the
costs and benefits of exercising our right to free speech. So
we see hear that the competing values of the dialogic and
humanistic perspectives bring about a different conclusion
in making the decision to print the cartoon.
Finally, Johannesen discusses the situational perspective
which takes into account the context of the communication
event. This is where audience analysis comes in. Some
contextual factors that would guide communication
decision making are:
(1) the role of the communicator for the audience;
(2) what is reasonable or appropriate for the audience;
(3) how aware is the audience of the communicator’s
techniques;
(4) audience goals and values;
(5) audience standards for ethical communication.5
For example, not all speech topics may be appropriate
for the classroom. Take into consideration the situation
of speech giving in the classroom. In this case, you may
have a captive audience because of the requirements of
the course. Is it fair to use this opportunity to advance a
personal or political agenda? You may be thinking this
is a “freedom of speech” issue—that you should be able
to talk about whatever you want. But, with freedom of
speech comes the option for people not to listen to your
message. Does your audience have that option in the
classroom? So, while you may talk about whatever you
want in a public forum, the classroom context presents a
little different situation. These are the questions you might
ask yourself under the situational perspective.
No matter what career you choose when you graduate
from school, there is sure to be a professional organization
that requires or at least suggests ethical behavior on the
41
Johannesen, R. L. (2002). Ethics in
human communication, (5th ed.).
Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland. (p.
77)
5
part of its practitioners. For example, professionals in
medicine, law, accounting, and business are expected to
conduct themselves in an ethical manner for the good of
society and the organizations they work for.
It should come as no surprise to you that some people
do not always live up to the ideals of their professions,
and ironically seem to get ahead by “taking shortcuts.” No
doubt you are familiar with the Enron controversy and the
accounting and business irregularities that resulted in the
loss of many employees’ pensions and jailtime for some
of its executives. Enron executives may have benefited in
the short term by cutting corners but in the end were held
accountable for their illegal and unethical behaviors.
The Society of Professional Journalists is a group
that hopes to raise the stature and ethical practice of
journalism in this country by encouraging its members
to “seek truth and report it.” Situations involving young
journalists who fabricated stories such as Jayson Blair at
The New York Times and Stephen Glass at The New Republic
seem to undermine the intentions of professional groups
advancing a code of ethics.6 But that is exactly the point.
Without an ideal at which to aim or a standard to which
you can compare your own behavior, it would be difficult
to know how to act.
Because of the various perspectives that may be
used in decision making, scholars from the National
Communication Association decided to create and adopt a
code of ethics for our communication behaviors. Because
you will be asked to produce messages and evaluate
the messages of others in this class, it is important to
understand the ethical principles that communication
scholars use to guide their behaviors. These guidelines
should help you to understand further the relationship
between ethics and ethical communication. This credo
is founded on the First Amendment, respect for others,
42
Please refer to the following
media interaction:
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/
media/july-dec98/media_ethics_71a.html
6
access to information, democratic decision making, and
responsibility for our behavior.
National Communication Association
Credo For Ethical Communication
Questions of right and wrong arise whenever people
communicate. Ethical communication is fundamental to
responsible thinking, decision making, and the development
of relationships and communities within and across
contexts, cultures, channels, and media. Moreover, ethical
communication enhances human worth and dignity by
fostering truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, personal
integrity, and respect for self and others. We believe
that unethical communication threatens the quality of
all communication and consequently the well-being of
individuals and the society in which we live. Therefore we,
the members of the National Communication Association,
endorse and are committed to practicing the following
principles of ethical communication:
•
We advocate truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and
reason as essential to the integrity of communication.
•
We endorse freedom of expression, diversity of
perspective, and tolerance of dissent to achieve
the informed and responsible decision making
fundamental to a civil society.
•
We strive to understand and respect other
communicators before evaluating and responding to
their messages.
•
We promote access to communication resources
and opportunities as necessary to fulfill human
potential and contribute to the well-being of families,
communities, and society.
•
We promote communication climates of caring and
mutual understanding that respect the unique needs
and characteristics of individual communicators.
•
We condemn communication that degrades
individuals and humanity through distortion,
intimidation, coercion, and violence, and through the
expression of intolerance and hatred.
•
We are committed to the courageous expression of
personal convictions in pursuit of fairness and justice.
43
•
We advocate sharing information, opinions, and
feelings when facing significant choices while also
respecting privacy and confidentiality.
•
We accept responsibility for the short- and long-term
consequences for our own communication and expect
the same of others.7
In the remaining sections of this chapter, we will talk
about how you might use the previous ethical perspectives
or the NCA credo as you engage in critical decision
making when both producing and consuming messages.
Becoming Ethical
Producers of Information
In this class, you will most likely be expected to create
and develop speeches either to inform or to persuade.
With each step of the speech making process, you will
be making ethical decisions starting with your selection
of a topic. According to the dialogical or situational
perspectives, you will want to choose a topic that you
think will benefit or add to the body of knowledge for
your audience.
According to the NCA credo and the human
perspective, you want to choose a topic that advocates
truthfulness, accuracy, and honesty. So, would a topic on
how to get away with lying be an ethical one?
As you research your topic, you will want to use
information that is credible and reliable. You will want to
use sound evidence and reasoning so you do not pass off
information that could be misleading to your audience.
As you write your speech, you will want to be sensitive
to the differences within your audience. In doing so, you
want to use language that is not abusive or offensive. As
a speaker, it is your responsibility to be fully prepared for
your presentation.
44
7
Morreale, S., & Andersen, K.
(1999). Intense discussion at
summer conference yields draft
of NCA credo for communication
ethics. Spectra. National Communication Association.
Finally, you will want your presentation to be honest.
That is, you will want to avoid plagiarism.8 Plagiarism
occurs when you present someone else’s words or ideas
as if they were your own. Plagiarism can be intentional
or unintentional. If you intentionally plagiarize, you
knowingly steal someone else’s ideas or words and pass
it off as your own. Intentional plagiarism can occur on a
global level (taking entire passages or speeches) or on a
partial level (using key words and phrases within your
own speech). If you knowingly piece together several
excerpts from various sources and pass it off as your own,
this is still considered intentional plagiarism. The key to
avoid partial plagiarism is to attribute the information
to each source. Intentional plagiarism is an offense that
comes with serious consequences. At most institutions,
you would probably fail the course, and could even be
expelled from the university.
Unintentional plagiarism occurs because of carelessness.
Perhaps you neglected to take careful notes while
researching or failed to cite your source appropriately.
Perhaps you think that if you paraphrase someone’s
ideas, you do not have to give them credit. Or, you think
that if you provide a reference page, you do not need to
also provide an oral citation during your speech. Later in
this text, we will address how to take careful notes and
provide oral citations so that you do not unintentionally
plagiarize.
Another, more subtle, form of plagiarism can occur
when you and a friend decide to collaborate on a speech
topic. Collaboration is good, right? We should all learn
how to work together and get along. But if you work on
a speech together, whose ideas belong to whom? Let’s
say that you and your roommate are both members of the
gymnastics team and you want to use your experiences
to write an informative speech so you choose the same
topic. At what point does the collaboration of your work
45
8
Please refer to the following
media interactions:
http://www.plagiarism.org/
and
http://www.turnitin.com/
research_site/e_home.html
become plagiarism? You may want to discuss this with
your individual instructors, but at our university, we use
the authorization and acknowledgement criteria. If both
instructors are not informed of the collaboration and both
speech writers acknowledged in the process, the speeches
are plagiarized. At any point if the presentations use the
same organization, words, or phrasing, the speeches are
plagiarized.
To clarify the consequences of both intentional and
unintentional we provide the following policy for our
students:
All work is to be appropriately cited when it is borrowed,
directly or indirectly, from another source. Unauthorized and
unacknowledged collaboration on speech topics and/or the
presentation of someone else’s work warrants plagiarism.
Students found to inadvertently commit acts of dishonesty
will receive appropriate penalties specific to the assignment
in question. Students found to commit intentional acts of
dishonesty will receive a failing grade in the course and
will be referred for appropriate disciplinary action through
Student Dispute Resolution Services.9
You should become aware of your own university
and instructor expectations regarding academic honesty.
In addition, you might also need to be aware of specific
course policies particularly with regard to presenting your
ideas in the form of a speech.
At this point it should be clear that you have an ethical
responsibility to properly document the source(s) of the
information you incorporate into your speech. This is
especially important to public speakers given that the
audience likely will not have a paper copy of the speech—
they will depend on the speaker to attribute credit to those
responsible for the ideas being communicated.
Another important reason for fully citing your sources
orally is to establish the credibility and reliability of your
46
Adapted from the Illinois State
University Student Handbook.
9
supporting material. Of course your audience will likely
not find you to be a credible speaker unless they perceive
your claims are based on reliable sources of information.
The procedures for locating and citing information will be
discussed in much greater detail in Chapter 7.
There are some particular ethical issues to consider
when preparing a persuasive speech. Because the goal
of persuasive speaking is to influence others, you have
to be particularly ethical in the strategies you use and
the choices you make. Under the political perspective,
Johannesen applies ground rules for public or political
communication.10 In doing so, he synthesizes from
various sources the ethical criteria for persuasion.
1.
Do not use false, fabricated, misrepresented, distorted, or
irrelevant evidence to support arguments or claims.
2. Do not intentionally use unsupported, misleading, or
illogical reasoning.
3. Do not represent yourself as informed or as an “expert”
on a subject when you are not.
4. Do not use irrelevant appeals to divert attention or
scrutiny from the issue at hand.
5. Do not ask your audience to link your idea or proposal
to emotion-laden values, motives, or goals to which it
actually is not related.
6. Do not deceive your audience by concealing your real
purpose.
7. Do not distort, hide, or misrepresent the number, scope,
intensity, or undesirable features of consequences or
effects.
8. Do not use “emotional appeals” that lack a supporting
basis of evidence or reasoning.
9. Do not over-simplify complex . . . situations into twovalued, either-or, polar views or choices.
10. Do not pretend certainty where tentativeness and degrees
of probability would be more accurate.
11. Do not advocate something in which you do not believe
yourself.
Can you imagine what our political campaigns would
look like if candidates were to follow these rules?
47
Johannesen, R. L. (2002). Ethics in
human communication, (5th ed.).
Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland.
(pp. 31-32)
10
Becoming Ethical Producers
and Consumers of Information
You may not have considered this, but ethical issues also
come into play as you communicate in the classroom
on a day-to-day basis. While you engage in classroom
discussions, you are both producing (articulating and
defending your own ideas) as well as consuming (listening
to your classmates do the same) messages. This approach
falls under the dialogic perspective which says that
communication or dialog serves to contribute knowledge
to all participants through active discussion.
Using the standards of Johannesen’s dialogic
perspective, Ken Petress claims that students who refuse
to actively participate in classroom discussions are
behaving unethically. According to Petress, “dialog exists
when all communicative participants are allowed to,
are encouraged to, and actually actively participate—by
speaking and listening to others—in sharing ideas with
11
Petress, K. (2001). The ethics of
each other.”11 As Petress notes, active participation can
student classroom silence. Journal
include not only speaking in class, but also listening
of Instructional Psychology, June.
attentively to what others have to say. So, Petress is not
suggesting that you have an ethical responsibility to speak
in every class; however, you do have an obligation to
contribute to the dialogue—even if your contribution is
simply listening attentively to others.
While we may not agree wholeheartedly with these
claims, we understand and appreciate the need for dialog
in our classrooms. In our course, we fully expect students
to come to class ready to contribute to their own learning
as well as the learning of others. When our students are
assigned readings in this book, we expect them to come
to class ready to talk about it—to engage in the process of
learning.
48
Becoming Ethical
Consumers Of Information
(Listening & Evaluating Speeches) Throughout
this course, you will be asked to listen to your instructor
and classmates discuss course content and present
speeches. As you consume these messages, you are asked
to do so ethically. Well, what does that mean? We’ve
already discussed what that means on a day-to-day basis
in class discussions, but how do we listen ethically to our
classmates presentations? You may want to think about
this in terms of “the golden rule.” Listen to others as
you would have them listen to you. If everyone in your
class follows this rule, each speaker will feel much more
comfortable and confident with the speaking environment.
So, by teaching ethical communication, we also improve
communication confidence. You should be confident in
the fact that your classmates know and understand what
it takes to be an ethical listener. Let’s describe what an
ethical listener does.
• An ethical listener shows respect by paying
attention to the speaker.
• An ethical listener is tolerant and open to new
ideas.
• An ethical listener avoids pre-judging the
speaker.
• An ethical listener provides nonverbal feedback
to the speaker.
• An ethical listener is aware of their own biases.
Ethical Norms
(Classroom Code of Conduct)
As you begin to understand the various ethical standards
that can be employed to guide communication behavior,
you can begin to develop your own ethical norms. You
may want to discuss this as a class and develop a code of
49
conduct for classroom participation as well as listening to
presentations.
We have done this in our own classrooms and find
that once students agree on the code of conduct, they feel
much more comfortable about delivering their speeches.
These are some of the things they come up with:
• Speakers and listeners will be on time to class.
• Speakers will be fully prepared to present.
• Speakers will be truthful and use credible
sources.
• Listeners will never enter or leave the room
while someone is speaking.
• Listeners will fully pay attention to all speakers.
• Listeners will be open minded and free of bias.
You can probably imagine that if everyone agrees to
and follows these norms, the climate of the classroom
(particularly on speaking days) becomes more positive
and less threatening. As such, these norms serve to
promote not only better ethical communicators, but more
confident communicators as well.
Summary
Questions of right or wrong are inevitable as you
produce and consume information. In this chapter, we
have discussed some possible standards you can use
to make ethical decisions as you communicate with
your classmates and present your speeches. These
considerations can also be used in your day to day
communication with others.
We have discussed how you make ethical decisions
with each step of the speech making process as well as
consuming the messages of your peers. By considering
a classroom code of conduct, you and your classmates
may reduce speaking anxieties by realizing that everyone
expects ethical communication in the classroom. This,
50
in turn, will make all of your more comfortable with
one another as you present your speeches. Trust in your
classmates will breed confidence in your communication.
51
Chapter Four
Perception and Self-Concept
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
• Understand the process of perception.
• Understand the role of perception in public
speaking.
• Understand the factors affecting perception.
• Understand the relationship between perception
and self-concept.
In the first chapter of this text, we covered the elements
of the communication process which include people,
messages, feedback, and context. In this chapter, we will
discuss how those elements affect the way we see the
world, ourselves, and the way we ultimately communicate
with those around us.
For example, earlier we discussed how the people
involved in communication each have personal
experiences, attitudes, and beliefs that affect everything
they say and interpret in the event. Gender and culture are
also critical factors. We described this as a frame of reference.
Because the people involved in the communication event
have different frames of reference, they may interpret or
perceive messages very differently. In other words, our
frame of reference causes us to create perceptual filters by
which we view the world. These filters cause us to see
things differently than anyone around us. As a speaker,
you need to be aware that your messages are open to
53
different interpretations as a result of these perceptual
filters.
In this chapter, we will explore the way our perceptions
affect the way we view ourselves, which in turn, affects
the way we communicate with others (including giving
speeches) as well as the way others communicate with us.
The communication process informs us how this might
work. In addition to our perceptual filters (based on our
background and experiences), we also use verbal (words
to describe ourselves) and nonverbal (our behaviors)
messages to communicate to others how we view
ourselves. This, in turn, affects the way they communicate
with us. This feedback further confirms our notions of
ourselves.
Finally, the context or situation of a communication
encounter also has implications for the way we perceive
people or events. We’ll discuss each of these issues as
we explain how perception and self-concept help us
understand our own communication behaviors. These
behaviors ultimately explain how we produce and
consume information.
Process of Perception
Perception is the process by which we select, organize,
and interpret the world around us. While listening begins
with our ability to hear something, perception is a result
of all of our senses. Nobody else can sense (hear, see,
smell, taste, or touch) the world exactly the same way
you do. That’s not to say, however, that we all experience
completely different worlds. It’s just that your perceptions
are unique to you and will affect the way you see yourself,
others, and events around you. Before we talk about why
differences in perception occur, we should first discuss
how perception works. Perception begins with selection.
54
Select. Take a moment to pay attention to your
surroundings. What do you see, hear, feel, smell, or taste?
You cannot possibly attend to everything around you.
That would be too overwhelming. So, you make decisions
about what to select. This may or may not be a conscious
act.
Remember the example in Chapter 2 about how a
bad childhood dental experience could cause a person
uncertainty and fear in the future? Well, this same person
could decide, while sitting in the dental chair, to focus on
the soothing background music as opposed to the dentist’s
drill. This is called selective perception—the tendency to
see, hear, and believe only what you want to see, hear,
and believe.1 Before you understand or interpret an
event, you have to call attention to it. How do you decide
what to attend to? The way we select information is also
subjective—that is, based on what we deem to be important
or outstanding. This can sometimes be problematic
because we may only notice things that confirm our biases.
Strangely enough, this tendency is called confirmation
bias! Another way of saying this is “counting the hits and
forgetting the misses.”2
Surely you’ve experienced this in your interpersonal
relationships. Have you ever had a friend or family
member accuse you of “never doing this” or “always
doing that?” You probably reply that they are not noticing
the good and are always focusing on the bad.
Confirmation bias also plays a role in public speaking.
For example, especially for persuasive speeches, we have
found that too many speakers only select information
that supports their position. As you will learn in Chapter
7 and throughout the persuasion unit, this tendency is
something you have to overcome in order to construct an
effective argument. Similarly, confirmation bias affects the
way we consume informative and persuasive messages—
as we listen to speakers, we tend to focus on those
55
Wilson, J., & Wilson, S. (Eds.).
(1998). Mass media/mass culture.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
1
Sagan, C. (1996). The demonhaunted world: Science as a candle
in the dark. New York: Ballantine
Books (pp. 213-214).
2
messages that confirm the way we view the world. As you
might guess, this also affects the information we retain.
Selective retention refers to the tendency to remember only
those things that confirm our beliefs.3
However, subjective bias does not always result in
poor decision making. For example, as you flip through
the channels on the television, you select programming
based on what you think is important to you. Generally,
you deem things important if they confirm your beliefs
or support your interests. To illustrate, let’s say that
based on your doctor’s advice, you have decided to
begin an exercise regimen which causes you to stop and
pay attention to the infomercial on the newest, most
advanced exercise equipment. You’ve selected television
programming based on a personal need.
Or, consider this. Have you ever noticed that once
you become interested in a particular make of car that
you suddenly see it everywhere? That’s because you are
primed to notice – to select – that particular model out of
the hundreds of other cars you see during the day. You
have begun the perception process by selecting what to
call attention to. To be useful, you now need to organize
the information that you have selected.
Organize. Once you focus on an event, you begin to
organize, or make sense of, what is happening. There are
several psychological, and sometimes unconscious, ways
that we do this. These methods will be organized here
according to figure/ground and grouping.
When you look at something, do you pay attention to
what is up front (figure) or what’s in the foreground or
background (ground). In other words, do you see the forest
or the trees? In the earlier dentist example, the fearful
patient chose to pay attention to the background music
(ground) as opposed to the sound of the drill (figure). Once
you make a decision on where to direct your focus, it is
56
Wilson, J., & Wilson, S. (Eds.).
(1998). Mass media/mass culture.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
3
sometimes difficult to reverse your understanding by
looking at the same event another way. For example, in
Figure 4.1, do you see the vase or candlestick or do you
see the twins? Once you determine and organize what
you see according to the figure/ground principal, it becomes
difficult to see anything else.
Another method of organizing events is grouping.
Generally, grouping occurs because events are either close
together (proximal) or alike (similar). In figure 4.2, you
see an example of grouping units according to proximity.
Do you see three groups of lines, or nine separate lines?
We tend to organize or groups events according to their
physical closeness to one another. For example, if you
are “people watching” in a mall, how do you decide who
is shopping with whom? It is often easy to determine
because people who know each other walk closer together
than people who do not.
We also tend to group events according to similarity.
That is, events that resemble each other by size, color, or
shape. In our mall example, you might identify a group
of friends shopping together because they are dressed
similarly. For example, the group of young adults who
have multiple tattoos and piercings probably are not
associated with the group of women with Gucci handbags
and Prada shoes. Figure 4.3 illustrates our tendency to
group similar items.
Figure 4.1. The Rubin vase/profile
illusion courtesy of http://www.
psychologie.tu-dresden.de/i1/
kaw/diverses%20Material/www.
illusionworks.com/html/figure_
ground.html
Figure 4.2. The lines are perceived
as groups of three rather than
nine separate lines because of the
perceptual principle of proximity.
Interpret. The last step in the perception process occurs
when you assign meaning to the events around you. What
conclusions will you make based on the evidence before
you? We will discuss interpretation of events according
to closure, context, and the components involved in
interpretation.
Closure is the tendency to fill in missing information
in order to make sense of and draw conclusions from
the available data. According to our background and
57
Figure 4.3. Even though the circles
are the same size and spaced
proportionately, we perceive
columns instead of rows because
of the similarity of the black and
grey circles.
experience, it just makes more sense to do so. Figure
4.4 illustrates this point. Do you see the triangle, or the
straight lines? Most likely you see a triangle because
in your experiences, when you see lines approaching
one another in this way, it has always been a triangle.
You fill in the missing gaps to make sense and interpret
what you see. This can become tempting to do as you
use bits of evidence to reason and make claims that
are not necessarily supported by the evidence in your
presentations.
Another way to assign meaning to events is through
context. We tend to make sense of our perceptions by
examining the situation around them. You might consider
the time and place of an interaction or the relationship
you have with the person involved. Have you ever
encountered someone that you are sure you know, but
cannot figure out from where? Let’s say you run into
a neighbor at your place of work. You recognize him
but cannot place him. He is more formally dressed than
when you see him mowing the lawn, and he is out of
context—your place of work; not your neighborhood.
Sometimes we do not realize how much we depend on
context to make sense of our interactions with others. Our
relationships with other people also provide a context for
our interactions. You will most likely interact differently
with your instructors than you do with your roommate.
Perception and Public Speaking
To summarize the last section, perception involves
selecting, organizing, and interpreting events around you.
As you begin the process of producing messages (writing
speeches) for this class, you will engage in each of these
behaviors. You will consider several topics that of are
interest to you and select one that is appropriate for your
audience. You will most likely select a topic based on what
is important to you and supports your interests.
58
Figure 4.4. The principle of closure
explains why we tend to fill in the
gaps to make our perceptions
match our earlier experiences.
You might also select a topic because it is unique, new,
or different in some way. You are curious so you think
the audience will be as well. You have begun the speech
making process by selecting what to call attention to (or
talk about).
You will use your perceptions to organize your topic. As
you conduct research, your perceptions might affect the
choices you make as to what evidence and reasoning you
will use and how to organize it. Do you choose sources
that only confirm what you believe or do you explore
other possibilities? Sometimes, you will need to “read
between the lines” and look for deeper meanings in the
information you are being presented.
Finally, you will use perception to interpret the
information you find. Recall that this occurs when
you assign meaning to the events around you. What
conclusions will you make based on the evidence before
you? How will you incorporate this information into a
meaningful presentation that is honest and interesting?
Factors Affecting Perception
Now that we understand how perception works, we
should note why differences in perception occur. There
are several factors that affect our perceptions including
physical, experiential, and situational considerations.
Physical. Unless you have an identical twin, you are
not physically the same as anyone else. Your physical
characteristics as well as your senses will certainly affect
your ability to perceive the events around you. For
example, one of your authors is very tall, another is not.
Now, if your tall author were to enter the home of the
shorter one (all right, it’s me), he might think her house
is dirty because he can see dust at higher levels (tops of
bookshelves) than she can. However, her perception is
that the house is clean because she doesn’t see the dust.
59
So, is the house clean or dirty? In terms of how the
participants feel about the question, it’s all a matter of
perception. However, some people’s perceptions may be
more accurate and more in line with observed facts than
others’(Note: In my own defense, my thinking is I simply
cannot be held responsible for dust I do not see). We all
are different in terms of our height, weight, appearance
as well as our senses. Some of us have a more keen sense
of sight, sound, and smell than others which affects our
perceptions.
The way you feel physically at any given time may
also heighten or inhibit your ability to accurately perceive
events around you. You might be suffering from lack
of sleep or a headache which affects your ability to
understand or interpret your instructor’s lesson. You may
misinterpret a friend’s concern about your grades if you
are overly tired. In other words, your physical well being
may cause you to “take things the wrong way.”
Our gender may also affect our perceptions. Many
scholars believe that men and women communicate
differently because they perceive the world in very
different ways. The popular book (though not scholarly)
by John Gray, Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus,
highlights these differences.4 It stands to reason that if
men and women have vastly different experiences, then
they would also have differing perceptions of how to
interpret communication events around them which leads
us to the next factor that affects perception—experiences.
Past Experiences. Your past experiences can also
affect your perceptions. Your background is comprised of
where and how you grew up. It includes all of the values
and beliefs you hold because of your experiences. If you
were raised in a Democrat or Republican household, you
are much more likely to become that when you get older
(unless you are a rebel, of course). You are also much more
60
Gray, J. (1992). Men are from Mars,
women are from Venus: A practical
guide for improving communication and getting what you want
in your relationships. New York:
Harper Collins.
4
likely to value comments made from candidates who
support your positions.
Your background also includes your culture which is
passed on to you from your family. These shared beliefs,
customs, and behaviors will affect the way you are able to
perceive events around you as well as how you interpret
them. Your experiences also affect your perceptions. A
child may initially love dogs, but once bitten, may become
quite fearful of them. Any experience at any time may
affect your reaction to future events.
Current Situation. Your perception and understanding
of events is also affected by your current situation. The
context or environment in which interactions occur will
influence how you react to and perceive interactions with
others. Context includes the social climate, or things that
happen both before and after an event. Recall from our
discussion of the communication process that talk about
air travel changed significantly after 9/11. In addition,
the time and place of an interaction will affect your or
another’s ability to perceive events accurately. It may
not be wise to have a discussion with your parents about
buying you a new car when they have just gotten home
from a stressful day at work.
Perception and Self
As we have discussed how perception works as well as
what affects your perceptions, we would like to now focus
on your perceptions of self. Who are you? How would
you describe yourself as a person and communicator?
How do you think others perceive you? The answers
to these questions will, indeed, affect the way you
communicate with others as well as the way they
communicate with you.
61
Self-Awareness. Once you understand the factors
that affect your perceptions, you can begin the process
of becoming self-aware. For example, if you examine
how your experiences, attitudes, and beliefs affect your
communication with others, you can begin to understand
yourself by evaluating your strengths and weaknesses.5
Self-awareness occurs when you begin to reflect on your
perceptions of self as well as other’s perceptions of you.
You might also use self-awareness to consider what topics
you might talk about in your speeches.
For example, you may have personal experience with
Alzheimer’s disease because a close family member has
suffered from it. Because of this experience, you are quite
knowledgeable on the topic, but you are not sure you
could present it without getting emotional. You know this
about yourself and decide to go with a safer topic. Once
you make judgments about yourself, you begin to form
your self-concept.
DeVito, J. A. (1986). The communication handbook: A dictionary.
New York: Harper & Row.
5
Self-Concept. Your self-concept is also known as your
self-appraisal.6 How do you see yourself? How do you feel
about the way you see yourself? How do you think others
would describe you? How does that make you feel? Your
self-concept is comprised of your self-image and your selfesteem. Your self-image is how you describe yourself as
well as how you think others would describe you. These
descriptions may be physical (short, tall, big, small, dark
hair, light skinned, etc), social (shy, outgoing, funny, kind),
or psychological (intelligent, slow to learn). Your image
may also be related to the roles you play. Are you a son,
granddaughter, brother, aunt, etc.? You might also define
yourself according to your hobbies or occupation. Are
you a skater, musician, artist, sales representative, etc.?
So, how would you describe or define yourself? How
would others describe you? This is your self-image. Once
you have a clear picture of yourself, you can now assign
62
DeVito, J. A. (1986). The communication handbook: A dictionary.
New York: Harper & Row.
6
a value to these descriptions. This is your self-esteem. You
may be short, but how do you feel about being short? Is
this a good or a bad thing for you? Your self-esteem then
becomes the worth you place on the words you and others
use to describe you as a person.
As a public speaker, you may describe yourself as a
history buff (self-image). Perhaps you are specifically
interested in Roman History. In this case you are likely to
be confident (self-esteem) that you could present a speech
on the Roman Coliseum given your knowledge and
interest in the subject (You’ll hear much more about this
topic in future chapters).
Factors Affecting Self-Concept. How do we acquire
our self-concept? Can it change over time? How can we
improve our self-concept? The answers to these questions
come from understanding the factors that affect selfconcept. We have already indicated that your perceptions
of self as well as other people’s perceptions of you serve
to form your notion of self. We’ll explain more in the
following section.
The first way you develop your self-concept is through
communication with self—or self-awareness. How do you
describe and feel about yourself? What kinds of words
do you use? Are they positive or negative? For example,
if you describe yourself as happy, fun, outgoing, friendly,
and smart, you will begin to present yourself to others in
that way. On the other hand, if you describe yourself as
lonely, shy, unintelligent, your behaviors indicate those
characteristics to other people as you communicate with
them. Their interactions with you will, in turn, confirm
your notions of self. Thus, our communication with others
also affects our self-concept.
One particular way that our communication with
others affects our self-concept is through the self-fulfilling
prophecy. This happens when we tend to live up to the
63
expectations that others have of us. The judgments others
make of us can affect the way we feel and behave in a
positive or negative fashion.7
For example, think of some of the greatest coaches in
sports history. Did they have high or low expectations of
their players? On the other hand, low expectations often
result in poor performance. In one study,8 researchers
found that when women read essays about how females
were genetically inferior to men when it came to math
skills, their math scores actually declined.
As we communicate with others, we begin to make
choices regarding what to reveal about ourselves. The
Johari Window9 helps us understand the relationship
between who we are and what we share with others. This
model (see Figure 4.5) divides our self-awareness into
four areas. These areas are not necessarily equal in size.
7
Wood, J. T. (2004). Communication
theories in action (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Dar-Nimrod, I., & Heine, S. J.
(2006). Exposure to scientific theories affects women’s math performance. Science, 20, 435.
8
Luft, J. (1984). Group processes: An
introduction to group dynamics,
(3rd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield.
9
Figure 4.5. The Johari Window.
In fact, the model will look different for each individual.
The open area represents everything that you and others
know about yourself. For example, if you are tall or short,
everyone including yourself knows it (As your short
author, I am always astounded when someone comes up
to me and says, “you’re short” as if I need to be told this.).
64
The hidden area represents what you know about
yourself that others do not. For example, you may be
envious of your friend’s new car, but you do not let her
know it.
The blind area represents what others see in you, but
you do not. Your friends may perceive you as being quite
opinionated, but you just don’t get it.
The unknown area is perhaps the trickiest. These are the
things that neither you nor your friends or family know
about you. Perhaps a hidden potential lies somewhere
within you. For example, this author’s son once played
the guitar in a band, but the band was having a difficult
time keeping a drummer. So, he decided to give the drums
a try. As it turns out, he was quite talented, energetic,
and entertaining while playing them. Who knew? The
unknown area encourages us to try new things to discover
our hidden interests or talents.
Now that you know the different areas that represent
your notion of self, how would your window look?10 Do
you have a large open window, but a small hidden one?
Once you examine your personal Johari Window, you can
begin to make better choices about what and how to reveal
yourself to others. This, in turn, may help you to improve
your self-concept. In addition, using more positive
language to describe yourself will help you to modify the
way you present yourself to others.
Summary
As we have discussed in the previous sections, perception
is linked to communication in general and public speaking
specifically. You use the process of perception to assign
meanings to the events around you. The way you see
yourself affects the way you communicate with others and
the way they communicate with you. These interactions
affect your future communication choices. In terms of
producing messages, perception affects your topic choices,
65
Please refer to the following
media interaction:
http://kevan.org/johari
10
the way you select and organize information, and the
confidence with which you deliver your speech. The way
your audience responds to you during the speech will also
affect not only how you are able to proceed but how you
feel about your presentation.
In terms of consuming messages, your understanding
of how perception affects communication should allow
you to respond to other speakers appropriately. As you
listen to other speeches, you will need to focus on the
speaker’s message to make sense of his/her information
or arguments and how you will use them. Because you
know that your response will ultimately affect the way the
speaker feels about his/her presentation, you will attempt
to listen effectively and ethically. In turn, you hope they
will do the same.
Finally, in keeping with our overarching themes as
presented in chapter one, understanding perception and
self-concept will enable you to become more competent
communicators as well as critical thinkers. The more you
consider the process of perception and how it affects
not only how you communicate with others, but how
they communicate with you, you will be better informed
as to how to present yourself and your ideas to others.
You will also be able to take perception and self-concept
into consideration as you consume messages from other
speakers or mass media. Keeping in mind that all people
have a frame of reference through which they perceive
information will allow you to adapt the messages you
produce and to critically reflect on the messages you
consume.
66
Chapter Five
Choosing Topics
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
• Select and narrow a topic.
• Identify a general and specific purpose.
• Write a clear and concise thesis statement.
One would think that choosing a topic would be one of
the most exciting moments in the speech making process,
but many students feel angst at the thought of it. In our
experiences, students have difficulty choosing topics
because they feel that so much of their success is riding
on this choice. When we ask students the three things
they hope to improve on most during the course of the
semester, topic selection is at the top of many lists. So, how
do you choose a regret-free topic?
Selecting a Topic
When selecting a topic for any presentation (whether in
this class or future speaking opportunities), you need
to consider three things: you, your audience, and your
occasion. First, to maintain a level of excitement with
your presentation, you need to choose something you
feel passionate about. Perhaps you have some kind of
personal connection or interest in a topic because of
your life experiences. To begin, consider your hobbies,
job experiences, and talents. What is your major? What
organizations do you belong to? You may want to choose
a topic because a friend or family member has been
67
affected by the issue in some way. This, in turn, gives you
a personal connection to the topic. These connections help
you to establish your personal credibility on the topic
which will motivate the audience to listen.
You also need to consider your audience throughout
the speech making process, particularly when choosing a
topic. Who are they? What are their interests and attitudes
toward the topic? How might you relate the topic to their
experiences? Most student insecurities about choosing
a topic have to do with thinking the audience will not
be interested in what they have to say. A few simple
questions to indicate audience interests will go far in
reducing these fears. Once you generate a list of possible
ideas, ask members of your class what they know or feel
about your suggestions.
Finally, you need to consider your purpose and
occasion for speaking. How much time do you have to
research or present the information? For example, what
can you accomplish with two weeks time to prepare and
seven minutes to present? What time of day will you be
speaking? How much time will you have to present and
what are the requirements of the assignment? What is the
social climate? Is there anything going on in the world
or your community at the time you present that will lend
itself to one topic over another? For example, if you are
assigned to present a speech some time in October, you
might consider a topic on the history or significance of
Halloween.
Generating Ideas. In generating ideas, you should
consider topics that are of general importance and
significance to you and your audience. Significant topics
have the ability to contribute information that your
audience would not have known had you not given the
presentation. You should try to think of as many topics
68
that are worthy of your (and your audience’s) time and
energy.
For example, your audience may consist of students on
a limited budget, but that doesn’t mean they need to hear
a speech on how to prepare Ramen Noodles. Chances are,
they already know how. With that in mind, brainstorming
is a good way to generate possible ideas.1 Give yourself a
reasonable time limit (5-15 minutes) to generate as many
ideas possible. You might want to organize your thoughts
according to a personal inventory of things that interest
you in some way. You can write categories across the top
of a sheet of paper and fill in topics associated with each
category (See Figure 5.1 for an example of a personal
inventory with brainstormed topics).
Weiten, W. (1986). Psychology
applied to modern life (2nd ed.).
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
1
Potential Informative Topic Categories
Places
Hobbies
Games
Natural
Phenomena
Objects
Pets
Cancun
Iraq
Pottery
Noodling
(hand fishing)
Ultimate Frisbee
Halo
Scene It
Hurricanes
Volcanoes
Guitar
Cello
Schnoodle
Ferret
X-Games
Tornadoes
iPhone
Hermit Crab
Books
Harry Potter
Events
9/11
The Da Vinci
Code
Kite Runner
Woodstock
Mt. Rushmore
Potential Informative or Persuasive
People
Ghandi
Organizations
N.O.W.
MLK Jr.
Habitat for
Humanity
Disney
Tony Blair
TV Programs
The
Apprentice
Cheers
Survivor
Unusual
(little
known)
New iPod
Cockerpoo
Breeding
Raising
Emus
2000 Presidential Election
Potential Persuasive Topic Categories
Current
Events
Election
Reform
Terrorism
Social Issues
Local Issues
Beliefs
Homelessness
Parking
Liberalism
Smoking Ban
Conservatism
War in Iraq
Same Sex
Marriage
Climate Change
Atheism
War in
Afghanistan
Affirmative
Action
Student Rec.
Center
Free Speech
Zones
Environment
Figure 5.1. Brainstorming topics by
category can create several ideas
quickly.
69
For example, a personal inventory might be categorized
according to people you know, places you’ve been,
organizations you belong to, or hobbies you enjoy. The
categories are endless and based on your interests. Other
categories to include in your personal inventory are
current events, social issues, local issues, beliefs, books, TV
programs, games, natural phenomena, possessions, pets,
little known or unusual information [our favorite], etc.
The trick is to try to come up with as many ideas under
multiple categories to create more choices for speech
topics. Once you generate as many ideas as possible,
you may want to consult other members of your class to
narrow the list until you have a topic that is of importance
to both you and your audience.
If you are having trouble coming up with some of your
own ideas, try using the mass media to generate some
ideas. Turn on the TV and watch a local or national news
program. Pick up a magazine or newspaper. Log onto cnn.
com or foxnews.com. Pay attention to the main stories
or headlines. Generate a list of ideas from what is being
talked about in the media.
One common practice of local media outlets is to take
a story of national or international importance and find
a local angle. Perhaps you could do the same. Choose a
story in the media and find a fresh angle that affects your
particular audience. For example, is there a national story
about the state of the economy and job forecasts? What
might that mean for people getting ready to choose a
major or embark on a career?
You might also consider using a subject-based search
engines to explore for topics. Some of the more popular
Internet search engines include Google, Dogpile, and
Yahoo! Many of these search engines, like Yahoo! provide
a categorical breakdown of major topic areas.
70
As you can see in Figures 5.2, 5.3, and 5.4, the deeper
you go into the directory structure of Yahoo!, the more
detailed information you can retrieve about the topic.
Figure 5.2. Refine a Yahoo! search
by choosing a category from the
directory.
Narrowing the Topic.
Once you decide on a
topic, you may need to
narrow it according to your
purpose and occasion. You
will most likely have time
limits placed on you which
will require you to make
specific choices about what
information to include.
Many topics can be divided
into multiple sub-topics.
Figure 5.3. Further refine the
search in a sub directory.
71
You may want to start thinking of how to narrow your
topic by conducting preliminary research on the more
general topic. How many hits do you get when you type
in the topic on a search engine? This will give you some
clue as to how general your topic is. For example, a recent
Google search for the terms “blues music” yielded over
2.2 million hits. A search for “delta blues music” yielded
around 900 hits while “pre-war Mississippi delta blues”
came up with a mere 14 hits.
The research you find will also give you some clues as
to how the topic has been addressed by people who write
and speak about it. Each topic can be divided differently
based on the nature of the topic. Generally, any topic can
be divided according to time (past, present, future), place
(by space or location), or sub-topic (of which there are
many more ways to sub-divide).
For example, a topic on the Pentagon can be discussed
in terms of time (pre 9/11, post 9/11) or space (the five
72
Figure 5.4. By narrowing your topic
by categories and sub categories,
you can quickly find pertinent
information for your topic.
sides to the building) or sub-topic (the divisions of the
Pentagon). Let’s brainstorm some additional ways that
topics can be sub-divided: categories, types, lists, steps,
branches, functions, goals, dimensions, causes, effects, and
so forth. Perhaps you can come up with some other ways
to divide the topic you choose.
2
Please refer to the following
media interactions:
Remember, you can look at the research to see how
http://telstar.ote.cmu.edu/
other people have organized their thoughts with regard
environ/m2/s5/index.shtml
to your topic. Each time you think of a way to divide your
and
topic to narrow it, you can take one of your divisions
http://www.internet4classrooms.
com/excel_concept_map.htm
and narrow it even further until you come up with
a focus to your topic that is manageable given your
http://www.udel.edu/chem/
white/teaching/ConceptMap.html
time limits. This is known as concept mapping.2 Figure
5.5 demonstrates this
Situation/
process by narrowing the
Others
Context
McCroskey
topic of communication
Audience
Heredity
apprehension as it is
discussed in Chapter 2
Causes
People
Skills
of this text. Let’s say that
Deficit
you want to give a speech
Communication
on CA, but cannot cover
Apprehension
Skills
all of the information
Training
within the amount of time
Effects
Treatments
you have. How will you
Systematic
Internal
narrow the topic? You
Visualization
Desensitization
Cognitive
External
could discuss CA in terms
Restructuring
of the people who research
it (McCroskey and others),
Figure 5.5. Concept map for the
topic of communication apprethe causes (heredity, situation, audience, context, skills
hension.
deficit), the effects (internal, external), or the treatments
(systematic desensitization, cognitive restructuring,
visualization, skills training). Each of the divisions noted
in the parentheses are further ways of narrowing the topic
of CA if needed.
73
General Purpose
This is easy. General purpose statements contain the
overall intent of the message. Generally, most speeches
fall under one of four categories: to inform, persuade,
entertain, or commemorate (celebration of an event or
person). For purposes of your first speech class, you
will most likely be concentrating on speeches to inform
or persuade. What you learn about giving these kinds
of presentations will help you should you find yourself
in the position to give presentations to entertain or
commemorate in the future.
Since the communication you are learning about in
this book is aimed at creating goal-directed messages,
understanding the relationship between general purposes,
specific purposes, and thesis statements is imperative.
In this book, making informative and persuasive
presentations are treated as means to an end, not ends in
themselves. That is, speakers hope that their audiences
will change with regard to knowledge, behavior, or
attitude. A presenter speaks with purpose and intent.
For example, a presenter who tries to persuade
listeners to change their eating habits based on the latest
nutritional research hopes that the audience will indeed
heed the message. Contrast that speaking situation with
a ceremonial speech such as a wedding toast. In that
situation, the presentation itself is the end – the audience
should enjoy it on its own merits.
Speeches to Inform. When giving an informative
speech, you the speaker, serve the role of teacher. It is
your responsibility to present information that contributes
something of significance to the body of knowledge of
your audience. In other words, teach them about some
object, person, event, process, or concept that they would
not know otherwise.
74
Categories of topics that are best suited to informative
speaking are people, places, organizations, hobbies, books,
TV programs, games, natural phenomenon, possessions,
pets, or little known or unusual information. Perhaps
you can even come up with others. The goal is for your
audience to learn something new. As instructors teaching
this course over the years, we are always amazed at the
amount of information we learn about multiple topics in a
given class. You should note that your instructor is also a
member of your audience and you should choose a topic
you think he or she may not have heard before (or at least
not 50 times before!). This is why instructors particularly
like those novel and unusual topics.
Speeches to Persuade. When giving a persuasive
speech, the speaker serves as an advocate. You choose
a topic that is controversial in some way and attempt to
influence your audience’s attitudes, beliefs, or actions
with regard to the issue. Some of the categories of topics
we discussed earlier are particularly suited to persuasive
speaking such as current events, social issues, local issues,
or beliefs.
