Declaring Independence: The Plakkaat van
Verlatinge and the Lasting Impact of SixteenthCentury Dutch Diplomacy
Noah Pritt
Junior Division
Paper
William the Silent scanned the parchment that lay before him. “He put to death or
drove away innumerable other nobles and excellent citizens so as to be able to confiscate
goods,” it read. William nodded gravely as he continued reading. “He lodged common
Spanish soldiers in the houses of the other inhabitants and these molested them... and he
levied many and manifold taxes.”1 William finished reading and closed the parchment,
reflecting on the events of the previous years. Philip II, the king of Spain and ruler of the
Habsburg Empire, had oppressed the Dutch for so long that they revolted against him,
electing William to lead them. They declared their independence from Philip in the
Plakkaat van Verlatinge: “All this has given us more than enough legitimate reasons for
abandoning the king of Spain and for asking another powerful and merciful prince to
protect and defend these provinces.”2 This declaration would have immediate
consequences and a lasting impact that would change the world.
In the early 1530s the Habsburg Empire, which had spread from Spain to Hungary,
was beginning to feel the strains of debt. The Netherlands, compared to Spain, Italy and
other Habsburg countries, were a veritable horde of wealth.3 Ambassadors described the
country as “the very image of Venice in its prime.”4 Sir William Temple stated, “No
Country can be found either in this present Age, or upon record of any Story, where so
vast a Trade has been manag’d, as in the narrow compass of the Four Maritime Provinces
1
The States General of the Netherlands, “The Plakkaat van Verlatinge,” 26 July 1581, In Texts Concerning
the Revolt of the Netherlands, ed. Ernst H. Kossmann and Albert F. Mellink, (New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1974), 221.
2
Ibid, 224.
3
Jonathan I. Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall, (New York: Oxford University Press,
1995), 130.
4
K. W. Swart, The miracle of the Dutch Republic as seen in the seventeenth century:
An Inaugural Lecture Delivered at University College London 6 November 1967, (London: H. K. Lewis,
1969), 4.
2
of this Commonwealth.”5 It was a peaceful country, and new ideas such as Protestantism
flourished.6
In the 1540s Charles V, who was Philip’s father and the Habsburg emperor,
declared war on France. He realized that the most strategic position from which to
launch an attack was the Netherlands because of its interlocking dikes, rivers, and walled
towns.7 This placed a heavy burden on the Netherlands. The people were forced to pay
for the war through taxes on wine and beer,8 and they resented the foreign troops
quartered in their country.9 In 1555 Charles gave Philip10 command of the Netherlands.
Under Philip, the discontent reached a new height.11
Philip was a staunch Catholic and resented Protestantism. He informed Pope Pius
V that “rather than suffer the least damage to religion and the service of God, I would
lose all my states and a hundred lives if I had them; for I do not propose nor desire to be
the ruler of heretics.”12 His extreme views led to the Inquisition, which began in 1557
when Spanish soldiers caught Protestants worshiping in Valladolid and Seville and
5
Sir William Temple, Observations upon the United Provinces of the Netherlands, (London: Tonson,
Awnsham, and Churchil, 1705), A3. Temple wrote: “The United Provinces… [are] the Envy of some, the
Fear of others, and the Wonder of all their Neighbors.”
6
B. K. Kuiper, The Church in History, (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1984), 213.
7
Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall, 131.
8
James D. Tracy, A Financial Revolution in the Habsburg Netherlands: Renten and Renteniers in the
County of Holland, 1515-1565, (Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1985), 75.
9
Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall, 131.
10
See Appendix 2.
11
Interview with Dr. Marjolein 't Hart, Professor of Economic and Social History, University of
Amsterdam, email interview, 9 March 2011.
12
Philip II, Letter to his ambassador in Rome, 1566, as quoted in Edward Peters, Inquisition, (Berkeley,
California: University of California Press, 1989), 131.
3
executed seventy-seven of them.13 The Inquisition decreed a list of forbidden books,
announcing that anyone caught with them “shall be burned alive.”14
In April, Philip returned to Spain, leaving his half-sister Margaret of Parma as
regent.15 He instructed her to “take the necessary measures so that [Protestantism] does
not remain unpunished. These things are not so secret but that several men hear of them
and if some are not seen to be punished, the daring increases daily and in the end so much
liberty is taken that we must fear most dangerous consequences…”16
A group of Dutch nobles formed the League of Compromise to oppose the
Inquisition. Among them was William of Orange, the Count of Nassau, who secretly
turned against Philip without informing him, earning the nickname William the Silent.17
The League announced, “Not only is this Inquisition iniquitous and against all divine and
human laws, surpassing the worst barbarism ever practiced by tyrants, it will also most
certainly lead to the dishonoring of God’s name and to the utter ruin and desolation of
these Netherlands… Therefore, we have decided to form a sacred and legitimate
confederation and alliance by which we promise and bind ourselves mutually by solemn
oath to prevent by all means the introduction of this Inquisition.”18
13
David McKinnon-Bell, “Philip II and the Spanish Catholic Church,” In The History of Nations: Spain, ed.
Laurie Stoff, (New York: Greenhaven Press, 2004), 126.
14
Charles V, “Placard,” 1550, In Readings in European History, ed. James Harvey Robinson, Vol. 2,
(Boston: Ginn & Company, 1906), 173. Philip II also used the Inquisition to eliminate his political enemies.
