OF NONSPORTMORTALITIES
CHARACTERISTICS
TO BROWNAND BLACK
BEARS AND HUMANINJURIESFROMBEARS IN ALASKA
STERLING D. MILLER,'Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 333 Raspberry Road, Anchorage, AK 99518-1599, USA
V.LEIGHTUTTERROW2,Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 333 Raspberry Road, Anchorage, AK, 99518-1599, USA
Abstract:Weexaminedthereasonsbearsarereportedkilledin defenseof life orproperty(DLP)in Alaskaas anindexto causesandfrequencyof conflicts
between humansand bears, and comparedthe sex and age compositionof DLP kills with thatof sport-killedbears. Data came from standardized
questionnairesfilled out by persons shooting the bears. Numbersof sport-killedbrownbears (Ursus arctos) and black bears (U. americanus)and
numberof DLP-killedbrownbearsincreasedduring 1970-96, but numberof DLP-killedblack bearsdid not increase. Overall,beardeathsin DLP
circumstanceswere a small proportionof total deathsfor both brown bears (5.2%) a black
lack bears (3.1%). In urbanareas,however, DLP deaths
representedup to 22.3%of total brownbearmortalitiesand 6.1% of total black bearmortalities. Comparedto sportkills of brownbears,DLP kills
containedrelativelymore subadultmales (P < 0.001) andmoreolder(age 11-19) females (P < 0.001). MoreDLP brownbearswere shot becausethe
shooterconsideredtheman immediatethreat(40.8%)or a potentialthreat(30.1%)thanto protectproperty(29.0%). Only 11%of DLPblackbearswere
consideredan immediatethreat;48.9%were considereda potentialthreat,and35.3%were shotto protectproperty.Adultbrownbearfemalesaccompanied by offspringwere much more likely to have been shot because they were an immediatethreat(84.4%)than solitaryadultfemales (40.7%) (P<
0.001). The type of propertymost often damagedor threatenedby bothbrownbearsandblackbearskilled in DLP circumstanceswas a dwelling, but
most respondentsindicatedno propertydamageoccurred.Forbothspecies, mostDLP bearswerekilled when the shooterwas at home or in a dwelling,
buta largerproportionof brownbear(32.1%)thanblackbear(4.9%) DLPdeathsoccurredwhenthe shooterwas hunting. Basedon newspaperaccounts
collectedduring1985-96, brownbearattacksresultedin 2.75 humaninjuriesand0.42 deathsperyearin Alaska. Blackbearattacksin Alaskaresulted
in 0.33 humaninjuries/yearduringthis same period. Only 1 humandeathcausedby a blackbearin Alaskais knownto the authorsduringa periodthat
encompassed>25 years.
Ursus 11:239-252
Key words: bearattacks,blackbear,brownbear,humandeaths,humaninjuries,hunting,mortality,nonsportmortalities,nuisancebears, population
sinks, propertydamage, Ursusamericanus,Ursusarctos
Bears are large carnivoresthat presentboth perceived
and real threatsto human safety and property(Herrero
1985). These threatsfrequentlyresultin bearsbeingkilled
to minimize these dangersto humans. In Alaska, these
mortalitiesare termed kills "in defense of life or property"(DLP) and arelegal understateregulations(Alaska
AdministrativeCode Chapter5). Mortalities in DLP
circumstancesmay representsignificantpopulationsinks
for bears, especially in areas with dense humanpopulations (Miller and Chihuly 1987, Knight et al. 1988).
Analysis of the circumstancesthat lead to these mortalities provides managerswith guidanceon what could be
done to facilitatecoexistence of humansand populations
of wild bears.
Alaska has large andhealthypopulationsof both black
andbrownbears,andcircumstancesthatlead to nonsport
shootings of bears are common. This provides a larger
sample size to evaluate conflicts between bears and humans than exists in most other regions where similar
conflicts occur.
Because both species of bears are hunted in Alaska,
the sex and age composition of bears removed by hunting can be contrasted with that of bears removed in
nonsport circumstances. Differences may indicate the
necessity to treatthese sources of mortalitydistinctly in
populationmodels.
Data presented in this report may be useful in areas
where efforts are underwayto increase depleted brown
bear populations or to reintroducebrown bears where
they have been extirpated. There is often significant
publicoppositionto such managementefforts,frequently
based on inaccurateperceptionsof risk of humaninjury
or property damage that occurs in areas with healthy
brownbearpopulations.Because areasproposedfor augmentedor reestablishedbrownbearpopulationsin North
America frequently have healthy populations of black
bears, the comparisonof circumstancesinvolving DLP
brown bear and black bear deaths in Alaska provide a
referencepointas to whatmightbe expectedwhenhealthy
populationsof bothspecies arereestablished.In the lower
48 states of the United States, brown bears have been
reduced to isolated remnants in a few northernstates
(Servheen 1989).