To come up with ideas for persuasive speech topics, it is
a good idea to pay attention to what is happening around
you. As suggested earlier, you can pick up a newspaper,
watch a morning television program with news and
feature stories, watch a nighttime news magazine
program, or visit news websites (e.g., cnn.com or foxnews.
com). What are the issues of the day? What is happening
in the world today that would be worthy of taking a
position on?
Some of the categories listed in your personal inventory
may be suited to both informative and persuasive
speaking depending on the direction you take with the
topic. Try choosing people, organizations, or TV programs
that are controversial and attempt to influence the
75
audience in some say about those topics. For example, you
could inform an audience about Lance Armstrong, the
seven time Tour de France winner, or you could attempt
to convince your audience that his wins are due to his
hard work and determination as opposed to performance
enhancing drugs, as some have accused him of taking.
Speeches to Entertain. Speeches to entertain are
designed to make an important point in a creative and
humorous way. In general, it’s a good idea to begin the
process of creating a speech to entertain by thinking of
the serious message you want to communicate and then
find ways to make your points in a humorous way. Keep
in mind that your speech should have an identifiable
thesis statement, main points, and supporting material.
However, these elements will be presented in a much
more subtle manner than in a formal informative or
persuasive speech.
If you are thinking about ways to interject humor
throughout your presentation, pay particular attention to
the culture, values, attitudes, and beliefs of your audience.
After all, these elements often determine whether your
audience will deem your use of humor effective or
offensive. (For an example of this type of speech, see
Appendix A).
Speeches to Commemorate. Commemorative
speeches are typically presented as part of celebrations
of anniversaries, national holidays, or important dates
and are accompanied by tributes to the person or persons
involved. For example, a speech given to commemorate
the anniversary of the attacks of September 11, 2001 might
overview the significance of the events that happened on
that day and pay tribute to those who lost their lives in
their attempts to save others.
76
As with all other speeches, when planning a
commemorative speech it is imperative that you carefully
analyze your audience as well as the situation in which the
speech is to occur. Commemorative speeches are usually
formal presentations, so your language use should be
expressive, elegant, and eloquent.
In commemorating a person or event, you assume the
role of an informative speaker by highlighting facts about
the person or event being commemorated. In the addition,
the commemorative speaker assumes the role of an
advocate by attempting to motive and inspire the audience
to build on the past in constructing a better future.
As you develop your commemorative speech, work on
isolating the particular actions and values of the person
or event you are honoring and consider how those might
be applied to your audience. Your speech is more likely
to be effective if you can get your audience to vividly
re-experience the emotions and feelings they have about
the person or event you are discussing. Doing so should
allow you to persuasively build a case for applying or
transferring the values or actions to new contexts.
Keep your general purpose in mind as you develop
your topic. You should avoid messages that attempt to
influence if your purpose is to inform. For example, you
may give a presentation on a particular and unique dog
breed, but if you tell your audience they should adopt
one of these pets, you have crossed the line of persuasion.
Recall from the chapter on ethical communication that
you should remain true to your goals if you are to practice
ethical speaking. (For an example of this type of speech,
see Appendix B).
Specific Purpose. Chances are, your general purpose
will be determined by the particular speech you are
assigned. For example, everyone in your class will either
be presenting an informative or persuasive speech at the
77
same time. While your general purpose may be assigned,
your specific purpose is directly related to the topic you
choose.
The specific purpose should focus on one aspect of
the topic. Thus, once you know your purpose and have
chosen your topic, the specific purpose becomes the result
of narrowing your topic. What, specifically, will you
be informing or persuading your audience about? The
specific purpose indicates the direction or focus you will
take with your topic. In other words, it goes from general
to specific. Choosing a specific purpose will allow you to
make informed decisions about what to include (or not) in
planning your presentation that is limited by a given time
frame. As you conduct research for your speech, you’ll
find some information that relates to your topic but may
not relate to your specific purpose. In other words, once
you decide on a specific purpose, this decision will help
you to focus your research and will serve as a guideline
for all of your subsequent speechwriting decisions. In
our communication apprehension example, the specific
purpose might be (for a 5-7 minute presentation):
To inform the audience of the treatments for
communication apprehension.
Notice how the specific purpose becomes a narrowed
version (treatments of) of the more general topic
(communication apprehension). In some instances, your
general topic may become the specific purpose if your
occasion would allow you to discuss the topic in its
entirety. For example, if your instructor had one hour to
discuss communication apprehension, his or her specific
purpose would be:
To inform my students about communication
apprehension.
78
Guidelines for Specific Purposes. There are
several items to consider when constructing your specific
purpose. Your specific purpose should indicate (with as
few words as possible) your general purpose, the focus
of your topic, and your audience. Thus, the specific
purpose indicates not only what the speaker wants to
talk about, but what the audience needs to know or think
as a result of the speech. Because specific purposes are
written in terms of the audience, speakers are constantly
reminded that the speech is intended with a particular
goal and people in mind. This becomes more important as
we consider the process of audience analysis in the next
chapter.
Because the specific purpose should be written as
clearly as possible, we offer the following suggestions and
examples. Throughout the rest of this unit on constructing
clear messages, we will use our current communication
apprehension topic as well as three additional informative
speech topics as running examples to clarify the process
of public speaking. These three speeches will focus on
tornadoes, the Roman Coliseum, and the Delta blues.
(Complete outlines for each of these speeches are provided
in Appendices A-C).
Write the specific purpose to include general purpose,
focus of topic, and audience.
Ineffective:
Tornadoes.
More effective:
To inform my audience about
tornadoes.
Avoid being too broad or general.
Ineffective:
To inform my audience about
Rome.
More effective:
To inform my audience about
the Roman Coliseum.
79
Write the specific purpose with as few words possible.
Ineffective:
To inform my audience of
that Blues Music is an amazing
and soulful sound.
More effective:
To inform my audience about
the Delta Blues.
Write the specific purpose as a statement; not a
question.
Ineffective:
What are tornadoes?
More Effective:
To inform my audience about
tornadoes.
Write the specific purpose as one, distinct idea.
Ineffective:
To inform my audience
about the historical significance
of the Delta Blues and the
musicians who epitomized the
movement.
More Effective:
To inform my audience about
the historical significance of the
Delta Blues.
More Effective:
To inform my audience
about the original musicians of
the Delta Blues.
Be sure that your specific purpose meets the requirements
of your assignment and can be accomplished in the time
allotted. Finally, your specific purpose should be relevant
(not too trivial) and comprehensible (not too technical) to
your audience.
Thesis Statements
Once you decide on a focus for your speech, you can
now follow the narrowing process one step further to
determine the main points of your presentation. These can
80
be reflected in your thesis statement. Your thesis statement
is a clear and concise sentence that provides an overview
of your entire presentation. That is, it provides even
more information than the general and specific purpose.
Let’s use our communication apprehension and Roman
Coliseum speeches as examples to see the flow from a
general purpose to a specific purpose and then a thesis
statement.
General Purpose:
Specific Purpose:
Thesis Statement:
To inform
To inform my audience about
the treatments of
communication apprehension.
Communication apprehension
can be treated using systematic
desensitization, visualization,
cognitive restructuring, and
skills training.
Notice how the speaker streamlined the thesis statement
by simply stating the main points of the speech without
including the specific purpose (i.e., to inform, which
is implied). In fact, the examples provided throughout
the rest of the text will follow this pattern. As always,
make sure to check with your instructor for her or his
preferences for the wording of general, specific, and thesis
statements.
General Purpose:
Specific Purpose:
Thesis Statement:
To inform.
To inform my audience about
the Roman Coliseum.
To understand the historical
impact the Coliseum has
had on civilization, it
is important to learn of the
architectural wonders of the
81
Coliseum, the terror of the Roman
Games, and the present plans for its
restoration.
Notice how these thesis statements provide a great deal of
information without using too many words. From these
statements, we know several things:
1) the general purpose,
2) the specific purpose,
3) the topic and direction,
4) the main points, and
5) the organizational pattern (which we’ll discuss in
more detail in a later chapter).
By listing the main points in the thesis statement, the
audience will be able to determine the organizational
pattern of the presentation. For purposes of this chapter,
we’ll preview organizational patterns by saying that in
informative speaking, you will use one of three patterns:
time, space, or sub-topic. Recall that we used these
categories earlier to talk about ways to divide a topic.
Given this information, which organizational pattern does
our Roman Coliseum thesis statement use?
One of the most difficult things about making a thesis
statement clear and succinct is in how you label your main
claims. Once you decide what two to five points you want
to address with your topic (in a 5-7 minute presentation,
this is all you will have time for), you need to use labels to
identify them for your audience.
Generally, you will want to label each of your main
points using one to three words. Why? Speeches rely on
oral style to communicate ideas. Your audience only gets
to hear your speech one time. Most likely, your audience
will not have the benefit of reviewing a written copy of
82
your presentation. Thus, the audience needs a clear and
concise thesis statement that provides an overview of the
presentation (labeling the claims) so they can follow along
and listen attentively. If you label your claims clearly,
chances are the audience will remember them. Here’s an
example using the tornado speech.
Ineffective
1) What are the causes
2) Types
3) Weird things that happen
Thesis using ineffective labels:
In discussing tornadoes, one should know what are
the causes, types, and weird things that happen.
More Effective
1) Causes
2) Classifications
3) Oddities
Thesis using effective labels:
There are several causes, classifications, and
oddities associated with tornadoes.
So, try to make your labels parallel in structure. That is,
if one of them is a two-word phrase, then see if you can
make all of them a two-word phrase. If one of them is a
noun, then try to make all of them nouns. If one of them
has a one word descriptor, then try to make all of them
have one word descriptors. The better your labels and
the more parallel the structure, the easier it will be for
your audience to follow your presentation. Now, in the
communication apprehension example, what could we do
to make the labels of the main points more parallel?
83
1)
2)
3)
4)
systematic desensitization
cognitive restructuring
visualization
skills training
All but one of them are two-word descriptions.
What if we took visualization and called it, positive
visualization? Now, all of our main points have
two-word descriptions for labels.
1) systematic desensitization
2) cognitive restructuring
3) positive visualization
4) skills training
Guidelines for writing a thesis statement.
Remember our guidelines for writing the specific
purpose? These are the same suggestions we have
for writing the thesis statement.
• Write the thesis statement to include
general purpose, focus of topic, audience,
and claims. Remember to clearly label
your claims so the audience can follow
your organization.
• Avoid being too broad or general. It is
better to go in depth with a few claims
than to not cover several of them
sufficiently.
• Write the thesis statement with as few
words possible. Remember you have a
lot of information to provide in this one
statement. Avoid figurative language like
metaphors and adjectives.
• Write the thesis statement as a complete
statement; not a question. Remember
84
your purpose is to provide the information; not
ask for it.
One more note about thesis statements. This one
statement should encapsulate your entire presentation. As
instructors, we tell our students it is the backbone of your
presentation. You cannot have a successful presentation
without a strong thesis statement. On the other hand,
a good thesis statement is the beginning of a strong
presentation. Take time with this statement. Make sure
it provides the necessary information your audience is
looking for in a thesis. The rest is just follow-through.
Summary
In this chapter, we have discussed several strategies for
choosing and narrowing a topic. We have also talked
about general and specific purposes as well as thesis
statements. These decisions are the first and perhaps the
most important steps in the speech making process. If you
make sound decisions at this point, you are well on your
way to a successful presentation.
85
Chapter Six
Analyzing Your Audience
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
• Understand the importance of audience to public
speaking.
• Determine audience attitudes and beliefs.
• Gather information about an audience formally and
informally.
• Adapt a message based on audience analysis.
When you watch TV or pick up a magazine, you can
be assured that the people who prepared those media
messages took your interests, attitudes, and beliefs into
consideration. Marketers spend an enormous amount of
money trying to determine who their audience is for a
given program or advertisement.1 As you flip channels
during commercials, you can tell something about who
the audience is expected to be just by the products being
advertised. Try it some time. If you are watching football,
who are the commercials geared to? What about if you are
watching cartoons or daytime programming? Answers
can be found in the products being advertised.
Considering Your Audience
Why is it important to consider your audience as you
develop or produce your message? Well, if your goal is
to inform or persuade, the audience is the target of your
overall purpose and ultimately determines the success of
your speech. If your goal is to inform, then your success is
87
Behnke, R. R., O’Hair, D., & Hardman, A. (1990). Audience analysis systems in advertising and
marketing. In D. O’Hair & G. L. Kreps
(Eds.) Applied communication
theory and research (pp. 203-221).
Hillsdale, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum
Associates.
1
determined by the extent to which your audience clearly
understands your message. If your goal is to persuade,
then your success is determined by the extent to which
your audience has been influenced by your message. This,
in turn, determines whether or not you reach your goal.
Consider what might happen if you were to give a speech
on the application process for attending college to your
classmates. While your topic may be perfectly suitable to
a room full of high school seniors, the information may
be too late for your current audience. Thus, how can you
accomplish a goal that was not realistic for you audience?
Recall from Chapter 5 how we talked about choosing
topics that are worth your and your audience’s time and
energy to present. Well, as you present, your audience
will be asking themselves, “what’s in it for me?” In short,
audiences always put their needs ahead of yours.2
In order for you to motivate your audience to listen,
you have to conduct an analysis of who they are.3 Another
very important reason to carefully analyze your audience
relates to your confidence as a speaker. Specifically, the
better you know your audience, the less anxiety you will
experience when you actually give the speech.4 Audience
analysis is the process by which you gather and analyze
information about your listeners and adapt your message
to their knowledge, interests, attitudes, and beliefs.
Identifying and Understanding
Your Audience
So, if your success is determined by your audience’s
reaction to our message, then what do you need to know
about them to achieve your goals? To identify and
understand your audience, you will need to answer the
following questions: Who are they? Why are they here?
What do they know? What are their interests? What are
88
2
Hoff, R. (1992). I can see you naked.
Kansas City, MO: Andrews and
McMeel.
Backer, D., & Borkum-Backer, P.
(1994). Powerful presentation skills.
Chicago: Irwin.
3
Richmond, V. P., & McCroskey, J. C.
(1995). Communication: Apprehension, avoidance, and effectiveness
(4th ed.). Scottsdale, AZ: Gorsuch
Scarisbrick.
4
their attitudes? In the following sections, we will discuss
how you obtain this information from your audience.
Analyzing Audience Characteristics. Recall
from Chapter 1, we discussed the elements of the
communication process and how the people involved in
interactions interpret events differently depending on
their frame of reference. A person’s frame of reference
is comprised of personal experiences, goals, values,
attitudes, knowledge, beliefs, age, gender, culture, and so
forth.
Some of these characteristics involve general
information about your audience while other
characteristics are more specific to the speaking situation
or topic. Gathering general information allows you to
answer the question, “Who are they?” In other words,
what is the general make-up of your audience? This is
known as audience demographics.
Audience demographics include a number of general
characteristics including:
• age,
• gender,
• sexual orientation,
• cultural background,
• income,
• occupation,
• education,
• religion,
• group membership,
• political affiliation,
• and place of residence.
Knowing this general information about your audience
will help you choose and develop topics with your
audience in mind.5 Some of the information may be more
or less relevant given your topic. For example, if your
89
5
Berko, R., Wolvin, A., & Ray, R.
(1997). Business communication
in a changing world. New York: St.
Martin’s Press.
purpose is to inform and your topic is on birth order, then
you would need to know the ages of audience members
relative to their siblings. On the other hand, you probably
do not need to know their political affiliation.
Some information is particularly relevant when your
purpose is to persuade. Let’s say that you are attempting
to influence your audience that your state should legalize
��������������������������������������������������
This is an anonymous demographic survey of your Public Speaking Classroom
Audience. Please do not put your name on this survey.
What is your age? ________
Are you:
Male
Female
Are you:
Caucasian
Latino/Latina
Asian/Pacific Islander
African-American
Native American
Other: _______________________
What is your religious affiliation, if any (feel free to write “none” if you do not
strongly identify with any religion)?
___________________________________
What groups do you belong to? (Examples include Fraternity/Sorority, Band,
Theatre, Clubs, etc.)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Are you a:
Democrat
Republican Independent
Not Politically Motivated I Don’t Know
What State are you from? _____________________________
Are you from:
Large metro area
Suburb
Rural Town
Figure 6.1
90
gay marriage. Knowing your audience members’ cultural,
religious, and political backgrounds will help you
determine how to approach the topic. We have provided
you a demographic audience analysis survey (Figure 6.1)
which you can adapt based on your topic.
Because demographic information is more general
in nature, you should be careful not to make over
generalizations (stereotypes) about your audience based
on this information. For example, many of your classmates
may be college students but you cannot assume that all
of your classmates enjoy partying. Likewise, you cannot
assume that all males enjoy sports and all females enjoy
shopping. To avoiding making assumptions about your
audience based on demographic information, you should
gather more specific information relevant to the speaking
situation.
Analyzing the Situation. Analyzing the speaking
situation will provide you even more specific information
about how to adapt your topic to your audience. This
analysis will attempt to answer the questions: Why are
they here? What do they know? What are their interests?
What are their attitudes? The speaking situation is
comprised of the size and type of audience, the setting,
and the audience’s interests, knowledge, and attitudes
toward the topic.
Size
How many audience members will you be speaking
to? This will help you gauge how loudly to speak
and whether or not you need a microphone.
Generally, the larger the audience, the more formal
the presentation should be. For your purposes, your
audience will be medium in size (20-30 students)
which will enable you to connect with them on
a more personal level. As your confidence and
91
competence increases, opportunities for addressing
larger audiences are likely to arise. Think of the
successful and influential people you know. Chances
are, they often communicate with large audiences.
Setting
Where will you be delivering your speech? Most
likely, you will be presenting your speech in your
classroom, but it is important that you get a feel for
your surroundings before you speak. Is the heating/
air-conditioning going to be a factor? Are there
external noises you may have to contend with? How
large or small is the room? Will there be obstacles in
your way (pillars, desks, electronic cords)?
The answers to these questions become even more
important when the setting is unfamiliar. The
setting may also affect the mood of the audience.
Speaking in a church, mosque, or synagogue has
a very different set of norms than giving a toast at
a wedding or pitching an idea for a charity event
during a fraternity or sorority meeting. The setting
also gives you clues about audience type.
Type
Why is your audience here? Are they captive or
voluntary? Did they come to hear you speak because
they were particularly interested in you or your
topic? Or, are they required to be there to hear your
speech because they are your classmates? Chances
are, the latter is true.
What implications does a captive audience have
for the way you approach your topic? In other
words, will the audience accept what you say with
joy and gladness in their hearts or will you need to
92
pay special attention to winning them over? As you
research and follow stories related to your topic, are
there ways that you can make connections between
the material you find and your audience’s lived or
future experiences? With a captive audience, these
connections may be necessary to generate interest in
your topic. With a voluntary audience, the interest
may already be there.
Interests
What are your audience’s interests? You might want
to gather some information about your audience’s
hobbies, recreational activities, or job interests.
What TV programs do they enjoy (or not), and what
magazines do they subscribe to? This information
can give you a sense of their interests. What subjects
will they enjoy hearing about? You can use this
information to relate your topic to your audience
throughout your presentation.
For example if you know that many of your audience
members enjoy watching crime shows on television,
then they may be particularly interested in a speech
on forensic science or crime investigations. What
if spring break is around the corner? Should you
describe the all-inclusive resorts they could visit
in Mexico, or should you make them aware of an
alternative spring break where they can provide a
public service while still having fun?
Knowledge
What does your audience know about your topic?
Knowing this information will help you determine
how much and what kind of information to cover
in your presentation. Remember, you are trying to
enrich their knowledge and experience. You should
93
avoid presenting information that is too general
(audience already knows), too specific (audience
doesn’t need to know), or too complex (audience
cannot understand).
Perhaps you are a music composition major and
wish to inform the audience about the process of
composing a symphony. Other music majors may
appreciate and be able to understand a speech about
scales, modes, harmony, and instrumentation, but a
general audience may only be able to relate to music
that has a good beat and is easy to dance to!
Attitudes
How does your audience feel about your topic? The
way an audience feels about a subject is rooted in
their value and belief system. Beliefs are statements
that your audience holds to be true; whereas,
values are the positive or negative judgments they
make about a subject.6 Our values and beliefs are
influenced by our families, our culture, our religion,
our political affiliation, and our personal experiences.
For example, your religious upbringing may
influence you to believe that gay people choose their
lifestyle and that their choice is wrong. Thus, you
may have a negative value of what it means to be
gay. Consequently, your attitude about a ban on gay
marriage would probably be positive.
This also helps you with topic selection. For example,
don’t choose a persuasive speech topic if everyone
already agrees with you. Perhaps you’ve heard the
expression “preaching to the choir?” Likewise, your
chances of persuasion are slim if most of the audience
is diametrically opposed to your position.
94
Zarefsky, D. (2002). Public speaking: Strategies for success, (3rd
ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn
& Bacon.
6
Thus far, we have talked about the kinds of information
you need to know about your audience so that you
can connect your speech to their experiences. In the
next section, we will elaborate on how to collect that
information.
Gathering Information
There are many ways to gather the necessary information
you need about your audience. Some are informal;
whereas, others are more formal.
Informal Methods. As you proceed through this
course, you will most likely have several opportunities to
get to know your classmates. Typically, in the first week of
a communication course, you will have the opportunity
to give an introductory speech about yourself. Not only
do these presentations help to relieve you of the stress
of your first speaking assignment, but they are your first
step in the audience analysis process. As you listen to
your classmates give their introductory speeches, you are
learning information about their disposition toward your
future speech topics.
Another way that you will get to know your audience
is through class discussions. As you read this text and
prepare for in-class contributions, you will not only get
practice speaking in front of an audience, but you will
begin to get a feel for their knowledge and experience with
course concepts as they make their contributions. They
may share personal examples or insights that you can
relate to as you develop your speech. It is most impressive
to an audience when you can take your classmates’
comments from class discussion and incorporate them into
your speech.
Another strategy would involve spending time with
your classmates both before and after class to get a sense
of their interests, knowledge, and attitudes – particularly
95
towards your topic. The more you get to know your
classmates, the more comfortable you will be when you
have to give your first major presentation. The more you
know your audience, the more you can connect with them
as well.
Formal Methods. While there are numerous methods
of collecting information, we will focus on the two
methods most suitable to audience analysis. The first
method is interviewing. This occurs when audience
members are asked about their knowledge, interests,
and attitudes toward a topic.7 For example, marketers
and advertisers often use a special type of interviewing
technique known as focus groups. Focus groups are
assembled from the target audience to share their thoughts
on topics, products, political candidates, etc.
In your situation, individual interviews can be
conducted before or after class and would be a good
reason for you to start spending time with classmates
outside of class. Interviews allow you to gather a great
deal of information from a few people. The disadvantage
of this method is that you may not have the time or the
opportunity to interview all of your classmates, and you
should be aware that a few individuals cannot speak for
the whole group. However, talking to several individuals
in the class can give you a general sense of where you
should direct your topic.
One thing to know about interviewing is the kind
of questions you should ask. Questions can be open
or closed. An open question allows the interviewee to
respond in-depth. For example, you may ask: What do
you already know about (fill in your topic)? What would
you be interested in learning more about (fill in your
topic)?
A closed question, on the other hand, gives the
interviewee a choice between options such as yes or no.
96
7
Berko, R., Wolvin, A., & Ray, R.
(1997). Business communication
in a changing world. New York: St.
Martin’s Press.
For example: Have you ever had experience with (fill in
your topic)? ___ Yes ___ No. Do you know what (fill in
term associated with your topic) is? ___ Yes ___ No. In
an interview, as the name implies, you gather and record
information through the conversations you have with
your classmates.
To gather more information from more of your
audience, you could develop a questionnaire where
the audience would provide written answers to your
questions. In Figure 6.1, we have provided you with
an example of a questionnaire to gather demographic
information. Using the information from the more general
demographic analysis, you could develop a few specific
questions to determine your audience’s knowledge,
interests, and attitudes about your topic. When developing
a questionnaire, there are several kinds of questions you
could ask. The first kind of question is asked along a
scale or continuum. For example, on a scale of 1 to 5 (5
being strongly agree; 1 being strongly disagree), how do
you feel about (fill in your topic)? The scales, or range of
responses, can be modified to fit your topic. These kinds
of questions allow you to gauge attitudes on a continuum
as opposed to a yes or no limited response. Figure 6.2
(on the next page) provides you with some examples of
scaled questions. You can also used both open and closed
questions as you did in the interview, but have your
audience respond to the questions in writing.
Adapting Your Message
As we have discussed, you should use audience analysis
throughout the entire process of producing your message.8
In the previous chapter, we discussed how you consider
your audience when selecting a topic, but you will also
consider them as you decide how to organize your speech,
which supporting material to use, what presentation aids
to use, and how to deliver your presentation.
97
Please refer to the following
media interactions:
http://www.americanrhetoric.
com/speeches/convention2004/
barackobama2004dnc.htm
8
see also
http://www.americanrhetoric.
com/speeches/convention2004/
zellmiller2004rnc.htm
Scaled Questions
1. I know a great deal about the Delta blues.
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Undecided
Agree
Strongly Agree
1
2
3
4
5
2. I would like to know more about the Delta blues.
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Undecided
Agree
Strongly Agree
1
2
3
4
5
3. I would like to know more about how current artists have been influenced by the blues.
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Undecided
Agree
Strongly Agree
1
2
3
4
5
Open-Ended Questions
1. What do you know about the history of the Delta blues (please be specific)?
2. What specifically would you be interested in learning more about regarding the Delta
blues?
The best speakers will competently take what they
know about an audience and use the information to
inform or persuade them. For example, if you know that
several of your audience members love to listen to the
Dave Matthews Band, then you could compare his style
of music to a lesser known artist, Michael Hedges. In this
way, you use information that is familiar to your audience
to draw comparisons to something that is less familiar.
The best speaker does this throughout the presentation
and as often as possible.
98
Figure 6.2. Sample Audience Analysis Questions for Blues Speech.
If your purpose is to persuade, and you know that a
good portion of your audience has a religious upbringing,
then you can use this information to temper your claims
about stem cell research. The best speaker does this
through sound reasoning and evidence and proceeds as
carefully as possible without offending the values of the
audience.
In our earlier speech examples (tornadoes, Roman
Coliseum, and Delta blues) the speakers keep their
audience (comprised of Illinois college students) in mind
throughout the presentation. Below is an example of how
one speaker utilized an audience analysis check list to
construct a speech about the Delta blues:
Audience Analysis for Blues Speech
Topic
Delta Blues
Who are they?
First year students enrolled in my public speaking
course. According to my audience survey, the
majority of students are from the Chicago area.
Why are they here?
This is required course for all first year students.
What do they know?
According to my audience survey, most have some
general knowledge of the blues tradition especially as
it relates to Chicago blues (but most were unable to
name more than one specific musician).
What are their interests?
All of the respondents to my survey indicated an
interest in music. Several stated that they were
99
interested in knowing more about how blues
musicians influenced current artists.
What will you say in the speech?
I know that many of you are from the Chicago-land
area. . . . I’ve discovered that the world famous
“Chicago Blues” sound owes its origins to the
Mississippi Delta Blues. . . [These men] directly
influenced some of the greatest blues musicians from
the heyday of Chicago blues like Howling Wolf and
Muddy Waters, who in turn influenced a whole
generation of rock and rollers. . . .
It is essential to note that your job of analyzing the
audience does not end when you finish writing the speech.
In fact, competent, communicators carefully analyze their
audience and adapt their messages before, during, and
after the speech.
As you deliver the speech, monitor your audiences’ eye
contact, facial expressions, and movement. All of these
nonverbal behaviors will give you clues as to whether
members of your audience are bored or excited, interested
or uninterested, and so on. In addition, unresponsive facial
expressions may signal that members of your audience are
not comprehending your message.
These types of responses from the audience demand
that you adapt as you present. Depending on the precise
feedback you receive, you may find it necessary to alter
your speech rate, use additional examples, pause for
dramatic effect, or use appropriate humor. The key is to
be flexible as the presentation unfolds so that you can
respond appropriately to your audience.
You should also carefully reflect on your experiences
after the speech to determine what you might do
differently next time. Ask yourself several questions: Did
you effectively analyze your audience before the speech?
100
Did you adapt to your audience during the speech? Your
goals in answering these questions should be to determine
what strategies worked well and, of course, to identify
areas for improvement.
We have another suggestion for you based on several
years of teaching this course—don’t overlook the feedback
you receive from your instructor and peers! You should
capitalize on this feedback by using it to prepare for the
next speech.
Summary
Audience analysis can be considered a crucial step
toward accomplishing many of the course goals
explained in the first chapter. First, by understanding
and considering the characteristics of your audience as
you produce your presentation, you are engaging in
competent communication. In analyzing your audience,
you are better able to predict their reactions to your
message. Being able to adapt your message based on the
information you gather will make you more credible to
your audience.
Second, by taking your audience’s interests and needs
into account, you are engaging in ethical communication.
Your analysis will enable you to maintain sound goals as
you construct your message—to enrich their knowledge
through an informative presentation or to get them to
consider a controversial issue from various perspectives.
Third, in gathering information about your audience,
you may become more comfortable and confident as you
present your message. Last, as you consider your audience
and make judgments as to how you should adapt your
message, you are engaging in critical thinking. It is one
thing to know your audience, it is quite another to be able
to take that information and use it to accomplish your
goals.
101
Chapter Seven
Locating Supporting Material
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
• Define and understand information literacy.
• Develop a research strategy.
• Incorporate support material into their speeches.
• Evaluate support materials.
Hopefully, you have chosen a topic that you are
comfortable with—one that is of general significance to
you and your audience. Now, what strategies will you use
to find information on this topic? We hope your answer is
not to settle on the first few hits you get on Google.
The ability to develop a research strategy for locating
and evaluating information critically is a prerequisite
to becoming an effective speaker, student, worker, and
member of a democratic society.1 In this chapter, we
discuss several types of supporting material as well as
strategies for selecting, evaluating, and incorporating
those materials into your speech.
DeMars, C. E., Cameron, L., &
Erwin, T. D. (2003). Information
literacy as foundational: Determining competence. Journal of General
Education, 52, 253-265.
1
Information Literacy
In order to develop an effective research strategy, it is
important that you understand what it means to be
information literate. Information literacy involves finding
sources, analyzing the material, evaluating the credibility
of the sources, and using and citing sources ethically and
legally.2
103
Eisenberg, M. B., Lowe, C. A., &
Spitzer, K. L. (2004). Information
literacy: Essential skills for the information age (2nd ed.). Westport, CT:
Libraries Unlimited.
2
To place this in the context of public speaking, you need to
develop the abilities to:
• determine what information you need,
• access information effectively and efficiently,
• evaluate information critically,
• use and incorporate information ethically and
legally,
• and transfer these information literacy skills to
new research tasks in the future3
For a more detailed set of information literacy competencies, see
American Association of College
and Research Libraries. (2000).
Information literacy competency
standards for higher education.
Chicago: American Library
Association.
3
Developing a Research Strategy
In our experience, beginning public speakers often
struggle with developing a strategy for locating
supporting materials. Too often, students simply go to
a library database or Internet search engine, type in a
few key words, and settle for the first four or five search
results. This approach is problematic because it rarely
results in locating the best available information on a
topic.4 Developing a research strategy will help you
identify what supporting materials you need to access for
your speeches. The key steps in developing a successful
research strategy are outlined in Figure 7.1.
Create Research Questions. In Chapter 5 you
learned the basic steps to selecting and narrowing a
topic. Once you have selected a topic, the next step
in developing a research strategy is to create research
questions. Your research questions should stem directly
from your thesis statement. For example, if your thesis
statement was to inform the audience of the economic,
educational, and social issues related to reality television,
you might pose the following research questions:
• What effect does reality television have on
screenwriter employment?
• Can reality television be used to educate the
public?
104
Jacobson, T. E., & Mark, B. L. (2000).
Separating wheat from chaff:
Helping first-year students become information savvy. Journal of
General Education, 49, 256-278.
4
• What are the ethical issues associated with
humiliation in reality television?
Using research questions in this way will guide you
through the rest of the research process. Rather than
simply taking the first few search results from a search
engine, you will proceed in a much more focused fashion
as you seek the best available information on your topic.
As you go through the process of developing research
questions, it is important that you keep your audience in
mind. Ask yourself the following questions: What topics
are they most likely to appreciate? What information
do they already have on this topic? What information
would they like to have? What sources of information
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105
Figure 7.1. Information Literacy/
Research Process
will my audience find credible? Use the audience analysis
strategies discussed in Chapter 6 to tailor the speech to
your specific audience.
Generate a List of Synonyms. Before you begin
searching available databases for supporting materials,
you may find it helpful to generate a list of synonyms
for each of your key concepts. A sample list is provided
in Figure 7.2. Generating such a list will help you create
search terms and phrases that will ultimately lead you
more deeply into the available supporting materials on
your topic.
Key Concepts
Alternative Words (Synonyms) for Key Concepts
Employment
job, career, vocation, work
Education
instruction, knowledge, learning, literacy, pedagogy, teaching
Ethics
morality, morals, principles, standards
Figure 7.2
Search Information Sources. There are a number
of sources of information available to public speakers
including library catalogs and databases, newspapers,
reference works, the Internet, and interviews.
Library Catalogs
Initially, information literate individuals understand that
libraries contain valuable information that, in many cases,
cannot be found elsewhere. Although your campus likely
has a program in place to orient you to the resources
available in your library, it is useful to overview the
major types of information sources generally available to
researchers. Most libraries have an on-line catalog system
for accessing books.
Finding books on your topic offers several advantages.
For example, books generally provide a much deeper
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investigation of the topic compared to magazine articles,
journals, or web sites. In this way, books are likely to
provide you with useful quotes and lead you to new ideas
on the topic.
In addition, because books usually contain extensive
reference lists, they make excellent sources of additional
research on the topic. You can access books through
electronic catalogs; however, once you have the call
numbers for the books you are interested in, take the
time to search nearby sections of the stacks. You may find
additional books relevant to your topic area using this
strategy.
Electronic Databases
Most libraries have licenses to electronic databases that
index periodicals. Periodicals include publications such
as magazines and journals. Given that periodicals may
be published weekly, biweekly, monthly, or quarterly,
they are an excellent source of timely information on
your topic. A periodical may also be the best source of
information for your speech if the scope of the topic is so
narrow or specific that it is not covered in other formats
such as books.
Newspapers
Newspapers are exceptional sources of recent information
on a myriad of topics. In addition, it is a good idea to
get in the habit of monitoring your local and campus
newspapers for topic ideas.
General References
There are a number of general references available to
you containing collections of facts and information.
These materials are often shelved in a special section of
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the library and include dictionaries, encyclopedias, and
collections of quotations.
Government Documents
Most colleges and universities have government
depositories containing government documents. These
documents cover every important public policy issue and
include such items as congressional deliberations, research
studies, and reports. If your topic is related to public
policy, consult the librarian in charge of government
periodicals for help accessing the wealth of information
contained in government documents.
Internet
Although it is generally advisable to search library
materials first, you can also find a substantial amount of
information related to your topic on the Internet. You can
locate this information by using search engines, accessing
related links between pages, or directly accessing a specific
site.
Search engines identify web sites by their Uniform
Resource Locators or URLs. A number of search engines
are available on the web, including
• Yahoo!: http://www.yahoo.com
• Dogpile: http://www.dogpile.com
• Google: http://www.google.com
• Alta Vista: http://www.altavista.com
• and Lycos: http://www.lycos.com
Using the same procedures for generating research
questions and synonyms discussed previously in this
chapter, you can use search engines to scan the web. Keep
in mind, however, that each search engine uses different
criteria for searches. As a result, each search engine will
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likely generate a different list of web sites. It is advisable
to use a combination of search engines to increase the
chances that you will broadly cover the information on the
web related to your topic.
As you peruse through various web sites, you can
find additional material by following links to related
information. Alternatively, if you already know the URL,
you can use your web browser to go directly to a specific
site. For example, if you want to know how many F5
tornados have been recorded in the United States in the
last year, you could visit the Tornado Project Online web
site: http://www.tornadoproject.com.
Although you should always carefully scrutinize the
information you retrieve from all of the sources discussed
in this chapter, you should be particularly careful with
information you locate on the Internet. Anyone, regardless
of educational background or training, can develop and
publish a website. Unlike other sources of information,
material found on the web is rarely subject to peer
review. Often times, information found on the web is
clearly slanted in the direction of a particular perspective.
Political candidates, for example, construct websites that
promote their perspectives while clearly trying to make
opponents look bad.
As you evaluate information you retrieve from the web,
start by considering the purpose and intended audience
for the site.5 Does the site focus on information, news,
advocacy, sales, or a mixture of all of these? By examining
the domain of the site, you can pick up clues as to
whether it is affiliated with an educational institution
(.edu), government agency (.gov), organization (.org), or
commercial products (.com).
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5
Please refer to the following
media interactions:
http://www.library.ucla.edu/libraries/college/help/hoax/index.htm
and
http://www.dhmo.org/
You might be able to access additional information about
the site by locating an “about the website” or “contact
us” page. In addition, you should carefully look through
the site for an author biography, philosophy, or other
background information. Also, look for sponsors of the
site. Does the site use banner sponsors? Are the sponsors
well-known organizations or companies? What are the
sponsors selling?
Another clue about the timeliness of the information on
the site is the copyright date. You should check to see
when the page was originally published and how often it
is updated (this information may be at the bottom of each
page or on the first page of the website).
Interviews
One of the best sources of information is people who have
personal experience or who are recognized experts on
your topic. In fact, on any college or university campus,
you are likely to find at least one person who is an
expert on your speech topic. As you might suspect, the
effectiveness of interviewing depends both on selecting
the best person to interview as well as developing a good
list of interview questions.
In terms of selecting an individual to interview, start
by creating a list of people on your campus who have
experience with your topic area. In many cases, you
can identify such individuals by simply searching your
university web site. You can also work closely with your
communication instructor to develop a list of potential
interviewees. Once you have decided whom to interview,
make an appointment to visit with the person and
state clearly why you wish to speak with him or her. In
addition, you should go into the session already well
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informed on your topic. Doing so will allow you to craft
better interview questions and increase the likelihood that
potential interviewees will be willing to talk with you.
This means that you need to have a broad understanding
of both your topic area and the interviewee’s experiences
related to the topic before you conduct the interview.
As you develop a list of potential interview questions,
also known as an interview protocol, carefully consider
what information you think the person can provide. For
example, a student at Illinois State University wanted
to give an informative speech on artificial intelligence
and identified a philosophy professor who had been
conducting research in the area for several years. She
developed the following questions:
• How long have you been researching artificial
intelligence?
• What is the current state of artificial intelligence
research at ISU?
• How many professors and students are
currently involved in research on artificial
intelligence at ISU?
• Why should ISU students take an interest in
artificial intelligence research?
• What types of topics will artificial intelligence
researchers be exploring five years from now?
• How can students get involved in the artificial
intelligence research projects at ISU?
As you design the interview questions, try to use a mix
of limited response, “yes” or “no” questions as well
as questions that encourage a longer response. This
questioning strategy will allow you to cover a wide range
of issues in a limited time and provide an opportunity for
the expert to elaborate on her or his opinions.
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Types of Supporting Materials
As you research your topic, you will have access to
a number of different types of supporting materials.
The most effective presentations incorporate a mix of
supporting materials. It is easy to imagine how frustrated
an audience might become with an unending barrage of
statistics. Using multiple types of support adds vitality
to the speech and keeps the audience interested. For
example, a speaker might use statistics and personal
examples together to both establish the scope of the
topic and provide a real world situation that deepens
the audience’s understanding of the issue. The types of
supporting materials available to you include statistics,
analogies, facts, examples, and testimony.
Statistics. Statistics provide a numerical method for
summarizing data and can take such forms as means,
medians, ratios, and percentages. Although statistics can
provide substantial support for your claims, they can also
be confusing, overwhelming if overused, and misleading.
Your chances of using statistics successfully improve
dramatically if you follow a few practical guidelines.
Initially, given the potential for information overload,
you should not rely on statistics as your only form of
supporting material. Keep in mind that your audience will
only have one chance to hear your speech, so use statistics
sparingly.
Consider creating a data graphic so that your audience
can both hear and see the information (see Chapter
12). Similarly, you should round off statistics to help
your audience understand and retain key statistical
information. For example, it will be much easier for your
audience to remember that the United States spent nearly
$360 billion on national defense in 2003 compared to
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$355,200,050,000.18. It is also important that you translate
difficult-to-understand numbers into immediately
comprehensible terms. One speaker translated statistics
related to world hunger in the following way:
According to recent statistics posted on the Hearts and
Minds web site, one of the leading advocacy groups for
the elimination of world hunger, 40 million people die
every year from hunger and hunger-related illnesses. This
number is equivalent to more than 300 jumbo jet crashes
every day with no survivors.
For more information about the types of different statistics
you might incorporate into your next speech, explore the
following website: http://www.robertniles.com/stats/.
Analogies. Analogies are useful if you want to compare
the defining characteristics of one concept to another. You
can obviously use analogies to compare the similarities in
things that are alike. Consider the following example of a
literal analogy:
The tactics used to control illegal immigration in Arizona
worked, so the same tactics should also be successful in
Texas.
For the audience to accept this analogy, the speaker
would have to establish that the two states are similar in
a number of ways including population base, geography,
financial resources, and so on.
Figurative analogies draw upon metaphors to identify
the similarities in two things that are not alike. For
example, in our Coliseum speech, the speaker compares
our modern day facilities to the Roman Coliseum:
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Just as we look down from gymnasium bleachers,
spectators would look down upon the wooden arena floor.
However, the Coliseum’s floor was covered with
sand, which served to soak up large quantities of blood.
Used this way, analogies can help clarify complex
situations by comparing them with situations more
familiar to the audience.
Facts. A fact is something that is verifiable as true. “A
megabyte is 1,048,576 bytes,” “The Fujita Scale is the
official classification system for tornado damage,” and
“The Big 12 conference has 12 schools playing football” are
all factual statements that can be verified. You might think
that last one was a “no brainer” but the Big 10 conference
actually has 11 schools! The point is that virtually all
presentations are supported to some extent by facts. As
you might imagine, facts are most effective when the
audience has no trouble accepting them as true. Unless a
factual claim is a “no-brainer,” be sure to give the source
of your information.
Examples. Examples are specific instances developed at
varying lengths and used by speakers to make an abstract
idea concrete. You can use brief, extended, or hypothetical
examples to support your claims.
A brief example is a specific case used to support
a claim. If you wanted to support the claim that the
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is not
responsive enough to natural disasters, you might cite
as an example FEMA’s slow response to the victims of
Hurricane Katrina in 2005.
Extended examples, also referred to as narratives,
stories, or anecdotes, are substantially more developed
compared to brief examples. Extended examples are
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especially effective at getting the audience to visualize and
relate to your topic.
If your topic is the slow response of FEMA to natural
disasters, you might tell a story about someone’s grueling
struggle to survive several days in the aftermath of
Katrina. You could describe the rancid water conditions
faced by those in New Orleans as well as the violence
people had to endure because nobody was there after
the storm to restore law and order. Such an extended,
engaging story puts a human face on the issue and would
go a long way to helping your audience relate to your
topic.
A hypothetical example describes an imaginary
situation that could conceivably take place in the way it is
described. Although hypothetical examples are fictitious,
you should take great care not to exaggerate or distort
the scenario if it is to be effective. The advantage of
hypothetical examples is that they allow the audience to
imagine themselves in a specific situation. You might say:
Suppose that you woke up in the middle of the night only
to find your house completely full of water. Now imagine
spending more than a week in toxic water without food,
water, or electricity. How would you feel about that?