Interview with Dr. Richard Kagan, Professor of History, Johns Hopkins University, email interview, 31
March 2011.
15
Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall, 137.
16
Philip II, Letter to the duchess of Parma, 17 October 1565, In Texts Concerning the Revolt of the
Netherlands, ed. Ernst H. Kossmann and Albert F. Mellink, (New York: Cambridge University Press,
1974), 53.
17
Donald Kagan et al., The Western Heritage, (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1998), 427. See Appendix 2.
18
Henry Brederode and Louis of Nassau, “Compromise,” January 1566, In Texts Concerning the Revolt of
the Netherlands, ed. Ernst H. Kossmann and Albert F. Mellink, (New York: Cambridge University Press,
1974), 59.
4
On April 5, 1566 the nobles brought a “Petition of Compromise” to Margaret of
Parma, asking her to relax the Inquisition. They wrote, “There are clear indications
everywhere that the people are so exasperated that the final result, we fear, will be an
open revolt and a universal rebellion bringing ruin to all the provinces and plunging them
into utter misery.”19 The petitioners were careful not to openly attack the king. They
labeled themselves “very humble vassals of His Majesty… ready to render him most
humble service with life and property.”20
Margaret’s response sowed exhilaration throughout the Netherlands. “Her
Highness wants to use her good offices to induce His Majesty to grant the request of the
petitioners who may expect a reaction worthy of and in accordance with his innate and
customary benignity.”21 Excitement spread as Calvinist preachers who had been exiled
came back to form congregations. In 1566, thousands of people began to meet for
worship in the fields outside Antwerp, Haarlem, and Amsterdam.22
On August 10, Protestants near Flanders broke into a nearby convent and smashed
images and paintings, which they regarded as idols.23 The “Iconoclastic Fury” spread
quickly across the Netherlands. In Antwerp on August 21, crowds broke into forty-two
churches. Two days later, a mob sacked the Abbey of Middelburg, and another crowd
19
John Marnix of Tholouse and Louis of Nassau, “Petition of Compromise,” April 1566, In Texts
Concerning the Revolt of the Netherlands, ed. Ernst H. Kossmann and Albert F. Mellink, (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1974), 62.
20
Ibid.
21
Margaret of Parma, “Apostil of the Governess,” April 1566, In Texts Concerning the Revolt of the
Netherlands, ed. Ernst H. Kossmann and Albert F. Mellink, (New York: Cambridge University Press,
1974), 65.
22
Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall, 146.
23
Philip Marnix of St Aldegonde, “A true narrative and apology of what has happened in the Netherlands
in the matter of religion in the year 1566. By those who profess the reformed religion in that country,”
1566, In Texts Concerning the Revolt of the Netherlands, ed. Ernst H. Kossmann and Albert F. Mellink,
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1974), 78.
5
arose in Breda.24 Although the Fury was random and disorganized, only churches were
attacked.25
Philip’s response to the Petition of Compromise struck fear in the hearts of the
Protestants. He commanded Margaret to “send some troops… to the places where [the
field meetings] are held, and foot-soldiers from the garrisons, to hinder and disturb them.
For the rest, do what should be done… and if it becomes necessary to give you more
assistance and troops, I am negotiating to send some cavalry and foot soldiers from
Germany to support you.”26
Philip’s army arrived sooner than anyone had expected: ten thousand troops from
Spain, Naples and Germany, headed by the Duke of Alva, a cruel man who had the
reputation of being a “man of iron.”27 He accused two nobles, Egmond and Horn, of
treason and had them beheaded. Shortly thereafter, he executed eighteen more nobles.
These beheadings shocked the people, many of whom wept openly.28
Even Margaret was appalled by Alva’s cruelty. She resigned in 1568, leaving
Alva as regent of the Netherlands. He used his position to continue his attack on
Protestantism. Altogether 8,950 people were sentenced for treason or heresy, and more
than a thousand were executed.29
24
Philip Marnix of St Aldegonde, “A true narrative and apology”; Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise,
Greatness and Fall, 148.
25
Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall, 149.
26
Philip II, Letter to the duchess of Parma, 31 July 1566, In Texts Concerning the Revolt of the Netherlands,
ed. Ernst H. Kossmann and Albert F. Mellink, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1974), 69.
27
Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall, 155-156.
28
Ibid.
29
Ibid, 156-157. For several contemporary accounts of martyrs of the Inquisition, see John Foxe, Foxe’s
Book of Martyrs, (Charleston, South Carolina: Forgotten Books, 1563), 220-224.
6
Thus began the Dutch Revolt.30 Several nobles, including William the Silent, had
escaped to Germany.31 Some of them wanted to start an armed rebellion, but William
initially opposed the idea. He changed his mind and agreed to lead the revolt in 1568
when Alva seized his estates and kidnapped his eldest son.32
The “Sea Beggars,” a group of Protestant pirates led by exiled nobles, began to
free Dutch seaports and spark rebellions against the Spanish. Citizens in Flushing rose
up against town leaders and took command of their city.33 When the Spanish tried to
recapture Brille, a seaport which the Beggars had freed, the people stubbornly defended
the town. Retreating to Rotterdam, the Spanish leader was dismayed to find that that city,
too, had closed its gates on him.34
One by one the cities fell to the Protestants. In 1573 Alva, worn out, passed
power in the Netherlands to Don Luis de Requesens.35 When Requesens died in 1576,
his Spanish mercenaries, discontented and leaderless, ran wild. Breaking into Antwerp
on November 4, 1576, they slaughtered more than eight thousand people.36
Astonished and shocked, the ten provinces to the south, which had remained
Catholic, joined the seven Protestant provinces to the north. On November 8, 1576, they
30
Yolanda Rodríguez Pérez, “The Dutch Revolt Through Spanish Eyes: Self and Other in Historical and
Literary Texts of Golden Age Spain (c. 1548-1673),” Vol. 16 of Hispanic Studies, (New York: Peter Lang,
2008), 9-13; Tracy, A Financial Revolution in the Habsburg Netherlands, 205. The Dutch Revolt was the
first stage in the Netherlands’ struggle for independence from Spain. This struggle is also called the Eighty
Years’ War, and it finally ended in 1648 with the conclusion of the Thirty Years’ War.
31
John Lothrop Motley, The Rise of the Dutch Republic, Vol. 1, (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1929),
364.
32
William never saw his son again.
33
Motley, The Rise of the Dutch Republic, 465.
34
Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall, 172.
35
Motley, The Rise of the Dutch Republic, 606.
36
Ibid, 637.
7
signed the Pacification of Ghent, which announced that the seventeen provinces were
joining in opposition to Philip and the Habsburg regime.37
In 1580 Philip proclaimed William an outlaw, calling him a heretic who was
stirring up trouble. He promised twenty-five thousand gold crowns to anyone who would
succeed in “ridding us of the said pest, either by delivering him to us dead or alive or by
depriving him at once of life.”38
William took the news in stride. He defiantly announced that since the
Netherlands’ rights had been “tyrannically and haughtily trodden under foot,” they did
not need to obey Philip anymore.39 Following William’s lead, the Dutch people finally
realized that the unrest in the Netherlands was not just caused by Philip’s ministers, such
as the Duke of Alva, but by Philip himself.40
On July 22, 1581, Dutch nobles met in The Hague and wrote a declaration of
independence entitled the Plakkaat van Verlatinge.41 It introduced a new concept: that
the people were not made for the ruler, but that the ruler was made for the people, “to
protect and shield them from all iniquity, trouble and violence as a shepherd is called to
protect his sheep… to govern them according to right and reason and defend and love
them as a father does his children.” It claimed that Philip had not followed this standard,
37
“Pacification of Ghent,” 8 November 1566, In Texts Concerning the Revolt of the Netherlands, ed. Ernst
H. Kossmann and Albert F. Mellink, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1974), 126.
38
Philip II, “Proclamation Outlawing William the Silent,” 1580, In Readings in European History, Vol. 2,
(Boston: Ginn & Company, 1906), 177. “Therefore,” Philip announced, “for all these just reasons, for his
evil doings as chief disturber of the public peace… we outlaw him forever and forbid our subjects to
associate with him… in public or in secret.”
39
William the Silent, “Apology or Defense of His Serene Highness William by the grace of God prince of
Orange etc. against the ban or edict published by the king of Spain,” 13 December 1580, In Texts
Concerning the Revolt of the Netherlands, ed. Ernst H. Kossmann and Albert F. Mellink, (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1974), 211.
40
Interview with Dr. Hugh Dunthorne, Professor of History, Swansea University, email interview, 9 March
2011.
41
Donald Kagan et al., The Western Heritage, 432. The translation of Plakkaat van Verlatinge is “Act of
Abjuration.” See Appendix 1.
8
and it listed all of the tyrannies that he had committed, concluding that the people had a
right to “renounce him; in his stead another must be elected to be an overlord called to
protect them.”42
The ideas of political liberty expressed in the Plakkaat van Verlatinge were
revolutionary and had many consequences, both immediate and long-term. When
Separatists in England were persecuted for their faith, they fled to the Netherlands, which
provided a safe haven for them.43 These Pilgrims later came to America and sowed the
seeds of religious freedom in a new land. The famous philosopher René Descartes also
found refuge in the Netherlands when he disagreed with the Pope. Free from the fear of
condemnation by the Catholic Church,44 he developed mathematical and philosophical
ideas that changed the world.45
The Plakkaat van Verlatinge also had another significant impact. The American
Declaration of Independence, signed two centuries later on July 4, 1776, is so remarkably
similar that it is possible, and probable, that it was directly inspired by the Dutch
document.46
42
The States General of the Netherlands, “The Plakkaat van Verlatinge,” 26 July 1581, In Texts
Concerning the Revolt of the Netherlands, ed. Ernst H. Kossmann and Albert F. Mellink, (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1974), 216.
43
William Bradford, History of Plymouth Plantation, ed. Samuel Eliot Morison, (New York: Alfred A.
Knopf, 1994), 10. William Bradford wrote that the Pilgrims, “Yet seeing themselves thus molested, and
that there was no hope of their continuance [in England], by a joint consent they resolved to go into the
Low Countries, where they heard was freedom of religion for all men…”; Interview with Dr. Jeremy Bangs,
Director, Leiden American Pilgrim Museum, email interview, 26 March 2011.
44
René Descartes, Letter to J. L. G. de Balzac, 29 April 1619, in The Philosophical Writings of Descartes.