Listeners are likely to conjure up images of scraping for
food and water, the difficulties of communicating with
loved ones, or even the possibility of becoming very sick
after being exposed to polluted water. You could then
use this example to help the audience understand the
importance of reforming FEMA to prevent prolonged
delays in responses to future storm victims.
In Chapter 10 you’ll see how our Coliseum speaker uses
a hypothetical example to capture the audience’s attention
in the introduction of the speech.
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Testimony. Speakers use testimony when they quote
or paraphrase an authoritative source. When you use
testimony, you are relying on someone else’s judgment
and expertise. For example, in our Blues speech, the
speaker uses the testimony of a well-known musician:
Keith Richards of the Rolling Stones said that when he
was a young man trying to learn music from [Robert]
Johnson’s records, that he was flabbergasted to find out
that it was just one person playing.
When used effectively, testimony can help prove your
point and bolster your credibility. Of course relying
on testimony from sources that your audience finds
unreliable or incompetent has negative implications for
their assessment of your credibility.
Evaluating Supporting Materials
As a critical consumer and producer of information, it is
essential that you never accept supporting materials at
face value. Consider the following questions as you select
and incorporate supporting material for your speech.
Are the statistics representative? A representative
sample is a critical measure of the reliability and validity
of statistics. To be representative, a sample must be
similar to the population from which it was taken.
Think for a moment about the other students in your
speech class. To what extent do they represent the entire
population of students on your campus? Do they reflect
the proportion of men and women on your campus?
Are they representative of the wide range of majors
available at your institution? Do the students in your
class accurately reflect other demographic features of
the general population at your institution like age, race,
cultural background, and religious affiliation? Unless all
of the students in your class were drawn randomly from
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the entire student body, you cannot know for certain that
they are a representative sample. Although a detailed
discussion of sampling procedures is beyond the scope of
this book, it is important that you question the sampling
methods used to produce the statistics you select.
Are the items being compared in analogies similar? The
analogies you use to support your ideas should compare
cases that share similar characteristics. As already
mentioned, the argument that immigration control should
work in Texas because it worked in Arizona rests on the
assumption that the two states are essentially alike. If the
two items being compared are not similar, the conclusion
is obviously unacceptable.
Are the facts verifiable? As you collect facts for your
speech, you should be concerned with whether the
information is verifiable. Can you find the same fact in
more than one source? An excellent way to verify whether
the information is factual is to check it with another source
on the same topic.
Are the examples relevant, typical, and vivid? Initially,
any example you use should be relevant to the claim it is
supporting. If the link between the example and claim is
unclear, it simply will not be effective. Although many in
your audience may appreciate surfing stories, they likely
will not be convincing if your topic is reforming FEMA.
You should also apply the test of typicality to the
examples you use. Typicality assesses the extent to
which your example is normal. Your audience will easily
recognize atypical examples and your credibility is likely
to suffer as a result. Indeed, exceptional cases are rarely
persuasive to audience members. Trying to persuade your
audience members to take their tuition money and play
the lottery “because you just might win just like Bob Smith
in Peoria!” will rightfully be considered a joke.
Finally, the examples you provide should vividly
illustrate the claim you are advancing. Simply stated, the
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more vivid your examples are, the more likely they are
to have a lasting impact on your audience. For example,
one of the strengths of the Coliseum speech is the vivid
imagery she creates as she describes the horror of the
games:
The mornings began with fights between wild animals.
Once battle involved a bull and a panther, each at the end
of a chain. They could barely reach, and they were forced to
tear each other apart piece by piece.
Is the source identified and credible? Guess what? The
rest of your classmates are privy to the same information
on evaluating sources in this chapter as you are. This
means that they, too, will be evaluating the credibility of
the sources you use. If they doubt your sources, they may
doubt you.
For example, suppose you were doing research on the
global effects of climate change. Would someone who had
no specialized training in climatology or meteorology be
a good source to consult on models of climate change?
Chances are that your audience would not give much
credence to a music professor’s assessment of recent
climate models. In addition, relying on such sources is
likely to damage your credibility as it may cause the
audience to question your knowledge of the topic as well
as the quality of research you have conducted on the topic.
As you select supporting materials for your speech,
keep the following questions in mind: What special
qualifications does the author possess that allow her or
him to speak on this topic? Is the author a recognized
authority on the subject? If you cannot answer these
questions or if you cannot identify the author of the
information, look for other, more qualified sources on the
topic.
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Is the source biased? A source is biased when it provides
an opinion that is so slanted to one perspective that
it is not objective or fair. Imagine for a moment that
you are researching the effects of carbon dioxide on
the environment. Suppose you come across testimony
stating that there is no evidence that the global climate is
warming. In addition, assume you find further testimony,
from the same source, indicating that increasing levels of
carbon dioxide are actually good for the planet. Setting
aside other questions about the verifiability of this
testimony, can you think of any reason that individuals
would make such claims?
One possible explanation is because they are given
money by large oil companies to undermine consensus in
the scientific community that humans are causing global
warming. In other words, oil companies actively seek
out and pay for this kind of testimony in order to lobby
politicians to limit expensive restraints on the production
of carbon dioxide.6 As a result, these claims are biased
given that the authors that advance them are doing so
not on the basis of sound reasoning, but for profit. To
determine if a source has bias, you might ask yourself,
“Does this person/s have anything to gain or lose by
advancing this claim?” If the answer to that question is
“yes” then there’s bias. Find another source.
Is the information timely? The information you
incorporate in your speech should be recent enough to
account for the laws, regulations, attitudes, and so on that
currently exist. For example, a speaker advocating action
in response to avian influenza (also known as bird flu)
would have to know exactly what actions have already
been taken in order to propose a novel solution.
How might the audience react to a speaker who
advocates that the Center for Disease Control (CDC)
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Mooney, C. (2005, May/June).
Some like it hot. Mother Jones,
36-49.
6
should issue an immediate warning about the dangers
of avian influenza if they know that the CDC has already
issued that warning? Again, the audience is likely to
question both the speaker’s credibility and her or his
ability to conduct thorough research.
It is important to recognize that some topics require
less timely information than others. Our Blues speech, for
example, is based on the roots of popular American music
in highlighting the three men who epitomized Mississippi
Delta Blues before World War II. Our Tornado speech, on
the other hand, required the latest data on tornado activity.
As you evaluate your supporting materials, you
should also carefully consider the extent to which you
have answered the research questions you posed at the
beginning of the research process. Do your materials
answer your research questions and address the needs
of your audience? If they meet the evaluation criteria
discussed here, answer your research questions, and
address the needs of your audience, you are ready to
incorporate the supporting materials into your speech.
Incorporating and Documenting
Supporting Materials
In your speeches, you have the responsibility to
document the sources of your supporting materials orally.
The proper documentation of sources is important for a
number of reasons. Initially, documenting your sources
shields you against charges of plagiarism. As mentioned
in Chapter 3, plagiarism is a serious ethical offense that
could result in a failing grade for the course or expulsion
from the university. Another important reason for fully
citing your sources orally is to establish the credibility and
reliability of your supporting material.
A complete oral citation consists of information about
who authored the material you are using, a statement
120
about the credibility of the author, the date the information
was published (or the date you conducted the interview),
and relevant information about the source. Consider the
following sample oral citations:
Internet Source with No Author
In fact, according to Tornado Project Online! (Source),
a website hosted by a company that gathers tornado
information for tornado researchers (Credibility), accessed
earlier this month (Date), the deadliest tornado in U.S.
recorded history occurred in Murphysboro, Illinois. In
1925 a violent tornado killed 234 people in this Southern
Illinois town.
Book
According to renowned weather historian (Credibility)
Dr. David Ludlum (Author), author of the 1997 (Date)
edition of the National Audubon Societies Field Guide to
North American Weather (Source), tornado researchers use a
scale, known as the Fujita-Pearson Tornado Intensity Scale
(named after its creators) to rate the intensity of tornados.
Journal Article
In addition, astrogeophysicist (Credibility) Dr. Robert
Davies-Jones (Author) notes in a 1995 (Date) edition
of Scientific American (Source) that most tornados have
damage paths 150 feet wide, move at about 30 miles per
hour, and last only a few minutes.
Magazine Article
Environmental activist and lawyer (Credibility) Robert
F. Kennedy, Jr. (Author) argues in a 2007 (Date) edition of
Vanity Fair (Source) that “More than 100 representatives
from polluting industries occupy key spots at the federal
agencies that regulate environmental quality.”
121
Movie Clip
The best attraction was saved for the afternoon:
gladiatorial combat. The following video clip is taken
from the Oscar winning (Credibility) 2000 (Date) epic
film, Gladiator (Source), starring Russell Crowe. As stated
earlier, notice the concealed trapdoors in the arena floor.
In addition to citing your sources orally, the outline you
develop for your speech should contain a list of references
you consulted in preparing your speech (a sample
reference page can be found in Chapter 9).
Summary
As you have learned in this chapter, giving a speech
requires carefully chosen information that supports the
ideas you want your audience to understand or accept.
Effective speakers know how to access, evaluate, and
incorporate high-quality information.
This chapter introduced you to the basic information
literacy skills necessary to develop a research strategy,
search multiple sources of information, and to evaluate
and incorporate supporting materials into your
presentation. We hope that you agree that this process is
a little more rigorous than finding the first four hits on
Google? A process that takes time and critical reflection—
certainly not something that can happen a day or two
before you present.
In the next chapter, we will discuss how to organize the
ideas you will present in your speech.
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Chapter Eight
Organizing Ideas
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
• Understand the importance of organizing ideas
clearly.
• Understand the importance of organizing ideas
strategically.
• Identify and use four patterns of organization:
chronological, spatial, topical, and causal.
• Incorporate transitional devices into their
speeches.
The last chapter introduced you to the essential
information literacy skills required to locate supporting
materials. Once you have completed the research process,
your next task is to organize your ideas. The ability to
clearly organize ideas is one of the most important skills
you will learn in this course.
Think for a moment about a presentation you witnessed
recently in which the speaker was highly unorganized.
How did you feel about the presentation? How did you
feel about the speaker? If you are like most people, you
probably found the presentation very frustrating and your
evaluation of the speaker was likely less than positive.
In this chapter, you will learn why effective
organization is essential to clear communication, how to
organize your ideas strategically, and how to incorporate
transitional devices into your speech.
123
Importance of Organizing
Your Ideas Clearly
As you begin the process of organizing your speech,
you should consistently remind yourself that your goal
is to put ideas and supporting materials together in a
way that will make sense to listeners. Think back to
that unorganized speaker you identified in the previous
paragraph. Did you feel this speaker was highly credible?
A number of communication scholars have found
that listeners perceive well-organized speakers to be
much more credible compared to poorly organized
speakers.1 There is a reason for this which we’ll elaborate
on in Chapter 11. But for now, it is important that you
understand that listeners will evaluate your performance
based on their ability to follow it.
Because speeches are presented orally to an audience,
speakers must use organizational strategies that allow
the listener to make sense of the speech as it happens.
These oral organizational strategies allow your audience
to better follow and comprehend your message. Your
audience does not generally have access to your notes
or your outline and if the structure of your message is
not clear, your audience may be lost and your goal (and
credibility) in jeopardy.
A well organized speech benefits the speaker in other
ways. For example, you are much more likely to feel
confident in your ability to deliver a speech effectively
if you have taken the time to prepare carefully than if
you recklessly slap ideas together at the last minute.2 In
addition, the ability to effectively organize your ideas will
benefit you in every other course you take in college as
well as your future career.
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Sharp, H., & McClung, T. (1966).
Effects of organization on the
speaker’s ethos. Speech Monographs, 33, 182-183.
1
See also
Titsworth, B. S. (2001). The effects
of teacher immediacy, use of
organizational lecture cues, and
students’ notetaking on cognitive
learning. Communication Education, 50, 283-297.
Greene, J. O. (1984). Speech
preparation processes and verbal
fluency. Human Communication
Research, 11, 61-84.
2
Organizing Ideas Strategically
In this section we explore several strategies for organizing
the main points in the body of the speech. Given that
the main points will form the core of your speech, you
must carefully select the key ideas you will focus on and
arrange them in a logical fashion.
One of the first questions that we hear from students
about organizing the body of the speech regards the
appropriate number of main points that should be
included in the body. Most of the speeches you deliver in
a typical public speaking classroom will contain between
two and five main points. Addressing more than five
main points can be difficult or impossible given the time
constraints most often placed on classroom speakers.
In addition, if you have too many main points your
audience may become confused and have a difficult time
sorting out what you are trying to say. Indeed, a simple
speech design that limits the number of main points
makes it easier for the audience to remember and retain
your key points.3
After you establish your main points, you should
turn your attention to ordering them strategically. There
are several factors that will influence your choice of an
organizational pattern. Initially, you should pick a method
of organizing the speech that is consistent with your
purpose. For example, if your goal is to inform rather than
persuade the audience, it would be inappropriate to use
the problem-solution format (Chapter 17 will discuss the
special considerations for organizing persuasive speeches).
In addition, your topic and audience should influence
your choice of a particular organizational pattern.
As you develop the body of the speech, carefully
consider whether or not the ideas you are advancing
125
Caplan, S. E., & Green, J. O. (1999).
Acquisition of message-production skill by younger and older
adults: Effects of age, task complexity, and practice. Communication Monographs, 66, 31-48.
3
are clear, compelling, and well-substantiated. Figure 8.1
shows the relationships between the supporting material,
main points, and thesis of the tornado speech.
Definition from
USA Today Tornado Information website
Conditions for formation from
USA Today Tornado Information website
Main Point 1:
Causes
Tornado alley graph from
USA Today Tornado Information website
Description of tornado intensity scale
from Dr. David Ludlum
Thesis:
In order to better understand
tornadoes, it is important to
explore what causes tornadoes
to develop, how researchers
classify types of tornadoes,
and odd occurrences that
may be associated
with tornadoes.
Main Point 2:
Types
Description of weak, strong & violent tornadoes
from NOAA and Tornado Project Online!
Description of typical tornado
from Dr. Robert Davies-Jones
Description of strange events from
1996 Weather Guide Calendar
Main Point 3:
Oddities
Description of Great Bend, KS
from Tornado Project Online!
Description of “plucked chicken”
from Tornado Project Online!
All three elements are essential to the success of your
speech in that your audience will not accept your thesis
unless you have compelling main points. Similarly, they
are unlikely to accept your main points unless your
supporting material is credible. It should be clear at this
point that selecting a method for organizing your main
points is very much a strategic process.
There are four basic methods for organizing your main
points if your general purpose is to inform your audience.
Chronological Order. If you use a chronological
pattern, your main points will follow a time sequence.
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Figure 8.1
This pattern is appropriate if you want to inform your
audience about a series of events as they occurred. For
example, in our Blues speech, the order of the musicians
matters because the earlier musicians influenced those
who came later in terms of their contributions to the
Mississippi Delta Blues:
Specific Purpose: To inform the audience about the
Delta Blues.
Thesis Statement: To really understand the roots of
popular American music, it’s
necessary to journey back to the early
20th century and examine the music
of three men who epitomize
Mississippi Delta Blues.
Main Points:
A. Charley Patton was a flamboyant
and charismatic performer [the first in
the area to record blues music].
B. Eddie “Son” House was born in
Riverton, Mississippi in 1902 [a friend
and protégé of Patton’s].
C. Robert Johnson was that kid
[noticed by Son House in Mississippi
juke joints].
Below, we provide another example of using the
chronological pattern to indicate a series of events that
happen in time sequence:
Specific Purpose: To inform the audience about the
history of the New Madrid fault.
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Thesis Statement: Four of the largest earthquakes in
recorded history occurred on the New
Madrid fault in a three month period
in 1811 and 1812.
Main Points:
A. On December 16, 1811, two
earthquakes greater than 7.0 on the
Richter scale hit the New Madrid
fault.
B. On January 23, 1812, an earthquake
measuring at least 8.0 on the Richter
scale flattened homes in the region.
C. On February 7, 1812, the largest
of the four earthquakes hit the region
draining lakes and reversing the flow
of the Mississippi river.
It should be noted that you can organize your main points
chronologically by either addressing events in time from
present to past or from past to present. You can also use
the chronological pattern if your goal is to demonstrate
how to do something or explain a process. For example:
Specific Purpose: To inform the audience about how to
develop a research strategy for their
next speech.
Thesis Statement: The steps in developing a research
strategy include selecting a topic,
creating research
questions, generating a list of
synonyms, and selecting information
sources.
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Main Points:
A. The first step in developing a
research strategy is selecting
and narrowing a topic.
B. The second step in developing a
research strategy is creating research
questions.
C. The third step in developing a
research strategy is generating a list of
synonyms for key concepts.
D. The fourth step in developing a
research strategy is selecting
appropriate information sources.
Spatial Order. Ideas can also be organized based upon
spatial relationships. Specifically, the spatial pattern
arranges ideas according to place or position. For example,
you would use the spatial pattern for an informative
speech demonstrating the location of various parts on
a guitar (e.g., headstock, fretboard, bridge, pickups,
etc.). This pattern is especially useful if your topic is
geographical or involves the discussion of multiple
physical spaces.
Specific Purpose: To inform the audience about East
coast, West coast, and Southern hip
hop.
Thesis Statement: Modern hip hop features of number
of different styles including West
coast, East coast, and Southern hip
hop.
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Main Points:
A. East coast hip hop originated in
New York City.
B. West coast hip hop originated in
California.
C. Southern hip hop, or Dirty South
hip hop, originated in Miami.
Topical Order. If you choose the topical pattern, each
main idea you identify in writing and researching your
speech becomes a main point of the speech. In other
words, your main points are subtopics of a larger topic.
Specific Purpose: To inform the audience about why the
World Trade Center towers collapsed
after the terrorist attacks on
September 11, 2001.
Thesis Statement: The exterior structure and use of
trusses in the construction of the
World Trade Center, combined
with intense heat resulting from
burning jet fuel contributed to the
collapse of the towers.
Main Points:
A. The exterior structure of the World
Trade Center made it vulnerable to
collapse.
B. Trusses were used to save money,
but they became unstable quickly
when exposed to fire.
C. Jet fuel created an intense fire that
compromised the structural integrity
of the World Trade Center towers.
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Causal Order. Speeches using the causal pattern
highlight cause-effect relationships among the main
points. In this format, one of the main points is devoted to
establishing causes and the other main point describes the
effects.
Specific Purpose: To inform the audience about the
causes and effects of communication
apprehension.
Thesis Statement: Communication apprehension is
caused by such variables as heredity
and lack of speech training and
can have several effects including
shortness of breath, sweaty palms,
and use of filler words.
Main Points:
A. There are several causes of
communication apprehension
including heredity and a skills deficit.
B. Communication apprehension
has several effects including shortness
of breath, sweaty palms, and the use
of filler words.
Given the versatility of this organizational pattern, you
may also choose to proceed from effect to cause. Although
we discuss organizational patterns unique to persuasive
speaking in Chapter 17, it is worth noting here that the
causal pattern can be used both for informative and
persuasive speeches.
In this section, we have provided information on the
organizational patterns available to use in informative
speeches. We have also provided examples for each.
Based on the structure of the main points in our running
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speech topic on the Blues, we identified the use of the
chronological pattern of organization. What about the
other two running topics? Based on what you now know
about these patterns (chronological, spatial, topical, or
causal), can you identify which one is used in the Tornado
or Coliseum speeches? Hint: the organizational pattern is
the same for both.
The process of organizing the body of a speech does not
stop at selecting an organizational pattern. Your next task
is to develop and incorporate transitional devices.
Incorporating Transitional Devices
Unlike a written text where a reader can go back over
confusing passages, your audience will only have one
opportunity to digest the information you present in your
speech. You can use transitional devices, or connectives,
to link claims throughout the speech, provide a sense
of organization, and ultimately make it easier for your
audience to follow and remember the ideas you present.
Transitions. Transitions are words or phrases that
demonstrate key relationships among ideas and also
indicate a speaker is leaving one point and moving on to
another. Transitions are critical to effective communication
because they allow listeners to understand and follow the
development of the speaker’s ideas. Transitions link the
introduction to the body, each of the main ideas, and the
body to the conclusion. Consider the following examples,
taken from the Coliseum speech in Appendix B:
Transition to the Body
To begin, we will lay the foundation by describing
its design and construction.
Transitions Between Main Points
Now that we have laid the foundation of the
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Coliseum’s construction, let us live through a day at
the Roman Games.
Now that we have lived through the terror of the
Roman games, let us learn of the present plans to
restore and renovate this ancient monument to its
original glory.
Transition to the Conclusion
Once restored, it will encompass, as historian Dr.
Alison Futrell states in her 1997 book, Blood in
the Arena, “all the glory and doom of the Roman
Empire.”
Transitions also provide the audience with
information about the relationships among
the ideas you are discussing. For example,
terms like similarly clearly indicate a
comparison of ideas while phrases like on the
other hand indicate the speaker is contrasting
ideas. A more detailed list of key transitional
words and phrases is provided in Figure 8.2.
In addition, several examples of transitions
are provided in the sample outline presented
in Chapter 9 as well as the sample speech
outlines in the Appendix.
Internal Previews. An internal preview
Function
To indicate a reason for a
claim.
Typical Words and Phrases
for
because
To show a causal or time
relationship.
as
since
then
To signal an explanation of
ideas.
for example
in other words
more specifically
that is
To add ideas.
also
and
again
in addition
moreover
To qualify your position or
return to an earlier claim.
although
but
however
no doubt
on the other hand
while
yet
all in all
is a very brief statement of what the speaker To summarize ideas.
and so
finally
will discuss next. Internal previews differ
in short
on the whole
from transitions in that they provide more
detail of upcoming points. While the preview
Figure 8.2. Functions of Transitions
and Typical Words and Phrases
statement in the introduction serves to outline the main
points of the speech, an internal preview highlights ideas
to be discussed within the body. For example:
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The two causes of communication apprehension that I
will discuss are heredity and skills deficit.
This preview clearly establishes what the audience should
be listening for in this main point. Internal previews
should be brief and to the point so they draw the attention
of the audience to your main points without interrupting
the flow of the speech.
Internal Summaries. An internal summary offers a
review of what has just been discussed before moving on
to the next point. Internal summaries are especially useful
if you have just finished a complicated point. Instead of
immediately moving from difficult material to the next
point, you may choose to provide a quick summary of the
key points just discussed. For example:
So, as we have seen, both heredity and a lack of
training in speaking may contribute to public speaking
apprehension.
Internal summaries help the audience remember key
points in your speech and signal that you are moving
on to another point. Like internal previews, internal
summaries should be brief statements that highlight the
main points just discussed.
Signposts. Signposts signal the next point to be made.
In a sense, signposts provide an oral roadmap of the main
points in the speech. Signposts are often numerical:
The first step in preparing a resume is to develop your
employment objectives.
The second step in preparing a resume is to gather
relevant information about your education.
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The third step is preparing a resume is to generate a list
of any special academic or nonacademic awards you have
received.
Signposts can also include words like next, another, and
finally:
The next cause of this problem is high tuition rates.
Another contributor to global warming is carbon
dioxide.
Finally, the mismanagement of funds by local officials
has contributed significantly to the deterioration of
infrastructure.
Speakers may also use signposts to help listeners focus
on particularly important ideas. Consider the following
examples:
The most important point to remember is that your
vote does count.
It is critical that you understand the implications of
higher student fees for your financial situation.
In the end, it is essential that you sign your driver’s
license to indicate you are willing to donate your organs
to those in need.
If you don’t remember anything else I said today,
remember that no means no.
In these examples, the bold phrases prompt the audience
to recognize that you are about to make an important
point.
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Summary
Effective organization is essential to the speechmaking
process. After reading this chapter, it should be clear that
organizing a speech requires a great deal of strategy and
critical thinking.
The process of organization builds on your information
literacy and critical thinking skills as it requires you to
integrate information into your speech in a logical fashion.
As the speaker, you need to think critically about how
a particular organizational pattern will best meet your
speech objectives. In other words, you must decide which
pattern best fits your purpose, topic, and needs of your
audience.
You should take great care not to overwhelm your
audience with too many main points. Instead, focus on
the key ideas of the topic and relate them clearly. You
should also incorporate transitional devices that help your
audience understand and remember the ideas you present.
In the next chapter, we will discuss how to move from
an organizational pattern to an outline.
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Chapter Nine
Outlining the Presentation
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
• Understand the importance of developing an
effective outline for their speeches.
• Develop an effective preparation outline for
their speeches.
• Develop an effective speaking outline for their
speeches.
By now, if you have been working on your speech as these
chapters progressed, you should have a topic, a thesis
sentence, relevant support material, and an idea of how
you will organize your speech. Now, how will you put all
of that together?
The importance of developing an effective outline
cannot be overstated.1 The process of outlining allows
you to organize your ideas logically, giving you a better
picture of the relationships among your ideas. In addition,
this process allows you to use your critical thinking skills
to refine your ideas, identify where you need additional
support, and determine if the body of the speech is
balanced. Similarly, the process of outlining allows you
to strategically integrate transitions and clearly link the
introduction and conclusion. Finally, abbreviated outlines
are useful as both memory and delivery aids when you
present the speech.
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Please refer to the following
media interaction:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/
owl/resource/544/01
1
Developing A Preparation Outline
In our experience, students are often unsure about when
to begin outlining their speech. Simply put, you should
begin outlining at the time you start building the speech.
Again, this process will allow you to carefully reflect
on the relationships among the ideas you will discuss
and identify specific areas for refinement. The outline
you develop as you prepare your speech is called a
preparation outline. Use the following guidelines as you
develop your preparation outline.
Identify Your Purpose, Thesis, Organizational
Pattern, and Title. Your outline should clearly state
your general and specific purposes, thesis statement, and
organizational pattern. We also encourage our students to
provide a working title for each speech. Including all of
this information will help you assess whether or not the
speech will accomplish your stated purpose.
Label the Introduction, Body, and Conclusion
as Separate Elements. The introduction, body, and
conclusion should be labeled as distinct elements in your
outline. Separating these elements will allow you to see if
they are serving intended functions. In other words, you
will be better able to look holistically at your speech to
ensure that the introduction leads clearly into the body
and that the conclusion effectively brings the speech to a
close.
Use a Consistent Pattern of Symbols. A common
approach to outlining is to use Roman numerals to
identify the introduction, body, and conclusion. In this
system, you identify subpoints with capital letters.
Depending on how you develop your claims, you
may even include sub-subpoints. As you outline these
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elements, make sure to use a consistent pattern of
indentation. For example:
I. Introduction
A. Attention getter
B. Relevance statement
C. Credibility statement
D. Thesis statement
E. Preview statement
II. Body
A. Main point
1. Subpoint
a. Sub-subpoint
b. Sub-subpoint
2. Subpoint
B. Main point
1. Subpoint
2. Subpoint
a. Sub-subsubpoint
b. Sub-subsubpoint
III. Conclusion
A. Summary of main points
B. Action statement (persuasive speech only)
C. Memorable close
Keep in mind that the outline presents a visual image
of the relationships among the ideas in your speech. As
a result, the relative importance of your ideas can be
determined by examining the structure of the outline (the
importance increases as you move to the left). Examining
the structure of your speech this way will help you
determine whether your ideas fit together in a logical
fashion.
It should be noted that there are many formats available
for outlining. Therefore, you should check with your
139
instructor to determine the format you are to follow for
this class.
Include Transitions. As noted in Chapter 8, transitions
are critical to effective speechmaking. Include transitions
throughout the outline where appropriate (e.g., between
the introduction and body, main points, as well as body
and conclusion). As you will see in the sample outline
included in this chapter, transitions are labeled and
inserted into the outline where they will appear.
Integrate Supporting Material. Once you have
established your main points, you can then integrate
relevant supporting materials. As you insert supporting
materials, carefully balance the types of support used for
each claim (e.g., statistics, testimony, personal examples,
and so on). If you find you are relying too much on a
particular type of support or not using enough support
for your claims, you can easily modify the presentation. In
addition, it is important that you follow the information
literacy guidelines for citing your sources orally in the
speech presented in Chapter 8.
Provide a List of References. Your outline should
contain a list of references you consulted in preparing
your speech. Two of the more popular formats for
citing sources in the communication discipline are those
developed by the Modern Language Association (MLA)
and the American Psychological Association (APA). It
is your responsibility to check with your instructor to
determine the format she or he prefers.
Use Complete Sentences. State your ideas in the
preparation outline in complete sentences rather than as
questions or short phrases. Fully stating your ideas will
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help you and your instructor evaluate the overall merits
of the speech. In addition, using complete sentences to
introduce your supporting material will allow you to asses
the credibility of and determine the extent to which you
are fully citing your sources.
Sample Preparation Outline with Commentary.
The following outline, for an eight-minute informative
speech, illustrates how to apply the principles just
discussed. The comments in the right column are
presented to help guide you through the essential steps in
outlining a speech.
Roman Coliseum
Specific Purpose:
To inform the audience about the
Roman Coliseum.
Thesis/Central Idea: To truly understand the historical
impact the Coliseum has had on
civilization, it is important to learn of
the architectural wonders of the
Coliseum, the terror of the Roman
Games, and the present plans
for its restoration.
Organizational
Pattern:
Providing this information before
the text of the outline makes it
easier to assess if your outline
achieves your objectives.
In addition, labeling the organizational pattern will help you ensure
that you are using the correct
pattern.
Topical
I. Introduction
A. Attention Getter: Imagine yourself being ushered up
a dark hallway and into a huge, outdoor theatre. Here
you are greeted by 50,000 screaming spectators and one
man—crazy for your death, hungry for the thought
of ripping you apart limb from limb. You and Blood
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Opening with a vivid story is an
excellent way to gain the attention of the audience.
Thirsty are the only ones inside an arena encompassed
by a 15-foot wall, and the 50,000 people are waiting for
you to die.
B. Relevance Statement: From professional football
and basketball games to the sporting events at ISU’s
Redbird Arena, much of our culture is influenced by
the success of one great sports arena built nearly 2000
years ago. The author Alan Baker, in his book, “The
Gladiator,” published in 2001, makes the connection
between the ancient Roman games and our culture
today. Our own athletes, he states, “…are merely the
pale echoes of the ancient fighters… [they] display
their skill and aggression before thousands of
screaming spectators, with millions more watching on
television. This is exactly what happened in the ancient
world.”
Notice how the speaker attempts
to relate the topic to the audience
throughout the speech.
C. Credibility: As a history major focused on Roman
studies, I have always been enamored with the stories
surrounding the Coliseum. Further, a tour of Ancient
Rome this past summer intensified my horror and
fascination with this great monument.
Establishing your credibility on
the topic is essential early in the
speech.
D. Thesis: To truly understand the historical impact
the Coliseum has had on civilization, it is important to
learn of the architectural wonders of the Coliseum, the
terror of the Roman Games, and the present plans for
its restoration.
E. Preview: Therefore, [show transparency] we will
first, lay the foundation by describing its design and
construction, next, live through a day at the games,
and finally, learn of the present plans to restore and
renovate this ancient monument to its original glory.
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We encourage students to identify
in the outline where they will use
presentation aids. This speaker
uses a transparency to help
preview the main points of the
speech.
Transition: To begin, we will lay the foundation by
describing its design and construction.
II. Body
A. First, the Coliseum’s construction will be discussed.
The main points in the body of the
speech are shown by the capital
letters A, B, and C.
1. According to John Pearson, acclaimed historian
and author of “Arena: The Story of the Coliseum,”
published in 1973, the Emperor Vespasian, to curry
the favor of the Roman people, commissioned the
construction of the Coliseum.
Notice that the speaker provides
complete oral citations for sources
including the author, date, source,
and credibility statement.
2. Considering the games were held 1900 years ago,
the construction was considered pure genius.
Subpoints and sub-subpoints are
shown by Arabic numerals and
lower case letters.
a. The outdoor theatre boasted 80 entrances,
with a design so incredibly pragmatic that
each was equipped with a numbered staircase,
ensuring the simultaneous exit of about 50,000
individuals in three minutes flat. Our sports
stadiums today cannot even accomplish this
feat.
b. Just as we look down from gymnasium
bleachers, spectators would look down upon the
wooden arena floor. However, the Coliseum’s
floor was covered with sand, which served to
soak up large quantities of blood. The floor also
concealed a labyrinth of tunnels, trapdoors, and
a complicated system of chains and pulleys,
similar to our modern-day elevators.
Transition: Now that we have laid the foundation of the
Coliseum’s construction, let us live through a day at the
Roman Games.
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This transition indicates that the
speaker is moving from the first to
the second main point.
B. A Day at the Games can be compared to a day
watching football at the Redbird Arena.
Again, notice how the speaker
attempts to relate the topic to the
audience’s experiences.
1. As ISU students, part of our tuition pays for
Redbird Arena. However, at the Coliseum’s
inception, it was a Roman citizen’s right to attend
the games free of charge. And just as we are treated
to semesters of games, it was not uncommon for
emperors to treat their subjects to many months of
games.
2. The mornings began with fights between wild
animals. One battle involved a bull and a panther,
each at the end of a chain. They could barely reach
other, and they were forced to tear each other apart
piece by piece. Lions would be matched against
tigers and bears pitted against bulls.
3. Lunchtime executions followed. The scholar
Baker, as cited earlier, states that the infliction of
pain was an essential part of punishment in ancient
Rome. Therefore, common methods included
crucifixions, being burned alive, and being thrown
to wild beasts. In fact, Emperor Constantine
would order molten lead to be poured down the
condemned’s throats.
Notice the speaker’s shortened
oral citation for this source.
4. The best attraction was saved for the afternoon:
gladiatorial combat. The following video clip is
taken from the 2000 epic film, Gladiator, in which
Russell Crowe stars. As stated earlier, notice the
concealed trapdoors in the arena floor. [Show video
clip.]
Video clips often make for excellent presentation aids. Given the
time constraints of this speech,
this clip is approximately 45 seconds long.
144
Transition: Now that we have lived through the terror
of the Roman games, let us learn of the present plans to
restore and renovate this ancient monument to its original
glory.
C. The present life of the coliseum is undergoing
change.
1. After 300 years of this publicly accepted
entertainment a monk named Telemachus ran into
the arena, screaming for them to stop. However, the
mob was not to be cheated of their entertainment,
and he was torn to pieces.
a. Although gladiatorial combat was
subsequently banned, the battles and executions
involving wild beasts took another 100 years to
end.
Take a closer look at the pattern of
subordination in this section. Subpoint 1 establishes a key historical
event leading to the demise of the
games.
Because sub-subpoints a and b
expand that idea, they are subordinated to subpoint 1.
b. Stones were taken from the Coliseum to
construct other buildings during the Middle
Ages, and the inner arena, as shown here [show
transparency] became overgrown with weeds
and vegetation.
2. Recently, [show transparency] the national
geographic website reported in July of 2001, that
a restoration project is underway to reinstate the
Coliseum, which is located near the center of
modern Rome.
a. It will take eight years and cost 18-million
dollars.
b. It will also allow international tourists to
attend Greek plays and gladiatorial exhibitions.
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Again, the speaker uses a presentation aid to help the audience
visualize what she is discussing.
Transition: Once restored, it will encompass, as historian
Dr. Alison Futrell states in her 1997 book, “Blood in the
Arena,” “all the glory and doom of the Roman Empire.”
Notice how the speaker uses a
quote to transition from the body
to the conclusion.
III. Conclusion
A. Thesis/Summary: In many ways, the Coliseum
has influenced the development of civilization and
will likely do so for years to come. The Coliseum’s
construction was truly genius, bearing witness to the
wealth of the Roman Empire. The games, unlike those
at Redbird Arena, served bloodshed and agony, in
the form of wild beasts, executions and gladiators.
Hopefully, the restoration of the Coliseum will see
much less bloodshed.
Summarizing the main points of
the speech will help your audience remember what you said.
B. Memorable Close: To quote the 7th century
historian and monk, the Venerable Bede, in his famous
“Ecclesiastical History of the English people,” “While
the Coliseum stands, Rome shall stand; when the
Coliseum falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, the
world shall fall.”
A compelling quote is one of the
rhetorical devices you can use to
conclude the speech in a memorable fashion.
References (separate page)
Auguet, R. (1998). Cruelty and civilization: The Roman
games. Barnes & Noble: New York.
Baker, A. (2001). The gladiator: The secret history of
Rome’s warrior slaves. St. Martin’s Press: New York.
Bede, V. (1849). The Venerable Bede’s ecclesiastical history
of England. H. G. Bohn: London.
The Coliseum on Eliki. (n.d.) The Coliseum. Retrieved July
20, 2002 from http://www.eliki.com/coliseum/
146
This is the speaker’s list of references. Often, the references are
listed on separate page. Notice
too that the speaker used APA
style to cite her sources. Make sure
to check with your instructor to
determine what format you are
required to use for references.
Core Tour Europe 2003. (2002). Coliseum. Sponsored by
Saint Joseph’s College. Retrieved July 22, 2002 from
http://www.saintjoe.edu/~mjoakes/europe/images/
photos_01/coliseum.jpg
Futrell, A. (1997). Blood in the arena: The spectacle of
Roman power. University of Texas Press: Austin.
National Geographic News. (2001, June 29). Rome
Coliseum being restored for wider public viewing.
Retrieved July 22, 2002 from http://news.
nationalgeographic.com/ news/2001/06/0625_
wirecoliseum.html
Pearson, J. (1973). Arena: The story of the Coliseum.
Thames & Hudson: London.
Wick, D. (Producer), & Scott, R. (Director). (2000).
Gladiator [Motion picture]. United States: Dreamworks
Pictures and Universal Pictures.
Developing a Speaking Outline
One problem that many beginning public speakers face
is moving from over-reliance on a preparation outline to
the effective use of a speaking outline. A speaking outline
is a brief outline that helps you remember key points as
you are speaking. The speaking outline also frequently
contains delivery notes that remind you when to adjust
your rate, tone, movement and so on. Although this
skeletal outline may seem difficult to use initially, with
practice you will be very adept at using these brief notes.
Using a speaking outline might also benefit your speech
grade because you will not be as tempted to simply read
to the audience as might be the case if you spoke from a
full sentence preparation outline.
147
As you prepare your speaking outline, keep the
following suggestions in mind. Initially, you should follow
the same framework used in the preparation outline. This
will allow you to track exactly where you are in the speech
at any given moment.
In addition, it is important that your outline is legible.
Trying to speak from messy, hard to read notes can be
extremely frustrating. We instruct our students to type
out the outline using large fonts and generous margins to
ensure the document is readable from a short distance.
It is also advisable to keep the outline as brief as
possible. As previously mentioned, this will force you to
establish eye contact with your audience and prevent you
from reading to your audience.
Finally, you can include delivery notes in the speaking
outline. These notes will provide cues that will help you
control the tempo, emphasis, and overall pace of your
speech.
Sample Speaking Outline with Commentary.
The following outline, for an eight-minute informative
speech, illustrates how to transform a preparation outline
into a speaking outline. The comments in the right column
are presented to help clarify this process.
I. Introduction
EYE CONTACT
A. AG: Imagine yourself…
B. Rel: Redbird Arena/Today’s athletes (Baker, 2001)
C. Cred: History major/Tour of Rome
D. Thesis: To truly understand…architecture, terror,
restoration
E. Preview: [Transparency #1] Lay foundation, live
through day, learn present plans
148
It is critical that you establish eye
contact with the entire audience
as you begin your speech. These
notes remind the speaker to do
just that.
Notice the speaker’s use of abbreviation for key phrases. You
should develop your own short
hand for key ideas. Again, these
notes should be designed to help
jog your memory and you should
be speaking extemporaneously
rather than reading to the audience.
PAUSE
Transition: To begin, we will lay the foundation by
describing its design and construction.
II. Body
A. Construction
1. Vespasian (Pearson, 1973)
2. Construction “pure genius”
a. 80 entrances/numbered staircase
simultaneous exit
b. Sand floor soak up blood/labyrinth/pulleys
PAUSE
Transition: Now that we have laid the foundation of the
Coliseum’s construction, let us live through a day at the
Roman Games.
B. Redbird Arena
1. Free of charge
2. Wild animals (Lions v. tigers, bears v. bulls)
HAND GESTURE
3. Lunchtime executions (crucifixion, burned alive,
wild beasts, molten lead) (Baker, 2001)
4. Gladiator combat [Video clip]
PAUSE
Transition: Now that we have lived through the terror
of the Roman games, let us learn of the present plans to
restore and renovate this ancient monument to its original
glory.
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Your speaking outline should
contain delivery notes specifically
tailored to your needs. In this case,
the speaker felt it important to
pause before launching into the
first main point of the speech.
As with the preparation outline,
the speaking outline is clearly
divided into an introduction, body,
and conclusion. The speaking outline also uses the same numbering
system as the preparation outline.
Notice how the speaker includes
key source information in the
speaking outline. Your instructor
may allow you to include complete quotes in your speaking
outline. Make sure to check with
your instructor to ensure that
you are meeting all of her or his
requirements.
The inclusion of transitions in the
speaking outline ensures that you
won’t forget them.
The visual representation of
fights between wild animals is
something this speaker wanted
to stress. You can see that she
included a note to make a specific
hand gesture as she explained this
concept.
Notice the speaker’s notes regarding the use of presentation aids.
C. Present life
1. Telemachus
a. 100 years to end
b. Stones taken/overgrown with weeds and
vegetation [Transparency #2]
2. Restoration project (National Geographic, 2001)
[Transparency #3]
a. 8 years/18 million dollars
b. Greek plays and gladiatorial exhibitions
Although abbreviated, the speaking outline contains enough detail
to include all essential elements of
the speech.
PAUSE
Transition: Once restored, it will encompass, as historian
Dr. Alison Futreall states in her 1997 book, “Blood in the
Arena,” “all the glory and doom of the Roman Empire.”
III. Conclusion
EYE CONTACT
A. Thesis/Summary: Influenced civilization/truly
genius/bloodshed and agony
Again, the speaker includes a
reminder to maintain eye contact
with the audience during the
conclusion.
HAND GESTURE—BE SUBTLE
B. Memorable Close: Venerable Bede – “While the
Coliseum stands, Rome shall stand; when the
Coliseum falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls,
the world shall fall.”
Summary
It should be clear that an outline is important both
in preparing and delivering a speech. The process of
outlining pulls together the information literacy and
critical thinking skills discussed throughout this text
allowing you to carefully scrutinize both the ideas
and supporting materials you are discussing. As you
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As you prepare for your speech,
make sure to practice with the
speaking outline.
develop the preparation outline, remember to identify
key elements of the speech, use a consistent pattern
of symbols, include transitions, integrate supporting
materials, and provide a list of references. The preparation
outline should be written in complete sentences and
include clearly identified sections for the introduction,
body, and conclusion.
A speaking outline should be used as a memory and
delivery aid when you present the speech. The speaking
outline follows the same general form and principles as
the preparation outline but is written in key words rather
than complete sentences. In addition, the speaking outline
may include delivery notes that cue you to control the
tempo, emphasis, and overall pace of your presentation.
In the next chapter, we will discuss strategies for
beginning and ending the presentation.
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Chapter Ten
Beginning and Ending
the Presentation
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
• Understand the importance of introductions and
conclusions.
• List the four goals of an introduction.
• List and explain the eight ways to capture the
audience’s attention.
• List the three goals of a conclusion.
So, your roommate, whose car is in the shop, calls you
on your cell phone as you leave school and asks you to
stop by the grocery store to pick up a few items. You
are instructed to get Gatorade, frozen pizza, toothpaste,
Ramen noodles, deodorant, peanut butter, shampoo, and
bread. You don’t have pen or paper handy, but you think
you’ll remember the things on the list. You get to the store
but can only remember a few of the items. Which ones do
you think you are most likely to remember?