Volume 3: The Correspondence, ed. John Cottingham, Robert Soothoff, Dugald Murdoch, and Anthony
Kenny, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1974), 31. “In what other country,” Descartes wrote to
his friend, “could you find such complete freedom, or sleep with less anxiety…?”
45
Noah Pritt, “Descartes’ Analytic Geometry: Plotting the Future of Mathematics,” Third Place Paper at
National History Day, 2010. Accessed at http://www.mdhc.org/files/579_Paper_Junior_Pritt.pdf.
46
Stephen E. Lucas, “The Rhetorical Ancestry of the Declaration of Independence,” Rhetoric & Public
Affairs, Vol. 1, No. 2, 1998.
9
Just as the Plakkaat begins with the concept that a ruler is made for his people,
the Declaration of Independence contains a remarkably similar point, “That to secure
these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the
consent of the governed…”47
Both declarations clearly state that the ruler has a duty to protect the people and
their rights. The Plakkaat continues, “If [the prince] acts differently and instead of
protecting his subjects endeavours to oppress and molest them and to deprive them of
their ancient liberty, privileges and customs and to command and use them as slaves, he
must be regarded not as a prince but as a tyrant. And according to right and reason his
subjects, at any rate, must no longer recognize him as a prince, but should renounce him;
in his stead another must be elected to be an overlord called to protect them.”48
Renouncing a tyrannical ruler is not just the people’s right; it is their duty.
The American declaration expresses the same idea: “Whenever any Form of
Government becomes destructive to these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to
abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and
organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their
Safety and Happiness… it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government,
and to provide new Guards for their future security.”49
Both declarations then list the tyrannies that the ruler had committed. In the
American declaration, the charges account for 59 percent of the text, and in the Plakkaat
47
Thomas Jefferson, “The Declaration of Independence,” 4 July 1776, In The Declaration of Independence,
(Massachusetts: Applewood Books, 1996).
48
The States General of the Netherlands, “The Plakkaat van Verlatinge.”
49
Thomas Jefferson, “The Declaration of Independence.”
10
they occupy 68 percent.50 Both declarations accuse the ruler of lodging soldiers in
people’s houses, levying unjust taxes, and stationing armies in times of peace.
Some scholars argue that Jefferson was directly influenced by the Plakkaat.
Although he did not own a copy of the document, Jefferson spent much of his time at the
Library Company of Philadelphia in 1776, which contained two copies.51 In his private
library, Jefferson owned several books about the Dutch Revolt.52 The founding fathers
were familiar with sixteenth-century Dutch history and noted the similarities between the
Dutch Revolt and the American Revolution. John Dickinson wrote that England’s
treatment of the colonies “corresponds exactly… with the measures pursued by Philip the
second of Spain against the Low Countries.”53 In 1777 John Adams wrote, “It will… be
an entertaining and instructive amusement to compare our American Revolution with
others that resemble it… above all others I would recommend to your study the history of
the Flemish Confederacy, by which the seven United Provinces of the Netherlands
emancipated themselves from the domination of Spain.”54
William V, a descendant of William the Silent, was perhaps the first person to
claim that the Declaration of Independence copied ideas from the Plakkaat. In August
50
Stephen E. Lucas, “The Rhetorical Ancestry of the Declaration of Independence.”
Lucas, “The Rhetorical Ancestry of the Declaration of Independence.”
52
Email correspondence with Endrina Tay, Associate Foundation Librarian for Technical Services,
Monticello, 9 February 2011. These books included Observations upon the United Provinces of the
Netherlands by William Temple, The History of Modern Europe by William Russell, and The History of
the Reign of Philip the Second, King of Spain.
53
John Dickinson, An essay on the constitutional power of Great Britain over the colonies in America: with
the resolves of the Committee for the Province of Pennsylvania, and their instructions to their
representatives in assembly, (Boston: Harvard University, 1774), 365; Stephen E. Lucas, “The Rhetorical
Ancestry of the Declaration of Independence.”
54
John Adams, Letter to John Quincy Adams, 27 July 1777, in Familiar letters of John Adams and his wife
Abigail Adams: during the revolution, ed. Charles Francis Adams, (New York: Hurd and Houghton, 1875),
284; Stephen E. Lucas, “The Rhetorical Ancestry of the Declaration of Independence.”
51
11
1776 he described it as “the parody of the proclamation issued by our forefathers against
King Philip II.”55
Several scholars claim that there is no evidence that Jefferson was directly
influenced by the Plakkaat.56 They do agree, however, that the document could have had
secondary impacts. For instance, it could have inspired the English Declaration of Rights
of 1689, which in turn helped form Jefferson’s political ideas.57 Like the Declaration of
Independence and the Plakkaat, the English Declaration lists grievances against the king,
including unfair taxes and standing armies in times of peace.58 The Plakkaat could also
have influenced the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776, as it expresses the idea that
the people have the right to rebel against an unjust ruler.59 Jefferson had a draft of this
declaration before him as he wrote the Declaration of Independence.60
Whether Jefferson was directly inspired by the Plakkaat or not is a matter of
debate. However, a comparison of the Declaration of Independence with various
documents demonstrates that it has more in common with the Plakkaat than with any of
the others.61 In addition to the ideas of natural rights, limited powers, and grievances
against the king, the Plakkaat also declares independence from the ruler – a radical idea
that does not appear in the English Declaration of Rights or the Virginia Declaration of
55
William V, Letter to Hendrik Fagel, August 20, 1776, as quoted in David Armitage, The Declaration of
Independence: A Global History, (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 2008), 43.
56
Interview with Pauline Maier, Professor of American History, MIT, email interview, 4 April 2011.
57
Pauline Maier, American Scripture, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997), 104, 264 note 16.
58
“The English Declaration of Rights,” 16 December 1689, In Readings in European History, ed James
Harvey Robinson, Vol. 2, (Boston: Ginn & Company, 1906), 261.
59
George Mason, “The Virginia Declaration of Rights,” June 12, 1776, available from
<http://wlym.com/~animations/fermat/16380200%20Fermat%20to%20Mersenne.pdf>, accessed 7 April
2011.
60
Maier, American Scripture, 104.
61
See Appendix 3 for a comparison of the political ideas in these documents.
12
Rights.62 This is strong evidence that, directly or indirectly, the Plakkaat van Verlatinge
influenced Jefferson when he wrote the Declaration of Independence.
Thomas Jefferson dipped his quill pen into the ink. “We, therefore, the
Representatives of the United States of America,” he wrote, “solemnly publish and
declare, That these united Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent
States, that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all
political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be
totally dissolved.”63 Like Philip II of Spain two centuries earlier, King George III of
England had oppressed his people far too long. It was time for the people to declare their
independence. Sixteenth-century Dutch diplomacy had changed the world.
62
63
Ibid.
Thomas Jefferson, “The Declaration of Independence.”
13
Appendix 1. The first page of the Plakkaat van Verlatinge
This is the first page of the Plakkaat van Verlatinge, the document declaring Dutch
independence from Spain in 1581.
Source: Nationaal Archief, “Concept van het Plakkaat van Verlatinge. Op 26 juli 1581 verbreken de Staten-Generaal,”
<http://beeldbank.nationaalarchief.nl/nl/afbeeldingen/indeling/detail/start/8/q/zoekveld/plakkaat>
(accessed 7 April 2011).
14
Appendix 2. Portraits
(a)
(b)
(a) This portrait of William the Silent was painted by the Flemish artist Adriaen Thomas
Key in 1579, two years before the Plakkaat van Verlatinge.
(b) The Italian artist Sofonisba Anguissola painted this portrait of Philip II in 1565, the
second year of the Dutch Revolt.
Sources:
(a) Rijksmuseum Amsterdam - Museum for Art and History, “Prince William of Orange,”
<http://www.rijksmuseum.nl/aria/aria_assets/SK-A-3148 > (accessed 7 April 2011).
(b) Museo Nacional del Prado: Galería online, “Felipe II,” <http://www.museodelprado.es/coleccion/galeria-online/galeria-on-line/obra/felipe-ii-3> (accessed 7 April 2011).
15
Appendix 3. A Comparative Study of Various Political Declarations
Idea
Plakkaat van
Verlatinge
(1581)
The ruler serves the
people
X
The people have natural
rights
X
The people have the
right to rebel
X
The people have the
duty to rebel
X
List of grievances:
quartering troops,
unjust taxes, and
standing armies
X
Outline: preamble,
grievances, and
conclusion
X
English
Declaration
of Rights
(1689)
X
X
Virginia
Declaration
of Rights
(1776)
Declaration of
Independence
(1776)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
The signers pledge to
support the cause
The people declare
independence
Mecklenburg
Declaration
(1775)
X
X
X
X
X
This table summarizes the key ideas in these political documents, which are listed in chronological
order. An “X” indicates that the idea is expressed in the document. The Plakkaat van Verlatinge
and the Declaration of Independence have the most ideas in common. This is strong evidence that
the Plakkaat influenced the Declaration of Independence.
Sources:
 Table by author.
 The States General of the Netherlands, “The Plakkaat van Verlatinge,” 26 July 1581, In Texts Concerning the
Revolt of the Netherlands, ed. Ernst H. Kossmann and Albert F. Mellink, (New York: Cambridge University Press,
1974), 221.
 “English Declaration of Rights,” 16 December 1689, In Readings in European History, ed James Harvey
Robinson, Vol. 2, (Boston: Ginn & Company, 1906), 261.
 “The Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence,” 20 May 1775, In American Historical Documents, ed. Charles
W. Eliot, ( New York: P. F. Collier & Son Corporation, 1969), 156.
 George Mason, “The Virginia Declaration of Rights,” June 12, 1776, available from
<http://wlym.com/~animations/fermat/16380200%20Fermat%20to%20Mersenne.pdf>, accessed 7 April 2011.
 Thomas Jefferson, “The Declaration of Independence,” 4 July 1776, In The Declaration of Independence,
(Massachusetts: Applewood Books, 1996).
16
Primary Sources
Books
Bradford, William. History of Plymouth Plantation, edited by Samuel Eliot Morison.
New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1994.
This book is a journal by William Bradford, one of the leaders of the
American pilgrims. I referenced it in one of my footnotes because Bradford
describes how the Netherlands created a safe haven for religious freedom.
Dickinson, John. An essay on the constitutional power of Great Britain over the colonies
in America: with the resolves of the Committee for the Province of Pennsylvania,
and their instructions to their representatives in assembly. Boston: Harvard
University, 1774.