Chances are, you will remember the first and last items
on the list but not the ones in the middle. This is known
as the primacy/recency effect,1 which explains that
people pay more attention to and remember information
that is presented first and last. Additionally, we tend to
remember things that are most relevant to our needs. For
example, as you enter the grocery store, you realize you
are hungry and are not likely to forget the pizza. This
tendency to remember the first, last, and most relevant
153
Buzan, T. (1976). Use both sides
of your brain. New York, NY: E. P.
Dutton.
1
See also:
Crano, W. D. (1977). Primacy Versus
Recency In Retention of Information and Opinion Change. The
Journal of Social Psychology, 101,
87-96.
Lund, F. H. (1925). The Psychology
of Belief: IV. The Law of Primacy in
Persuasion. Journal of Abnormal
and Social Psychology, 20, 183-191.
Trenholm, S. (1989). Persuasion and
social influence. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
items is a compelling reason for producing effective
introductions and conclusions in your presentations.
Importance of
Introductions and Conclusions
It is important that speakers prepare their audience to
listen to and remember their message. As listeners or
consumers of information, we often have a great deal
on our minds and can easily become distracted if we are
not prepared or motivated to listen to another speaker.
Newscasters know this all too well. Before going to a
commercial break, they often “tease” the audience with
what news or information is coming up next. This allows
you, the consumer, to decide whether or not to stay tuned.
As speakers, we need to realize that the first and last
impressions we make with our audience will ultimately
determine whether or not we accomplish our goals. We
need to understand what it takes to prepare an audience to
listen to and remember our presentations.
As we discussed in Chapter 6 (Audience Analysis),
there are several ways that we can connect our content to
the needs and interests of our audience. Learning about
constructing effective introductions and conclusions will
also help us to make connections with the audience so that
they learn from or are influenced by our message. We’ll
start with how to begin the presentation.
Beginning the Presentation. The beginning of
your presentation, the introduction, is an opportunity
for you to prepare your audience to listen to your topic.
Have you ever been frustrated by an instructor who
dives into a lesson before you are ready to listen? Perhaps
you are upset by something that happened just before
class and your mind is not ready to hear specific details
about the American Revolution just yet. Remember the
communication process model from chapter one? This
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scenario is an example of internal interference. If, as a
speaker, you realize that this is likely to happen, you can
develop strategies to overcome the interference.
For example, what could your instructor do to help you
transition from your distractions to your lesson? There
are several easy ways to prepare an audience to listen. It
is important to know that audiences will want answers to
the following questions:
• What’s in it for me?
• Why should I listen to you about this topic?
• What can I expect to hear about the topic?
An effective introduction will answer these questions,
motivating the audience to listen. Thus, an introduction
should accomplish the following goals:
• Capture the audience’s attention
• Establish the relevance of your topic to your
audience
• Establish your speaker credibility
• Preview the body of the presentation
Capturing Attention
The first task you must accomplish in your introduction is
to convince your audience to listen to you. To accomplish
this, begin with an attention getter. An attention getter is a
strong opening statement that uses some kind of creative
device to capture your audience’s attention and motivate
them to listen. It is the very first thing that you say in the
presentation. In other words, you would not want to get
up in front of your audience and say, “Hi my name is
______, and my speech is about ________” even though as
you look at your outline, this information is most likely
included at the top of the page. The first words you say
should follow some strategy to get your audience to stop
thinking about their evening plans or the test they just
took. There are several creative strategies to choose from.
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Ask a Rhetorical Question. A rhetorical question is one
that is posed for the purpose of getting your audience
to think about, but not state, the answer. An effective
rhetorical question will instantly get the audience to
consider how they would answer the question. In doing
so, you have prepared your audience to listen to your
speech. Some rhetorical questions are, of course, more
effective than others. It is not as easy as asking, “Have you
ever thought about (insert your topic)?” You need to give
your audience something more specific to think about.
For example, you could get your audience to imagine a
hypothetical situation (“What would happen if . . .”) to
prepare them for your topic. You could also ask a series
of questions to lead the audience in the direction you will
take with your topic. For example, the following questions
are used in our tornado speech outline:
What can hurdle automobiles through the air, rip
ordinary homes to shreds, defeather chickens, and travel
at speeds over 60 mph?
Providing a series of rhetorical questions serves to arouse
your audience’s curiosity without revealing the topic.
With each question, your audience will wonder where you
are headed. Perhaps, you could pose a riddle like, “What
do the following three things have in common?” Of course,
the answer would relate to your topic and command
attention.
Provide a Quotation. You could also start the presentation
with a famous or profound quotation that relates to
your topic.2 When attempting to capture attention with
quotations, it is important to decide whether to start with
the quote or with the information of who is providing the
quote. You have to consider which way would have the
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Please refer to the following
media interactions:
http://www.quotationspage.com/
http://www.bartleby.com/
2
strongest impact on the audience. Remember, the goal is to
capture attention immediately.
For example, in our speech about the blues, the
quotation comes first and is followed by the source:
“This is where the soul of man never dies.” So says Sun
Records founder Sam Phillips… the man who discovered
and first recorded Elvis Presley, Jerry Lee Lewis, and
Johnny Cash.
Start with a Startling Statement. Surprise your audience
by making a claim that is unimaginable, unusual, or
unknown. A dramatic statistic can startle your audience,
enticing them to listen.
For example, if your topic is communication
apprehension, you might begin your speech by saying:
More people are afraid of speaking in public than they are
of dying.
As you conduct your research, what claims stand out
to you? You might incorporate this information into an
attention getter.
Stimulate the Audience’s Imagination. You could
use “imagine if” scenarios to get your audience to put
themselves in a position to think about your topic. You
could provide descriptive details of what it looks, feels,
smells, sounds, tastes like to be in the context of a situation
involving your topic. Our coliseum speech accomplishes
this nicely:
Imagine yourself being ushered up a dark hallway and
into a huge, outdoor theatre. Here you are greeted by
50,000 screaming spectators and one man—crazy for
your death, hungry for the thought of ripping you apart
157
limb from limb. You and Blood Thirsty are the only ones
inside an arena encompassed by a 15-foot wall, and the
50,000 people are waiting for you to die.
Tell a Story. We all love a good story. An effective story
will use words to evoke a certain emotion (e.g., happy,
sad, excited, fearful, angry) in your audience. Your story
can be based on something that actually happened or
it could be hypothetical. Real stories could involve a
personal connection that the speaker has with the topic. In
fact, sharing a personal story can enhance your credibility
(which we’ll discuss more in just a moment).
For example, in a persuasive speech urging the
audience to consider becoming a live organ donor, the
fact that you donated a kidney to a family member would
make you qualified to speak on the topic. Your personal
experience would compel the audience to listen.
Hypothetical stories should at least be possible in
the minds of the audience to be effective. Always reveal
to your audience whether your story is truth or fiction.
Be sure to tell only those details that are relevant to the
topic of your speech. In other words, keep it short but
meaningful.
Use Humor. While your audience may find humor in any
of the previous strategies (stories of defeathered chickens
are funny—when coupled with photos, even funnier),
you could tell a joke or begin with a funny statement.
Whatever the joke or statement, it must be relevant to
the topic and appropriate to the audience and occasion.
Humor is risky—what is funny to you may be offensive to
your audience. As a result, timing and delivery are quite
important if humor is to be effective. There’s a reason why
Will Ferrel makes a lot of money.
Refer to a Recent Event. Perhaps there is something
happening in your community or school that requires
158
the attention of your audience to your topic. You could
also consider national or world events that might have
an impact on your audience’s motivation to listen to your
topic. In this sense, you are taking into account the context
(as discussed in Chapter 1—Communication Process) of
your presentation to draw attention to your topic.
In short, attention getters should hook your audience
immediately and get them to start thinking about your
topic. You may even find examples of these strategies as
you conduct research for your topic. Be on the lookout
for possible attention getters as you look for evidence to
support your claims in the body of your speech. Another
way to generate ideas for an attention getter is to consider
what piques your interest. When watching television,
surfing the web, or reading a newspaper article, make note
of what captures your attention. Use a similar strategy
with your audience.
Establishing the Relevance
of Your Topic to Your Audience
Recall from Chapter 6 on Audience Analysis that most
listeners pay attention if they find the topic personally
relevant. In other words, a listener wants to know, “what’s
in it for me?” Once you capture an audience’s attention,
you need to maintain it by answering this concern. This
is a two step process. You should indicate to members
of the audience why they should listen to your topic. As
we discussed in Chapter 5, you should choose a topic
that is of general importance—one that is worthy of the
time and attention of your audience. At this point in the
introduction, you have the burden of clarifying your
reason for choosing the topic. Why is it important or
relevant? In our example speeches, the speakers assert that
tornados are deadly and that the blues and coliseum have
both influenced modern culture.
159
Once you establish the overall relevance of your topic,
you now need to provide a specific relevance statement to
your audience. Your topic may be of general importance,
but how does it relate specifically to your audience or
classmates?
As you chose your topic, you were asked to consider
your audience’s needs and interests. This is where you
should address those considerations. You may use
information from your audience analysis to connect the
topic to your listeners. Be very specific. Ask yourself,
“Does my relevance statement apply to all audiences or
specifically to the people I will be addressing?”
For example, if you are giving a persuasive speech on
promoting the right to vote, you could say, “As American
citizens, we should all honor our right to vote.” Or, to be more
specific to your classmates, you could say, “As college
students between the ages of 18-22, this election will be our
first opportunity to express our voice in the democratic process.
Additionally, in a time of war, we should understand the
implications of how the results of this election will ultimately
affect our lives.”
Our example outlines make specific references to the
intended audience in the following ways:
Tornado
Illinois rests on the boundary of what tornado researchers
call tornado alley. This is the area of the country that
receives the most tornadoes every year.
Coliseum
From professional football and basketball games to the
sporting events at ISU’s Redbird Arena, much of our
culture is influenced by the success of one great sports
arena built nearly 2000 years ago.
160
Blues
I know many of you are from the Chicago-land area.
Through the many books and magazine articles I’ve
read, I’ve discovered that the world famous “Chicago
Blues” sound owes its origins to Mississippi Delta Blues
– since many of those players migrated to Chicago in
the 40’s and 50’s. In fact, the blues classic “Sweet Home
Chicago” was written by a Delta musician.
Establishing Speaker Credibility
So now your audience knows why they should listen to
your topic, but why should they listen to you? What is
your personal experience or connection with the topic?
Why did you choose the topic? What makes you an expert
worthy of your audience’s attention? These were concerns
that we asked you to consider in selecting a topic. Now tell
your audience why you are credible to speak on this topic.
For example, our tornado speaker grew up in the heart
of tornado alley, our coliseum speaker is a history major,
and our blues speaker is a dedicated fan.
Aside from explicitly telling the audience, there are
other, more subtle, ways to establish speaker credibility.
Competence and character comprise credibility.3 If
your listeners see that you are prepared, organized, and
knowledgeable, you are perceived as competent. You are
perceived as possessing good character if you are honest,
trustworthy, and have your listeners’ best interests in
mind. In other words, your audience has to believe not
only what you say but how you say it.
If you say you are a fan of the blues, but act like you
are bored during your presentation, your credibility will
suffer. We’ll discuss in more detail how delivery affects
your message in Chapter 13.
If you claim expertise in weather phenomena but are
ill prepared or disorganized, you will not be perceived
161
McCroskey, J. C., & Teven, J. J.
(1999). Goodwill: A reexamination
of the construct and its measurements. Communication Monographs, 66, 90-113.
3
as knowledgeable about tornados (See Chapter 8 on
Organization strategies).
Previewing the Presentation
You have your audience’s attention. They know why
they should listen. They’re convinced that you know
what you’re talking about. Now, what can they expect
to hear? The last part of the introduction is an overview
of the content of your presentation. This includes both
the thesis and preview statements. The first step toward
accomplishing this goal is to state your thesis.
We have already talked about how to write a thesis
statement, which is a major part of your introduction,
in Chapter 5. Recall that the thesis statement is the
framework for the body of your presentation. It reveals
the purpose, topic, direction, and main points of your
presentation. In doing so, it provides the audience with
a preview of what’s to come. Once you have stated your
thesis, you can then elaborate on the direction of your
main points with a preview statement. In other words,
the preview statement provides a little more detail about
each of the main claims before you delve into them. This
further allows your audience to anticipate the direction of
your speech. For the communication apprehension topic,
your preview might look like this:
Thesis Statement:
Communication apprehension can be treated using
systematic desensitization, visualization, cognitive
restructuring, and skills training.
Preview Statement:
Specifically, I will discuss the mental and
physical relaxation techniques used in systematic
desensitization, common ways to restructure your
negative thoughts and think more positively about
162
public speaking, and how to master the necessary
steps to plan and present a speech.
Here’s another example from our Delta blues Speech:
Thesis Statement:
The Mississippi Delta Blues was epitomized by the
music of three men: Charley Patton, Son House,
and Robert Johnson.
Preview Statement:
First, we’ll examine Charley Patton, one of the
earliest Delta musicians; next Son House, his friend
and protégé; and finally Robert Johnson, a man
shrouded in myth and legend.
So, how does this all fit together as you prepare or
produce your message? Here are our recommended steps:
• The thesis sentence is the first one you write.
• The body of the presentation is the first section
you develop.
• The introduction is developed after the body.
• The attention getter is the first thing you say.
• The thesis sentence provides the framework
of the presentation and comes right before the
preview.
• The preview is the last sentence of the
introduction, provides further direction with
the speech, and leads into the body of the
presentation.
Our final suggestion is that you refer to our example
introductions provided in our tornado, coliseum, and
blues speeches. These will allow you to see how all of
these elements flow together and prepare an audience to
listen.
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Ending the Presentation. You’re almost there, but to
make your audience remember your message, you need
a strong ending. Remember the primacy/recency effect?
We have a tendency to remember the most recent thing we
hear. Thus, an effective conclusion will:
• Provide a summary of your presentation
• Provide a memorable close
Providing a Summary
In the introduction, you prepared your audience to
listen by previewing the content of your message. Once
you present your information or argument, you need to
prepare your audience for the end of your message. This is
accomplished by providing a summary, or review, of your
main claims.
You will want to give your audience a hint that the
summary is coming by signposting the end of your
presentation using terms like “finally, “in closing”, “to
summarize”, and so forth. At this point, you will rephrase
your thesis statement using past tense. If the information
you presented is complicated, you might also want to go
over some key information you want your audience to
remember. This is your final opportunity to summarize the
most important information in your presentation. In doing
so, you might ask yourself, “What specifically do I want my
audience to get out of my presentation?” keeping in mind
the purpose (to inform or persuade) of your speech. This
should be included in the summary.
Providing a Memorable Close
The last statement you make indicates in a powerful
way that your presentation is complete and should be
remembered. How would you do that? Anything you can
use as an attention getter can also be used as a memorable
close. You could refer back to your attention getter at this
time. If you provided a quote at the beginning, you might
164
want to wait until this point to reveal who said it. If may
want to refer back to the consequences of your startling
statement. You could answer your riddle. You could
disclose information about your story. You could reveal
the punch line to your joke.
For example, both our tornado and blues speeches make
reference to the attention getter. The audience is reminded
of defeathered chickens and the soul of man. Our coliseum
speech, on the other hand, uses a new strategy altogether
by quoting the Venerable Bede. The purpose of this last
statement is to emphasize the end of your speech. If done
effectively, your audience will know with certainty that
you are finished without you even having to tell them so.
In other words, if you feel compelled to say, “Thank you,
I’m through!” then perhaps your close was not as strong
as it should have been.
Summary
Finally [signpost], by providing a strong introduction
and a powerful conclusion, you are providing audience
members with a well-rounded presentation that they
are likely to listen to and remember. In preparing
presentations this way, you are using repetition (preview
in the introduction; review in the conclusion) to get
your audience to understand and remember the main
points of your message. [The previous is an example of a
summary]. Thus, as you produce the introduction, body,
and conclusion of your message you:
• Tell them what you’re going to tell them.
• Tell them.
• Tell them what you told them.
Chances are, they’ll remember! [How’s that for a
memorable close?]
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Chapter Eleven
Using Appropriate Language
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
• Understand the importance of language.
• Describe the three ways that written language is
different from oral language.
• List and describe the four criteria effective speakers
should use when choosing language.
• List the four tips the authors suggest for promoting
clarity with language.
• Describe the difference between denotative and
connotative meanings.
• List and describe the five figures of speech
provided in the text that help to create vivid
language.
• Define inclusive language.
If we asked you to write down the name of something
that you dislike immensely, wad up the paper, and hurl
it across the room, how would that make you feel? In
addition to wondering what on earth we are thinking,
you might also feel some sense of relief or pleasure in
your task. Now, if we were to ask you to write down the
name of the person in this world that you love the most,
place the paper on the ground, and STOMP on it, what
would you do? Would you hesitate? Why? It’s just a
word on a piece of paper. What can it hurt? This exercise
demonstrates the power of language.
167
As you have been working on producing your
message, or presentation, you have considered how your
audience will respond to you the speaker, your topic, and
the content of your message. You have been gathering
information and evaluating the credibility of your
sources, and you have considered how best to organize
your message. Now, you need to consider carefully the
words you will use to communicate your message to get
a favorable response from your audience. In other words,
you need to think about how you will use language either
to inform or persuade your classmates.
The Importance of Language
Before you can consider how best to use language, it is
important that you understand why language, or word
choice, is so important. There are a few characteristics of
language that will help us understand the implications of
the words we use to produce a message.
First, language is symbolic.1 That is, words stand for
or symbolize things. They are not the actual things they
represent. Thus, words can have several meanings. For
example, consider the word fish. What immediately comes
to mind? Do you envision a large shark in the ocean or
a tiny goldfish in a bowl? Or,
do you see someone wading
in a river casting a line? It
can almost be guaranteed that
one of your authors thought
the latter (see Figure 11.1). In
this example, our word can
function as a noun or a verb
and represents multiple things
given your interpretation (or
wishes).
168
Meade, G. H. (1934). Mind, self,
and society. C. W. Morris (Ed.) University of Chicago Press.
1
Figure 11.1. Dr. Stephen K. Hunt
fishing the Vermilion River near
Starved Rock State Park in north
central Illinois.
Second, language is arbitrary.2 Words have no meaning
in and of themselves. They get their meaning from the
people who use them. There is nothing inherent in a fish
that necessitates calling it a fish. We could call it anything
really. For example, the French word for fish is poisson.
2
Meade, G. H. (1934). Mind, self,
and society. C. W. Morris (Ed.) University of Chicago Press.
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Figure 11.2 helps us to understand the symbolic and
arbitrary nature of words. The symbol is the word (lower
left-hand corner). The top of the triangle is the thought—
the meaning you give the word. The lower right-hand
corner is the referent—or the actual thing itself.
So, if you hear the word fish, and you are planning a trip
to Hawaii, you might think of a shark; whereas, if your
goldfish just died, you might be lamenting your pet. As
for your author, the figure above most closely represents
his thoughts. From this triangle of meaning, we get the
principle that meanings are in people; not in words.3 To
illustrate, one of your authors shares the following story:
When my son was three, he attended an Easter worship
service at his grandparent’s church. The Sunday school
teacher asked the class, “Does anyone here know how to
be saved?” Dylan raised his hand eagerly and said, “I
169
Figure 11.2. Triangle of meaning
illustration based on Ogden, C. K. &
Richards, I. A. (1927). The meaning
of meaning. New York: Harcourt.
Berlo, D. K. (1960). The process of
communication. New York: Holt,
Rhinehart, & Winston.
3
do, I do!” The teacher asked Dylan to share with the rest
of the class how to be saved. And he said, “You call 911!”
Now, in this example, the teacher and the student had
two very different interpretations of the word saved. The
teacher was thinking about a religious interpretation
based on her experience and Dylan was thinking about
a “search and rescue” interpretation based on watching
entirely too much TV.
By considering these characteristics of language, we
can understand why messages are often misunderstood
or misinterpreted. As a producer of messages, recognizing
that meanings are in people allows you to more carefully
choose your words based on what you know about your
audience’s experiences.
But why should you care? Well, remember that your
audience determines whether or not you are able to
accomplish your goals, but there’s still more. Language is
important because, as many scholars agree, language creates
a social reality.4 What does this mean?
To illustrate, let’s talk about the implications that
word choice may have on reality. Years ago, people
who protected our community were often referred to as
policemen or firemen. During this time, a large percentage
of that workforce was men. After all, why would a young
girl grow up thinking she could be a policeman or a
fireman? Now, we more accurately refer to the job they
perform rather than the people they are and use words
like police officer and fire fighter. As a result, our protective
services include more women in that workforce. Language
creates a social reality because it tells us what and whom
to value in society. Additionally, words often have more
impact when they are spoken as opposed to written.
Oral Style and Written Style
When you produce messages for a presentation, you do so
170
Young, K. (1931). Language,
thought and social reality. In K.
Young (ed.) Social Attitudes. New
York: Henry Holt.
4
with the listener in mind as opposed to the reader. A listener
only gets one shot at your message; whereas, a reader
can go back over things that were complicated or unclear.
So, when producing presentations, you need to write
for the ear. When you say something out loud, it has the
potential to have more of an impact because you can give
it direction, volume, and intensity. Thus, spoken language
is different from written language in several ways.5
First, oral style uses shorter sentences. As a speaker, if
you use long sentences, you may have difficulty catching
your breath during the presentation because you tend to
breath during natural breaks in the sentence structure. To
illustrate, try reading the previous sentence out loud. In
addition, if you use long sentences, you may have your
audience wondering where on earth the presentation is
headed.
Second, oral style is less formal. When we speak, we
tend to use more personal pronouns or slang to make
connections with our audience. For example, one of your
authors is well known for using positive slang to motivate
his students in the classroom. It would not be uncommon
to hear things like, “You rock!” “I’m down with that!” or
“Fire it up!” from this particular instructor.
Positive slang refers to informal language that a speaker
utilizes to signal identification with the listener.6 Of
course, slang should be used sparingly to be effective in
a presentation and must be appropriate to the audience.
That is, you should know from your audience analysis
whether or not your listeners would react favorably to
certain kinds of language. Importantly, speakers should
avoid using negative slang, or informal language that may
be perceived offensive by the listener.7
Beyond slang, when speaking we also use more
contractions (e.g., I’m, you’re, can’t, doesn’t) because they
sound more natural to the ear. As such, oral style is much
more conversational than written style. As an example,
171
5
Please refer to the following
media interaction:
http://www.americanrhetoric.
com/speechbank.htm
Mazer, J. P. (2006). Cool communication in the classroom: Instructor
use of positive slang and its effects
on student motivation, affective
learning, and perceptions of
teacher credibility. Unpublished
master’s thesis, Illinois State University.
6
7
Mazer (2006), as cited above.
your authors have attempted to write this text more
like a conversation than a scholarly article in hopes of
maintaining your interest as you read.
Third, oral style is more repetitive. Throughout this text,
we have talked about organizing your ideas so that your
audience can follow your message. This is why you are
asked to provide an introduction (preview) and conclusion
(review) as well as signposts and transitions to your
message. These oral strategies allow your audience to
better follow and comprehend your message. Remember,
a speech happens in time. You give it and then it is done.
Your audience does not generally have access to your
notes or your outline and if the structure of your message
is not clear, your audience may be lost and your goal in
jeopardy.
Choosing Language
Now that you know the importance of language and
the difference between speaking and writing, you
can make better word choices as you produce your
message. Effective speakers will work to assure that their
presentations are clear, accurate, vivid, and appropriate.
Clarity. To be clear, you need to use words that are
specific and familiar to your audience. As listeners, we
do not get the opportunity to look up words we don’t
understand. Thus, it is the speaker’s responsibility to
choose words, that when said the first time, are clearly
understood by the audience. Unlike a classroom lecture by
your instructor, your audience members probably won’t
raise their hand to ask for clarification. There are several
things you can do to promote clarity.
Use specific words
Generally, speakers should try to make their explanations
or descriptions as concrete as possible. Concrete
172
explanations are specific, detailed, and tangible. The
goal is that when a speaker describes a term or concept,
the listener pictures the same thing. For example, in our
coliseum speech, the speaker describes the project to
rebuild the coliseum. She indicates the location (near the
center of Rome), the time it will take (8 years) and the cost of
the renovation (18 million dollars).
On the other hand, if a speaker explains terms or
concepts using abstract language, the speaker and the
listener may not share the same interpretations. Abstract
language is general and vague. Unfortunately, we may
not always be describing something as concrete as the
coliseum rebuilding project. Some of our ideas may be
abstract. The challenge is to find a way to make them
concrete and compelling.
For example, Barack Obama, U.S. Senator from Illinois,
spoke at the 2004 Democratic National Convention and
instead of speaking in abstractions about patriotism and
the role of government he told a personal story with
historical references his audience understood:
The day after Pearl Harbor my grandfather signed up for
duty, joined Patton’s army and marched across Europe.
Back home, my grandmother raised their baby and went
to work on a bomber assembly line. After the war, they
studied on the GI Bill, bought a house through FHA,
and later moved west all the way to Hawaii in search of
opportunity.8
So, instead of saying, “As everyone knows, Democrats often
favor federal social programs, but what you may not realize
is that we are often patriotic and not always unopposed to
war,” he instead used concrete language to communicate
abstract political views that his audience could more easily
understand. Abstract terms are things like love, freedom,
173
Obama, B. (2004). Keynote to the
Democratic National Convention on Wednesday, July 28th,
2004 [on-line transcipt]. Available:
http://www.democracynow.org/
article.pl?sid=04/07/28/1313225
retrieved 11/14/06.
8
or democracy that people can think of but not necessarily
point to.
For example, if a speaker claims that “language is
powerful,” a listener might wonder what is meant by
powerful. This term would need to be defined more
specifically. Language is powerful because . . . (hopefully
at the end of this chapter, you can complete this sentence).
The following example demonstrates how a speaker can
go from abstract to concrete by providing a few descriptive
details:
• Dog
• Small dog
• Small, gray, dog
• Small, poodle-schnauzer mix (schnoodle), gray
dog
Better yet, show a photo of the dog and eliminate
unnecessary verbal detail. See Chapter 12 for more ideas
about using visuals in your presentation.
Use familiar words
Speakers should also use language that is familiar to the
audience given what they know about their interests
and knowledge of the topic. In doing so, they should
avoid using jargon which is language that is specific to a
particular group. Jargon is generally unique to the people
who use it in a specific field and is often unknown to
outsiders. Speakers should be aware of this and define all
terms unique to their topic for their audience. Sometimes
jargon can come in the form of acronyms. Acronyms are
used as first letter abbreviations for longer terms. For
example, if you are giving a speech on dream states and
use the term R. E. M., you should explain that this means
rapid eye movement at least the first time you use it. For
example, do the following statements make any sense to
you?
174
I’ll be presenting the results of my Com App research at
NCA this year. I ran T-tests and found significance at
the Oh-Five level on H1 and 2 but not 3. I’m worried
because I heard the respondent wasn’t a quantoid. Whose
idea was it to get a rhet crit person anyway? It’s not my
fault Cicero couldn’t count!
The preceding example illustrates why it is important to
match your language choices to your audience. Believe
it or not, there are some folks who would understand—
and even be interested in—the results of the research
mentioned in the example. However, as the example
points out, the researcher was probably not going to find a
sympathetic ear from the respondent at the NCA (National
Communication Association) conference. The point is to
match your word choice with the knowledge and interest
level of your audience. Jargon is useful and efficient with
the right crowd, but it is downright boring and ineffective
with general audiences.
Use active voice
In active voice, the subject acts; whereas, in passive voice, the
subject is acted upon. For example, you could say, “It was
decided by the voters of California that Stem Cell Research
should be funded,” or, “California voters decided that
Stem Cell Research should be funded.” Which sentence
places the subject at the beginning and uses the fewest
words? Active sentences are more efficient, concrete, and
clear to the listener.
Sometimes passive voice reveals a lack of knowledge or
at worst downright deception. For example, take a look at
this sentence:
It is widely believed that Gov. Smith has taken bribes.
175
Who exactly believes this? Is it just a rumor? In this case
of passive voice the doer of the action escapes notice. In
your research for the topic, did you find a source that said
this? If so, tell your audience so that they can gauge the
credibility of your source:
The state’s attorney general has announced she is
investigating Gov. Smith for allegedly taking bribes.
In this case, you have attributed the source of the
information and you have clarified the state of affairs.
However, as you no doubt realize being accused and being
guilty are two different things. In the worst case scenario,
using passive voice can be deceptive. For example, what
if your source was a tabloid newspaper? You could
certainly say “it is believed” and hide your source and still
be technically accurate, but it is probably unethical to do
so. If you learn to identify passive voice in the messages
you read and view, you will be able to better question
the credibility of the source and become more media and
information literate.
Avoid clutter
Keeping in mind the characteristics of oral style, speakers
should also avoid long sentences where multiple
punctuations are necessary. This makes it difficult for the
listener to follow the presentation and maintain attention.
Vocalized pauses such as “like,” “you know,” “um,” can also
cause the listener to become distracted. Speakers are often
fearful of silent pauses and use these filler words to help
them get from one point to the next. The result, however,
is that they demonstrate lack of concentration and may
hurt a speaker’s credibility. When you hear a presentation,
what are your perceptions of the speaker who “hems and
haws?”
176
Accuracy. Another issue that might affect your
credibility is accuracy. Speakers should be sure that
their presentation is grammatically and structurally
correct. They should also be careful to use the right
words at the right time. We can probably all recall a time
when someone used an otherwise good word at a very
inappropriate moment. The result can sometimes be quite
humorous but credibility may suffer for the unfortunate
speaker.
For example, one of your authors recalls a time when a
student was describing an anorexic patient as emancipated
as opposed to emaciated. The audience could hardly
contain its laughter. Let’s face it, poor or inaccurate word
choices may cause your audience to believe you have poor
ideas.
When you write a paper, your word processing
program provides you with grammar, thesaurus, and
spelling hints. We have all seen those green and red
squiggly lines under out text. They are there for a reason.
You, of course, would want to monitor these as you
prepare your presentation. However, these programs do
not tell you if you are pronouncing a word correctly or
using it in the right context. We suggest you “try out”
your presentation in front of others to see if they can catch
any oral inaccuracies much like your word processing
program catches written inaccuracies..
To be sure that you are using terms correctly, it is
important to understand that words have different
meanings. A denotative meaning is the literal dictionary
meaning of the word, but your audience may associate a
connotative or emotional response to the word.
For example, if you use the word “terrorist” you will
find similar definitions in most dictionaries. However, if
you use the word in a speech, your audience will have
an emotional response to the word because of what it
suggests or implies about our own national safety.
177
In the political realm, the terms liberal and conservative
have denotative meanings about how government and
society should operate. Depending on your political
views, you probably attach connotative meanings to the
words. That is, you either respond negatively or positively
(perhaps indifferently!) to these terms. Speakers should
be aware of this distinction as they choose words to gain a
favorable response from their audience.
Vividness. Sometimes speakers will strategically use
language to evoke a certain emotion or image from their
audience. That is, they will use vivid language to appeal to
the audience’s senses. Toward the end of Barack Obama’s
speech at the 2004 Democratic National Convention that
we mentioned earlier, he speaks of the election being
one of hope. He could have said that “John Kerry, John
Edwards, and Barack Obama are hopeful.” Instead he
said:
It’s . . . the hope of a young naval lieutenant bravely
patrolling the Mekong Delta; the hope of a millworker’s
son who dares to defy the odds; the hope of a skinny kid
with a funny name who believes that America has a place
for him, too.9
How can you use language more vividly to inspire your
audience? There are several figures of speech available
that will make any speech more descriptive, imaginative,
and memorable to listeners.
Analogy
There are many ways speakers can make comparisons
to help an audience relate to their topic. The objective
is to get the audience to understand the unfamiliar by
comparing it to something familiar. A Simile is a direct
comparison of unlike things using “like” or “as.”
178
Obama, B. (2004). Keynote to the
Democratic National Convention on Wednesday, July 28th,
2004 [on-line transcipt]. Available:
http://www.democracynow.org/
article.pl?sid=04/07/28/1313225
retrieved 11/14/06.
9
In the Bible, King Soloman is referred to as the wisest
man in the world. In one of his proverbs he said “As a dog
returneth to its vomit, so a fool returneth to his folly.”10
How’s that for vivid!
Metaphors are much like similes except that they are
implied comparisons between two unlike things. In
Macbeth , William Shakespeare compared life with a
stageplay:
Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player, That struts
and frets upon the stage, And then is heard no more. It is
a tale Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying
nothing.11
Ronald Reagan’s 1984 reelection campaign was built
around the metaphor “It’s morning in America.” Literally
speaking, it is sometimes evening and sometimes night
but the metaphor poetically proclaimed hopefulness and
underscored why President Reagan was called the “great
communicator.”
So, perhaps you think your situation is hopeless since
you are neither the wisest person in the world, the greatest
writer in the English language, or a popular 20th century
president. In all likelihood you use similes and metaphors
all the time when conversing with friends and family.
How often have you heard or used a sports metaphor?
Maybe you made an “A” on a term paper and told your
roommate that you “knocked it out of the park.” Or, you
refused to go out with your friends during finals week and
stayed home to study because it was the “fourth quarter and
you were down by 10.” However, be careful. Analogies work
best when they are not hackneyed and trite. Avoid clichés
and strive for fresh, unique comparisons that will help
your audience understand your message.
Extended analogies further explain metaphors in detail. So,
instead of using one metaphor early in a speech and then
179
Proverbs 26:11. King James Version.
10
11
Macbeth, act 5, scene 5.
shifting to another later on, an extended analogy can recall
the previous example and extend it. This will also keep
you from mixing metaphors.
For example, the Coliseum speech consistently refers
to modern day sports stadiums and illustrates that the
ancient Romans were not that much different from us
in terms of their entertainment choices. Analogies are
particularly useful in making the content relevant to
the members of the audience by connecting it to their
experiences. This is yet another reason for knowing
and understanding your audience. In effect, you are
reinforcing the relevance statement you made in your
introduction.
Personification
Personification occurs when a speaker gives human
qualities to inanimate objects, ideas or animals. This
strategy is used to help the audience visualize and
imagine what the speaker thinks or feels about a certain
term or concept. This strategy relies on the unexpected
to get the audience to take notice and pay attention to
the speaker. For example, in the Blues speech the speaker
quotes an old Lynyrd Skynyrd song to vividly illustrate
the way Son House sang. “When that hound dog starts
barking, sounds like old Son House singing the blues!”12
Alliteration
Speakers may choose to use alliteration for effect which
uses a repetition of sounds that are near each other. For
example, the word “lollipop” repeats the consonants “l”
and “p” which gives it an alliterative sound.
Advertisers, campaign managers, and other persuaders
often use alliteration for a quick and effective response
from listeners. For instance, a lawyer once described his
philandering client accused of murdering his pregnant
180
King, E., & Van Zant, R. (1974).
Swamp Music. On Second Helping
[Record]. Universal City, CA: MCA
Records Inc.
12
wife as “a creep, and a cad, but not a killer” in hopes that
this phrase would stand out in the minds of the jurors
during deliberation.
In the Wizard of Oz, the wizard states, “Step forward, Tin
Man. You dare to come to me for a heart, do you? You clinking,
clanking, clattering collection of caliginous junk...And you,
Scarecrow, have the effrontery to ask for a brain! You billowing
bale of bovine fodder!”13 Alliteration can be fun, but don’t
get too carried away with the technique. A little goes a
long way. If overused it might detract from, rather than
enhance your message.
LeRoy, M. (Producer), & Fleming,
V. (Director). (1939). The Wizard of
Oz [Film]. Century City, CA: MGM
Studios Inc.
13
Onomatopoeia
Speakers may use onomatopoeia to appeal to a listener’s
sense of sound. This strategy uses sounds that symbolize
words like “tick tock” or “plop, plop, fizz, fizz.” There are
many examples of onomatopoeia and if used appropriately
this device can be used to capture an audience’s attention
making the speech more memorable. Note the use of
onomatopoeia in The Bells by Edgar Allen Poe:
Here the sledges with the bells—
Silver bells!
What a world of merriment their melody foretells!
How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle,
In the icy air of night!
While the stars that over sprinkle
All the heavens, seems to twinkle
With a crystalline delight;
Keeping time, time, time,
In a sort of Runic rhyme,
To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells
From the bells, bells, bells, bells,
Bells, bells, bells—
From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells.14
181
Poe, E. A. (1881). The Bells. Philadelphia: Porter & Coates.
14
Repetition
Speakers may use repetition at the beginning or end
of sentences to call attention to a particular point. By
repeating a phrase or word, audiences sit up and take
notice of the sentences that follow.
A forceful example is from the movie “Field of Dreams”
when James Earl Jones (as Terrence Mann) makes a
speech on the baseball field telling Kevin Costner (as Ray
Kinsella) that people will come to Iowa to watch games at
his field keeping the bank (represented by Ray’s brotherin-law Mark) from foreclosing on his farm. Notice the
repetition:
Mann: Ray, people will come, Ray. They’ll come to
Iowa for reasons they can’t even fathom. They’ll turn up
your driveway, not knowing for sure why they’re doing
it. They’ll arrive at your door as innocent as children,
longing for the past. “Of course, we won’t mind if you
have a look around,” you’ll say. “It’s only twenty dollars
per person.” They’ll pass over the money without even
thinking about it; for it is money they have and peace
they lack.
Mark: Ray, just sign the papers.
Mann: And they’ll walk out to the bleachers, and sit
in shirt-sleeves on a perfect afternoon. They’ll find they
have reserved seats somewhere along one of the baselines,
where they sat when they were children and cheered
their heroes. And they’ll watch the game, and it’ll be as if
they’d dipped themselves in magic waters. The memories
will be so thick, they’ll have to brush them away from
their faces.
Mark: Ray, when the bank opens in the morning, they’ll
foreclose.
182
Mann: People will come, Ray.
Mark: You’re broke, Ray. You sell now or you lose
everything.
Mann: The one constant through all the years, Ray,
has been baseball. America has rolled by like an army of
steamrollers. It’s been erased like a blackboard, rebuilt,
and erased again. But baseball has marked the time. This
field, this game, is a part of our past, Ray. It reminds
us of all that once was good, and it could be again.
Ohhhhhhhh, people will come, Ray. People will
most definitely come.15
Appropriateness. Finally, speakers should be sure that
the language used in a presentation is appropriate to the
topic, the occasion, and the audience. Recall that audiences
may respond differently than anticipated to certain words
or phrases.
An effective speaker will consider the implications
word choices have on the way the audience receives a
presentation. Profanity is rarely, if ever, appropriate. There
is nothing to gain by its use and everything to lose. Be
assured that someone in the audience will be offended.
Instead, strive to use language that is inclusive.
Inclusive language considers and respects all types of
people regardless of gender, race, sexual preference,
and so forth. In other words, inclusive language avoids
excluding anyone for any reason. Inclusive language
avoids making assumptions about who can and cannot
engage in certain activities. Inclusive language respects
listeners and helps speakers accomplish their goals.
Following is a list of suggestions that will enable you
to see if you are including all of your audience in your
message:
183
Frankish, B. E. (Executive Producer), & Robinson, P. A. (1989). Field of
Dreams [Film]. Universal City, CA:
Universal Studios
15
• Avoid using the generic “he” when
referring to both sexes.
• Avoid using gender terms to describe
what people do. Avoid making
judgments about which gender should be
in certain jobs or social roles.
• Avoid linking personal traits that don’t
have anything to do with the topic.
Summary
In summary, if language really does create a social
reality, then we as speakers should consider the
impact of the words we use to produce messages.
If our goal is to inform or persuade an audience,
then the audience’s response to the language
we use is crucial to our meeting our goals. Why
would you want to say or do anything in your
presentation that might offend or exclude anyone
in your audience? Rather, you should strive to use
language in a meaningful and powerful way to help
you achieve success in your presentation. To use a
metaphor, language can reel your audience in or
cast them away. Language can make the difference
between an average speech and an awesome
speech.
184
Chapter Twelve
Designing Presentation Aids
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
• Understand the benefits of visual literacy.
• List the types of presentation aids.
• List display technologies.
• Understand design considerations.
• Understand how to implement presentation
aids into the message of a speech.
Have you ever tried to describe what someone looks like
to another person who has yet to meet your friend? It
is likely that the image formed in their mind, based on
your description, bears little resemblance to your friend.
However, if you show them a photograph, the information
is communicated quickly, forcefully, and accurately. Such
is the power of images.
Benefits of Visual Literacy
This chapter is going to introduce you to the idea of Visual
Literacy. What we’re concerned with here is the production
and consumption of visual messages. What exactly does
that mean? Heinich, Molenda, & Russell define visual
literacy as “the learned ability to interpret visual messages
accurately and to create such messages.”1 From this
185
Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell,
J. (1982). Instructional media and
the new technologies of instruction.
New York: Wiley. (p. 62).
1
definition, we can see that fully literate communicators
must be able to express themselves visually. As such,
these scholars take into consideration the two sides of any
literacy (see Figure 12.1).
In this class, you will be expected to produce messages
that your audience can easily interpret. Additionally,
you will interpret your classmate’s speeches and make
decisions about how this information is useful to you. By
learning to create (produce) visual messages, your ability
to accurately and critically interpret (consume) other
speaker’s visuals will increase. This, in turn, allows you
to become more literate with images you encounter in the
mass media.
Visual literacy encompasses a wide view of visual
communication, so how can we use this particular view of
literacy to help us as public speakers? We will discuss this
in terms of designing presentation aids for your speeches.
Choosing and/or designing the appropriate aid should
be guided by several factors such as the situation, the
audience, and the goals of the speech. You should not
immediately assume that an electronic presentation full
of fancy graphs is the answer. That is, before you begin
designing your message and the aids that will help you
communicate that message, you must first articulate the
goal of your presentation.2
At this point you should have a clear idea about your
goal and the content you wish to share in your speech.
Can you identify some areas where a presentation aid
would be useful? In other words, are there areas that
would be difficult to communicate using only words,
inflection, and gestures? If so, there may be several
solutions available to you. The next section describes
different visual representations that can help you achieve
your goals.
186
Th e Tw o Sid es of Literacy
Rea d
Wr ite
Listen
Speak
Interpret
Create
Co ns um e
Prod uce
Figure 12.1
2
What are the thinking-learningunderstanding tasks that my
displays and presentations are
supposed to help with?
- Edward Tufte
Types Of Presentation Aids
Let’s take a look at the various ways you can represent
your content and explore the conditions that may make a
particular image a good choice.
Visual representations can be arranged on a continuum
that runs from the abstract to the concrete (see Figure
12.2). You shouldn’t place value judgments on the terms
abstract and concrete. Communicating concretely is
�������� ����������������������� not necessarily better
than communicating
�������������
abstractly. As you might
have guessed, the most
��������
appropriate level of
�����������������������
abstraction and visual
treatment really depends
�����������
on your subject, your
�����������������������
audience, and your overall
goal.
�������� �������
Figure 12.2
Spoken/written language. Spoken words are
gone as soon as you say them. It is this impermanent
quality that makes them hard to pin down and often
hard to remember. How many times have you said, “I
didn’t say that!” while your friend swears that indeed you
did (and vice-versa). For that reason alone, it is usually
advantageous to give physical form to at least some
portion of your presentation. That way, your audience
knows that you mean business and that you are willing
to be held accountable for what you say. This is one way
to enhance ethical communication as well as speaker
credibility. So, for starters, you can write it down and
present it to your audience (we’ll discuss different display
technologies later).
187
Written language can take the form of tables, numbered
or bulleted lists, and labels. Note that this does not imply
writing complete sentences. You can verbally deliver
complete sentences, and you can write them in reports
and other printed materials, but most of the time they are
inappropriate as visuals for your audience (a quote is a
possible exception).
A table may include numbers as well as words. In fact,
it is often advantageous to create a table that includes
numbers rather than writing it out in narrative form in a
report (see Figure 12.3).
Percentages of Student Responses to Library Satisfaction Items
SD
1.8
D
N
A
SA
5.4 44.6 33.0 15.2
Provided me with the information skills I needed
3.6
4.5 18.8 59.8 13.4
Satisfaction with library support this semester
1.8
4.5 22.3 33.9 37.5
Helped me develop better research strategies
1.8 11.6 42.0 29.5 15.2
Helped me distinguish between trustworthy and
untrustworthy information
Research logs helped me develop better research skills
20.0 20.0 46.4
7.3
6.4
Online tutorials (I-Search) helped me develop better
research skills
8.0 17.0 57.1 10.7
7.1
Satisfaction with information literacy instruction
2.7
8.9 24.1 49.1 15.2
Notice how wordy a sentence would have to be just to
indicate the information in the first item of the table:
In response to the whether or not library instruction
helped them distinguish between trustworthy and untrustworthy information, 1.8% of the students strongly
disagreed, 5.4% disagreed, 44.6% were neutral, 33%
agreed, and 15.2% strongly agreed.
If your table contains too much information that can be
easily displayed for your audience, consider giving your
audience handouts. Do not oversimplify a visual at the
expense of misrepresenting your information.
188
Figure 12.3.
A numbered list can display rankings or other ordered
content making it easier to grasp than verbal or written
sentence form. Long, seemingly endless bulleted lists have
become cliché and have rightly been criticized in many
publications such as newspapers, trade magazines, and
scholarly journals.3
The problem is that too many presenters use this “easyto-create-visual” to deliver their content. According to
3M executive Gordon Shaw and his colleagues, lists can
only communicate three logical relationships: sequence,
priority, and membership in a set.4
For example, a list might be used to communicate
the proper order of steps that must occur in a process
(sequence). Or, you may list what you believe to be the
most important factors in choosing a new car (priority).
Finally, a list may be used to communicate items that are
related but are in no particular order such as the parts of a
motorcycle (membership). You may be tempted to merely
read a list to your audience. Don’t. There are other critical
relationships among items in the list that you must specify
with what you say.
Can you imagine watching speakers
stand and read screen after screen of
bulleted points to their audience and
calling that a presentation? Get used to
it. You will experience this phenomenon.
Does that mean there is no place for
bulleted or numbered lists? Lists are
very useful as structural devices. For
example, in Chapter 10 you learned
about beginnings and endings. A
bulleted list would be a useful way to
preview and review the main topics in your presentation
(see Figure 12.4). Think of numbered or bulleted items
as sort of a visual file folder that you provide for your
audience and that you will then specify other important
189
3
Hlynka, D., & Mason, R. (1998).
PowerPoint in the classroom: What
is the point? Educational Technology, September-October.
See also
Keller, (2003, January 5). Killing
me Microsoftly. Chicago Tribune
Magazine, pp. 8-12, 28, 29.
Edward Tufte especially takes PowerPoint to task in Tufte, E. R. (2003).
The cognitive style of PowerPoint.
Cheshire, CT: Cheshire Press.
Shaw, G., Brown, R., & Bromiley, P.
(May-June, 1998). Strategic stories:
How 3M is re-writing business
planning, Harvard Business Review, 76, 42-44.
4
Figure 12.4. The blues presentation used a bulleted list to review
the main points in the speech.
Also notice the quote used as a
memorable ending that refers
back to the attention getter.
relationships and provide stories and context that make
the lists meaningful. They can serve as visual reminders
for your audience of where you are in your speech and
how they should mentally file what you are saying. Again,
because they are one of the simplest visual aids to create,
bullets are overused and most of the time misused. So,
please limit their use. Your teacher, your classmates, and
your future employers will thank you.
Data Graphics. Think of data graphics as pictures
of numbers. Like spoken and written language, data
graphics are fairly abstract. That is, they don’t seem to
resemble anything in the physical world. However, it is
for that very reason that they are a powerful thinking,
problem solving, and communication device.
The best data graphics allow us to reason about the
data and guide our decisions about how to best act on
the information. They do this by making the data visible
and by inviting comparisons among the variables that are
charted. The numbers should be important. They should
mean something to your audience. If they don’t, then a
colorful graphic is not going to make your presentation
any more successful. Data graphics can take many
forms. Here are a few of the most common ones.
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5
“Data graphics visually display
measured quantities by means of
the combined use of points, lines,
a coordinate system, numbers,
symbols, words, shading, and
color.”
- Edward Tufte (2001).
The visual display of quantitative
information, 2nd ed. Cheshire, CT:
Chesire Press. (p. 9, Introduction).
5
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Pie Graphs
Pie graphs (also called pie charts)
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are constructed from small data
sets and the values are reported
as percentages. Therefore, all the
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pieces of the pie should add up to
100%. Pie graphs visually display
how individual categories relate to the
whole (see Figure 12.5). However, these
data graphics cannot usefully show more
than six or seven categories without creating pie slices
190
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Figure 12.5 is a pie graph that
represents the data from the first
item in the table from Figure 12.2.
that are too small to see. Presenters often collapse smaller
categories into an “other” or “miscellaneous” category to
avoid that problem. For this reason pie charts have limited
usefulness. Reporting small data sets that are percentages
could probably be done just as well and as forcefully in
a table format. For example, it would require seven pie
graphs to represent the same data from the table back in
Figure 12.2! Audience expectations should guide your
decision whether or not to use a pie graph or a table.
Line Graphs
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series plots and are very common.
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are plotted against a time interval �
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measured in seconds, minutes,
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hours, days, etc. The other variable �
values are regular measurements �
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changed over the time period
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displayed. These graphics excel at
Figure 12.6 allows viewers to
quickly gauge the buying power
making big data sets comprehensible and can really aid
of minimum wage at various
in understanding the measurements. By charting two or
points in time.
more variables along the same time dimension, thoughtful
comparisons can be made about the data to enhance
understanding. Typically the X (horizontal) axis represents
time and is read from left to right with the far left
representing the earliest point in time. The Y (vertical) axis
represents the change in the other variables. By observing
the rise and fall of the charted variable against time,
viewers can note trends. This can be a very powerful tool
to use when trying to establish cause/effect relationships.
However, time itself usually is not a causal variable.
191
To establish cause some other variable(s) must be
present at a given point in time to explain the rise or fall
of another variable. Don’t be fooled into thinking that
you or someone else has established a cause and effect
relationship, you may be guilty of the post hoc ergo propter
hoc fallacy (which is a fancy Latin way of saying you think
A caused B because A happened before B).
Bar/Column Graphs
A vertical bar (or column) graph can also be a time-series
graphic although the data set is usually not as dense or
as large as the one you would use in a line graph. But, it
does allow for quick comparisons between groups. For
example, a student organization might chart its fundraising efforts over the course of a few years and compare
the success of different tactics that were used (see Figure
12.7). By viewing the results graphically and historically,
student members can make policy decisions concerning
an appropriate course of action for further fundraising
events.
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Bar graphs can also be used without a time-series
element. Perhaps a local pizza franchise wants to take
a look how many pizzas it sold of different varieties
during a one month period so that the owners can forecast
192
Figure 12.7. Vertical bar (column)
graphs allow viewers to compare
groups of data, in this case over
time.
what the next month sales will look like so that they can
purchase the right amount of ingredients (see Figure 12.8).
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Data Maps
Data maps are a little less abstract than other data graphics
because they do contain some resemblance to the physical
world. And, unlike time-series plots, data is compared
in space not time. For example, city officials could plot
the number of traffic accidents during the year on a map
of their community. By comparing risky locations with
other known data about those areas, possible causes
for the accidents could emerge. Armed with increased
understanding brought about by use of this visual, policy
decisions could be made about speed limits on certain
streets, number of traffic lights, police cruise routes, etc.
Of course, this type of visual can be
misused just like any other.
After the 2004 presidential
campaign much was made about
red and blue states depending on
how each state voted. Illustrating
this graphically produces a kind of
us versus them quality that is a form of
either/or thinking that is also known as the fallacy
of the excluded middle (see Figure 12.9 ). What if shades
of purple were used to color how each county in the state
voted within specified ranges? That is, if candidates were
about evenly split the county would be purple. If one
193
Figure 12.9. In this black & white
representation, the darker states
are blue and the lighter states are
red.
candidate won handily in a particular county the color
would be a brighter blue or red. This kind of display
reveals more and reduces overly simplistic thinking.
Another thing to consider when seeing this type of display
is that population density in not the same in different
geographic locations. In this country it is one person, one
vote, not one acre, one vote. Special types of maps called
cartograms can compensate for this very thing.6
Of course, you can use maps as visual support even if
they do not contain data elements. The main question to
consider when using a map is the appropriate level of
detail to include in the visual. Depending on what you are
trying to accomplish, less detail in a map may reveal more.
For example, if you were giving a persuasive presentation
about increasing attendance at a fundraising event, it
would be better to show your audience a map that only
contained major streets and highways rather than every
single side street. Sometimes it might take a series of
maps, with increasing detail, to accomplish your goal.
Please refer to the following
media interaction:
http://www-personal.umich.
edu/~mejn/election/
6
Diagrams. Perhaps you are planning to speak about
something that has no physical referent that you can
point to – a process for example. It
may be helpful to think of diagrams as
pictures of verbs. Diagrams are visual
representations that show relationships
between abstract ideas. However, unlike
a data graphic the information is not
quantitative.
Typically diagrams are composed of
text, boxes, lines, and arrows that give
form and direction to your topic. One
type of diagram is a flow chart that
reveals the steps in a process. A timeline is a common and
familiar type of diagram that may use additional visual
forms such as photos and illustrations (see Figure 12.10).
194
Figure 12.10. Our blues presentation used a simple timeline as a
visual during the preview section
of the introduction.
Another type is an organization chart that shows the
hierarchy, chain-of-command, and/or reporting process
within an organization (see Figure 12.11).
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF STATE
SECRETARY OF STATE
U.S. Agency for International
Development
(USAID)
U.S. Permanent Representative to
the United Nations
(USUN)
(S)
Administrator
Deputy
Secretary of State
(D)
Executive Secretariat
(S/ES)
Chief of Staff
(S/COS)
Under Secretary for
Political Affairs
(P)
Assistant Secretary
East Asian and
Pacific Affairs
(EAP)
European and
Eurasian Affairs
(EUR)
South Asian
Affairs
(SA)
Assistant Secretary
Assistant Secretary
Near Eastern
Affairs
(NEA)
International
Organizations
(IO)
African Affairs
(AF)
Assistant Secretary
Under Secretary for
Economic, Business
and
Agricultural Affairs
(E)
Economic and
Business Affairs
(EB)
Assistant Secretary
Assistant Secretary
Executive Secretary
Under Secretary for
Arms Control and
International Security
Affairs
(T)
Under Secretary for
Public Diplomacy and
Public Affairs
(R)
Educational and
Cultural Affairs
(ECA)
Arms Control
(AC)
Assistant Secretary
Nonproliferation
(NP)
Assistant Secretary
Political-Military
Affairs
(PM)
Assistant Secretary
Assistant Secretary
Assistant Secretary
Public Affairs
(PA)
Assistant Secretary
International
Information
Programs
(IIP)
Director
Verification and
Compliance
(VC)
Western
Hemisphere
Affairs
(WHA)
(M)
Under Secretary for
Global Affairs
(G)
Democracy,
Human Rights
and Labor
(DRL)
Consular Affairs
(CA)
Administration
(A)
Assistant Secretary
Assistant Secretary
Diplomatic
Security
(DS)
Human Resources
(HR)
Director General of the
Foreign Service and Director
of Human Resources
Information
Resource
Management
(IRM)
Overseas Buildings
Operations
(OBO)
Assistant Secretary
Assistant Secretary
International
Narcotics and Law
Enforcement
(INL)
Assistant Secretary
Oceans and
International
Environmental
and Scientific
Affairs
(OES)
Director
Chief Information
Officer
Assistant Secretary
Assistant Secretary
Office of White House
Liaison
(M/WHL)
Foreign Service
Institute
(FSI)
Assistant Secretary.
Office of Management
Policy
(M/P)
Under Secretary
Population,
Refugees and
Migration
(PRM)
Director
Director
Assistant Secretary
Inspector
General
(OIG)
Policy Planning
Staff
(S/P)
Director
Office of
Civil Rights
(S/OCR)
Director
Legal
Adviser
(L)
Legislative
Affairs (H)
Assistant
Secretary
Intelligence and
Research
(INR)
Assistant Secretary
Resource
Management
(RM)
Assistant Secretary
and Chief Financial
Officer
Chief of
Protocol
(S/CPR)
Ambassador
Counterterrorism
(S/CT)
Coordinator and
Ambassador at Large
War Crimes
Issues
(S/WCI)
Counselor
(C)
Office of Science
and Technology
Adviser
(STAS)
Ambassador at Large
Revised June 13, 2003
This particular organization chart is probably too busy to
be used as a presentation aid that you display. In this case,
you might want to enlarge specific sections of the diagram
so that it could be easily seen by the audience. You could
also provide a handout of the whole diagram to your
audience.
Illustrations/paintings. Up until now the visual
support we have described is fairly abstract. Illustrations
and paintings are visuals that resemble what they
represent (modern art notwithstanding!). Think of them as
pictures of nouns. These are things that you can point to
195
Figure 12.11. Organization chart
for the U.S. Secretary of State available at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/
ei/rls/dos/7926.htm
in the physical world. Illustrations and paintings may be
humorous, nostalgic, or dark and threatening.
Clip art is a very common – and thus overused
– form of illustration because it’s plentiful and easy
to use. For the most part, we don’t recommend its use
because it often does not advance the message. Many
speakers tend to use clip art as a tacked on decoration
with little thought of what impact it might have on the
audience. If it detracts, it becomes a source of interference
(remember the communication process?). And please,
don’t use humorous clip art during a serious presentation.
Appearing insensitive, callous, or silly during a speech
about a solemn topic is, at best, damaging to your
credibility and, at worst, unethical.
Photographs. Photographs are even less abstract than
illustrations and paintings. However, they too are pictures
of nouns. If you’re making an informative presentation
about a famous person, why not show your audience a
photo of that person? If, during a persuasive presentation,
you recommend that your audience study abroad in
Paris next summer, why not show them pictures of when
you studied there? Just be sure that you don’t state the
obvious. You don’t need to say, “This is the Eiffel Tower.”
Rather, you could point out something that is not widely
known or a particular location that you visited. This will
enhance your credibility.
Today, with image editing software such as Adobe
Photoshop, even relatively inexperienced amateurs
have no problem creating “imagined” images of high
quality. Now, obviously, the ease and availability of these
technologies are helpful to those who need to create
visuals for their presentations. However, ethical problems
arise when our audience cannot distinguish fact from
fiction.
196
We’re sure you’ve seen images on the internet or in
tabloid newspapers as you were waiting in the grocery
line at the market that made you smile. We all know the
president didn’t really speak to an alien on the White
House lawn about world affairs. But, how about those
images that purport to be true and we have no way of
knowing whether or not they are? One way to ensure
authenticity is to take photos ourselves for use in our
speeches. We can vouch for the integrity of our images and
our credibility is enhanced in the eyes of our audience.
However, sometimes photographic special effects or
“imagined” images may suit the topic and advance your
message. It is important, though, to let you audience know
if an image has been “doctored.” Newspapers and news
magazines that use these strategies label the images as
“photo-illustrations.” You should do the same to ensure
ethical communication.
You can use photos that you did not take in your
presentations, but you must state the source of those
photos, not only to give credit where credit is due, but
also so that your audience can gauge the image’s (and the
imagemaker’s) credibility. Please be advised that you are
able to use images that you do not own for educational
purposes only. This is a provision in copyright law known
as “Fair Use.” Any commercial use of an image that you
do not own the rights to is prohibited by law and can
result in fines and/or prison sentences.
Films/Videos/Animations. All of the visual forms
we have discussed so far have been two-dimensional.
That is, they have height and width. Film, video, and
animation include another dimension: time. Of course,
films, videos, and animations may also include sound but
not necessarily. They may even involve manipulation of
time and space.
197
Have you ever seen a film of storm clouds racing and
boiling through the sky? How about a flower growing,
opening, and its petals unfolding? These are examples of
time compression. That is, what may have taken several
minutes, hours, or days is sped up to reveal movement
we might not have otherwise perceived. When you watch
a slow-motion replay of a touchdown pass or a “photofinish” at a horse race you are witnessing the expansion
of time. How many times have you seen the touchdown
challenged and then overturned after the official watched
the slow motion replay and decided that what the referee
saw on the field was incorrect?
So, should you use a video or an animation in your
presentation? As long as the clip is short and it doesn’t
overwhelm the rest of your presentation, it may be
a good choice. Of course, you must have the proper
technology available to make it work. If in doubt, ask your
instructor. Don’t use videos or animations for their “whiz
bang” effect. Use them because it would be difficult or
impossible to get your point across otherwise.
Objects. The most concrete visual aid available is
an object. Your audience will see exactly what you are
talking about in three dimensions. Of course, it must
be large enough to be seen by the audience. If you are
presenting to just a handful of people in a meeting room
you can use a much smaller object than you could in front
of hundreds of people in an auditorium. If an object is
rare, fragile, expensive, or dangerous it is probably not
a good choice as a presentation aid. Paint ball is a fine
hobby and may make a good informative speech topic,
but bringing a paintball gun on campus is a bad idea
(and probably illegal). Use common sense and ask your
instructor if you have any doubts about using an object
in your presentation. Recall from the beginning of this
discussion that each of the types of presentation aids range
198
from the abstract to the concrete (see Figure
12.12). Remember that the appropriate level of
abstraction should be based on your subject,
audience, and goal.
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Display Technologies
When it comes to visual presentation there
are basically two technologies by which
you can display your information: paper or
screen. There are some variations of these
technologies available and they can be used in
conjunction, depending on content, audience,
context, and availability.
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Paper. You may not think of paper as a
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Figure 12.12.
technology, but in fact it is. It has just been around for
several hundred years. As such, it is a mature technology
that has a long history of use and well-established
design principles. The visuals you create to support
your presentation can be printed as handouts for each
person in the audience, or you can create large prints
and posters to show from your speaking position. The
speaking/meeting room will have to be fairly small with
your audience sitting nearby to use printed materials as a
display technology. Another way to present with paper is
to use flip charts. Your visuals can be prepared in advance
or you can solicit information from the audience and
write on the pad as you speak. Flip charts are most useful
in an interactive format such as a brainstorming session,
and may not be the best choice during a relatively linear
presentation.
Screen. Screen presentations include the use of
overhead transparencies, computer/ video projectors, and
computer/television monitors.
199
Overhead Transparencies
The machine that projects overhead transparencies is
sometimes called a vu graph. This technology has been
around since right after World War II so it is widely
diffused. It would be difficult to walk into any school,
university, government agency, or large business and
not find one of these projectors. As you know, there are
newer technologies that are supplanting its use, but it’s
still a good idea to have familiarity with this device.
For example, since vu graphs can be found just about
everywhere, they make a good “plan B” backup option
should another technology fail. The transparencies are
easy to create with a personal computer and printer. Just
load your printer with the proper material and hit print.
Please make sure to get the right transparencies for your
printer – laser printers and ink jet printers use different
materials. And, using the wrong material can damage
your printer.
Computer/video projectors
Probably the most common type of display technology
in use today in universities and businesses is the
computer/video/projector combination. Basically,
either a computer or video device (VCR, DVD, etc.) is
hooked to an electronic projector to display information.
Many classrooms, boardrooms, and meeting rooms are
permanently wired with such configurations making it
fairly simple to use these technologies. And, there are
several small, portable projector models available for
use with laptop computers that make giving electronic
presentations anywhere a reality. Depending on brightness
level of the projector, the room lights may or may not have
to be lowered during the presentation.
Presentation software such as Microsoft PowerPoint and
Apple Keynote are typically used in these situations. All
of the visual forms discussed earlier (with the exception of
200
objects) can be incorporated into these programs. You can
also include animation, transitions, and sound.
Monitors
With the advent of extremely large flat panel television/
video/computer monitors, some speaking rooms are
outfitted with these instead of projectors. They are usually
not as large as a projected image but almost always can
be used in normal room light and feature extremely vivid
images with good color and contrast. Just make sure
everyone in your audience can see the monitor.
Design Considerations
Visual communication and design is a topic/book/
course/major/career all on its own. However, most people
can learn a few design principles to help them with their
everyday design tasks.7
Contrast. Vary the size of the visual elements you
use. Information varies in terms of importance or type.
Everything is not the same and contrasting the size helps
communicate importance and hierarchies of information.
Headings should be larger than table elements. Also use
contrasting colors. Blue almost always makes a good
background color because cooler colors seem to fade
away or recede from the viewer. However, black text on a
dark blue background is hard to read because there is not
enough color contrast. White text on blue is much easier to
read.
Repetition. Be consistent. Once you have established
a look or color scheme, stick with it. If you change the
background, the audience will start to wonder if the
change means something and will quit listening to what
you say. If you are using a warm, nostalgic illustration
style, don’t switch to something cool and modern. If
201
For an expanded discussion of
these principles, see Williams, R.
(2004). The non-designer’s design
book, 2nd ed. Berkeley: Peachpit
Press.
7
you pick a particular typeface for your headings,
stick with it throughout your presentation. Unless
you’ve been trained in typography we recommend
using no more than two typefaces during a
presentation. Of course, you can vary a typeface
just by making bold, larger, etc.). Just because you
have 200 typefaces on your computer doesn’t mean
you have to use them all at once.
Alignment. Novice designers tend to stick visual
elements all over the place trying to fill up all of
the corners, and it tends to get a little messy. Visual
elements (text, graphics, diagrams, illustrations,
photos) can be aligned on their tops, bottoms, and
sides. By creating some strong alignments and
edges you can clean up a messy visual relatively
quickly. Try to ensure that every element on the
screen aligns with at least one other item. Try it, it
works wonders!
Proximity. If two or more visual items are related,
group them closely. Your audience will immediately
know to interpret them together. Conversely, if
the visual items should be interpreted as separate
elements then space them further apart. By
the simple act of careful placement, you create
relationships that help your audience comprehend
the information. These four principles are easy to
understand and implement, but they will make
your visuals look much better and will enhance
your visual literacy.
202
Integrating the
Presentation Aid into the Speech
The aid must be gracefully integrated into the message
of the speech. Practice is essential. The presentation
should be rehearsed until you are comfortable with the
presentation aid and know how to handle it during
the speech. You should he able to maintain eye contact
with the audience and avoid obstructing their view of
the presentation aid. In addition, you need to be able
to point confidently to the presentation aid and explain
the necessary concepts. Timing is important. After you
have used the aid, it should be removed. Do not display
the next aid until you are ready to use it. Before the
presentation, you should inspect the room for lighting and
general set-up, assemble everything needed to display
the presentation aid, and determine your position and
the placement of the presentation aid. One more thing,
always be prepared to do without. Televisions can break,
overhead projectors can burn out, computers can lock
up, and transparencies can be left at home. After all, if
used properly, presentation aids are not the presentation
themselves. You and your message should always come
first.
Summary
To accomplish your communication goals you often need
to express yourself visually. In this chapter we introduced
the idea of visual literacy and how this knowledge will
help you create, as well as, interpret visual messages.
Beyond production of presentation aids for your speech,
you need to correctly interpret the deluge of images
that you encounter each day. Effective production and
consumption of visual messages is one more skill needed
to become a confident and competent communicator. You
also learned about many types of visuals and the display
203
technologies that are used to present them. We also
discussed basic design considerations that will
allow you to create attractive and effective visuals.
Finally, we offered some tips about how to integrate
the your presentations aids into your speech.
In the next chapter you will learn some strategies
for effectively delivering your speech.
204
205
Chapter Thirteen
Delivering the Presentation
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
• Understand the importance of delivery to
effective public speaking.
• List and identify the methods of delivery.
• Distinguish between verbal and nonverbal
aspects of delivery.
Effective delivery gives life to words. Ineffective delivery
has the potential to make them meaningless. In the
previous chapters, we discussed each step in the speech
making process including choosing topics, conducting
research, organizing ideas, and choosing language. With
each step, you have engaged in the process of becoming
critical producers of information. Now comes the part
that you are most likely concerned with—delivering your
message. The good news is that if you have followed the
guidelines presented in this text as you produced your
message and you have allowed yourself enough time to
consider how you will deliver the message, your ability to
communicate to your audience should be enhanced by the
decisions you made.
For example, if as you wrote your speech, you
considered the difference between written and oral styles,
your delivery will sound more conversational and that
should be your goal. Effective delivery demonstrates your
desire to communicate with, not at your audience. Effective
delivery demonstrates your enthusiasm for the topic and
207
confidence in the content. Effective delivery does not
detract from the message in any way. As such, effective
speakers “sound” natural, conversational, confident, and
enthusiastic about the opportunity to share information
with or influence their audiences in some way.
In this chapter, we will discuss the importance of
delivery, the various methods of delivery, and how to
enhance both your verbal and nonverbal delivery.
Importance Of Delivery
The delivery of your presentation will be the means
by which you communicate your credibility as a
speaker. Keep in mind one central tenant of nonverbal
communication—we cannot not communicate
nonverbally.1 From the moment you approach the front
of the room, you are communicating to your audience.
Your behaviors will indicate whether or not you are
prepared to present the message you have spent so much
time constructing. Your audience will not know of your
efforts unless you communicate your preparation to them
through your delivery. The first thing the audience sees is
your actions before you ever speak a word. These actions
should be consistent with the amount of time you spent
in preparation for this moment and demonstrate your
confidence in a well-produced presentation. This will give
you initial speaker credibility.
Because your audience will most likely not have access
to your outline or the content of your speech, they will be
paying particular attention to your delivery.
A recent study found that when asked to comment on
student presentations, peer evaluators were much more
likely to comment on the strengths or weaknesses of
a speaker’s delivery as opposed to the content of the
speech.2 Perhaps this is because it is easier to comment on
what you see rather than what you hear. This certainly has
implications for the amount of time you should set aside
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1
Watzlawick, P., Bevelas, J. B., &
Jackson, D. D. (1967). Pragmatics of
human communication. New York:
W. W. Norton.
Reynolds, D., Hunt, S. K., Simonds,
C. J., & Cutbirth, C. W. (2004).
Written speech feedback in the
basic communication course: Are
instructors too polite to students?
In B. S. Titsworth ( Ed.), Basic communication course annual (Vol. 16,
pp. 36-71). Boston: American Press.
2
to practice your delivery and make a good impression
with your audience.
Methods Of Delivery
There are several ways to deliver a presentation but one
in particular is more suitable to a classroom presentation.
We’ll discuss the other methods briefly and end with a
more thorough discussion of how you will present your
speech. The four methods of delivery are impromptu,
manuscript, memorized, and extemporaneous.
Impromptu. Impromptu speaking happens when you
are called to talk “off the cuff.” That is, you have little
time to prepare your remarks. This happens on a daily
basis. You may be asked to explain your actions, provide
directions, defend an idea, or simply converse with a
friend or classmate. You do not always plan in advance
what you say, but you may think of ways that you can
best convey your message. Because your speech topic for
this class was selected some time ago and you have been
given time to prepare, your speech will hopefully not be
impromptu (unless of course you waited until the last
minute to plan your presentation!).
Manuscript. Some speeches are read word for word
and rightly so. If what you have to say needs to be precise
and has limited time constraints, then you would want
to speak from a manuscript. For example, if you are
giving a television or radio address, you will need to give
a clear and concise message in a short amount of time.
Television newscasters speak from manuscripts through a
teleprompter and do not have much leeway to stray from
the script. This is because they have strict time limitations
and are skilled in the practice of making the news sound
conversational. However, most speakers don’t sound
conversational when reading. Thus, reading your class
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presentation to your audience is not advised. Additionally,
reading does not allow you to adapt your message to
audience feedback.
Memorized. If your message is going to be somewhat
brief, you may consider memorizing the presentation.
This might be a good strategy during special occasions
such as introducing other speakers or making a toast at
a wedding. While you know exactly what you are going
to say, you would want to rehearse the presentation in
such a way as to not sound like it is memorized. Some
apprehensive speakers think that they will feel much more
comfortable if they memorize their speech but this is not
advisable. Most likely, your nerves will make you forget
the exact wording you had planned and your audience
will tend to perceive that you are talking at them instead
of to them.
Extemporaneous. Pretty big word, right?
Simply
put, this means that you deliver your presentation from a
prepared outline or speaking notes. This method is often
preferred in classroom presentations because it allows
you to experience what it is like to communicate with an
audience a message that is well-conceived and planned.
We discussed earlier the difference between a preparation
outline and a speaking outline. As you write your
preparation outline and practice it aloud several times,
you become confident enough to transfer the detailed
information to a speaking outline which provides you
with the notes you need to deliver your presentation. You
know, in advance, what you plan to say, but do not have
it written out word-for-word. This allows you to better
communicate with your audience.
Extemporaneous speaking allows you to gauge your
audience’s reactions (feedback) and adapt your message
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accordingly. For example, if you say a term and you
notice that a member of the class looks confused, this may
indicate to you that you need to define or more carefully
explain that term. If you see someone in the back of the
room struggling to hear you, you know that you need to
adjust the volume of your presentation.
Extemporaneous speaking allows you to speak more
conversationally. Your audience does not expect you to
be flawless as they would if you were reading. In fact,
audiences do not like being read to. This gives them
the opportunity to get distracted and perhaps not pay
attention to your speech. When you look up from your
notes, you may even pause or stumble a bit, but this
happens naturally in conversation. In fact, as instructors
we often tell our students that we would much rather
they stumble here and there than read to us (which is not
natural at all).
You know what you want to say, now you need to
consider how you will say it. In the following sections,
we will discuss how you can use verbal and nonverbal
delivery to make your presentation sound more
conversational, credible, and confident.
Verbal Delivery
How can you use your voice to make yourself appear
credible and your message sound conversational? The
trick is variety! To be perceived as credible, you will want
to have clear articulation and pronunciation. To sound
conversational, you will want to vary your volume, rate,
and pitch.
Articulation. Articulation is the clear formation of
words. Your articulators are parts of your physical
anatomy that allow you to form your words. To illustrate,
try saying the following tongue twister:
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A tutor who tooted the flute tried to tutor two students
to toot. Said the two to the tutor, “Is it harder to toot or
to tutor two students to toot?”
Now, what did you physically have to do to say this? Did
you use your mouth, tongue, teeth, hard and soft pallet?
These are your articulators and help you to form each
sound in a word.
Sometimes people get lazy with their words and skip
a few sounds. For example, has anyone ever asked you,
“Yungry, lesqueet?” Did you understand what they were
asking? Probably, but they were not clearly articulating.
Lazy articulators say things like “askt” instead of “asked,”
“din’t” instead of “didn’t,” or “fishin” instead of “fishing.”
Lazy articulators lack a certain level of credibility in the
eyes of their audience. As you practice your presentation,
try loosening up those articulators to clearly form each
and every sound of your words. Taking a drink of water
just before your presentation will allow you to become
aware of and loosen up your articulators. You may even
consider warming up with a few tongue twisters.
Pronunciation
you say tomato, i say tomahto
you eat potato and i eat potahto
tomato, tomahto, potato, potahto
let’s call the whole thing off
Many of you may be familiar with Fred Astaire and this
song (or, maybe not!), but the difference between the ways
in which tomato and potato are said is pronunciation.
Each language has an accepted standard for how a
word sounds. While many people can read or write a
particular word, they may be less certain about how to
pronounce it. Pronunciation is how a word is said and
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stressed. Which syllable is the strongest and which vowel
sound is used? Is it a short a or a long a? Dictionaries
provide information for how a word should be said. As
you construct your message, be on the lookout for any
words that you may not be sure how to pronounce. You
will want to pay particular attention to how names of
sources are pronounced which can sometimes be tricky.
For example, if you are talking about the German scholar,
Max Weber, you will want to be sure to pronounce it as
Max Veber which is the correct pronunciation. Incorrect
pronunciation will also affect speaker credibility if the
audience catches on.
Volume. The loudness or softness with which you speak
should be varied to sound conversational. In natural
conversation, no one really ever talks with the same
amount of volume at all times. People tend to get louder
when they want to stress a point or softer when they want
to show effect. Try reading a passage from this chapter
without varying your volume. It sounds weird, right?
Your volume should also be appropriate to the size of
the room and audience. Do you know anyone who is a
loud talker? This can be quite annoying and detract from
a person’s message. On the other hand, if people can’t
hear the message, nothing can be communicated. Rooms
with a lot of people require more volume than rooms with
just a few people. Larger rooms require more volume than
smaller rooms. Try practicing in the room where you will
be speaking and get a classmate to sit at the back of the
room. Now, you will want to project your voice so that the
audience member in the back of the room can hear you
comfortably while not appearing to shout at the people in
the front of the room.
Rate. You will also want to vary the speed with which
you speak. This might include some well planned pauses
213
for emphasis or effect. We have all heard speakers who,
once in front of an audience, start talking like a speeding
bullet. This too can be annoying. However, it is important
to know that sometimes when you are nervous, you have
a tendency to speak fast. You should look to your audience
for clues if this is happening.
To find a comfortable rate and to help you relax, try
taking three deep breaths before you speak. As you do,
remind yourself to speak slowly. You should practice your
rate so that you are saying about 2 words per second.
This will give you a comfortable pace which sounds
conversational and also allow you to practice giving
your speech within the allotted time limit. Remember,
your audience needs time to grasp complex information
and follow the organization of your presentation. On the
other hand, speaking too slowly may bore audiences and
ultimately decrease the amount of information they retain
from your speech. In fact, research has generally found
that moderate speakers are perceived as more intelligent,
competent, confident, credible, socially attractive,
and effective than slow speakers.3 A rate between 100
and 200 words per minute should work well for most
presentations you give.
Pause. One way to vary your rate is through the use
of pauses. A well timed moment of silence can speak
volumes to an audience. Pauses can be used to emphasize
a point, collect your thoughts, or transition to a new
point. The use of pauses can also demonstrate poise and
confidence which will enhance your credibility with your
audience.
The problem is we have a tendency to want to fill our
pauses with something. How many times have you heard
speakers hem and haw during a presentation? You know
what we’re talking about because you’ve probably been
annoyed by someone’s overuse of umm, ah, you know, like
214
Simonds, B. K., Meyer, K. R.,
Quinlan, M. M., & Hunt, S. K. (2006).
Effects of instructor speech rate on
student affective learning, recall,
and perceptions of nonverbal
immediacy, credibility, and clarity.
Communication Research Reports,
23, 187-197.
3
See also
Skinner, C. H., Robinson, D. H.,
Robinson, S. L., Sterling, H. E., &
Goodman, M. A. (1999). Effects
of advertisement speech rates on
feature recognition, and product
and speaker ratings. International
Journal of Listening, 13, 97–110.
. . . Or, maybe you’re the culprit. We would recommend
that you practice your speech in front of someone to have
them check for these filler words. Once you realize you
have a tendency to use them, it is much easier to learn to
replace them with silence.
Pitch. Pitch is the highness or lowness of your voice.
Have you ever known anyone with a particularly
high voice? Again . . . annoying! On the other hand,
someone who attempts to speak in a low range can sound
unnatural. Nervousness may also cause you to raise
your pitch beyond what is comfortable for the audience
to hear. Once you find a comfortable range or pitch, you
should consider points in the presentation you will want
to vary the pitch. When you vary your pitch, you are using
inflection to help you communicate your ideas. When you
do not, you become monotone. Perhaps you have known
someone who speaks in the same pitch at all times and
know exactly what we are talking about. A good example
of monotone comes from the ever popular movie, Ferris
Bueller’s Day Off, where the teacher calls roll, lectures, and
then asks questions he never really intends for anyone to
answer. And yet he continues with his monotone lecture
after no one responds to: anyone? . . . anyone? . . .
We generally raise our pitch at the end of a question
and the audience knows it is a question without actually
seeing the punctuation mark. For example, consider the
following statements:
Got the keys? (asking if someone else has the keys)
Got the keys! (telling someone else you have the keys)
You may remember an episode of Friends where this
caused confusion and the group was ultimately locked
out of the apartment with Thanksgiving Dinner waiting
inside.
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Vocal Variety. The way that you vary the last four vocal
qualities (volume, rate, pauses, and pitch) will enhance
your overall vocal variety. Vocal variety allows speakers
to become more conversational and expressive. In other
words, vocal variety will provide evidence of your
communication competence. The next time you have a
conversation with a family member or friend, see if you
can identify when and how he or she varies in volume,
rate, pause and pitch. While we have a tendency to do this
in natural conversation, we also have a tendency to stiffen
up in our presentations. The fact that you are in front of an
audience and being evaluated will most likely cause you
to do this. Your concentration is on the content of what
you say, but not necessarily on how you are saying it. That
is why you need to practice your delivery. Think about
ways to vary your voice so that the audience becomes
more interested in what you have to say.
Nonverbal Delivery
Nonverbal delivery also gives meaning to your words. In
fact, if your actions are inconsistent with your message,
your audience is more likely to believe how you say it
rather than what you say.4
For example, if you say you are interested in your
topic, but your face and body indicate that you are bored,
your audience will not be motivated to listen. However,
if you are able to demonstrate energy and enthusiasm for
your topic, your audience will become interested as well.
So, how do you do that? Through your eyes, face, body
(posture and gesture), and movement (use of space).
Eye Contact. In many cultures, eye contact
communicates to your audience that you are credible and
that you care about how they are receiving your message;5
however, this can vary from culture to culture.6 In the
United States, we value when someone looks at us while
216
Knapp, M., & Hall, J. (1997). Nonverbal communication in human
interaction (4th ed.). Philadelphia:
Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich.
4
Napieralski, L. P., Brooks, C. I., &
Droney, J. M. (1995). The effect of
duration of eye contact on American college students’ attributions
of state, trait, and test anxiety.
Journal of Social Psychology, 135,
273-280.
5
they speak. In fact, we may tend to disbelieve someone
who cannot look us in the eye. In some Asian cultures,
however, avoiding eye contact is a sign of respect.
Understanding your audience will help you to determine
whom you should maintain eye contact with.
Eye contact establishes the connection between the
speaker and the audience. When a speaker looks out at
the audience, the audience is more likely to listen. When
a speaker uses eye contact, he or she is able to gauge
audience feedback to the message. In this way, eye contact
is what allows speakers to actually communicate with
their audiences as opposed to speaking at their audiences.
Therefore, eye contact should be purposeful. You
should look at your audience to determine how they are
responding to your message. Many times, students think
that if they just look up from their notes about half the
time, this is considered good eye contact. But the purpose
of eye contact is not to let your audience know that you
have practiced enough to be able to look away from
your notes from time to time. Rather, your eye contact
should be directed to your audience for the purpose of
determining their reactions to your message.
Face. As you look into the faces of your audience through
the use of eye contact, they are looking right back at you.
As they watch you present your message, they are looking
at your face to determine if what you say is consistent with
how you say it. If you say you are excited about your topic,
does your face agree? If your topic is serious, does your
face indicate this? If you are attempting to use humor,
does your face help you with your punch line? A well
planned smile or even a frown can communicate more to
your audience than perhaps your words alone. Speakers
should learn to let their face compliment their message as
opposed to contradicting it (unless, of course, you want to
be sarcastic). Varying your facial expressions and making
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6
Richmond, V. P., McCroskey, J. C.,
& Payne, S. K. (1987). Nonverbal
behavior in interpersonal relations.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
sure they match your verbal message will also enhance
your credibility.7 Try practicing in front of a mirror or a
close friend and see if your face actually demonstrates
how you feel about your topic and message.
Body. Your body communicates to your audience how
you feel about your message. Through the use of posture
and gestures, you can indicate your speaker credibility
and confidence in your message. Let’s first discuss
posture.
In the chapter on communication apprehension,
we discussed several strategies you could use to relax
your body through tension and release exercises. These
techniques will allow you to walk to the front of the room
more relaxed and appear more confident.
Once you get to the front of the room, you will want to
stand with your weight distributed evenly on both legs
and with your feet approximately shoulder width apart.
This will keep you from swaying back and forth. As a
speaker, you do not want your audience wishing they
had taken their Dramamine before your speech! Indeed,
swaying because one leg gets tired can become quite
annoying and certainly detracts from the content of your
message. Also, begin your presentation with your arms
resting comfortably at your side. This may indicate to your
audience that you are relaxed and ready to present which
will certainly affect their perceptions of your credibility.
When you are ready to speak simply raise your note cards
and begin. Try holding your notes with one hand so you
can free your other hand to make gestures.
Gestures are the use of your body in some way to
reinforce an idea. Most gestures are done with the hands
or arms, but can also be accomplished with a shrug of a
shoulder or the movement of a leg or foot. Gesturing is
natural in communication. Most of us gesture without
even thinking about it. But try talking to someone
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7
Burgoon, J. K., Birk, T., & Pfau,
M. (1990). Nonverbal behaviors,
persuasion, and credibility. Human
Communication Research, 17, 140170.
sometime without moving your body in any way.
Difficult, right? After you have written your presentation
and begin practicing your delivery, consider where in
the presentation is a good place to gesture. Gestures
should be natural and require practice making them look
comfortable as opposed to mechanical. Sometimes a small
movement can communicate more than a large one. A
simple raising or lowering of the hand can be used to
indicate movement or direction with a concept. Gesturing
can indicate size and relationship among ideas as well.
We recommend using note cards as opposed to printed
pages for your speaking outline because they are easier
to use when gesturing and do not rattle when hands are
shaky. We also recommend using few note cards because
if you have too many, they can become cumbersome and
cause you some frustration as you speak. You should
number your note cards and only use one side. Practice
with your note cards. Don’t assume this will be easy.
As instructors, we have certainly seen our fair share of
students becoming flustered because their cards get out of
order.
Movement. It is not often that we see speakers stand
in just one place unless they are behind a podium and
cannot move because of the placement of the microphone.
This, however, will most likely not be the case for your
classroom presentation. When you get out from behind
a podium, you are indicating to your classmates that
you are approachable and confident in your message.
In fact, making use of your available space through
movement may even help you to reduce your level of
anxiety. Movement takes energy. Using energy releases the
adrenalin that may cause nervousness.
Movement should be meaningful and well planned.
Again, your audience may be wishing they had taken that
Dramamine if you move aimlessly about the room. Rather,
219
use movement for emphasis or to show transition. If you
are using a presentation aid, you will want to plan where
you are before, during, and after your demonstration of
the aid. This is a very natural place in the presentation for
movement.
Summary
Often times, students think that once they write their
presentation, they are finished preparing for their speech.
They are not! As you have seen in this chapter, there
are many things to consider in the delivery of your
presentation. Taking both verbal and nonverbal delivery
into consideration will require much time and practice.
You should practice alone until you become comfortable
enough with your delivery to practice in front of a friend.
As you practice for your friend, ask him or her to look
for effective or ineffective uses of your voice and body.
Remember, your delivery should be consistent with your
content and not detract from your message. You may not
be aware of any distracting mannerisms until they are
pointed out for you.
A well written speech and an effective delivery will lead
to perceptions of you becoming a competent communicator.
As your audience perceives you to be a competent
communicator, you also become a more confident
communicator. Have confidence in a well written speech.