In this essay Dickinson observes how England’s treatment of the colonies
was similar to Philip’s treatment of the Dutch. I quoted it when comparing the
declarations of independence of both countries.
17
Foxe, John. Foxe’s Book of Martyrs. Charleston, South Carolina: Forgotten Books, 1563.
This book is a collection of contemporary accounts of Protestant martyrs.
It contains a chapter on the persecutions in the Netherlands that resulted from the
Inquisition. I cited it in my paper to show how cruel the Inquisition was.
Temple, Sir William. Observations upon the United Provinces of the Netherlands.
London: Tonson, Awnsham, and Churchil, 1705.
This book, written by a traveler in Europe, describes the wealth and
success of the Netherlands. I quoted it in my paper to show how important the
Netherlands were to the Habsburgs, and I was surprised to learn that Thomas
Jefferson owned a copy of this book in his private library.
Letters
Adams, John. Letter to John Quincy Adams. 27 July 1777. In Familiar letters of John
Adams and his wife Abigail Adams: during the revolution, edited by Charles
Francis Adams. New York: Hurd and Houghton, 1875.
In this letter, John Adams informs his son that if he wants to compare the
American Revolution with another, he would recommend the Dutch Revolt. I
quoted this letter to show that the founding fathers were aware of the Dutch
struggle for independence.
18
Descartes, René. Letter to J. L. G. de Balzac. 29 April 1619. In The Philosophical
Writings of Descartes. Volume 3: The Correspondence. Edited by John
Cottingham, Robert Soothoff, Dugald Murdoch, and Anthony Kenny New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1974.
In this letter, Descartes describes the Netherlands to his friend. I quoted it
in the footnote section of my paper because he explains how the country provided
refuge for him after he had disagreed with the Pope.
Philip II. Letter to the duchess of Parma. 17 October 1565. In Texts Concerning the
Revolt of the Netherlands, edited by Ernst H. Kossmann and Albert F. Mellink.
New York: Cambridge University Press, 1974.
In this letter, Philip II instructs Margaret of Parma to ensure that
Protestantism does not go unpunished. I quoted it in my paper to show how
serious Philip was about enforcing the Inquisition in the Netherlands.
Philip II. Letter to the duchess of Parma. 31 July 1566. In Texts Concerning the Revolt of
the Netherlands, edited by Ernst H. Kossmann and Albert F. Mellink. New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1974.
19
In this letter, Philip II answers Margaret of Parma’s letters sent after the
Petition of Compromise. He instructs her not to relax the inquisition, and informs
her that he will send an army to support her. I quoted it in my paper to show how
determined Philip was to halt the advance of Protestantism.
Documents
Brederode, Henry, and Louis of Nassau. “Compromise.” January 1566. In Texts
Concerning the Revolt of the Netherlands, edited by Ernst H. Kossmann and
Albert F. Mellink. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1974.
In this document, a group of nobles under Louis of Nassau announce to
the people that they are forming the League of Compromise to confront the
Inquisition. I quoted it in my paper to introduce the League, which would later
petition Philip to relax the attack on Protestantism.
Charles V. “Placard.” 1550. In Readings in European History, edited by James Harvey
Robinson, Vol. 2. Boston: Ginn & Company, 1906.
This placard lists a number of books by various authors, including Martin
Luther and John Calvin, announcing that the possession of any of them is banned
under the penalty of death. I quoted it in my paper when describing the
Inquisition’s cruelty.
20
“The English Declaration of Rights.” 16 December 1689. In Readings in European
History, edited by James Harvey Robinson, Vol. 2. Boston: Ginn & Company,
1906.
The English Declaration of Rights, also known as the English Bill of
Rights, was a document that limited the power of England’s new rulers, William
and Mary. The Plakkaat may have influenced the document, so I compared it to
several documents in my appendix. I cited this declaration in my paper when
discussing the possibility that the Plakkaat influenced Jefferson indirectly.
Margaret of Parma. “Apostil of the governess.” April 1566. In Texts Concerning the
Revolt of the Netherlands, edited by Ernst H. Kossmann and Albert F. Mellink.
New York: Cambridge University Press, 1974.
This is Margaret’s response to the Petition of Compromise. She sent a
messenger to Philip, agreeing to halt the Inquisition until his answer arrived. I
quoted it in my paper when discussing the League of Compromise and its petition.
Marnix, John of Tholouse, and Louis of Nassau. “Petition of Compromise.” April 1566.
In Texts Concerning the Revolt of the Netherlands, edited by Ernst H. Kossmann
and Albert F. Mellink. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1974.
21
In this document the League of Compromise petitioned Margaret of Parma
to relax the Inquisition. It is a very important primary source from the time of the
Dutch Revolt. I quoted it multiple times in my paper.
Marnix, Philip of St Aldegonde. “A true narrative and apology of what has happened in
the Netherlands in the matter of religion in the year 1566. By those who profess
the reformed religion in that country.” 1567. In Texts Concerning the Revolt of the
Netherlands, edited by Ernst H. Kossmann and Albert F. Mellink. New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1974.
In this account, Philip Marnix of St Aldegonde vividly describes the
Iconoclastic Fury in the Netherlands. I cited it in my paper because he describes
how only churches were attacked and not government structures.