This is how it works! You have spent much time selecting,
researching, and organizing your topic. You are confident
with your material and you still have time before the
presentation to practice your delivery. This confidence
should help with your performance which will result in
your audience having confidence in you.
This chapter marks the end of our second unit on
message clarity. You should now be ready to present your
informative speech. In addition to presenting your own,
220
you will be listening to and evaluate the messages of
others. For additional information on how to effectively
evaluate or provide feedback to your classmates’ speeches,
please see Appendix A: Advice for Peer Evaluation.
221
Chapter Fourteen
Communicating In Groups
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
• Define the characteristics of groups.
• Identify group norms and roles.
• Understand the role of leaders in groups.
• Plan an effective group meeting.
You have been participating in groups (at least informally)
all of your life. Your family members are all part of a
group. In fact, if you were to take an inventory of the
groups you currently belong to, you would probably
be able to name quite a few. You join groups to form
friendships, join teams, make decisions, and share
information. You will most likely be asked to participate in
group tasks throughout your college career as well as your
profession.
While you participate in groups throughout life, it
is ironic that you are not often informed as to how to
participate effectively within them. This chapter will
change all of that. Groups accomplish goals through
communication. We will first discuss group characteristics,
group norms and roles including leadership roles, and
then discuss how to become better participants in group
meetings.
Characteristics of Groups
A group is a gathering of people who interact with one
another for a common purpose. Let’s examine each of the
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important elements to our definition. First, groups are a
gathering of three or more people. Groups must have at
least three people because two people interacting make
a pair, or dyad, not a group. Think about it. When you
have a conversation with two other people, the dynamic is
completely different than when you converse with just one
other person.
Another important aspect of group communication is
that all participants are able to interact with each other.
This is why groups should be limited in size to about 10
members. Anything more than that would make member
to member interaction more difficult and sub-groups or
cliques would form. So, groups are comprised of 3-10
members with 5-7 being the best size to maximize member
interaction.
Finally, groups must have a common purpose or
goal. Any gathering of people does not make a group.
For example, people gathered at a bus stop do not have
a common purpose so they do not constitute a group.
Groups must meet to accomplish some task which
becomes the purpose for gathering.
So, what is your first reaction when you find out
that you will be assigned to a group project? Some
people dislike the idea perhaps because of a negative
past experience where another group member did
not pull their weight. Others become excited for the
opportunity to share ideas and work with classmates.
This reaction, whether positive or negative, occurs
because group communication has both its advantages
and disadvantages. Some advantages include sharing of
workload and pooling of resources, bouncing ideas off one
another, and the enjoyment and motivation of working
with other people. In fact, there is a word that describes a
positive end result of group collaboration, synergy. Group 1 Engleberg, I., N., & Wynn, D. R.
(1997). Working in groups: CommuSynergy occurs when the whole group is more successful
nication principles and strategies.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
than each member within it.1 Because all members of
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the group pool their knowledge, experience, expertise,
and resources, the end result of group work is better than
anything you could have done by yourself. This is a good
thing!
However, not all group members take their
responsibility seriously and end up making their group
members work harder to make up for their lack of it.
This can really bog down the accomplishments of the
entire group. Group work is sometimes difficult because
members have to take time to report to and communicate
with one another about their progress and plan their
presentation. Scheduling these meetings around everyone
can sometimes create problems. Also, it is sometimes
difficult to reach decisions and conflict can result. While
conflict may seem like a disadvantage to group work, it
sometimes has just the opposite effect. If everyone agrees
all the time because they want to avoid conflict at all
costs, the end result can be an ineffective outcome. That is,
poor decisions are made without considering all possible
alternatives or ideas. This is known as groupthink.2
Groupthink occurs when members of the group are more
concerned with getting the task done as opposed to
getting it done right. Sometimes a looming deadline can
cause groupthink. This is not a good thing!
There is one other characteristic of group
communication that can be an advantage or a
disadvantage depending on how group members take
the responsibility of interdependence. Group members
are interdependent of one another because everything
that one member does will influence the entire group.
For example, if your group schedules a meeting and one
member cannot make it, the interaction and productivity
of that meeting is completely different than it would have
been if the absent member were there. Some students
take this responsibility very seriously and their effort is
greater in group work than when working alone. Others,
225
Neck, C. (1996, November). Letterman or Leno: A groupthink
analysis of successive decision
made by the National Broadcasting Company. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 11, 3-18.
2
however, will let other group members take up the slack
for their part. In either case, the entire group is affected by
the work of that individual member.
Group Norms and Roles
When groups meet for the first time, there are expectations
of behavior for how each member participates within the
group. These expectations, also known as norms, may
start out as an unstated rule. In other words, norms are
implicit because they are not directly stated but indirectly
observed. For example, if one member observes another
member showing up late to a meeting and none of the
other members say anything about it, then this member
might conclude that tardiness is acceptable to this group.
When the expectation is communicated to the members
of the group, it becomes explicit. Explicit expectations
become rules for group interaction. Explicit rules are
directly communicated to and agreed upon by all group
members. We suggest that when you first sit down with
your group to accomplish a particular task, that you
consider what explicit rules you will apply to the group.
Do you expect all members to show up to all meetings?
What will happen if somebody misses a meeting or a
deadline? What will be the consequences for someone
who does too much or too little work for the group? These
kinds of discussions up front will help to alleviate conflicts
in the future.
Now that your group has decided on the rules that
will guide your behavior, it is important to understand
the various roles that you may experience as a group
member. Roles are positions within the group that each
member may take. These can be either formal or informal.
Formal roles are assigned positions to particular members
of the group and include tasks like leader, recorder,
treasurer, etc. Informal roles occur spontaneously through
particular interactions that people have within the group.
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For example, someone may serve as the peacekeeper or
the tension releaser within the group. Whether formal or
informal, there are several roles that members can take in
a group. These include task roles, relationship roles, and
disruptive roles.3
Task Roles. These help the group to accomplish its goal
or purpose. In other words, if you fulfill (and you should)
one of these roles, you are doing your part to accomplish
the task. Housekeeping roles like treasurer, recorder, and
moderator are considered task roles. Others include:
• Initiator. helps the group by proposing ideas
right away.
• Information Seeker/Giver. asks for ideas from
others/shares opinion.
• Organizer. keeps the group on task, organizes
meetings and agendas.
• Clarifier. asks questions to make sure everyone
understands.
• Elaborator. expands on the ideas of others.
• Evaluator. positively, yet critically, reflects on and
offers value judgments on suggestions.
Relationship Roles. These provide for the social
needs of the group and serve to foster teamwork
and collaboration. Many groups are successful at
accomplishing tasks, but someone who fulfills a
relationship role sees to it that everyone respects each
other in the end. These include:
• Gatekeeper. sees that everyone is involved in
an open discussion, encourages participation
among all members, and helps to control the
flow of conversation.
• Harmonizer. helps to settle conflicts between
members by maintaining peace within the
group.
227
Benne, K. D. & Sheats, P. (1948).
Functional roles of group members. Journal of Social Issues, 4 (2),
41-49.
3
• Tension Reliever. uses humor to relieve tension
when conflict or deadlines loom.
• Supporter. encourages positive feelings, consoles,
and counsels other members.
Disruptive Roles. These occur when individual
group members put their needs above the group
needs. While task and relationship roles help the group
accomplish its purpose, disruptive roles will hinder its
progress. These are the things you should not do or let
others do:
• Blocker. opposes ideas but offers no solutions.
• Avoider. refuses to participate.
• Credit Seeker. tries to take credit for other group
member ideas or the work load of the whole
group.
• Distractor. tries to get the group off track by
acting silly or talking off subject (you know
whom we’re talking about).
• Dominator. monopolizes the discussion and
prevents others from expressing their ideas,
wants to do all of the work to make sure it is
done “right.”
Each member within the group can serve in multiple roles.
The most effective group member will concentrate on
various task and relationship roles and avoid disruptive
roles. A particular formal task role that you might consider
is whether you want to take on a leadership role.
Leadership in Groups
When groups meet for the first time, members begin
sizing up other members to see who will take on the role
of leader. Some groups will decide right away with a vote
who the leader should be, but how do they know if that
person is suited to the job given the task at hand? Perhaps
228
the leader is someone who has strong organizational
skills. In this case, the group recognizes a person’s ability
to organize and they designate this person as the leader
of the group. Perhaps the leader is someone who has a
particular expertise with the topic or the task. In this case,
the leader may emerge within the group as the “go to”
person for the task.
When you think of a leader, what does that person
do? Is the leader the person who is willing to do the most
work? Talk the most? Not necessarily. A good leader is
defined by the ability to direct and influence others. An
effective leader will be able to identify the unique qualities
of all members and assign various tasks to them. Effective
direction involves the ability to organize and guide the
group’s activities. An effective leader will also gain the
respect of other group members which will affect his or
her ability to influence them. In other words, an effective
leader will take on many of the task and relationship roles
(as well as allow others to do the same) mentioned earlier
in this chapter.
Meetings in Groups
Now that you understand the nature of groups as well as
the various roles within them, it is important to discuss
how groups get things done. That is, how do groups
make decisions about how to accomplish their tasks?
Making these decisions should be a deliberate process
where all members have a voice and are committed to the
decisions that are made. Many years ago, John Dewey,
a famous philosopher and educator, came up with a
reflective process for making group decisions.4 These
six steps include identifying the problem, analyzing the
problem, establishing guidelines for evaluating solutions,
generating solutions, selecting a best solution, and
evaluating the solution. We’ll talk about each of these
steps in the following section.
229
Dewey, J. (1950). How we think.
Boston, MA: D. C. Heath.
4
Six Steps to Reflective Thinking.
Identifying the Problem.
The first thing the group should do is discuss the
issue or problem that has brought them together.
What is the task? What are the constraints of the
assignment? What is being asked of the group as an
outcome? This discussion may require the selection
of a particular topic to be addressed. This requires
that all members have input in the discussion.
Remember that one of the advantages to group
communication is that you can pool your ideas and
resources but only if you listen to all possible ideas.
Groups should also consider the strategies discussed
earlier in this text on topic selection. Once a problem
or topic has been agreed upon, it is important to
discuss thoroughly the nature and direction of the
topic. What does each member already know about
the topic?
Analyzing the Topic.
Now that the group has an initial understanding of
the problem or topic, they now need to begin the
process of analyzing the topic. This requires thorough
research into the current status of the topic as well
as the issues associated with it. The group will need
to explore what is known about the problem, what
is not known, what are the controversies associated
with the problem, and what solutions have been
proposed in the past. As a group, please refer to the
suggestions for conducting research provided earlier
in this text.
Guidelines for Evaluating Solutions.
Once the group understands the nature of the
problem, the members need to discuss what
230
guidelines or criteria will be used to evaluate the
solution to the problem. For example, the best
solution will be the most cost effective, cause the
least harm to the environment, be consistent with an
ethical code of conduct, or help meet the goals of the
campus mission statement. Once the group knows
and agrees upon what the best solution will do, the
participants can begin to propose possible solutions.
Generating Solutions.
Based on the nature of the problem, the combined
research of the group, and the guidelines for
evaluation, the participants can now begin the
process of brainstorming possible solutions. Again,
this is an opportunity for active group member
involvement. All voices should be heard during
this process. Perhaps one group member has the
beginning of a great idea and another member can
make it an even better one. The point is to generate as
many possible solutions so that the group can decide
on the best approach to the problem.
Selecting the Best Solution.
With as many ideas generated in the last step, the
group can now begin the process of choosing the best
solution based on the guidelines that were previously
set. If one solution doesn’t meet one of the criteria,
then the group can either throw out that idea or
modify it. Perhaps the group may decide to combine
two possible solutions to make the best solution.
Again, this is where the pooling of ideas comes
together to make a great one and synergy begins to
take hold. At this point, the group may still have
several possible solutions to choose from. What to
do now? Perhaps it is time for a vote. But before the
vote, the group should agree whether or not to accept
231
a consensus (all members agree) or a majority rule
(the largest number of votes win).
Evaluating the Solution.
Once the group has agreed on the best solution, the
members need to carefully determine if the best
solution meets the guidelines established earlier
in the process. The group needs to also consider if
there will be any problems with implementing the
solution. What are the advantages and disadvantages
associated with the solution?
Being a Responsive and Responsible Member.
Participating in these group meetings requires a certain
set of skills that you may not be aware of. Each member
must be able to articulate and defend his or her own ideas
while at the same time being responsive to the needs of
the other group members. This can sometimes be difficult
to manage. Thus, we offer the following suggestions that
we hope will enable your group to communicate more
effectively. All group members should:
• Be committed to the group’s goal and task.
• Respect and listen to all group members.
• Attend all meetings on time.
• Complete individual assignments on time.
• Be mindful of other member’s relational needs.
Accomplishing Tasks. At this point, we would just
like to offer a few more suggestions to help your group
accomplish tasks within each meeting. The first thing to
consider is what should happen in a group meeting. Recall
that scheduling conflicts can keep all group members from
being able to interact frequently. Thus, group meetings
should have a specific purpose. Not all of the group work
can be accomplished in a group meeting. So, why do
groups meet? Groups meet to report on what has already
232
been done and what needs to be done. With that, we offer
the following suggestions:
• Know the specific purpose for the meeting.
• Have an agenda for what needs to be
accomplished during the meeting.
• Follow the agenda.
• Allow each member to report on their
individual progress.
• Assign each member a new task before the next
meeting.
• Report on the accomplishments of the current
meeting.
Following this advice will keep groups on task and on
target for completing the assignment within proposed
deadlines. It will make the communication that takes place
within the group more meaningful and productive.
Planning The Presentation. Finally, we offer a few
suggestions for planning the group presentation. Most
likely, your instructor will want full group participation in
any report or presentation of your group’s outcome.
• Divide the topic into areas of responsibility.
• Draft individual outlines according to these
responsibilities.
• Combine individual outlines to create a group
outline.
• Discuss the details of delivering the
presentation.
• Practice the presentation as a group.
Summary
In this chapter, we have discussed the nature and
characteristics of group communication as well as
provided strategies for becoming more effective group
participants. Managing your own communication
233
behaviors in the context of a group can require a particular
set of skills and responsibilities. It is important, however,
to obtain these skills as you will be called on to use them
in other classes as well as your profession. Effective group
members are competent as well as ethical communicators.
As you gain practice in participating in groups, you also
enhance these skills. It is our hope that you enjoy yourself
and learn from others along the way.
234
Chapter Fifteen
Listening & Critical Thinking
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
• Describe two reasons why listening is important.
• List and explain the six interrelated activities
associated with the process of listening.
• List and describe the four major categories of
listening barriers.
• List and explain the five types of listening.
• Explain how critical listening and critical
thinking are integrally connected.
• List the six behaviors that can improve listening.
• Describe two verbal behaviors and two
nonverbal behaviors to improve listening as
illustrated in the text.
• List and explain the four types of comments used
when evaluating speeches.
Take a moment, close your eyes, and attend to the sounds
around you. What did you hear . . . the wind rustling
leaves, birds chirping, the whirring of a computer? These
sounds are around us all the time, but because we are not
listening, we typically are not aware of their presence. It is
one thing to hear a sound, but quite another to listen to it.
While, hearing is the first step in the listening process, it
is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for listening to
occur. Before we discuss the more complicated process of
listening, it is necessary to establish why it is important to
listen.
235
Importance Of Listening
First, we spend most of our time listening. We spend most
of our waking time communicating in some way—writing,
reading, talking, or listening.1 Of that time, we spend more
time listening than all the other forms of communication
combined.2 Interestingly, while listening is the activity
we engage in the most, it is a skill we are taught the
least.3 While communication textbooks offer chapters on
listening, and even fewer departments offer courses, this
is the skill with which we are expected to perform at very
competent levels.4
Second, listening is an important survival skill. For
example, research indicates that effective listening
skills are essential to academic success.5 In addition,
communication scholars and employers cite listening
as the top skill necessary for success in the business
community.6 We acquire knowledge, develop
language, learn professions, enhance relationships,
and communicate respect through listening. Brownell
describes two very important functions of listening.
First, listening helps you to accomplish tasks through
understanding, recall, feedback, decision-making, and
problem-solving. Additionally, listening promotes
relationships by attending to emotions, understanding
needs, self-disclosure, enhancing authentic trust, and
valuing diversity and respect for others.7
Process Of Listening
While hearing involves the physiological reception of
sounds, listening is a much more complicated process.
Brownell describes listening according to the HURIER
model which represents six interrelated activities
associated with listening; hearing, understanding,
remembering, interpreting, evaluating, and responding.8
Since hearing involves accurately receiving sounds,
you must focus your attention and concentrate to begin
236
1
Cooper, P. J., & Simonds, C. J.
(2007). Communication for the
classroom teacher, (8th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Bohlken, B. (1999). Substantiating
the fact that listening is proportionately most used language skill.
The Listening Post, 70, 5.
2
See also Janusik, L.A. & Wolvin, A.D.
(2006). 24 hours in a day. A listening
update to the time studies. Paper
presented at the meeting of the
International Listening Association, Salem, OR.
Coakley, C., & Wolvin, A. (1997).
Listening in the educational environment. In M.Purdy & D. Borisoff
(Eds.) Listening in everyday life: A
personal and professional approach
(2nd ed.) (pp. 179-212). Lanham,
MD: University Press of America.
3
Wacker, K.G., & Hawkins, K. (1995).
Curricula comparison for classes in
listening. International Journal of
Listening, 9, 14-28.
4
Conaway, M.S. (1982). Listening:
Learning tool and retention agent.
In A.S. Algier & K.W. Algier, (Eds.),
Improving reading and study skills,
(pp. 51-63). San Francisco: JosseyBass.
5
AICPA (2005). Highlighted
responses from the Association
for Accounting marketing survey.
Creating the future agenda for the
profession—managing partner
perspective. Retrieved July 28,
2006, from http://www.aicpa.org/
pubs/tpcpa/feb2001/hilight.htm
6
See also
Goby, V.P., & Lewis, J.H. (2000). The
key role of listening in business: A
study of the Singapore insurance
industry. Business Communication
Quarterly, 63, 41-51. (cont. next
page)
the process of listening. For example, earlier when we
asked you to close your eyes and attend to the sounds
around you, you were able to hear things you might not
have heard otherwise. This is because you stopped to call
attention to the sounds you were hearing.
You may hear sounds, but may not always comprehend
them. Listening for understanding improves with practice.
It involves a thought process within you and requires
reflection. You begin to think of the sounds around you
and what they mean. For example, you are driving and
hear a siren. You immediately check your speedometer
and see that you were not speeding (whew). Then you
think to pull over as you realize it is a fire engine in an
emergency situation.
According to Brownell, “remembering is essential
if you intend to apply what you have heard in future
situations.”9 How often have you been introduced to
someone and forgotten their name only moments later?
Perhaps this is because you are not attending to the name,
rather forming in your mind first impressions of the
person. Remembering requires a conscious effort on the
part of the listener. For example, if you rehearse someone’s
name just after being introduced, you are more likely to
remember the name.
Interpreting messages involves the ability to
empathize—to see a situation from another person’s
perspective. Would someone else interpret the message
differently than you (perhaps someone from another
culture)? For example, when a Native American child
hears in her history classes that “In 1492, Columbus sailed
the ocean blue”, thus discovering the new world, she might
be a little confused and think “Wait a minute ... our ancestors
were here before Columbus and didn’t need to be discovered!”
In addition, interpreting requires that you pay attention to
the meaning and the context of the message. For example,
would a speaker’s message change if the situation were
237
(cont.) Maes, J.D., Weldy, T.G., &
Icenogle, M.L. (1997). A managerial
perspective: Oral communication
competency is most important for
business students in the workplace. Journal of Business Communication, 34, 67-80.
6
Wolvin, A., & Coakley, C. (1991).
A survey of the status of listening training in some fortune 500
corporations. Communication
Education, 40, 152-164.
Brownell, J. (2002). Listening: Attitudes, principles, and skills. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
7
8
Brownell (2002) cited above.
Brownell (2002) cited above (p.
15).
9
different (recall the pre and post 9/11 example of air
travel in Chapter 1)? Or, perhaps the message remains the
same, but the context causes you to interpret the meaning
of the message differently. For example, near the end of
his life, Johnny Cash recorded and made a video of the
song “Hurt” by Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails. Reznor’s
original version is interpreted as a young man’s struggle
with drug addiction. Cash’s version, however, becomes a
much broader, sweeping saga of the pain and regret of an
elderly musical icon near death.10
You evaluate messages through your past experiences,
attitudes, and values. Based on these predispositions, you
evaluate the messages you receive. Are they consistent
with your beliefs? If not, how are they different, and will
you accept or reject the messages? In our example above,
the Native American child is confused when the teacher
talks about Columbus discovering America because it
is not consistent with what she knows about her own
heritage. Thus, while most American children may take
this part of their history lesson for granted, it gives the
Native American child pause. Consider another example.
Suppose that you’re sitting in a classroom listening
to a speaker advocate against gun control legislation.
The speaker argues that gun ownership is safe, deters
crime, and is constitutionally protected. Further, imagine
that your cousin was killed, accidentally, by a gun he
was playing with just a few years ago. How might
this experience affect your evaluation of the speaker’s
message?
Once you have listened to a message, you must
decide how you will respond. What will you do with the
information? Will you use it to form new information?
Or, will you reject it because it is not consistent with what
you already know? Given our previous discussion, what
do you think the Native American child will do with the
238
Please refer to the following
media interaction:
http://www.losthighwayrecords.
com/e/cash11403.html
10
notion of Columbus discovering America? Similarly, how
might the audience member listening to the gun control
topic respond? Would that person react differently to the
arguments about safety, deterrence, and constitutionality?
Barriers To Listening
Because listening is such a complex process, there are
many things that can get in the way of your ability
to listen effectively. Recall that in the first chapter, we
discussed communication interferences that can get in the
way of shared meaning between a speaker and a listener.
Below, we elaborate on how and why this occurs. There
are four major categories of listening barriers which
include physical, mental, factual, and semantic distractions.11
Physical distractions are external sources of interference.
These include any distractions that come from your
environment which keep you from focusing on the
speaker and the messages. Examples include time of day,
temperature in the room, and noises both in and out of the
room.
Mental distractions are the first of three internal sources
of interference. You are supposed to be listening to the
teacher, but instead you are concerned about your exam
in the next class. You are supposed to be listening to a
friend, but instead you are wondering what on earth was
she thinking when she got that haircut? Or, perhaps you
are listening to a speaker and are prejudging him based on
appearance or the fact that you don’t like his topic. Mental
distractions occur when our own mind gets in the way of
our ability to concentrate and listen.
Factual distractions, another internal source of
interference, occur when you concentrate too hard on a
speaker’s message that you miss the main point. This may
not be entirely your fault. The speaker may be providing
too many details so that you become overwhelmed and
can’t see the forest for the trees.
239
Golen, S. (1990). A factor analysis
of barriers to effective listening.
Journal of Business Communication,
27, 25-36.
11
Semantic distractions are also internal sources of
interference and occur when you have an emotional
response to particular words or concepts the speaker is
presenting. It may be that the word is offensive to you
or causes you to remember a traumatic event in your
past. The emotional reaction does not always have to
be negative, however. The speaker could say something
that causes you to recall positive experiences as well. In
this way, the words a speaker uses can cause you to stop
listening. You now have a mental distraction caused by
words or phrases.
Types Of Listening
We have established that listening is a complicated process
and that many things can affect our ability to listen. It
takes time and energy. But, why do we listen? There are
many reasons or purposes for listening. Wovin & Coakley
discuss these reasons in terms of various types of listening:
discriminative, comprehensive, appreciative, empathic, and
critical.12 We will discuss each of these types of listening
which become more complex as we progress.
Discriminative listening is the most basic type of
listening and occurs when we distinguish between
verbal and nonverbal messages. You may have a friend
tell you he is fine but his actions tell you otherwise. He
seems troubled and distracted. Because you are able
to discriminate between the nonverbal and the verbal
messages, you inquire further to see how he really is.
Comprehensive listening occurs when we are attempting
to understand a message for a particular reason—to gain
knowledge or complete a task. You still must be able to
discriminate between verbal and nonverbal messages, but
with comprehension, now you have to remember or retain
the information. Examples include listening to directions
or listening to a lecture to prepare for an exam.
240
Wolvin, A., & Coakley, C. (1996).
Listening, (5th ed.). Dubuque, IA: W.
C. Brown.
12
Appreciative listening involves enjoyment. If you
could just spend time listening to something for sheer
enjoyment, what would it be? Listening to music is the
perfect example of appreciative listening, but whom
would you listen to? Would it be Johnny Cash or Trent
Reznor? Are there some bands that give you more
enjoyment than others? Sometimes you listen to music
to understand a message, sometimes you listen to learn
how to hit a note or play a key, sometimes you listen to
decide if you will buy the CD, and sometimes you just
listen. This last purpose is listening for appreciation, and
even then your choices can change because of your mood.
Sometimes you may want to dance, sometimes mosh, and
sometimes just be quiet and reflective.
Empathic listening occurs when you want to support the
speaker—perhaps a friend or family member. This is true
listening because your sole purpose is to listen and not
talk. Perhaps your friend needs to vent about a problem
and all she wants from you is a sympathetic ear. In this
way, she is able to talk through her problem while you
listen. It is important for you to signal nonverbally your
listening and support. Have you ever tried to discuss a
problem with someone who did not indicate that they
were listening? Perhaps their eyes kept darting toward
the television or a book they were reading. This can be
very frustrating and lead to interpersonal conflict or
withdrawal.
The final and most complicated form of listening is
critical listening. While the previous forms of listening ask
you to take in some form of information, critical listening
asks you to do something with it. Critical listening
involves making judgments about the messages you
receive. Is the information the speaker provides useful,
meaningful, clear, valid, or reliable? Is it consistent with
what you already know? If not, should you reevaluate
your position? Is there a reason to doubt the information?
241
Has the speaker considered all possible perspectives? In
this way, you the listener, evaluate and reflect on how
you will use the information. You use critical listening
as you consume messages from speakers. When you
listen to your classmates present their speeches, you will
engage in critical listening to evaluate the effectiveness
and usefulness of their information. You also engage in
critical listening as you are presented with messages in
the media. Do you really need to buy that product? Will
it do everything the advertisers claim? Which political
candidate is most in line with your views? Whom should
you vote for?
We will discuss strategies for listening critically and
evaluating your classmate’s speeches in more detail later
in this chapter, but first it is important to distinguish
between critical listening and critical thinking.
Critical Listening
and Critical Thinking
Critical listening and critical thinking are integrally
connected.13 You cannot listen critically without the
ability to think critically. But, you use critical thinking in
contexts other than just listening. While critical listening
involves making judgments about messages you are being
presented, critical thinking is much broader. In other words,
you listen critically while consuming messages, you think
critically while both consuming and producing them.
When writing and researching your own speeches, you
will engage in critical thinking as you evaluate evidence
from your sources, decide how the information will be
useful to your speech and your audience, organize your
ideas, and develop your arguments. So, what is critical
thinking? At a very basic level, critical thinking is skeptical
thinking. It occurs when you stop and say, “Hey, wait
a minute . . . that doesn’t make sense!” In other words,
242
13
Jones, E. A. (1995). National
assessment of college student learning: Identifying college graduates’
essential skills in writing, speech and
listening, and critical thinking; Final
project report (NCES Publication
No. 95-001). Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and
Improvement.
critical thinking happens when you don’t accept or reject
things automatically, rather, you question the information
with an inquiring mind. In short, critical thinkers ask a lot
of questions (see Figure 15.1). In doing so, critical thinkers
have the ability to separate fact from fiction.
Questions for Critical Thinking
1. What topic or question is being explored in this text/speech? (How does this topic
fit into larger contexts of current discussion and debate?)
2. What is the author’s/speaker’s main point?
3. Does the author/speaker attempt to give us any reasons to think that the main point
is likely to be right?
4. What reasons or evidence does the author/speaker provide in support of the main
point?
5. Do these fit together to form just one main argument, or is there a cluster of
different arguments or maybe a chain of arguments leading to the main point?
6. Do the reasons and evidence given by the author/speaker all appear to be solid and
believable, or is there reason to question them? If the author/speaker relies on work
done by others, are those sources reliable?
7. If we were to accept the author’s/speaker’s reasons and evidence, would that be
enough to warrant our acceptance of the author’s main point? (Think about whether
the reasons and evidence are powerful and relevant. Do they lead us logically to the
author’s/speaker’s main point?) Here are some more detailed questions to consider:
a. If the argument is an attempt to establish a cause and effect relationship
between two or more things, has the author/speaker given us enough
evidence to rule out alternative causes that differ from the ones the
author/speaker favors?
b. Is the author/speaker relying too much on irrelevant attacks on someone
else’s character?
c. Has the author/speaker too conveniently left out some things that would cut
against the main point?
8. What objections to the author’s/speaker’s position are likely to be made by
someone who does not agree? Does the author/speaker do enough to respond to
those objections? Are there better ways to respond to the objections?
9. What unstated assumptions might the author/speaker be relying on to help support
the main point? Does it help the argument to bring these assumptions out into the
open, or are the assumptions too questionable to be acceptable?
10. Would the author’s/speaker’s position be more reasonable if the main point were
altered in some way? If so, how and why?
Critical thinkers are able to evaluate the quality of
evidence and reasoning used to draw conclusions. Critical
thinkers are able to identify relationships among ideas. All
243
Figure 15.1
of these skills result in an outcome—the ability to make
quality decisions or to produce quality messages. In other
words, critical thinking is required to make a great public
speech. Figure 15.2 provides an overview of the many
ways in which critical thinking is required for effective
public speaking.
Critical Thinking & Public Speaking
Level of Thought
Required
Knowledge
Public Speaking Objectives
of termi nology
distin guish a mong v arious typ es of spee ches and the ir function
recall specific facts for use in s pee ch developm ent
of criteria
identify th e ma jor criteria used by professional s in a ssessing a
spe ech
identify c riteria for testing the validity and relia bilit y of evidence
of au dien ce
identify m ethods for analy zing the a ud ien ce
translation
illu strate a rgum ents using e vidence in a mann er the audien ce can
un der stan d
interpretation
draw c on clusions on t he b asis of eviden ce presented
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
effectively organi ze and outlin e ideas in a s pee ch
choose e vidence ap propriate for a given audien ce, topic, an d
situation
of el em ents
recogniz e flawed as su mp tions in a spee ch.
identify th e ma in p oint s of a s pee ch
of rela tionship s
distin guish fal lacies in a rgu me nts
comp are the vali dity of o pposin g argu men ts
Synthesis
prod uction of a uniq ue
comm un ication
wr ite a well o rganized spee ch
deli ver a speech
prod uction/ execution
of a pl an
plan an d p rod uce an outlin e of a speech
plan an d e xecut e a s trategy for researching a t opic
plan an d e xecut e a s trategy for aud ien ce anal ysis
Evaluation
of comm uni cation
evaluate the effectiven ess of a spee ch (using c riteria for effective
comm un ication and argu men tation)
Figure 15.2
244
Also, Figure 15.3 contains the Critical Thinking SelfAssessment (CTSA) instrument that we developed to help
our students become more aware of their critical thinking
skills.14
14
Hunt, S. K., Mazer, J. P., Kuznekoff,
J., Dillon, H., Hines, J., Carmon, A., &
Webster, K. (2006, April). Revising
general education: Critical thinking
assessment in the basic communication course. Paper presented at
the meeting of the Central States
Communication Association,
Indianapolis, IN.
Critical Thinking Self Assessment (CTSA)
Directions: This questionnaire is designed to help you examine your own skills
by asking you to describe how you interact with things you read and hear. Doing
this accurately can help you know what skills you need to work on and what
skills you have already developed. Your answers will not affect your grade in
any way; so be honest with yourself. Think about times when you have seen or
heard professionally-produced articles, stories, videos, books, speeches, or
sermons that were designed to persuade you to believe something. Consider
only those times when you paid attention. Using these recollections, and
recollections about your own writing and speaking, please answer the following
questions as honestly as you can. Please circle the appropriate response using the
scale below (1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = frequently, 5 = always).
1. When I read or hear items like those
described above, I am able to get the
point.
2. I am able to follow a fairly complex
line of argument, so that I can tell
which things are offered in support of
which other things, and how it’s all
supposed to fit together.
3. After reading or hearing someone’s
line of argument on an issue, I can
give an accurate, detailed summary of
how the line of argument went.
4. I feel confident about deciding
whether it is reasonable to believe a
piece of evidence or a reason used in
support of a conclusion.
5. I can tell when there are logical
holes in the reasoning that is supposed
to connect a conclusion and the
reasons being used to support that
conclusion.
Never
Rarely Sometimes Frequently Always
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
Figure 15.3
245
6. I know how to tell the difference
between a credible source and a
garbage source of information or
ideas.
Never
Rarely Sometimes Frequently Always
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
13. I am able to construct an
organized, logical argument that stays
on topic.
1
2
3
4
5
14. When I present an argument for a
position, other people can follow what
I’m saying.
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
7. I look for the hidden assumptions
that are often present in an argument.
8. When I read reliable statistics that
show two factors rise and fall
together, I recognize that it doesn’t
necessarily mean one caused the other.
9. When I evaluate someone else’s line
of thinking, I consider their arguments
rather than just deciding whether I
agree with their conclusions.
10. I know how to go about deciding
how strong an argument really is.
11. I am able to come up with
acceptable reasons or evidence to
support my conclusions when I write
or give organized oral presentations.
12. When I write an essay or give a
talk I try to respond carefully to
possible significant objections to my
positions.
15. When there are good arguments
for contrary views on a subject, I know
how to evaluate them and come up
with the best conclusion.
Figure 15.3. CTSA cont.
246
16. I am willing to take the time and
make the effort to think through an
argument carefully before deciding
what I think about it.
Never
17. I enjoy thinking through an issue
and coming up with strong arguments
about it.
Rarely Sometimes Frequently Always
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
In order to obtain a score, simply sum all 17 items. Your CTSA score ______.
Look back over your answers. Do you see any patterns of weaknesses or
strengths? You can compare your score on the CTSA to other ISU students using
the percentile chart below (the average beginning of semester CTSA score in a
previous sample of ISU students was 64.11).
Percentiles
25
50
75
Score
60.00
63.00
69.00
This instrument will also help you identify strengths
and weaknesses in your own critical thinking. In
addition, given the importance of critical thinking to
communication, we will return to this topic throughout
this course and this text, but for now, let’s revisit the
notion of listening and how we can become better at it.
Figure 15.3. CTSA cont.
Improving Your Listening
It is not until we understand the process of listening that
we can become more effective listeners. It is important to
note that improving listening skills will require time and
effort as well as motivation. Here are several behaviors
that can improve listening.15
1. Remove, if possible, the physical barriers to listening.
You might simply move to another room or move
the furniture in the room, turn the thermostat
up or down, or close the door. Manipulate your
environment to fit your needs.
247
Cooper, P. J., & Simonds, C. J.
(2007). Communication for the
classroom teacher, (8th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
(pp. 70-71).
15
2. Focus on the speaker’s main idea. You can always
request specific facts and figures later. Your initial
purpose as a listener should be to answer the
question. What is the speaker’s main idea? Again,
you’ll want to avoid prejudging the speaker or his
or her topic so that you can listen for the main idea.
3. Listen for the intent, as well as the content, of the
messages. Ask yourself, why is this person saying
this? Do they have anything to gain or lose in
providing the message? Is this message an attempt
to inform or persuade me? Does the intent of the
message affect the content of the message?
4. Give the other person a full hearing. Do not begin
your evaluation until you have listened to the
entire message. Too often, as listeners we spend our
listening time creating our messages and responses
rather than concentrating on the content and intent
of the other’s message.
5. Remember the saying that meanings are in people, not
in words. Try to overcome your emotional reactions
to words. Focus on what you can agree with in the
message and use this as common ground as you
move into more controversial issues.
6. Concentrate on the other person as a communicator
and as a human being. All of us have ideas, and
we have feelings about those ideas. Listen with
all your senses, not just with your ears. The wellknown admonition to “stop, look, and listen” is and
excellent one to follow. Focus on questions such
as: What does she mean verbally? Nonverbally?
What’s the feeling behind the message? Is this
message consistent with those she has expressed in
previous conversations?
Additionally, Joseph Capella, a professor at the University
of Pennsylvania, offers some more specific verbal and
248
nonverbal behaviors to improve listening. We have
synthesized and summarized some of his suggestions
below. First, to improve verbal listening, Capella
suggests:16
1. Ask questions. Invite the speaker to provide more
information by asking questions. This demonstrates
your interest in listening to more of what he or she
has to say by allowing them to go into more detail.
2. Vary verbal responses. Use a variety of responses
to indicate you are listening such as “Yes,” “I
see,” and “Umm Hum.” This allows you to avoid
complete silence between the speaker’s thoughts
and demonstrates your active listening.
To improve nonverbal listening skills, Capella suggests:
1. Demonstrate responsiveness with your body, face,
and eyes. Use movement (leaning forward) and
gestures (head nods) to show your awareness of the
speaker’s message. Use facial expressions (smiling,
raised eyebrows) to show responsiveness. Maintain
eye contact with the speaker to demonstrate active
listening.
2. Position yourself close to the speaker. Sit or stand
so you are directly facing the speaker. This
demonstrates that you are interested in both
hearing and listening to what the speaker has to
say. This also keeps you from being distracted by
things around you.
The behaviors previously outlined should assist you in
improving your listening skills by becoming more actively
involved in the process.
249
Capella, J. N. (1987). Interpersonal communication: Definitions
and fundamental questions. In C.
R. Berger & S. Chaffee (Eds.), Handbook of communication science (pp.
216-217). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
16
Summary
Understanding the process of listening will enable you
to become better listeners and, therefore, more competent
communicators. Giving someone a full hearing of their
ideas is also considered ethical communication. Listening
is also related to critical thinking in that as you listen, you
make judgments about what to do with the information
you are presented. As such, by improving your listening
skills, you are also accomplishing many of the course
goals we have for you. You are more competent, ethical, and
critical when you practice good listening skills.
250
Chapter Sixteen
Building Arguments
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
• Understand the importance of argumentation in
persuasive speech making.
• List and explain the six components of the
argument model.
• List and explain the three major persuasive
appeals.
• List and explain common fallacies of reasoning.
When was the last time that you had a spirited
conversation about a controversial issue? What kind of
evidence did you use to support your claims? How did
you respond to the objections of others? What types of
appeals did you find most persuasive? These questions
address the essential components involved in building
effective arguments. Perhaps you find the term argument
distasteful.
For example, no one likes to get in an argument with
friends or family. That’s not what we’re referring to
here. We use the term argument to refer to the process of
advancing claims supported by evidence and reasoning.1
In this chapter you will learn how to structure arguments,
incorporate effective reasoning, and avoid fallacious
reasoning in your persuasive speeches. We begin by
examining a model for constructing arguments.
251
Toulmin, S. E. (2003). The uses of
argument. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
1
Argument Model
British philosopher Stephen Toulmin has developed
a model for understanding the critical components of
effective arguments.2 Our slightly modified version
of his model, represented in Figure 16.1, contains the
following six elements: claims, evidence, evidence
credibility statements, warrants, qualifiers, and rebuttals.
An understanding of these elements is an essential step in
becoming a critical producer and consumer of persuasive
arguments.
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Toulmin, S. E. (2003). The uses of
argument. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
2
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Figure 16.1 Argument Model
Claims. A claim represents the assertion or point that a
speaker advocates. As you will see in the next chapter,
persuasive speakers can advance claims of fact, value, or
policy. Consider the following factual claim:
Low-carbohydrate diets are dangerous to human health.
As you can clearly see, a claim by itself is hardly
persuasive. Indeed, your audience will expect you to
provide reliable evidence to support your claims.
Evidence. Evidence (also referred to as supporting
material) is employed to substantiate a speaker’s claim
and, as noted in Chapter 7, may take several forms
including statistics, analogies, facts, examples, and
testimony. We’ll consider how speakers can use evidence
252
and reasoning in much greater depth later in this chapter,
but for now consider the following example of evidence:
The potential long-term health concerns caused by
low-carbohydrate diets include bone loss, kidney
stress, and increased risk of some cancers. Lack of
vitamins, osteoporosis, and heart disease are also
common side effects of low-carbohydrate diets.
Is this good evidence to support the claim that lowcarbohydrate diets are dangerous to human health? The
evidence certainly highlights the potential dangers of
the diet. It is important to recognize that several external
factors work together to influence the overall effectiveness
of evidence including the credibility of the speaker,
message delivery, and the subject’s familiarity with the
evidence.
Importantly, evidence has relatively little impact when
it is included in a speech that is delivered poorly, when
the audience is familiar with the topic, and when the
data presented are inconsistent with individuals’ initial
attitudes.3 You can also heighten the effectiveness of your
evidence by providing the audience with a brief evidence
credibility statement.
Evidence Credibility Statements. We have
noted throughout this text that, as a critical producer of
information, you have a burden of demonstrating that
the evidence you use to support your claims comes from
credible sources. Evidence credibility statements are brief
statements that establish the quality of the information
you are using to support your ideas. Indeed, your
audience will likely find your arguments much more
compelling if you present a brief credibility statement for
the evidence you use in the persuasive speech:4
253
Reinard, J. C. (1998). The persuasive effects of testimonial assertion evidence. In M. Allen, & R. W.
Preiss (Eds.), Persuasion: Advances
through meta-analysis (pp.
69-86). Cresskill, NJ: Hapmton
Press.
3
See also
Reinard, J. C. (1988). The empirical
study of the persuasive effects of
evidence: The status after fifty years
of research. Human Communication
Research, 15, 3-59.
Reynolds, R. A., & Reynolds, J. L.
(2002). Evidence. In J. P. Dillard & M.
Pfau (Eds.), The persuasion handbook: Developments in theory and
practice (pp. 429-430). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
4
According to the Fad Diets: Low Carbohydrate Diet
Summaries web site developed by the Registered Dietitians
at the University of Michigan Cardiovascular Center
and accessed on August 2, 2006, the potential long-term
health effects caused by low-carbohydrate diets include
“bone loss, kidney stress, and increased risk of some
cancers.” The same site also indicates that lack of vitamins,
osteoporosis, and heart disease are also common side effects
of such diets.
Research by communication scholars indicates that
evidence is more likely to change attitudes if it is of high
quality, plausible, and is novel rather than something
the audience members have already heard several
times before.5 Importantly, the evidence you use in
your persuasive speech should meet all of the tests for
evaluating sources discussed in Chapter 7.
Warrant. A warrant provides the justification and
reasoning to connect the evidence with your claim. In
short, a warrant explains how the evidence substantiates
your point and demonstrates that making the mental
leap from one to the other is rational. The warrant shows
your audience that your evidence supports your claim.
Consider the following example:
Low-carbohydrate diets are dangerous to human health
because, according to the Fad Diets: Low Carbohydrate
Diet Summaries web site developed by the Registered
Dietitians at the University of Michigan Cardiovascular
Center and accessed on August 2, 2006, such diets cause
“bone loss, kidney stress, and increased risk of some
cancers.” The same site also indicates that lack of vitamins,
osteoporosis, and heart disease are also common side effects
of such diets.
254
Morley, D. D., & Walker, K. B. (1987).
The role of importance, novelty,
and plausibility in producing
belief change. Communication
Monographs, 54, 436-442. See also
Reinard (1998, 1988) cited earlier.
5
In this example, the speaker explicitly links the claim
(low-carbohydrate diets are dangerous) and the data (the
information from the Fad Diets site) through the term
because. Examining this argument on face value, the
evidence does warrant the claim that low-carbohydrate
diets are dangerous to human health.