Mason, George. “The Virginia Declaration of Rights.” June 12, 1776. Available from
<http://wlym.com/~animations/fermat/16380200%20Fermat%20to%20Mersenne.
pdf>, accessed 7 April 2011.
The Virginia Declaration of Rights was drafted less than a month before
the Declaration of Independence. Several ideas in the Virginia declaration appear
in the Declaration of Independence with nearly the same wording, and it is
believed that Jefferson was influenced by the document. It could have been
22
influenced by the Plakkaat, as both documents state that people have the right to
rebel against an unjust leader. I compared the Virginia declaration to several
other documents in Appendix 3, and I cited it when discussing the possibility that
Jefferson was influenced indirectly by the Plakkaat.
“The Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence.” 20 May 1775. In American Historical
Documents, edited by Charles W. Eliot. New York: P. F. Collier & Son
Corporation, 1969.
Scholars debate the authenticity of the Mecklenburg Declaration, which
supposedly had been signed a year before the American Declaration of
Independence. However, it was not published until 1819. Upon its publication,
John Adams claimed that Jefferson had "copied the spirit, the sense, and the
expressions of it verbatim into his Declaration of the 4th of July, 1776." I
compared the Mecklenburg Declaration to various other documents in Appendix 3.
“The Pacification of Ghent.” 8 November 1566. In Texts Concerning the Revolt of the
Netherlands, edited by Ernst H. Kossmann and Albert F. Mellink. New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1974.
Under this treaty, the seven Protestant provinces to the north joined the ten
Catholic provinces to the south in opposition to Philip II. I cited it in my paper.
23
Philip II. “Proclamation Outlawing William the Silent.” 1580. In The Western Heritage.
By Donald Kagan, Steven Ozment, and Frank M. Turner. New Jersey: PrenticeHall, 1998.
This is the proclamation issued by Philip, in which he declares William an
outlaw. I quoted it in my paper.
The States General of the Netherlands. “The Plakkaat van Verlatinge.” 26 July 1581. In
Texts Concerning the Revolt of the Netherlands, edited by Ernst H. Kossmann and
Albert F. Mellink. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1974.
This document, written by various members of the Netherlands’
government, is the Dutch declaration of independence from Spain. After listing
the wrongs that Philip II had committed, the document announces that he had
forfeited his right to rule the Netherlands. As one of my most important sources, I
quoted it frequently in my paper.
Thomas Jefferson “The Declaration of Independence.” 4 July 1776. In The Declaration
of Independence. Massachusetts: Applewood Books, 1996.
This is the copy of the American Declaration of Independence that I used
when comparing it to the Plakkaat van Verlatinge. I quoted it numerous times in
my paper.
24
Speeches
William the Silent. “Apology or Defense of His Serene Highness William by the grace of
God prince of Orange etc. against the ban or edict published by the king of
Spain.” 13 December 1580. In Texts Concerning the Revolt of the Netherlands,
edited by Ernst H. Kossmann and Albert F. Mellink. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1974.
This is William’s defiant response to the proclamation declaring him an
outlaw. He lists all of the tyrannies that Philip had committed, concluding that the
people do not have to obey him anymore.
Secondary Sources
Books
Armitage, David. The Declaration of Independence: A Global History. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 2008.
Dr. Pauline Maier of MIT recommended that I read this book, which
examines various documents related to the Declaration of Independence. I found
an important quotation in it by William V, Stadtholder of the Netherlands in 1776,
who claimed that the American Declaration of Independence was only a “parody”
of the Plakkaat. This demonstrates that contemporaries of Jefferson realized that
the Declaration of Independence copied ideas from the Plakkaat.
25
Israel, Jonathan I. The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall 1477-1806. New
York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
This book includes a detailed overview of the entire Dutch Revolt, and I
cited it numerous times. It proved especially useful during the early stages of my
paper.
Kagan, Donald, Steven Ozment and Frank M. Turner. The Western Heritage. New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, 1998.
This textbook has a brief overview of the Dutch Revolt. It proved
invaluable to keeping my paper together, and I cited it frequently.
Kuiper, B. K. The Church in History. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1984.
This book describes the history of the church in Europe. I cited it in my
paper to show how rapidly Protestant ideas spread in the Netherlands.
Maier, Pauline. American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence. New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, 1997.
26
This book describes the origins of the Declaration of Independence, and it
proved invaluable when discussing the possibility that the Plakkaat influenced
Jefferson indirectly. “The Dutch document,” Dr. Maier writes, “does seem to
have striking similarities with the Declaration, but I find Lucas’ argument
unpersuasive with regard to its influence and have myself encountered no
evidence that the Plakkaat van Verlatinge provided a model for Jefferson or other
members of the drafting committee.” Dr. Maier concludes by stating, “It could
conceivably have had a secondary influence, however, if it provided a model for
the English Declaration of Rights of 1688.”
Motley, John Lothrop. The Rise of the Dutch Republic, Vol. 1. London: George Allen &
Unwin, 1929.
This book is a detailed description of the events during the Dutch Revolt.
The first volume covers the period of the Revolt up to the arrival of Alva. I used
it in writing my paper when I desired a detailed account of certain events.
Motley, John Lothrop. The Rise of the Dutch Republic, Vol. 2. London: George Allen &
Unwin, 1929.