In our experience, we’ve found that some public
speakers take the warrant for granted—assuming that the
audience will automatically draw the connection between
the evidence and the claim. While that may be a relatively
safe assumption with the example provided here, it can
become risky as your arguments become more complex.
As a result, rather than relying on the audience to make
the link, we encourage our students to state their warrants
explicitly.
We’ve also found that some students fail to critically
reflect on their warrants resulting in a serious disconnect
between the evidence offered and the claim advanced.
Consider the following example:
Power lines are dangerous to human health because
my sister lives near power lines and all of her pets have
developed cancer.
We admit that this is an exaggerated example; however
it closely parallels an actual argument we’ve heard in
the classroom. For the moment let’s overlook the glaring
problems with the evidence offered here—our concern is
with the relationship between the evidence (my sister’s
pets all developed cancer) and the claim (power lines are
dangerous to human health). Does the fact that her cats
developed cancer warrant the claim the power lines are
dangerous to human health? Clearly, the physiology of
cats and humans differ substantially making this warrant
untenable. Constructing arguments using Toulmin’s
model makes it easy to identify potential problems with
255
the relationships between the claims you are advancing
and the evidence you are using to support those claims.
Qualifiers. As a persuasive speaker, you should be leary
of using terms like always or never. Qualifiers admit
exceptions and demonstrate that argumentation is not an
exact science. After all, issues can rarely be discussed in
absolute terms. According to Toulmin,6 your credibility
with the audience will suffer if you use such terms—
especially if they are aware of exceptions to the claim.
Also, acknowledging your degree of certainty safeguards
you against the appearance that you are taking an
unreasonable position on the topic.
Let’s more carefully consider our claim about the
dangers of low-carbohydrate diets. Can you think of any
instances where such a diet might be appropriate? In fact,
even some of the most ardent critics of the widespread
use of low-carbohydrate diets have acknowledged that
this approach could be appropriate for morbidly obese
individuals.7 Therefore, a speaker advancing the case
against low-carbohydrate diets would be well advised to
qualify her or his remarks by noting instances where the
diet might be appropriate.
Rebuttals. Given the nature of persuasive
communication, you are like to have at least some
audience members that do not agree with your position.
So, in what circumstances should persuasive speakers
address objections to their advocacy? This is a question
that all persuasive communicators must address whenever
they speak to an audience. First, let’s distinguish between
one- and multi-sided messages. Simply put, one-sided
messages give arguments in favor of the speaker’s
position on the issue and multi-sided messages present the
multiple perspectives of the controversial issue. A rebuttal
not only states the other sides or counterarguments to
256
6
Toulmin (2003) cited earlier.
Barrett, S. (2004, July 27). Low-carbohydrate diets. Retrieved August
9, 2006 from the Quackwatch web
site: http://www.quackwatch.
org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/lcd.
html
7
your position, but also attacks them directly. According
to Toulmin, speakers must address objections to their
position head on if they are to successfully persuade the
audience. 8
Why is it so important that you acknowledge
counterarguments to your position? Research indicates
that, by addressing the objections of the audience, the
speaker demonstrates that she or he is aware of the
(opposing) information, has taken it into account, and
still finds that the weight of the evidence favors her or
his position.9 However, it is critical that you go beyond
merely mentioning opposing positions on a given topic
as research also indicates that it is essential that speakers
strongly refute those counterarguments.10 Consider the
following example of a rebuttal:
There is a substantial body of literature claiming that
low-carbohydrate diets are safe and effective. In fact,
when I conducted my audience analysis for this speech,
one audience member specifically referenced the work of
Dr. Robert C. Atkins. Importantly, Dr. Stephen Barrett,
vice-president of the National Council Against Health
Fraud, noted in an article posted on the Quackwatch
web site accessed in August of 2006 that although shortrange studies have found that low-carbohydrate diets
can produce weight loss, no study has demonstrated that
such diets are safe or effective for long-term use. In fact,
Dr. Barrett argues that “Following a low-carbohydrate
diet under medical supervision may make sense for some
people, but a population-wide increase in fat consumption
is a recipe for disaster.”
It should be apparent that formulating an effective
argument requires you to do a good job of researching the
multiple perspectives on your topic. In addition, you must
carefully analyze where your audience stands on the topic
257
8
Toulmin (2003) cited earlier.
Allen, M. (1998). Comparing the
persuasive effectiveness of oneand two-sided message. In M. Allen, & R. W. Preiss (Eds.), Persuasion:
Advances through meta-analysis
(pp. 87-98). Cresskill, NJ: Hapmton
Press.
9
Hale, J., Mongeau, P. A., & Thomas,
R. M. (1991). Cognitive processing
of one- and two-sided persuasive messages. Western Journal of
Speech Communication, 55,
380-389.
10
and rebut any counterarguments they may hold to your
position. Constructing an effective argument also depends
on your use of logos, ethos, and pathos.
Persuading Through Logos, Ethos,
and Pathos
Communication scholars have devoted a significant
amount of time and energy to better understanding the
strategies speakers can utilize to influence others. Indeed,
as far back as Ancient Greece, Aristotle was theorizing
about three modes of persuasion he called logos, ethos,
and pathos.11 According to Aristotle, logos (or logical
appeal) relies on evidence and reasoning. Ethos refers
to the audiences’ perception of the speaker’s credibility,
including the speaker’s competence, character, and
goodwill. In addition, pathos (or emotional appeal) taps
into the audience’s feelings such as fear, anger, and pity.
Logos. The term logos refers to the rational proofs you
use to support the arguments you make in the persuasive
speech. There are several types of rational proofs
including those based on inductive, deductive, causal, and
analogical reasoning.
Inductive Reasoning
When reasoning inductively, you begin with specific
instances and formulate a reasonable generalization or
conclusion from them. In short, inductive reasoning moves
from the particular to the general. Consider the following
example from a persuasive speech about unethical
business practices in America:
258
Aristotle. (1960). The rhetoric of
Aristotle (L. Cooper, Trans.). New
York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
(Original translation published
1932).
11
Enron engaged in unethical business practices.
Tyco International engaged in unethical business practices.
Adelphia Communications engaged in unethical business
practices.
Conclusion: Unethical business practices are common in
America.
Has the speaker provided enough examples to warrant the
conclusion that unethical business practices are common
in America? If you use inductive reasoning in your
persuasive speech, it is important that you avoid jumping
to conclusions based on a small number of examples.
Consider the following argument:
My cousin has no interest in politics.
My sister has no interest in politics.
None of my friends have any interest in politics.
Conclusion: Young people have no interest in politics.
Although it is a bit exaggerated, this example clearly
illustrates a hasty generalization—a fallacy of reasoning
that occurs when the conclusion offered is based on
insufficient evidence. Beyond gathering more examples
to support the conclusion, what else might the speaker
do to strengthen the argument? Following the argument
model proposed in this chapter, one strategy might be
to qualify the conclusion—perhaps the speaker could
discuss the percentage of young people that have no
interest in politics rather than stating that all young
people lack interest. In addition, you should apply the
tests for supporting material discussed in Chapter 7 to the
inductive arguments you construct. The instances or cases
that you advance in support of your conclusion must be
typical, representative, and timely.
259
Deductive Reasoning
Unlike inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning
begins with a generalization and moves logically to an
application in a specific case:
Killing people is always wrong.
Capital punishment involves killing people.
Therefore, capital punishment is always wrong.
This example follows the classic form of deduction by
beginning with a major premise (“Killing people is
always wrong”), moving to a minor premise (“Capital
punishment involves killing people”), and ending with
a specific conclusion (“Capital punishment is always
wrong”). Aristotle deemed this full version of a deductive
argument a syllogism. As you might guess, speakers
frequently rely on syllogisms in persuasive speeches.
When the premises are true and the conclusions can
logically be derived from the premises, the syllogism is
highly persuasive. Consider the following example:
People who drive while they are intoxicated are more likely
to have accidents than are those who drive only when they
are not intoxicated.
Jimmy regularly drives while he is intoxicated.
Therefore, Jimmy is more likely to have an accident than
are persons who do not drive while intoxicated.
Utilizing the same form of deduction, let’s consider the
following example based upon a faulty major premise:
People who drive while they are not intoxicated are more
likely to have accidents than are those who drive only when
they are intoxicated.
260
Jill drives only while she is not intoxicated.
Therefore, Jill is more likely to have an accident than are
those who drive while intoxicated.
In this example, we can assume that the minor premise is
true (“Jill drives only while she is not intoxicated”) and we
can see that the conclusion clearly flows logically from the
premises; however, the argument must be rejected because
it is based on a flawed major premise. This example
vividly demonstrates how erroneous conclusions can be
reached if you begin with an unfounded major premise.
As a result, you must carefully scrutinize the premises and
conclusions you advance in your persuasive speech.
Persuaders rarely provide the entire syllogism in their
arguments. Instead, you will likely use a truncated version
of the syllogism called an enthymeme. For example you
might say, “Capital punishment? That means the state kills
people!” and allow your audience to discern the necessary
connections. Relying on enthymemes may work well
when you and your audience share similar knowledge,
values, and experiences related to the topic under
discussion; however, such a strategy may not work at all if
you don’t share this common ground with your audience.
Causal Reasoning
Causal reasoning asserts that one condition or event
(cause) brings about another condition or event (effect). In
order to be a cause, one condition or event must obviously
precede the other. Although this is a necessary condition
to meet when using causal reasoning, it is not by itself
sufficient. As a result, the speaker must also demonstrate
that the preceding event caused the effect. The key to
effective causal reasoning is to produce enough reasons
to warrant the link between the cause and effect. In the
following example, Dinesh Sharma describes the effects of
261
low-frequency noises on marine life caused by oceangoing
merchant shipping:
The second aspect is the high level of low-frequency sounds
produced by vessels while cruising in the sea. These sounds
can travel long distances and may change local acoustic
environments, impacting marine mammals that use sound
in reproductive interactions and interfere with predator/prey
detection. In extreme cases, noise pollution may cause habitat
avoidance in these animals.12
Persuasive speakers using causal reasoning should avoid
offering a single cause or effect when others are known to
exist. The reality is that most events have multiple causes.
For example, what factors cause tropical deforestation?
Population pressure? Clear cutting for cattle pasture and
other agricultural needs? Economic debt? Commercial
logging and mining? All of these factors—and others—
contribute to the problem of deforestation. In addition,
there are many effects of deforestation including climate
change, loss of biological diversity, and displacement of
forest-based societies. When multiple causes or effects
exist, be sure to note them.
It is equally important that you avoid the false cause
fallacy when using causal reasoning. The Latin name for
this fallacy of reasoning is post hoc, ergo propter hoc,
which translates to “after this, therefore because of this.”
Consider the following argument:
The town council erred in permitting the adult bookstore
to open, for shortly afterward two women were assaulted.
The simple fact that one event (i.e., the council allowed the
bookstore to open) preceded the other (i.e., two women
were assaulted) does not mean that one caused the other.
262
12
Sharma, D. (2006). Ports in a
storm. Environmental Health
Perspectives, 114(4), pp. A223-A231.
(p. A226)
Analogical Reasoning
You can use analogies to help clarify complex situations
by comparing them with situations more familiar to
the audience as we noted in Chapter 7, literal analogies
compare the similarities in things that are alike. Literal
analogies may be especially useful in building a case for
the adoption of policies. Consider the following example:
Smoking bans have been successfully employed without
harming businesses in large cities like New York and
Washington, DC. As a result, a smoking ban should be
adopted in Chicago.
Figurative analogies draw upon metaphors to identify the
similarities in two things that are not alike but share some
identifiable characteristics. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
used an elaborate figurative analogy in his famous 1963 “I
Have a Dream” speech to compare racial discrimination to
a bad check:
And so we’ve come here today to dramatize a shameful
condition. In a sense we’ve come to our nation’s Capitol to
cash a check. When the architects of our republic wrote the
magnificent words of the Constitution and the Declaration
of Independence, they were signing a promissory note to
which every American was to fall heir. This note was a
promise that all men—yes, black men as well as white
men—would be guaranteed the inalienable rights of life,
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. It is obvious today
that America has defaulted on this promissory note insofar
as her citizens of color are concerned. Instead of honoring
this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro
people a bad check—a check which has come back marked
“insufficient funds.”13
263
13
King. M. L., Jr. (1963, August 28). I
have a dream. Speech given at the
March on Washington. Washington, DC.
As we noted in Chapter 7, the analogies you use to
support your ideas should compare cases that share
similar characteristics. The argument that a smoking ban
could be adopted in Chicago because it has worked in
other large cities rests on the assumption that the cities are
essentially alike. Again, an invalid analogy occurs when
the items being compared are not sufficiently similar.
Ethos. Think of a speaker you’ve heard recently that you
perceived to be highly credible. Is credibility something
that the speaker can even possess, or is it something that
exists in your head, as the receiver of the message? Most
researchers argue that credibility is a perception in the
mind of the receiver or listener. Therefore, speakers are
only as credible as their listeners perceive them to be.
This receiver-oriented focus has lead persuasion scholars
to define speaker credibility, or ethos, in terms of the
perceptions listeners hold about a source’s competence,
character, and goodwill.
Competence refers to the audience’s perception of the
speaker’s intelligence, expertise, and overall knowledge
on the topic. Character refers to the audience’s perception
of the speaker’s trustworthiness and sincerity. Finally,
goodwill reflects the extent to which an audience perceives
that the speaker is concerned about them.
In general, research suggests that we are more likely
to accept the message recommendations of sources we
perceive to be highly credible and we tend to discount
the recommendations of those we perceive to be less
credible.14 This does not mean that we base our decisions
on our perceptions of the source alone, but these
perceptions do figure into the decision making process. It
is important to recognize that, beyond establishing your
own credibility as a source on your topic, you must also
establish the credibility of the information sources you are
264
Cialdini, R. B. (2001). Influence: Science and practice (4th ed.). Boston:
Allyn and Bacon.
14
using to support your ideas. As noted in Chapter 7, if the
audience evaluates your sources positively, they are more
likely to accept your arguments. There are several other
strategies you can use to enhance your credibility.
Initial credibility refers to your credibility before
you give the speech. It may well be the case that your
audience will know very little about your experiences and
knowledge of your persuasive speech before you actually
deliver the speech. As you learned in Chapter 10, you can
build your credibility in the introduction of the speech
by revealing your training, credentials, experiences, and
research on the topic.
Derived credibility is the credibility a speaker develops
during the speech. As your persuasive speech progresses,
you can continue to enhance your credibility by citing
sources, developing quality arguments, and sharing your
own personal experiences on the topic. In addition, you
can work to establish common ground with your audience
by highlighting similarities you share with them. Analyze
your audience carefully to determine, where relevant
to your topic, shared attitudes, values, beliefs, and
experiences can be utilized to establish common ground.
So, why is establishing common ground so important in
the persuasive speech? In short, we like people whom
we perceive to be similar to us and researchers have
found that we are often motivated to comply with the
wishes of others based simply on the fact that we like
them.15 Establishing rapport with your audience and
demonstrating that you care about them will go a long
way toward enhancing your credibility.
We’ve already noted that delivery is related to audience
assessments of speaker credibility (see Chapter 13 for
a more extensive discussion of delivery). Clearly, the
more prepared, energetic, and comfortable you are, the
more credible your audience will perceive you to be. By
265
Cialdini, R. B. (2001). Influence: Science and practice (4th ed.). Boston:
Allyn and Bacon.
15
employing the strategies discussed in this chapter, you
will also enhance your terminal credibility—the credibility
given to a speaker at the end of the speech.
Pathos. The term pathos refers to appeals to emotion.
Persuasive speakers can target a number of emotions in
their audience including fear, anger, pity, envy, love, and
pride. Research substantiates that emotional appeals can
operate as powerful persuasive tools.16 For example, a
speaker might attempt to arouse the audience’s anger
in order to motivate them to evaluate a particular
policy negatively. Alternatively, a speaker interested in
motivating action (e.g., to donate money to a charitable
cause) might appeal to the audience’s pity.
One excellent example of the power of pathos can be
found in Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.’s Letter from the
Birmingham Jail. Written in 1963, this letter was a response
to other civil rights leaders who suggested that, rather
than engaging in acts of civil disobedience to prompt
societal reform, members of the movement should simply
wait for life to get better. King responded by arguing that:
I guess it is easy for those who have never felt the stinging
darts of segregation to say, “Wait.” But when you have
seen vicious mobs lynch your mothers and fathers at will
and drown your sisters and brothers at whim; when you
have seen hate filled policemen curse, kick, brutalize and
even kill your black brothers and sisters with impunity;
when you see the vast majority of your twenty million
Negro brothers smothering in an airtight cage of poverty
in the midst of an affluent society; when you suddenly
find your tongue twisted and your speech stammering as
you seek to explain to your six-year-old daughter why she
can’t go to the public amusement park that has just been
advertised on television, and see tears welling up in her
eyes when she is told that Funtown is closed to colored
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16
Wood, W. (2000). Attitude
change: Persuasion and social influence. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 539-570.
children, and see the depressing clouds of inferiority
begin to form in her little mental sky, and see her begin to
distort her little personality by unconsciously developing a
bitterness toward white people; when you have to concoct
an answer for a five-year-old son asking in agonizing
pathos: ‘Daddy, why do white people treat colored people
so mean?’; when you take a cross-country drive and find
it necessary to sleep night after night in the uncomfortable
corners of your automobile because no motel will accept
you; when you are humiliated day in and day out by
nagging signs reading ‘white’ and ‘colored’; when your
first name becomes ‘nigger,’ your middle name becomes
‘boy’ (however old you are) and your last name becomes
‘John,’ and your wife and mother are never given the
respected title ‘Mrs.’; when you are harried by day and
haunted by night by the fact that you are a Negro, living
constantly at tip-toe stance never quite knowing what
to expect next, and plagued with inner fears and outer
resentments; when you are forever fighting a degenerating
sense of ‘nobodiness’; then you will understand why we
find it difficult to wait.17
For emotional appeals to be effective, the speaker must
recreate the event that would provoke an emotional
response from the audience in “real life.” In other words,
one of your goals in using pathos is to stimulate the
audience to relate to your speech on a personal level.
King does this very effectively by using his own lived
experiences to help his audience understand how it feels
to be so pervasively oppressed by racism and segregation.
King also does an excellent job developing vivid
examples that bring the content home for receivers in very
personal terms. As you develop your speech, consider
using rich examples that personalize the content of
the speech for your audience. Perhaps one of the most
compelling components of this text is King’s sincerity and
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King, M. L., Jr. (1964). Letter from
the Birmingham jail. In M. L. King
Jr. (Ed.), Why we can’t wait (pp. 77100). New York: Penguin.
17
conviction about the cause. Your sincerity and conviction
will be evident to the audience in all of your verbal (e.g.,
the words you say) and nonverbal (e.g., tone of voice, rate,
gestures, etc.) actions.
It is important to recognize that some scholars have
suggested that an over-reliance on emotion neglects the
role of logical reasoning in argumentation. We do agree
that you have a responsibility to construct an ethical
persuasive speech and that you should carefully scrutinize
the appeals you are exposed to, whether they are based
upon emotion or not. However, we strongly believe
that, as seen in the example provided by Martin Luther
King, it is entirely possible to effectively and ethically
combine emotional and logical appeals. After all, who
would rightly argue that Americans should not have
been angered by the racist oppression King described?
Ultimately, we encourage you to develop an optimal mix
of logos, ethos, and pathos as you construct the persuasive
speech.
Critically Evaluating Arguments
for Fallacies
A fallacy occurs when an argument is based on unsound
reasoning or evidence. As a producer of messages, you
should be careful to avoid fallacies in your speeches. As
a consumer of messages, you should be able to detect
fallacious arguments. In short, you should draw upon
your critical thinking as well as information and media
literacy skills as you produce and consume persuasive
messages. Throughout this chapter we have already
highlighted a number of fallacies including: hasty
generalization, false cause, and invalid analogy. Although
logicians have identified well over 100 fallacies,18 we’ll
focus next on a few most relevant to public speaking.
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18
Van Eemeren, F. H., & Gootendorst, R. (1992). Argumentation,
communication, and fallacies: A
pragma-dialectical perspective.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Ad Hominem. Translated from Latin to English, Ad
Hominem means against the person. This fallacy occurs
when a speaker attacks the character of a person making
an argument rather than the argument itself:
Bill’s arguments against capital punishment don’t matter
because he is a priest. He is just a lackey to the church so
we can’t believe what he says.
In this case, the speaker attempts to divert attention away
from the argument and toward Bill’s character. On its face,
this character attack has no bearing to Bill’s arguments
regarding capital punishment. Given the amount of
time we’ve devoted to source credibility in this text, you
might be asking yourself if there are circumstances where
it would be reasonable to question the character of the
source. Yes, but only if the person’s character has direct
bearing on the truth or falsity of the claim being made (see
the examples of tests of evidence in Chapter 7).
Bandwagon. The bandwagon fallacy suggests that
something is correct, good, or true because many other
people agree with it or are doing it. You are surrounded by
bandwagon appeals—politicians, advertisers, even your
friends use these types of arguments frequently. Consider
the following claim:
Recent polls suggest that the vast majority of Americans
oppose the war in Iraq. Obviously we must bring the
troops home and end the war.
This type of appeal is particularly effective given our
tendency to base our actions on what others are doing.19
Although this tendency can serve us well in some
circumstances (e.g., everyone avoids drinking water
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Cialdini, R. B. (2001). Influence: Science and practice (4th ed.). Boston:
Allyn and Bacon.
19
contaminated with mercury, so I will too), it can also
result in poor decisions (e.g., all of my friends drink and
drive, so I will too). When you experience a bandwagon
appeal, take the time to critically evaluate the evidence
and reasoning offered for the proposed action. Also,
regardless of who else thinks it’s a good idea, ask yourself
if accepting the idea serves your interests.
Slippery Slope. The slippery slope fallacy occurs when
a speaker asserts that some event must inevitably follow
from another down a steep slope toward disaster. In many
cases, there are a series of steps between events that lead
toward an ultimate conclusion. Consider the following
examples:
We have to stop the tuition increase. The next thing you
know, they’ll be charging $100,000 a semester!
If we restrict the publication of magazines such as the
National Enquirer, then the first Amendment will be
weakened and the whole country will be controlled by the
government.
Speakers advancing such arguments face the burden of
substantiating each of the links in the chain of reasoning.
As a consumer of these types of arguments, you should
carefully analyze the proof offered and reflect on whether
the proposed chain of events is really leading inevitably
toward disaster.
False Dilemma. The false dilemma fallacy asserts that
a complicated question has only two answers when more
actually exist. One easy way to identify this fallacy is to
listen for the words either-or:
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Look, you’re going to have to make up your mind. Either
you decide that you can afford this MP3 player, or you
decide you’re going to do without music for a while.
This example presents a false dilemma—you can likely
identify other ways to access music that do not require
you to purchase an MP3 player. Such arguments are
problematic because they are designed to prevent
the receiver from considering other, perhaps better,
alternatives.
Appeal to Authority. An appeal to authority rests
on the assumption that because an authority figure says
something, it must be true. We have provided a number
of examples of how to use appeals to authority (e.g.,
evidence credibility statements) throughout this text.
As a result, we want to be very clear about the fact that
the mere presence of an appeal to authority does not
constitute fallacious reasoning. Instead, such arguments
go “bad” when the appeal is based on a statement made
by a person who is actually not an authority or when the
person is situated in some circumstance that undermines
her or his credibility. Think back to our example of source
bias in Chapter 7. Would it be reasonable for a speaker
to appeal to an authority figure in support an argument
for relaxing restrictions on carbon dioxide production
who was paid to develop this type of research by coal
companies? For the critical consumer of information, the
obvious presence of bias in this case should overwhelm
any persuasive effects of the source’s authority. Indeed,
you can easily detect fallacious appeals to authority by
applying the tests of evidence and other information
literacy skills discussed in Chapter 7.
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Red Herring. The term red herring has its roots in
English fox hunting traditions. Prior to a hunt, farmers
often dragged a herring (a stinky fish) around the fields
to mask the scent of the fox and throw the dogs off its
trail. Speakers commit the red herring fallacy when they
introduce irrelevant information into an argument in
an attempt to mask the real issue under discussion. The
following example illustrates this fallacy:
Senator Johnson has argued that I don’t agree with
President Bush’s strategy for success in Iraq. His most
recent ads have attacked me as a cut and run liberal. In
fact, Senator Johnson, like many Senate republicans, has
accepted money from oil companies doing business in Iraq.
Clearly, it’s time for a new start.
In this example, the speaker fails to address the key
issue—current strategies for success in Iraq. Instead, the
speaker introduces an entirely new issue designed to
divert attention away from the central point.
As you produce and consume persuasive messages, use
the critical thinking skills discussed throughout this text to
detect fallacious arguments. As a consumer of persuasive
messages, identifying fallacies will help insulate you
from the kinds of bad decisions that fallacies create. As
a producer of persuasive messages, eliminating fallacies
from your speech will bolster your credibility and enhance
your persuasiveness.
Summary
The systematic study of the methods of argumentation
and persuasion dates back to the days of the Ancient
Greeks. As we noted in this chapter, an argument
consists of several elements: claims, evidence, evidence
credibility statements, warrants, qualifiers, and rebuttals.
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Understanding the relationships among each of these
elements is critical to effective persuasive speaking.
In addition, this chapter introduced you to logos,
ethos, and pathos as major modes of persuasion. Logical
appeals make use of inductive, deductive, causal, and
analogical reasoning. Appeals to credibility are rooted in
the audience’s perception of the speaker’s competence,
character, and goodwill. Appeals to emotion tap into the
audience’s feelings and are especially effective when used
in combination with logical and credibility appeals.
Finally, fallacies are errors in logic that result from
unsound reasoning or evidence. Fallacies are unethical,
obscure the central argument, and can represent a threat to
decision making.
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Chapter Seventeen
Understanding Persuasive Principles
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
• Understand the importance of studying
persuasion.
• Distinguish between claims of fact, value, and
policy.
• Identify burdens of proof for speeches of fact,
value, and policy.
• Organize speeches of fact, value, and policy.
In your daily activities, how often are you exposed to
persuasive messages? If you’re like most people, you’re
bombarded with persuasive messages on a regular basis.
From advertising on television to interactions with your
friends, people attempt to persuade you constantly.
In addition, you might use persuasive techniques to
challenge a grade with a teacher, reduce the price of that
house or car you are purchasing, convince your parents
to send more money for school, get your children to clean
their rooms, and so on. These examples illustrate a very
important point—persuasion is a central feature of every
aspect of human communication. Persuasion happens
wherever you find people communicating. In this chapter
and unit, you’ll read about basic principles that will make
you a more effective producer and consumer of persuasive
messages. Also, you will learn a few theories that can be
applied to your everyday interactions with others. You
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might even learn a few new ways to get that car for less or
get more money for school!
Why Should I Study Persuasion?
There are several reasons that you should be more aware
of the processes involved in producing and consuming
persuasive messages. Initially, you have been and will
continue to be bombarded with attempts to influence you
for the rest of your life. Take a look around your campus,
residence, workplace, and classroom for evidence of
persuasive communication. As you left your residence
for class today you likely encountered people on campus
who solicited you for one thing or another. As you sit
in the classroom, posters for credit cards, apartments,
and vacations likely surround you. As you listen to your
instructor, you are being persuaded, even if indirectly,
to adopt a particular view of the world. As you watch
television, you are saturated with advertisement for a
whole range of topics. And this is simply a thumbnail
sketch of the kinds of ways that others attempt to
influence you on a daily basis. So a very good reason for
studying persuasion is to become a more informed and
critical consumer of persuasive messages.
Many students assume that they know all they need to
know about persuasive communication because they’ve
been practicing it all their lives. In reality, you probably
have formed your own personal theories about how to
persuade others and to respond to the persuasive attempts
of others. You probably test such lay theories in different
situations, adapting them as you learn from experience.
The problem is that there is a limit to what you can learn
from experience alone. In fact, there are times when
you should not rely on this learning-from-experience
approach.
Think about the implications of making a mistake
when attempting to buy a car. Such a mistake could
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cost you hundreds or thousands of dollars. Fortunately,
communication scholars have been studying persuasion
for a very long time and have developed a great number
of empirically tested persuasive techniques that can
help you in every facet of your life—from influencing
your friends and family, to buying a new car, to resisting
the persuasive attempts of others. One thing to keep in
mind, though, is that persuasion is not inherently bad
or negative. In fact, critical thinkers are often persuaded
– for the right reasons! That is, when presented with
high quality evidence and sound reasoning, ethical
communicators change their minds and accept the
conclusions and recommendations of the message source.
Persuasive Public Speaking
In order to understand the dynamics of persuasive public
speaking, it is first important that we define persuasive
communication. Persuasive communication is any
message that is intended to shape, reinforce, or change
the responses of another, or others.1 In terms of persuasive
speaking, the speaker’s goal is to influence the audience’s
attitudes, values, beliefs, or behaviors. Unlike the
informative speaker, the persuasive speaker is an advocate
for a position, policy, or way of viewing the world.
One of the first choices you’ll have to make as a
persuasive speaker is a topic for the persuasive speech.
In order to craft an effective persuasive argument, you’ll
have to develop a very good understanding of your
audience’s position on your topic and carefully address
their concerns throughout the speech. Does your audience
agree with your position? Are they generally undecided?
Does your audience oppose your advocacy? The answers
to these questions will necessarily influence your
development of the speech. For example, if your audience
is generally neutral about your position, your goal should
be to shape their response in a way that is consistent
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1
Miller, G. R. (1980). On being persuaded: Some basic distinctions.
In M. E. Roloff & G. R. Miller (Eds.),
Persuasion: New directions in theory
and research (pp. 89-116). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
with your advocacy. If your audience agrees with your
advocacy, try to reinforce their position. If your audience
opposes your advocacy, your goal will be to change their
position.
It is quite likely that members of your audience will
have differing opinions on your topic. As you analyze
their positions, you should be able to identify a majority
group or target audience. The target audience will become
the focus of your persuasive efforts as they represent
the portion of the whole audience that you most want
to influence. Once you have identified a topic area and
analyzed your audience, you should consider whether
you want approach your topic as a claim of fact, value, or
policy.
Claims of Fact, Value, and Policy
As you develop your persuasive topic, it is critical that you
identify whether it is a claim of fact, value, or policy as
the topic type has significant implications for determining
your burdens of proof and organizational pattern. We
use the phrase “burden of proof” to refer to the obligation
a persuasive speaker faces to provide sufficient reasons
for changing what already exists and is accepted in the
status quo. What is the status quo? This term refers to all
of the laws, regulations, and attitudes that currently exist.
As a persuasive speaker you must recognize and develop
strategies to overcome the status quo bias. In other words,
people are generally predisposed to favor what they
2
Zeckhauser, R. J. (1988). Status
currently believe as well as what currently exists.2 As a
quo bias in decision making. Jourresult, you face the burden of providing solid reasons for
nal of Risk and Uncertainty, 1, 7-59.
changing the status quo.
Factual Claims. When speakers address claims of fact,
they are concerned with what is or is not true, what does
or does not exist, what did or did not happen. In addition,
these types of claims may focus on whether something
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did or did not happen in the past (past fact), whether
something is true or not currently (present fact), or
whether something will be true or not in the future (future
fact).3 Speakers may formulate a thesis around a claim of
fact in such speeches as:
• Lee Harvey Oswald assassinated John F.
Kennedy (past fact).
• Elvis died of a drug overdose (past fact).
• The 65 mile per hour speed limit saves lives
(present fact).
• Marijuana usage leads to harder drugs (present
fact).
• Seafood industry faces collapse by 2048 (future
fact).
• Social security will be depleted as greater
numbers of baby boomers retire (future fact).
As we’ve already noted in this chapter, one of the key
considerations for speakers advocating factual claims is
to pick a topic that is controversial enough to allow for
a meaningful conversation. Some claims of fact are so
narrow in scope or so widely accepted as truth that the
audience will likely agree with them, leaving little room
for persuasion. Consider the following statement of fact:
“The United States currently has an all volunteer army.”
This statement is hardly debatable.
Burdens of Proof
The persuasive speaker working with a factual persuasive
claim obviously faces the burden of proving that the facts
support her or his position. It is critical that the speaker
clearly define key terms. Consider the following factual
thesis: “There is life on Mars.” In this case, the term life
deserves clarification. Is the speaker referring to bacterial
remains found in rocks collected on Mars or seven foot
high Martians with very long tentacles? Obviously, the
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3
For more information about
persuasive claims see Inch, E. S., &
Warnick, B., Endres, D. (2005). Critical thinking and communication:
The use of reason in argument (5th
ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
speaker will have to define precisely what is meant by life
on Mars.
Organizing Speeches on Claims of Fact
The majority of claims of fact will be organized using
either the topical, spatial, or chronological organizational
patterns. Consider the following topical organization of a
persuasive speech on a claim of fact:
Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience to believe
that passive smoking negatively
affects the health of non-smokers.
Thesis Statement: Passive smoking is harmful because
tobacco smoke contains dangerous
chemicals that threaten the health of
non-smokers.
Main Points:
A. Tobacco smoke contains over 4000
dangerous chemicals.
B. Passive smoking causes several
health problems.
C. Passive smoking is especially
dangerous to the health of young
children.
Take another example, suppose you are attempting to
persuade your classmates that Lee Harvey Oswald was
solely responsible for the assignation of John F. Kennedy.
In this case, you might decide to present the facts
chronologically:
Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience to believe
that Lee Harvey Oswald assassinated
President John F. Kennedy.
Thesis Statement: Witness accounts prove that Lee
Harvey Oswald was solely
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Main Points:
responsible for the assassination of
President John F. Kennedy.
A. At 7:15 a.m., witnesses observed
Lee Harvey Oswald carrying a
long paper bag.
B. At 9:45 a.m., witnesses observed
Lee Harvey Oswald on the sixth
floor of the Texas School Book
Depository.
C. At 12:30 p.m., Lee Harvey Oswald
shot John F. Kennedy.
D. At 1:50 p.m., Lee Harvey Oswald
was captured by police.
It is also possible that you may choose to arrange a speech
on a claim of fact spatially. For example:
Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience to
believe that terrorism is a serious
international problem.
Thesis Statement: Terrorists are developing and using
deadly weapons that threaten
innocent populations around the
world.
Main Points:
A. In Spain, Islamic militants killed
almost 200 people in the Madrid
train bombings.
B. In Japan, the Aum Shinrikyo cult
used serin gas to kill several people
in a subway.
C. In Iran, terrorists may soon have
access to nuclear materials.
In all of these examples, the speaker’s intent is to persuade
the audience to accept a specific view of the facts in
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question. Sometimes, however, persuasive topics are more
appropriately addressed as a claim of value.
Value Claims. Should rehabilitation be valued above
punishment in the U.S. criminal justice system? Is the
war on Iraq moral? Are the rights of endangered animal
species more important than the rights of indigenous
human populations? Such questions go beyond a debate
about the facts involved to a judgment about values. A
claim of value concerns what you might consider to be
right or wrong, moral or immoral, just or unjust, or good
or bad. The following theses are developed around value
claims:
• Capital punishment is justified.
• Product testing on animals is inhumane.
• The protection of the environment is more
important than industrial growth.
• National security is more important than
freedom of expression.
As you can see, some claims of value examine one action
(e.g., capital punishment), while others are comparative
in nature (e.g., the protection of the environment vs.
industrial growth).
Burdens of Proof
As is the case with factual claims, speakers advocating
value claims also must clearly define key terms. Consider
the following thesis statement: “The right to a dignified
death is morally justified.” Putting aside your own personal
beliefs about this statement, can you imagine a scenario
where members of an audience are likely to hold vastly
different definitions about the terms “dignified death?”
They absolutely will have different denotative and
connotative meanings for these terms. As a result, the
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speaker in this case must clearly define what constitutes a
dignified death.
In addition to defining key terms, speakers who
advance value claims face the specific burden of
identifying some criterion, or standard, by which the
value judgment is to be made.
Consider the following thesis statement: “Protecting the
environment is more important than economic growth.” How
could the speaker come to the conclusion that one is more
important than the other? More important in terms of
what? The speaker could argue that survival of the earth
is the most important value we could hold (obviously,
if you’re not alive, other values such as justice or liberty
become meaningless). In this case, the speaker is likely to
pit this value against the benefits of economic growth like
job creation. Ultimately, the speaker would have to prove
that industrial growth risks survival of the planet in order
to successfully defend her or his thesis that protection of
the environment is the most important consideration. Put
simply, the criterion is the measuring stick by which the
value judgment is made.
Organizing Speeches on Claims of Value
Claims of value are typically organized topically.
However, the speaker may choose either to weave the
criteria into the main points of the body of the speech or
separate them into different sub points. The following
speech illustrates how you can weave your criteria into the
main points:
Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience to believe
that human genetic engineering is
morally wrong.
Thesis Statement: Human genetic engineering violates
the values of human equality and
societal welfare.
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Main Points:
A. Human genetic engineering opens
the door to genetic discrimination
and therefore violates principles of
human equality.
B. Human genetic engineering is
dangerous and therefore risks
societal welfare.
When you advocate value claims, you may also consider
devoting your first main point to setting forth the
standards for your value judgment and the second to
applying those standards to your topic. Consider the
following example:
Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience to believe
that the public’s right to know ought
to be valued above the right to
privacy of candidates for public office.
Thesis Statement: Placing the public’s right to know
above political candidates’ right
to privacy is justified because it
decreases political corruption and
produces an informed vote.
Main Points:
A. All actions that we take must meet
two major standards.
1. Our actions must create the
greatest good for the greatest
number of people.
2. Our actions must benefit the
least advantaged members of
society.
B. Placing the public’s right to know
above candidates’ right to privacy
is justified.
1. Infringing upon a
candidate’s privacy
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benefits society by reducing
political corruption and
therefore creates the greatest
good for the greatest number
of people.
2. Infringing upon a
candidate’s privacy gives the
least advantaged an
informed vote.
It should be clear to you at this point that claims of value
have clear implications for our actions and behavior. A
person who believes that human genetic engineering is
morally wrong is likely to support legislation banning the
activity. However, speeches that focus on claims of value
don’t advocate any specific action or policy. Once you
move into the realm of questioning what should be done,
you move from a value claim to a policy claim.
Policy Claims. Policy claims concern what should be
done, what law should be changed, what actions should
be taken, or what policy should be followed. Policy claims
can be easily identified by the word should as well as an
agent of action, or the entity responsible for taking action.
Consider the following policy thesis statements:
• The University (agent of action) should double
tuition.
• The United States government (agent of action)
should institute a national system of health care.
• The President of the United States (agent of
action) should send more troops to fight in the
war in Iraq.
• The NCAA (agent of action) should reorganize
college athletics to optimize television revenue.
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Burdens of Proof
As with the other topic types we’ve discussed, speakers
advocating a policy must clearly define key terms.
Consider the following thesis statement: “The United
States federal government should establish stricter controls
of immigration.” Initially, it is important that the speaker
define the agent of action. For example, there are several
arms of the federal government that could take action to
strengthen immigration control including Congress and
the Citizenship and Immigration Services (CIS) bureau of
the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. In addition,
the speaker would need to carefully define what is meant
by stricter controls of immigration. This could mean
shutting down our borders to all immigrants or simply
adopting more restrictive measures for those from nations
that sponsor terrorism.
In addition to defining key terms, the policy advocate
faces several specific burdens of proof. From a policy
making perspective, a speaker advocating change in
the status quo must prove that some problem or harm
exists. First, using the previously mentioned thesis on
immigration, a speaker might argue that immigration
controls are so lax currently that we are at significant risk
of future terrorist attacks.
Second, the speaker must also prove that the status
quo won’t or can’t solve the problem. In other words, the
speaker must establish that some inherent barrier exists
that is preventing the status quo from acting to solve the
problem. Again, it is important to think of these burdens
from a policy making perspective. Why would a legislator
vote for legislation advocating stricter controls on
immigration if such a policy already existed? This means
that policy advocates must do their research to know what
laws and regulations are currently in effect.
Third, the speaker must establish that her/his
recommended course of action will solve the problem.
286
Obviously, your audience is not likely to be persuaded
to accept your policy recommendations unless they
perceive that such recommendations are likely to solve the
problem.
Persuasive speeches that advocate a change in
policy should contain a well developed action statement.
An action statement indicates what you want your
audience to feel, think, or do. Then, you provide the
audience with the means or information they would need
to do so.
As you develop your action statement, you need
to consider whether your goal is to gain an immediate
response or simple agreement from your audience. If you
want to gain immediate action, your goal should be to
motivate the audience to engage in a specific behavior or
take a specific action. For example, if you have given a
powerful and emotional presentation on the needs of the
homeless in your community, you would then provide
the audience with information on how they could help
your cause. You could also provide information on how
the audience could contact representatives associated with
your topic. You may want them to write or email local
policy makers and you could provide a form letter. You
may want them to sign a petition. Keep in mind that your
action statement should be reasonable for the audience to
complete and as specific as possible. After all, if you have
been successful, your audience will certainly be motivated
by your message to make a difference. How rewarding
would that be? However, they are unlikely to act if they’ve
been presented with a vague plan of action (e.g., contact
someone about homelessness) or an unreasonable request
(e.g., volunteer at least 40 hours per week at the local
homeless shelter).
If, on the other hand, you want to gain passive
agreement, your objective is to persuade the audience to
adopt a new attitude without asking them to engage in a
287
specific behavior. Importantly, speeches that seek passive
agreement include a solution to a problem; however, the
speaker doesn’t call the audience to action. For example,
you might attempt to persuade the audience that the
United States needs a national system of health care
and provide a solution for implementing such a system
without ever asking your audience to do anything more
than agree with your position.
Organizing Speeches on Claims of Policy
Although you can use any of the organizational patterns
discussed in Chapter 9 when discussing a policy, the
following are particularly useful for organizing persuasive
speeches: problem-solution, problem-cause-solution,
comparative advantage, and Monroe’s motivated
sequence.
Problem-Solution Order. If you are advocating a change
in policy, your research will likely fit the problem-solution
format. In this format, the first main point is devoted to
establishing the problem. In the second main point, you’ll
introduce your specific plan and explain how it solves the
problem.
Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience to believe
that action is needed to deal with
safety hazards posed by water
scooters.
Thesis Statement: Solving the safety problems of water
scooters will require new legislation
stipulating a minimum operating age
and mandatory classes in water safety.
Main Points:
A. Water scooters are operationally `
hazardous to the people that
use them.
1. A recent newspaper article
indicates that water scooter
288
fatalities are on the rise.
2. Because no regulations exist
to govern the use of water
scooters, operators are often
inexperienced and
untrained.
B. The problem can be solved by
government action.
1. State governments should
adopt legislation stipulating a
minimum operating age for
water scooter operators.
2. Individuals who operate
water scooters should be
required to complete mandatory classes in water
safety.
Problem-Cause-Solution Order. If you want to focus on
specific causes associated with a problem, you should
consider the problem-cause-solution format. For example:
Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience to believe
that discrimination against gays is a
real problem that requires immediate
action.
Thesis Statement: Discrimination against gays is a
serious problem caused by
discriminatory laws and personal
attitudes that can be addressed by
individual action.
Main Points:
A. Discrimination against gays
remains a significant problem.
1. Research indicates that
more than 90% of gays will
289
experience some form of
overt discrimination in their
lifetime.
2. Gay spouses don’t receive
the same benefits of
heterosexual marriage
partners.
B. There are several causes of gay
discrimination.
1. Many states have adopted
legislation making it legal to
discriminate against gays.
2. Personal attitudes allow
society to perpetuate myths
about gays which fosters
discrimination.
C. There are several steps that you can
take to help solve the problem.