The second volume of Motley’s book covers the rise of the Dutch Revolt
after the arrival of Alva. I cited it multiple times when writing my paper.
27
Pérez,, Yolanda Rodríguez. The Dutch Revolt through Spanish eyes: self and other in
historical and literary texts of Golden Age Spain (c. 1548-1673), Vol. 16 of
Hispanic Studies. New York: Peter Lang, 2008.
I used this book to determine a timeline of the Dutch Revolt. It was
crucial to realize that it was a phase of the Eighty Years’ War, which ended with
the Thirty Years’ War.
Peters, Edward. Inquisition. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1989.
In this book I found a quote taken from a letter from Philip to Pope Pius V,
ensuring him that he did not desire to be the ruler of heretics. This quotation
illustrates Philip’s seriousness in suppressing Protestantism in the Netherlands.
Tracy, James D. A Financial Revolution in the Habsburg Netherlands: Renten and
Renteniers in the County of Holland, 1515-1565. Berkeley, California: University
of California Press, 1985.
This book explains in detail the immense tax burden on the people of the
Netherlands as a result of the Habsburg war against France. I cited it in my paper
when discussing the causes of the Dutch Revolt.
28
Van de Hulst, W.G. William the Silent: The Silent Prince. Caledonia, Michigan:
Inheritance Publications, 1992.
This is a children’s biography of William the Silent. Although I did not
cite it in my paper, it is extremely informative and I would recommend it to
anyone who wishes to learn more about William’s life.
Articles
Lucas, Stephen E. “The Rhetorical Ancestry of the Declaration of Independence.” In
Rhetoric & Public Affairs, Vol. 1, No. 2. New York: Greenhaven Press, 2004.
This is the definitive work about the influence of the Plakkaat van
Verlatinge on the Declaration of Independence. I discovered this article after I
noticed the similarities between the two documents myself. It was extremely
helpful to me in analyzing these similarities, and I cited it multiple times in my
paper.
McKinnon-Bell, David. “Philip II and the Spanish Catholic Church.” In The History of
Nations: Spain, edited by Laurie Stoff. New York: Greenhaven Press, 2004.
In this article, McKinnon-Bell discusses Philip II and Catholicism and
provides an informative narrative of the Dutch Revolt. It was extremely valuable
to me when I was writing my paper.
29
Pritt, Noah. “Descartes’ Analytic Geometry: Plotting the Future of Mathematics.” 2010.
Accessed at http://www.mdhc.org/files/579_Paper_Junior_Pritt.pdf.
This is my National History Day paper from 2010. I used it to show how
the Netherlands provided a safe haven for Descartes to develop his ideas that
impacted the world.
Speeches
Swart, K. W. The Miracle of the Dutch Republic as seen in the Seventeenth Century: An
Inaugural Lecture Delivered at University College London 6 November 1967.
London: H. K. Lewis, 1969.
This lecture discussed how wealthy the Netherlands were in the
seventeenth century. I used it in my paper to illustrate how important the
Netherlands were to the Habsburgs.
Interviews
Bangs, Jeremy, Ph.D., Director, Leiden American Pilgrim Museum. Email interview. 26
March 2011.
Dr. Bangs is the director of the American Pilgrim Museum in Leiden. He
answered several questions I asked about the Separatists during their stay in the
Netherlands. I cited this interview when discussing the consequences of the
30
Plakkaat, as the Netherlands provided a safe haven for those seeking religious
freedom.
Dunthorne, Hugh, Ph.D., Professor of History, Swansea University. Email interview. 9
March 2011.
Dr. Dunthorne answered several questions I asked about the Dutch Revolt,
especially from England’s point of view. He explained why the Dutch nobles
waited so long after the beginning of the revolt to declare their independence. I
cited this interview when writing about the period between the start of the war and
the writing of the Plakkaat.
Hart, Marjolein, Ph.D., Professor of Economic and Social History, University of
Amsterdam. Email interview. 9 March 2011.
Dr. Hart studies the Eighty Years War, and she answered many of my
questions. She discussed the immense burden that was put on the Netherlands
during the Habsburg’s war against France, and I cited this interview when writing
about the conditions that forced the Dutch to revolt.
Kagan, Richard, Ph.D., Professor of History, Johns Hopkins University. Email interview.
31 March 2011.
31
Dr. Kagan is a professor who specializes in Spanish history. He helped
me understand Philip’s political motivations for the Inquisition. I cited this
interview when discussing the Inquisition.
Maier, Pauline, Ph.D., Professor of American History, MIT. Email interview. 4 April
2011.
Dr. Maier is the author of American Scripture: Making the Declaration of
Independence. I am excited that I managed to interview her, because, unlike Dr.
Lucas, she does not believe that the Plakkaat directly influenced Jefferson. She
also led me to her book, American Scripture, which proved exceptionally
informative. I cited this interview when discussing the probability that the
Plakkaat did not directly influence Jefferson.
Tay, Endrina. Associate Foundation Librarian for Technical Services, Monticello. Email
correspondence. 9 February 2011.
I emailed the library staff at Monticello, inquiring whether Thomas
Jefferson owned a copy of the Plakkaat van Verlatinge. Ms. Tay helped me find
the list of books that he owned concerning the Dutch Republic. I used the
information that she gave me in my paper.
32