1. You can exercise your right
to vote to defeat
discriminatory initiatives
and vote for political
candidates that protect
rights.
2. You should face your own
fears and ask yourself if your
fears are based on rational
experience.
Comparative Advantages Order. If, during the course of
audience analysis, you find that your audience already
agrees that a problem exists in the status quo, you could
choose to organize your speech around the advantages
and disadvantages of at least two competing solutions. If
you use this format, you’ll present arguments throughout
290
the main points and explain why your solution is
preferable to other solutions.
Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience to believe
that the U.S. should put greater
emphasis on nuclear power as way of
generating electricity.
Thesis Statement: Nuclear power is friendlier to the
environment and less costly compared to coal power.
Main Points:
A. Nuclear power produces far less
CO2 emissions compared to coal
power.
B. Nuclear power will result in
cheaper energy prices compared to
coal power.
Monroe’s Motivated Sequence. Monroe’s motivated sequence
is a five-step approach for arranging your main points.4
This pattern allows you to identify the problem and
solution as well as the consequences of implementing your
plan. The five steps of this sequence are:
1. attention (designed to capture the attention of your
audience),
2. need (you demonstrate to your audience that
serious problems exist that must be addressed),
3. satisfaction (in this step, you offer your plan for
solving the problem),
4. visualization (you attempt to help the listeners
visualize the advantages of adopting your plan or
the disadvantages of not adopting your plan),
5. and action (in this step, you tell the listeners exactly
what they should do and how they can do it).
291
Monroe, A. H. (1935). Principles
and types of speech. Chicago, IL:
Scott Foresman.
4
Monroe’s motivated sequence is especially useful
when you want to get your listeners to take action;
however, keep in mind that you should specify
action that the audience can reasonably take.
Monroe’s motivated sequence is compatible with
the method of outlining discussed in Chapter 9.
Specifically, the attention step is accomplished in
the introduction of the speech (attention getter),
the need, satisfaction, and visualization steps are
accomplished in the body of the speech, and the
action step is accomplished in the conclusion. The
following outline demonstrates how one speaker
incorporated the sequence into a speech urging her
classmates to become more involved in community
service projects:
Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience to
get involved by volunteering
for community service.
Thesis Statement: Volunteering for community
service can improve your
self-esteem and satisfaction as
well as benefit members of the
community.
I. Introduction
Attention:
A. Attention Getter: “Be the change you want to
see in the world.” How many of you know
what group on campus has adopted this
quote as their motto? If you guessed the
Student Volunteer Center, you’re correct!
Their philosophy is that each and every one
of you has the ability and the opportunity to
make a difference in the world.
292
B. Relevance Statement: Research indicates that
many college students fail to take advantage of
opportunities to get involved in meaningful social
issues. In fact, my on-line survey of this class
indicates that, while many of you expressed an
interest in community service, less than 10% of this
audience has ever participated in a community
service project. The same survey indicates that
more than half of you said you would like to
become more active in a making a difference in
this community, but you’re unsure of how to get
involved.
C. Credibility Statement: In addition to conducting
a great deal of research on this topic, I have
personally participated in the University’s Habitat
for Humanity and alternative spring break
programs. Also, I currently work in the Student
Volunteer Center.
D. Thesis Statement: Volunteering for community
service can improve your self-esteem and
satisfaction as well as benefit members of the
community.
E. Preview: In order to understand why you should
volunteer for community service, it’s necessary
to explore the need for student volunteerism, the
opportunities you have to volunteer, and the many
benefits of volunteering.
II. Body
Need:
A. There is a significant need for college students to
volunteer in their communities.
293
1. Research indicates that far too few
college students get involved in social
issues in their communities.
2. This apathy is a significant problem for
both students and the community in
which they live
a. Students’ educational experiences are
substantially diminished if they are
uninvolved.
b. A host of problems, such as
homelessness, continue to go
unaddressed.
Satisfaction:
B. Students have many opportunities to get
involved thanks to campus volunteer
centers.
1. Campuses all over the nation, including
this one, have established student
volunteer centers to get students
involved with social issues.
2. You can volunteer to help with virtually
any social issue you can imagine.
Visualization:
C. Volunteering will benefit you personally as
well as members of your community.
1. Engaging in community service projects
will enhance your self-esteem and
increase your satisfaction with your
educational experience.
2. You can make a difference in addressing
the most significant social issues that
confront your community.
294
III. Conclusion
Action:
A. Restate Thesis: Volunteering for community service
can improve your self-esteem and satisfaction as
well as benefit members of the community. So, I
encourage each of you to register with the student
volunteer center.
B. Memorable Close: By volunteering for community
service you can indeed be the change you want
to see in the world. You have the ability and the
opportunity to make a difference in the world.
Summary
In this chapter, we have defined persuasive
communication, noting that it refers to messages that are
intended to shape, reinforce, or change the responses of
others. We also noted that persuasion is not something
to be taken for granted. Although many might assume
that they are naturally effective communicators, such an
assumption can get us into trouble when the persuasive
strategy we employ fails. We also noted that it’s important
to study persuasion in order to become a more critical
consumer of persuasive messages (from interpersonal
interactions to our consumption of mass media messages).
As a persuasive speaker, making a decision about
whether to formulate your thesis as a claim of fact,
value or policy has very important implications for
what you have to prove in your speech as well as the
organizational pattern you’ll employ. As we noted in this
chapter, any of these claims can be used to assist you in
conceptualizing a thesis statement or in framing a major
proposition. However, you should recognize that any
given speech may involve claims of fact, value, and policy.
For example, you might argue that the United States will
not implement a national system of health care under the
current administration (fact), the government has a moral
295
responsibility to provide its citizens with health
coverage (value) and therefore, the United States
federal government should act immediately to
establish national health care (policy).
296
Chapter Eighteen
Using Communication in the 21st Century
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
• Understand how to use communication skills in
a democracy.
• Understand how to use communication skills
for the common good.
• Understand how to critically consume
messages.
A few hundred years ago if you obtained a university
education, you pretty much knew everything that was
known in the western world. As you no doubt realize,
when you graduate with a degree in the 21st century
you don’t know everything. With increased literacy and
education, the world has produced a glut of information
requiring much greater specialization among its citizens.
For example, you have probably declared a major
course of study or will be expected to do so very
soon. The further you advance in your education, the
more specialized your knowledge becomes. There’s
nothing wrong with that of course, but we still have
to communicate with others who may not share our
educational or experiential backgrounds. Hopefully, you
have come to understand the importance of audience
analysis as a result of taking this course.
297
Communicating in a Democracy
Competent and ethical communication is central to the
tenets of democratic self-governance. The founders of
our nation were products of the Enlightenment and as
such had an unshakeable belief in the power of reason.
In fact, our democracy depends on people acting in good
faith using the best possible information to reach some
sort of consensus about how to best create a free and just
society. That’s why the first amendment protects freedom
of speech and the press. Thomas Jefferson, third president
and author of the Declaration of Independence, went so
far as to state:
The basis of our governments being the opinion of the
people, the very first object should be to keep that right;
and were it left to me to decide whether we should have a
government without newspapers or newspapers without
the government, I should not hesitate a moment to prefer
the latter. But I should mean that every man should
receive those papers, and be capable of reading them.1
When Jefferson wrote those words there was no such thing
as photography, radio, television, or the Internet. That’s
why being able to read and write and having the freedom
to share one’s thoughts (both orally and in writing) was so
important to him. In other words, democracies function as
a result of citizens communicating with one another. It is
important for us too, which is why we have written a book
to help you with your oral communication competencies.
However, new literacies are required in today’s world.
Recall our discussion in Chapter 7 (Locating Supporting
Material) about information literacy. Because it is not
possible for us to know everything, despite being highly
educated, it is crucially important that we be able to
locate and evaluate information from those experts whose
specialties we don’t share. Likewise, recall Chapter 12
298
As cited in Commission of Freedom of the Press (1947). A free
and responsible press; a general
report on mass communication:
newspapers, radio, motion pictures,
magazines, and books. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
1
and the idea of visual literacy. Humans have a long history
of determining the truth or falsity of spoken and written
propositions, but judging visual messages requires a
different sensibility.2 Many of the fallacies discussed
in Chapter 16 (Building Arguments) have been known
since the time of the ancient Greeks and were developed
specifically for examining spoken and written arguments.
What is new, however, is the meaning and persuasive
appeal inherent in the images we see in books and
magazines and on television and the Internet.
Hopefully, since you have now had the chance to
produce visual materials, you will be more alert and
critical when encountering them in your everyday life.
Information and visual literacy are vitally important,
but we would like to add one more to the list: media
literacy. That is, it is important to consider the channel
or medium a message is delivered in, and to be aware of
political, organizational, and ideological biases that affect
the content of mediated communication. Throughout this
book we have pointed you to media interactions that we
hope honed your critical thinking skills regarding the
mass media. Now, where do you go from here?
How would you go about finding information about a
political candidate? Well, it is certainly possible (probably
unavoidable) to view each candidate’s 30-second
television spot during the campaign season. How much
and what kind of information do those messages contain?
Do those TV spots tell you about the candidate’s position
on the important topics of the day? Is 30 seconds sufficient
time for anyone to tell you how they plan to accomplish
their goals?
Postman reports that in 1854 in Peoria, IL Abraham
Lincoln and Stephen Douglas engaged in seven hours of
debate (with a break for dinner).3 This wasn’t unusual and
the audience thought nothing of it! I wonder how well
that would play in Peoria today? Today’s citizens are not
299
Postman, N. (1985). Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in
the Age of Show Business. New York:
Penquin Books.
2
3
Postman (1985) as cited above.
going to listen to seven hours of debate, but if television
spots don’t answer your questions, where would you
seek more information about political candidates? Once
you locate more in-depth information, how can you tell if
that source is factual or overly biased? These are difficult
questions, but if we want to govern ourselves they have
to be answered. Democracy requires informed citizens.
Citizenship implies responsibility. Responsibility means
acting in mutually beneficial ways with others. We owe it
to one another to be media literate, but what if we don’t
share a “range of common experiences?”
It is now possible for each of us to receive only that
information that we seek. Through the use of computers
and the Internet, each of us can consume only those
media messages or news items that we deem important
or useful.4 In effect, we can create and live in our own
informational worlds, cut off from those around us. As
we mentioned earlier, to create and sustain a public realm
worthy of a democracy, we have to share common goals
and experiences. Though specialized expertise is needed
in today’s professional world, we need to maintain broad
civic interests. Though our ability to locate and organize
information on any topic is practically limitless, we need
to resist hemming ourselves into informational backwaters
where only other specialists can understand what we say.
Use Communication for
the Common Good
Our economic system is based on the belief that the best
ideas, goods and services will flourish when people
behave in mutually beneficial ways That is, when we enter
into consensual economic transactions in an informed
manner, everyone should get what they want. Now, it
should come as no surprise to you that we do not always
live up to our ideals. Why is that? Are our experiences
300
Sunstein, C. (2001, March 16).
Exposure to other viewpoints is
vital to Demoncracy. The Chronicle
of Higher Education.
4
so different that we can’t hope to achieve the ideals set
forth in our constitution? Beyer and Liston point out
that common, community, and communication all share the
same linguistic root, and that without these it would be
impossible to “establish a widely held social good.”5
Back in Chapter 1 we discussed the personal,
professional, and social benefits of studying
communication and that our goals for you were to become
competent, confident, ethical communicators. Through
classroom discussions and group activities you practiced
interpersonal communication and hopefully gained new
insight into how to make those interactions more pleasant
and effective. With your public speeches you learned and
practiced many new skills on your way to becoming a
more competent and confident presenter. We have tried
to stress the idea that all of us are both producers and
consumers of messages. That is, we are all communicators.
But, as you no doubt realize, there are many other
channels and contexts (remember the communication
process model?) in which you will be expected to function
in your life other than the ones practiced in this course.
Fortunately, the skills and techniques you used to
interact successfully with your classmates and instructor
can be put to use in other social situations. In addition,
the research, argumentation, and rhetorical skills that
you practiced when preparing and delivering your
presentations can be extended into job interviews and
business meetings or used to write reports or compose emails.
The channels and contexts in which we now consume
and produce messages are numerous and will only expand
over time. Do you surf the web? e-mail? blog? chat room?
IM? Perhaps you have your own website? If not, maybe
you have a profile on myspace, facebook, or classmates.
Have you ever contributed to a threaded discussion
list? Did you receive a new digital camcorder for your
301
5
Beyer, L. E. & Liston, D. P. (1996).
Curriculum in Conflict: Social
Visions, Edugational Agendas, and
Progressive School Reform. New
York: Teachers College Press. (p. 88)
birthday? Perhaps a video could get your point across.
A video conference or podcast over the web may extend
your influence further than your parents or grandparents
could ever imagine.
Perhaps you prefer communicating with old fashioned
tools. How about a letter to the editor? Ever spoke at a
school board meeting? Zoning commission? Maybe you
are an officer in a club and often have to conduct meetings.
Perhaps you have a part time job as a telemarketer. Are
you confident that what you have learned about the
communication process can serve you and others well in
these areas? And you thought “speech” class was only
about giving speeches!
Recall that being an ethical communicator requires you
to be truthful, accurate, honest, and reasonable. While
conducting research for your speeches you probably came
across conflicting information. How did you resolve those
conflicts and how will you resolve them in the future?
How can you judge the quality of the information you
encounter? If you are going to persuade co-workers,
family members, or voters to adopt your viewpoint to
enhance the common good, you better have good evidence
for what you say.
Recall the strategies we discussed in Chapter 7 about
how to locate supporting material? Specifically, we
encouraged you to develop your information literacy
by developing research questions to guide you and to
keep your audience in mind as to what information is
likely to persuade them. As you are well aware, there is
no shortage of information in today’s world. The trick is
locating relevant information and then determining its
quality. Generally speaking, information that has been
through some sort of review process is better than the
casual thoughts of some individual ranting on a web page.
For example, journalists usually have to go through a
series of editors before they get their stories on the air or in
302
print. Scientists must submit their studies to a peer-review
process meant to weed out faulty thinking and results.
In short, information that has been knocked around
the “marketplace of ideas” tends to be more useful and
accurate because many eyes have had a chance to catch
errors or sloppy reasoning.
Of course, you should approach all information with
a critical eye. Michael Shermer, publisher of Skeptic
magazine, once was asked by a journalist, “why should
we believe anything you say?” To which he replied, “You
shouldn’t.”6
In your own life ask questions, consult multiple sources,
and suspend judgment until you have enough high
quality information before making decisions that affect
you personally, professionally, and socially. Astronomer
Carl Sagan offered this sage advice: “Have an open mind
but not so open your brains fall out!”7
Remember the material in Chapter 16 about logical
fallacies? Once you have located high quality information,
can you reach a logically-justified conclusion? Now that
you have perfected your argument how do you present
it to others? Should you address them face-to-face? Not
possible? How about a web site? Too impersonal? An email?
As you can see, as a producer and consumer of
messages you are faced with a great array of choices.
Does that give you option anxiety or does it thrill you
that you are limited only by your imagination? Much of
our communication is goal-directed. That is, we create
messages to accomplish personal, professional, or social
goals. To reach a goal you must have a strategy. Luckily,
you now know something about the communication
process and can use that knowledge to devise a
strategy when producing and consuming messages.
Communication always takes place in a context and it
requires a receiver or an audience. That audience may
303
Shermer, M. (1997). Why people
believe weird things: Pseudo-science, superstition, and bogus
notions of our time. New York: MJF
Books.
6
Sagan, C. (1996). The demonhaunted world: Science as a candle
in the dark. New York: Ballantine
Books.
7
be one person or many. Who are they and what do they
know, want, or believe? What will be the setting and
why are they there? What is the message that you want
to convey? Do you have the necessary information to
back your claims? What channel makes the most sense
for your message, context, and audience? What types of
interference may hinder your efforts? Can you foresee any
“noise” and takes steps to eliminate or minimize it?
8
Please refer to the following
Consider a slightly different question—how might
media interaction:
you utilize your freshly honed communication skills to
http://www.ilstu.edu/
americandemocracy/pep/
participate in our democratic system for the common
good?8 To begin with, you are certainly now better
see also
http://www.nytimes.com/college/
equipped to make informed choices at the ballot box.
collegespecial10/
However, you are also now in a position to employ these
skills more proactively
Skills for Political Engagement
for political engagement.
Work together with someone or some group to solve a
problem in the community where you live.
Take a moment to look
Contact or visit a public official – at any level of
over the skills for political
government – to ask for assistance or to express your
engagement provided in
opinion.
Contact a newspaper or magazine to express your
Figure 19.1.
How many of these skills opinion on an issue or issue a press release detailing
your issue.
rest on the foundation of
Call in to a radio or television talk show to express your
the communication, critical opinion on an issue.
Attend a speech, informal seminar, or teach in about
thinking, and information,
politics.
visual, and media literacy
Take part in a protest, march, or demonstration.
skills covered in this text?
Sign a written or e-mail petition about a political or
All of them! This realization social issue.
Work with a political group or for a campaign or
should reinforce a central
political official.
theme of this chapter (and
Boycott something because of conditions under which
text)—as you become a more the product is made, or because you dislike the conduct
of the company that produces it.
competent communicator,
you become better prepared Buy a certain product or service because you like the
social or political values of the company that produces
to participate in our
it.
democracy. For example, in Work as canvasser going door to door for a political
candidate or cause.
order to engage in political
Figure 19.1
persuasion, you must have
304
the verbal and argumentation skills to communicate
a position. To further substantiate this point, research
regarding the effects of higher education on political
involvement demonstrates that the best predictor of
students’ future political engagement is training in
communication skills. 9
We have clearly made the point that studying
communication will benefit you personally and
professionally and all of us join together in wishing you
the best of luck in your future endeavors. However,
we agree with Anne Colby, Thomas Ehrlich, Elizabeth
Beaumont, and Jason Stephens, all prominent civic
education advocates, that whatever else you do the rest
of your life, we hope you will also be “active citizens and
positive forces in the world.”10
You are likely aware that many prominent scholars
have argued over the last several years that political
disengagement among the youth of this country is a
significant problem.11 This is a problem worth addressing
because the withdrawal of a cohort of citizens from our
political system places democracy at risk.12 One look
around our current political environment should give
you pause—our democracy is not especially healthy.
If our country ever needed a new generation of savvy
critical thinkers that know how to access, use and evaluate
information, and how to use their communication skills
for the common good, we need them now. In the end, you
can be the vehicle for positively affecting the attitudes and
lives of others in your community.
Consuming Messages
Many times you may not need to inform or persuade
anyone, but may need to be informed or persuaded
yourself. That is, you may only be interested in consuming
information. No doubt you are inundated by messages
305
Hillygus, D. S. (2005). The missing
link: Exploring the relationship
between higher education and
political engagement. Political
Behavior, 27, 25-47.
9
Colby, A., Ehrlich, T., Beaumont,
E., & Stephens, J. (2003) Educating
citizens: Preparing America’s
undergraduates for lives of moral
and civic responsibility. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass. (p. 276)
10
Beaumont, E., Colby, A., Ehrlich, T.,
& Torney-Purta, J. (2006). Promoting political competence and engagement in college students: An
empirical study. Journal of Political
Science Education, 2, 249-270.
11
Galston, W. A. (2003). Civic education and political participation. Phi
Delta Kappan, 85, 29-33.
12
every single day. Your voice mail is full of messages from
friends and family vying for your attention. Your e-mail
box is full of spam trying to sell you things you don’t
really need, your car radio seems only to play commercials
rather than music, and billboards block out the beautiful
neighborhoods that lie beyond. Why in the world would
anyone go seeking information in a world that spews so
much of it? The sad fact is that in our world there is a glut
of information making it difficult to locate and analyze the
best possible messages to help us make decisions about
our personal, professional, and social lives.13
For example, have you ever wanted to lose weight?
Why? Is it for health-related reasons or is it because
you’re trying to match the “ideal” body image we see on
television or in fashion magazines? How many different
diet books or pills do you think there are on the market?
Are they all the same? Is one more effective than the
other? Healthier? Cheaper? Whom do you believe?
Why? Is it because the source is attractive, eloquent, and
seemingly knowledgeable? Or do you believe based on
the weight of evidence and force of logic. Where would
you look for diet/health information? Are you in a
position to evaluate it once you do? Are you aware that
the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) and the Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) routinely examine health
claims made by various businesses and individuals? For
example, for a prescription drug to make it to the market,
the manufacturers must submit scientific evidence to
support their claims. The FDA is then faced with the
possibility of making two kinds of errors: accepting a bad
drug or rejecting a good drug.14 Statisticians give these the
catchy names type 1 and type 2 errors. The FDA makes its
judgments based on the quality and amount of evidence
offered about the effectiveness of the drug in question.
If accepted, the drug can then be put on the market. But
even this precaution is not fool proof. For example, in the
306
Shenk, D. (1997). Data smog: Surviving the info glut. MIT’s Technology Review, 100, 18-26.
13
Paulos, J. A. (1988). Innumeracy:
Mathematical illiteracy and its
consequences. New York: Hill and
Wang.
14
late 1990s the diet drug Phen-fen was pulled from the
market – not because people weren’t losing weight but
because some people using the prescription drug had
died. Those are serious consequences that even the FDA
did not foresee when it approved Phen-fen’s use.
Two important considerations when trying to make a
decision is to ask yourself are what is the likelihood of being
right? and what are the consequences of being wrong? For
example, there are thousands of diet products that are
marketed as supplements and not as drugs so the FDA
has little or no control over them. The claims made about
the effectiveness of these products range greatly, but those
claims are not often reviewed by the FDA. Perhaps you
have noticed the label on a supplement bottle that says
something to the effect that the FDA has not reviewed
these claims. That is because the product is categorized as
a supplement and not a drug.
So, as you can see, being able to consume media
messages critically and draw conclusions based on that
information can have serious consequences for you. It is
not always easy to make decisions because of the glut of
contradictory messages that we encounter, but it is our
responsibility to weigh the information carefully and act
accordingly. Again, consider the consequences of making a
decision.
This form of reasoning is important not only for
personal decision-making such as choosing a new
diet, but it is common in many professional settings.
Most businesses engage in cost/benefit analyses before
launching new products and services. It is likely that
you will have to perform these types of analyses during
your career. Basically, it is the weighing of advantages
and disadvantages before making a decision. In an
organizational setting your findings and recommendations
will need to be reported to others in a persuasive manner
in order to effect policy changes.
307
Finally, as we’re sure you have already concluded, these
skills are essential to the functioning of our democracy.15
Aren’t you glad you’ve studied public speaking and
persuasion?
Summary
New skills and sensibilities are required for citizens
wishing to participate in a 21st century democracy.
Speaking and listening are still crucially important,
but now require literacies that have only recently been
understood and taught. Information, visual, and media
literacies allow today’s citizens to locate and evaluate
information, view and design images, and critically
engage media messages. Democratic self-governance
requires engaged, informed citizens who know how to
operate in today’s informational world.
Creating a widely held social good is difficult
in a society where citizens have highly specialized
knowledge and seldom communicate with those different
from themselves. The modern competent and ethical
communicator seeks out a broad range of information
and media messages so that they can be civically and
politically engaged with their communities.
Likewise, when faced with personal and professional
choices, these communicators exercise their critical skills
and consider a broad range of options and information
before making crucial decisions. In the end, competent,
confident, and ethical communicators become successful
in their personal, professional, and social lives. That’s our
hope for you.
308
15
DeMars, C. E., Cameron, L., &
Erwin, T. D. (2003). Information
literacy as foundational: Determining competence. Journal of General
Education, 52, 253-265.
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309
warm, humid air that's east or south of advancing cold air.
4. I mentioned in the introduction that Illinois sees its fair share of tornadoes.
The following graph, adapted from the ��� ����� ������� ����������� web site,
illustrates areas in the U.S. that receive the greatest number of tornadoes (tornado
alley). Thunderstorm-producing tornadoes are likely to form in this area as cold
air from the west and north clashes violently with warm air from the Gulf of
Mexico ������� ����.
����������� Now that we have crashed through the causes of tornadoes, let's twist around the types of
tornadoes.
�� There are several types of tornadoes.
1. According to renowned weather historian Dr. David Ludlum, author of the
1997 edition of the National Audubon Society’s ����� ����� �� ����� ��������
�������, tornado researchers use a scale, known as the Fujita-Pearson Tornado
Intensity Scale (named after its creators) to rate the intensity of tornadoes
������� ����.
2. Tornado statistics from ���� (cited above) ������� ����
a. Weak tornadoes
(1) Account for 69% of all tornadoes.
(2) Winds are less than 110 mph.
b. Strong tornadoes
(1) Account for 29% of all tornadoes.
(2) Winds range from 110 to 205 mph.
c. Violent tornadoes
(1) Represent only 2% of all tornadoes.
(2) Winds exceed 205 mph.
3. According to ������� ������� �������, although violent tornadoes account
for only 2% of all tornadoes, they are responsible for 67% of all deaths in
tornadoes ������� ����.
4. In addition, astrogeophysicist Dr. Robert Davies-Jones notes in a 1995 edition
of ���������� �������� that most tornadoes have damage paths 150 feet wide,
move at about 30 miles per hour and last only a few minutes. However,
extremely violent tornadoes, like the one that ripped through Murphysboro,
Illinois, may be over a mile wide, travel at 60 mils per hour and may stay on the
ground for more than one hour.
����������� Now that we have a better understanding of the causes and types of tornadoes, I will blow
through some of the oddities associated with tornadoes.
�� There have been many oddities associated with tornadoes.
1. Stories of strange events are typical in the wake of the damage caused by
tornadoes. Indeed, much of what makes stories of tornadoes unusual is irony.
Consider the following story from the ���� ������� ����� ��������� In a 1984
Kansas tornado a man, apparently thinking that his mobile home would be
destroyed, ran to shelter in another building, only to have that building destroyed
(killing the man), while his trailer survived just fine.
2. As noted by ������� ������� �������, the Great Bend, Kansas tornado of
November 1915 is a tornado which seems to have the greatest number of oddities
associated with it.
a. At Grant Jones' store, the south wall was blown down and scattered, but
shelves and canned goods that stood against the wall were not moved.
b. The Riverside Steam Laundry, build of stone and cement block, was
completely destroyed, yet two nearby wooden shacks were untouched.
c. A canceled check from Great Bend was found in a corn field, one mile
outside of Palmyra, Nebraska….305 miles to the northeast. This is the
310
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311
�������� �
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����� ��������
�������� �������� To inform the audience about the Roman Coliseum.
�������������� ����� To truly understand the historical impact the Coliseum has had on civilization, it is
important to learn of the architectural wonders of the Coliseum, the terror of the Roman Games, and the
present plans for its restoration.
�������������� �������� Topical
��
������������
�� ��������� ������� Imagine yourself being ushered up a dark hallway and into a huge, outdoor
theatre. Here you are greeted by 50,000 screaming spectators and one man—crazy for your death,
hungry for the thought of ripping you apart limb from limb. You and Blood Thirsty are the only
ones inside an arena encompassed by a 15-foot wall, and the 50,000 people are waiting for you to
die.
�� ���������� From professional football and basketball games to the sporting events at ISU’s
Redbird Arena, much of our culture is influenced by the success of one great sports arena built
nearly 2000 years ago. The author Alan Baker, in his book, ��� ���������, published in 2001,
makes the connection between the ancient Roman games and our culture today. Our own athletes,
he states, “…are merely the pale echoes of the ancient fighters… [they] display their skill and
aggression before thousands of screaming spectators, with millions more watching on television.
This is exactly what happened in the ancient world.”
�� ������������ As a history major focused on Roman studies, I have always been enamored with
the stories surrounding the Coliseum. Further, a tour of Ancient Rome this past summer
intensified my horror and fascination with this great monument.
�� ������� To truly understand the historical impact the Coliseum has had on civilization, it is
important to learn of the architectural wonders of the Coliseum, the terror of the Roman Games,
and the present plans for its restoration.
�� �������� Therefore, [show transparency] we will first, lay the foundation by describing its
design and construction, next, live through a day at the games, and finally, learn of the present
plans to restore and renovate this ancient monument to its original glory.
����������� To begin, we will lay the foundation by describing its design and construction.
���
����
�� First, the Coliseum’s construction will be discussed�
�� According to John Pearson, author of Arena� ��� ����� �� ��� ��������, published in
1973, the Emperor Vespasian, to curry the favor of the Roman people, commissioned the
construction of the Coliseum.
�� Considering the games were held 1900 years ago, the construction was considered pure
genius.
�� The outdoor theatre boasted 80 entrances, with a design so incredibly
pragmatic that each was equipped with a numbered staircase, ensuring the
simultaneous exit of about 50,000 individuals in three minutes flat. Our sports
stadiums today cannot even accomplish this feat.
�� Just as we look down from gymnasium bleachers, spectators would look
down upon the wooden arena floor. However, the Coliseum’s floor was covered
with sand, which served to soak up large quantities of blood. The floor also
concealed a labyrinth of tunnels, trapdoors, and a complicated system of chains
and pulleys, similar to our modern-day elevators.
312
����������� Now that we have laid the foundation of the Coliseum’s construction, let us live through a day
at the Roman Games.
�� A Day at the Games can be compared to a day watching football at the Redbird Arena�
�� As ISU students, part of our tuition pays for Redbird Arena. However, at the
Coliseum’s inception, it was a Roman citizen’s right to attend the games free of charge.
And just as we are treated to semesters of games, it was not uncommon for emperors to
treat their subjects to many months of games.
�� The mornings began with fights between wild animals. One battle involved a bull and
a panther, each at the end of a chain. They could barely reach other, and they were forced
to tear each other apart piece by piece. Lions would be matched against tigers and bears
pitted against bulls.
�� Lunchtime executions followed. The scholar Baker, as cited earlier, states that the
infliction of pain was an essential part of punishment in ancient Rome. Therefore,
common methods included crucifixions, being burned alive, and being thrown to wild
beasts.
In fact, Emperor Constantine would order molten lead to be poured down the
condemned’s throats.
�� The best attraction was saved for the afternoon: gladiatorial combat. The following
videoclip is taken from the 2000 epic film, ���������, in which Russell Crowe stars. As
stated earlier, notice the concealed trapdoors in the arena floor. [Show videoclip.]
����������� Now that we have lived through the terror of the Roman games, let us learn of the present
plans to restore and renovate this ancient monument to its original glory.
�� The present life of the coliseum is undergoing change.
�� After 300 years of this publicly accepted entertainment a monk named Telemachus ran
into the arena, screaming for them to stop. However, the mob was not to be cheated of
their entertainment, and he was torn to pieces.
�� Although gladiatorial combat was subsequently banned, the battles and
executions involving wild beasts took another 100 years to end.
�� Stones were taken from the Coliseum to construct other buildings during the
Middle Ages, and the inner arena, as shown here [show transparency] became
overgrown with weeds and vegetation.
�� Recently, [show transparency] the national geographic website reported in July of
2001, that a restoration project is underway to reinstate the Coliseum, which is located
near the center of modern Rome.
�� It will take eight years and cost 18-million dollars.
�� It will also allow international tourists to attend Greek plays and gladiatorial
exhibitions.
����������� Once restored, it will encompass, as historian Dr. Alison Futrell states in her 1997 book, �����
�� ��� �����, “all the glory and doom of the Roman Empire.”
����
����������
�� ��������������� In many ways, the Coliseum has influenced the development of
civilization and will likely do so for years to come. The Coliseum’s construction was truly
genius, bearing witness to the wealth of the Roman Empire. The games, unlike those at
Redbird Arena, served bloodshed and agony, in the form of wild beasts, executions and
gladiators. Hopefully, the restoration of the Coliseum will see much less bloodshed.
�� ��������� ������ To quote the 7th century historian and monk, the Venerable Bede, in his
famous “Ecclesiastical History of the English people,” “While the Coliseum stands, Rome
shall stand; when the Coliseum falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, the world shall fall."
313
���������� (separate page)
Auguet, R. (1998). Cruelty and civilization: The Roman games. New York: Barnes & Noble.
Baker, A. (2001). The gladiator: The secret history of Rome’s warrior slaves. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Bede, V. (1849). The Venerable Bede's ecclesiastical history of England. London: H. G. Bohn.
The Coliseum on Eliki. (n.d.) The Coliseum. Retrieved July 20, 2002, from http://www.eliki.com/coliseum/
Core Tour Europe 2003. (2002). Coliseum. Sponsored by Saint Joseph’s College. Retrieved July 22, 2002, from
http://www.saintjoe.edu/~mjoakes/europe/images/ photos_01/coliseum.jpg
Futrell, A. (1997). Blood in the arena: The spectacle of Roman power. Austin: University of Texas Press.
National Geographic News. (2001, June 29). Rome Coliseum being restored for wider public viewing. Retrieved July
22, 2002, from http://news.nationalgeographic.com/ news/2001/06/0625_wirecoliseum.html
Pearson, J. (1973). Arena: The story of the Coliseum. London: Thames & Hudson.
Wick, D. (Producer), & Scott, R. (Director). (2000). Gladiator [Motion picture]. United States: Dreamworks Pictures
and Universal Pictures.
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�������� To inform the audience about Delta Blues.
������� To really understand the roots of popular American music, it’s necessary to journey back to the
early 20th century and examine the music of three men who epitomize Mississippi Delta Blues.
������������ �������� Chronological
�� ������������
�� ��������� ������� “This is where the soul of man never dies.” So says Sun Records founder
Sam Phillips… the man who discovered and first recorded Elvis Presley, Jerry Lee Lewis, and
Johnny Cash. However, Sam wasn’t referring to the King, the Killer, or the Man in Black. He
wasn’t even referring to Rock and Roll. He was referring to the Blues…. the real reason he opened
Sun Studios in Memphis way back in the early 1950’s.
�� ���������� I know many of you are from the Chicago-land area. Through the many books and
magazine articles I’ve read, I’ve discovered that the world famous “Chicago Blues” sound owes
its origins to Mississippi Delta Blues – since many of those players migrated to Chicago in the
40’s and 50’s. In fact, the blues classic “Sweet Home Chicago” was written by a Delta musician.
According to Nicholas Leman in his book “The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and
how it changed America,” the black migration from the rural south to Chicago represented one of
the largest and most rapid mass internal movements of people in history. And, most of those who
relocated were from the Mississippi Delta.
�� ������������ I have been a blues fan for several years now. I was first introduced to the music
by reading interviews with famous rock musicians like the Rolling Stones, Eric Clapton, and Bad
Company. These English guys kept mentioning people with funny names…Blind Lemon
Jefferson, Muddy Waters, Howlin’ Wolf. They said these musicians were the first ones to inspire
them to play. I started reading books and listening to the music, and just generally finding out
about the blues and its players…. Especially Pre-War Country Blues…..the music created in the
20’s and 30’s in the Delta region of Mississippi. I’ve even traveled to the area to attend music
festivals and visit historic blues sites.
�� ������� To really understand the roots of popular American music, it’s necessary to journey
back to the early 20th century and examine the music of three men who epitomize Mississippi
Delta Blues.
�� �������� First, we’ll examine Charley Patton, one of the earliest Delta musicians; next Son
House, his friend and protégé; and finally Robert Johnson, a man shrouded in myth and legend.
����������� William Barlow, in his 1989 book “Looking up at Down: The Emergence of Blues Culture,”
called Charley Patton the heart and soul of the early Delta Blues tradition.
��� ����
�� ������� ������ ��� � ���������� ��� ����������� ���������
1. He was not the first blues musician in the Delta….. he just happened to be the first one
to record – therefore, he’s the first one to emerge from the anonymous oral tradition.
2. Patton lived and played around the Dockery Plantation near Ruleville, Mississippi
…..leading some people to call Dockery’s the birthplace of the blues.
3. Whether he was playing for change on a street corner or for corn liquor at juke joint,
Charley was the consummate showman.
a. Barlow reports that Patton played the guitar behind his back and between his
legs, and would sometimes toss it high into the air – all to work the crowd into a
frenzy.
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b. The young Howlin’ Wolf was watching and listening and later incorporated
some of those moves into his own performance style. And, Jimi Hendrix took
some of his cues from Wolf – so Patton may very well be the prototype for rock
stage performance.
4. Though he died in 1934, Patton still inspires many musicians. On a recent recording,
Bob Dylan dedicated his song “High Water” to Charley Patton.
Transition: Though Patton never lived to see the worldwide acceptance of the blues, one of his disciples
did.
B. Eddie “Son” House was born in Riverton, Mississippi in 1902.
1. In the article “Trail of the Hellhound” on the National Park Service’s web site last
modified on April 30, 2001, we find that Son first tried his hand at preaching but the
seductive pull of women and music was just too great to keep him in the church.
2. He played at many of the same juke joints and parties as Charley Patton and the two
even made a trip together in 1930 to Grafton, Wisconsin to record.
3. House played slide guitar in a rudimentary fashion, but very few bluesmen could
match his vocal intensity. The band Lynyrd Skynyrd put it this way in their song “Swamp
Music”: ���� ���� ����� ��� ������ �������� ������ ���� ��� ��� ����� ������� ���
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4. Like most bluesmen, Son knew trouble first hand. He spent some time in Parchman
Penitentiary for murdering a man, but was subsequently released.
5. In the 40’s he moved to Rochester, New York and was out of the music business until
1964 when he was “rediscovered” during the folk music boom. Throughout the rest of the
60’s he played the “real folk blues” at several festivals.
6. By the 1970’s he had fallen into ill health and had to retire from music.
7. He died of throat cancer in 1988.
Transition: When Son House used to play juke joints, he would sometimes notice a skinny little kid
hanging around. When Son would stop playing to take a break, the would-be musician would pick up his
guitar and start to play. The kid wasn’t very good and Son would say “Little Robert, put that thing down,
you’re going to drive everybody away.”
C. Robert Johnson was that kid.
1. Well, Robert Johnson took the hint and went away by himself for about a year.
2. When he came back, he played so well that Son House remarked that “he must have
made a deal with the devil,” as reported in a 1966 magazine article in Down Beat Music
by Pete Welding. So begins one of the most famous and oft told stories in blues lore.
Years later Muddy Waters would recall that he saw Robert playing in front of this
drugstore in Friars Point, MS, but fled the scene frightened because of the devil stories.
3. These stories, some recent documentaries, the movie Crossroads with Karate Kid
Ralph Macchio… they all play into the “Robert Johnson sold his soul to the devil at the
crossroads” myth. That’s too bad, because the myth overshadows what is probably the
pinnacle of the Delta Blues form in terms of musicianship and performance. Keith
Richards of the Rolling Stones said that when he was a young man trying to learn the
music from Johnson’s records, that he was flabbergasted to find out that it was just one
person playing.
4. Robert Johnson left the world 29 songs from two recording sessions – one in San
Antonio and one in Dallas.
5. Robert Johnson died a mysterious death in August of 1938.
a. According to Peter Guralnick in his 1989 book “Searching for Robert
Johnson,” He was playing a gig at Three Forks Store just outside of Greenwood,
Mississippi on a Saturday night.
b. Many blues researchers believe he drank poisoned whiskey given to him y a
jealous husband (Robert was a notorious womanizer). But no one really knows
for sure.
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c. He died three days later.
d. However, no one knows for sure where he was buried either.
6. This monument at Mt. Zion Church was erected by Sony music in 1990 after the
reissue of the complete Robert Johnson catalog.
7. A few miles down the road at Payne chapel, you’ll find this headstone. Notice that
blues pilgrims leave spare change, guitar picks, and flowers.
8. Truth is, he’s probably not buried in either location.
a. Rolling Stone magazine reported in October of 2000 that Rosie Eskridge
knows where Robert is buried. She said her deceased husband was the man that
buried him.
b. I’m sure we’ll never know for sure.
c. Blues researcher Gayle Dean Wardlow recently placed this monument where
Rosie says he is buried.
����������� Charley Patton, Son House, Robert Johnson – three men who lived and played their music in
the harshest of places, in the worst of times.
���� ����������
�� ��������������� These men didn’t have multimillion dollar recording contracts… they
played to survive and to avoid the back breaking labor of the cotton fields. Nevertheless, their
impact is still being felt today. They directly influenced some of the greatest blues musicians from
the heyday of Chicago blues like Howlin Wolf and Muddy Waters, who in turn influenced a whole
generation of rock and rollers.
�� ��������� ������ If you keep your eyes and ears open you may hear one your musical heroes
cover a Delta Blues song or list these musicians as an inspiration. The roots of modern American
music run deep. Muddy Waters once sang. “The blues had a baby and they named it rock and
roll.” Charley, Son, and Robert may no longer be with us, but they left us a great musical legacy –
where the soul of man never dies.
���������� (separate page)
Barlow, W. (1989). ������� �� �� ����� ��� ��������� �� ����� �������� Philadelphia: Temple University
Press.
Guralnick, P. (1989). ��������� ��� ������ �������� New York: Penguin Group.
The National Park Service. (n.d.). ����� �� ��� ���������� ����� ����� �� ��� ����� ����������� �������
Retrieved May 19, 2003 from http://www.cr.nps.gov/ delta/blues/people/son_house.htm
Robert Johnson’s Grave Found (2000, Oct. 12). ������� ������ 29, 33.
Welding, P. (1965). Hellhound on his trail: Robert Johnson. ���� ���� ����� ’66: 73-76, 103.
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One way to learn how to become a better speaker is to evaluate other speakers. As you learn the
steps in the speech making process, you will begin to identify effective and ineffective aspects of
your own as well as your classmate’s presentations. In this section, we will discuss some
strategies for evaluating (not grading) the speeches of others. You will want to be sure that you
ask questions about the content (what they say), the structure (how they organize it), and
delivery (how they say it). You will ask and answer these questions to arrive at some conclusion.
Did the speaker accomplish his/her purpose? Was the message meaningful/useful to the
audience? And, what can the speaker do next time to improve?
Once you answer these questions (i.e. use your critical listening skills), you now need to
provide feedback to the speaker. The purpose of feedback is for you to provide the speaker with
a plan for improvement. The speaker will want to know what to repeat (things he/she did well)
or change (things he/she could improve) next time.
So, what kinds of comments can you provide to help the speaker? In our research we have
found that there is a relationship between the types of feedback provided and student
improvement over time.1 In our initial analysis of a large number of instructor evaluations, we
found that generally instructors used four types of comments: positive non-descript, positive
descriptive, negative, and constructive. Each of these are explained below.
Positive non-descript comments say that the speaker did a good job but do not describe or
detail how the task was accomplished. Examples include ���� ��� �������� ���� �����������
��������� ������ ����� ���� ����� ����
Positive Descriptive comments are those that say that the speaker did a good job, and
specifically describe or detail what was liked about how the speaker accomplished their task.
Examples include ���� ��� �� �������� ���� �������� ������� ��� ��� �� ������ ���������� ��� ������ ���
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��� ���� �������������� �������� ��� ������������ �������� ���� ��� ������������� Thus, positive-
318
descriptive comments provide a better plan for improvement than positive comments alone.
Negative comments criticize the speech without providing suggestions for improvement.
Examples include ���� ��� �������� ���� �������� ������ ���� ���� ����� ����� ����� ����
Constructive comments acknowledge the need for improvement in the speech and provide
specific direction or detail on how to improve. Examples include: ��� ���� ���� ������ ��� ��������
��� ����� ����� ���� ����� ��� ���� ���� �������� ���� ���� �� ���� ��������� ��� �� ������� ����
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Thus, constructive comments should be used if the speaker is expected to improve next time.
In short, if your feedback is to be effective (i.e. help the speaker improve), you should
concentrate your comments on the positive-descriptive and constructive aspects of the speaker’s
content, structure, and delivery.
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