Alaska is a large (about 1.5 million km2)and sparselypopulated state with a human population of 570,000.
Humans are mostly concentratedin the major population centersof Anchorage,Fairbanks,andJuneau(Alaska
NorthwestBooks 1992). There are about31,700 brown
1Presentaddress:National
WildlifeFederation,240 NorthHiggins,Missoula,MT 59802, USA, email:[email protected]
2Presentaddress:P.O.Box 113053,Anchorage,AK 99511, USA
240
Ursus 11:1999
bears in Alaska, and overall population trends appear
stable (Miller 1993). Brown bearsoccur throughoutthe
state, except for some islands in southeasternAlaska
(Miller 1993). No systematicestimateof blackbearnumbers has been made for Alaska, but we believe this species is at least as numerousas brownbears. Black bears
inhabit most of Alaska; they do not occur on some islands in southeasternAlaska, the Kodiak Island group,
the Alaska Peninsula,and on Alaska's northslope. Generally black bears are uncommon or not present in
unforestedportionsof Alaska.
A previousanalysisof 668 nonsportbrownbeardeaths
in Alaska during 1970-85 was presentedby Miller and
Chihuly (1987). This reportsupplementsthe earlierreport, with data on nonsport mortalities of 677 brown
bears and 361 black bears during 1986-96.
METHODS
The hides and skulls of brown bears and black bears
killed for sport in most portions of Alaska must be presented to a representativeof the Alaska Departmentof
Fish and Game (ADFG) within 30 days of the kill. At
this time a locking tag or seal is affixed to the hide and
skull; sporthunterscan then process or export their trophies. During this mandatoryinspection, termed sealing, the hide is examined to determine the sex of the
bear,informationon huntcharacteristicsis collected, and
a premolartooth is pulled from the skulls of brownbears
to estimateage by cementumannuli(Matson et al. 1993).
Correspondingage data from black bear teeth are not
available. Prior to 1973, sealing was not requiredfor
black bears.
The same sealing process is requiredfor bears shot in
DLP circumstances,but in these cases the hide and skull
must be surrenderedto the state and the person killing
the bearis requiredto submita reportdescribingthe circumstancesthat led to the shooting. Priorto 1986, this
reportwas in the form of a narrativedraftedby the person who killed the bear. These narrativeswere inconsistent in the type of informationindividuals chose to
report (Miller and Chihuly 1987). Since 1986, the requiredreportfor DLPbearkills has been a multiplechoice
questionnairedesigned to reveal the circumstancesleading to the shooting. This questionnaireform also includes a narrative section for the shooter to describe
circumstancesnot adequatelycovered in the questions.
These DLP questionnairesprovided most of the information we analyzed.
We also included data from a few kills identified as
DLP kills on the sealing form but for which no questionnaire was completed. In these cases, detailed and con-
sistent informationon the circumstancesleading to the
kill was not available,but informationon the location of
kill, residency of the shooter, and sex and age of the
bearusually was included. Discrepanciesin sample size
between tables presentedhere result from inclusion of
this incomplete data.
For each questionon the DLP questionnaire(e.g. Why
was the bear killed?), a series of options for response
was provided (e.g. 1 = bear was an immediatethreat
(charging), 2 = bear was thoughtto be dangerous,3 =
to protect property,4 = other (please explain)). Frequentlyrespondentswould enter>1 response(e.g., 2 and
3 in the above example). Each response was tallied for
this report,so the numberof responsesexceededthe number of DLP kills for some questions.
In some areas of Alaska, hunterskilling brown bears
or black bears are exempted from sealing requirements
(they still mustreportDLP kills). These exemptionsare
designed for subsistence hunters, frequently Native
Americansin remoteareasalong the westerncoast. Data
on sex and age for these bear kills are not available.
OurDLP recordsdo not include all DLP kills because
some bears shot in DLP circumstancesare reportedas
sportkills. Huntershave an incentiveto reportDLP kills
as sportkills because this enables them to keep the hide,
skull, and meat ratherthan surrenderthese to the state.
If the hunting season is open, state biologists often encouragepersonscomplainingaboutnuisancebearsto buy
a hunting license and kill the problembear themselves.
Since the huntingseason is more liberal for black bears
than for brown bears, we suspect that a higher proportion of the DLP black bearkills was reportedin the sport
harvestthan for brown bears.
We include only beardeathsclassified as DLP or sport
kills. Accidents from highway collisions, research-related moralities,bears found dead, etc. are not included
in the data we categorize as total mortalities.
In this reportwe use the term "urban"to classify kills
from areaswhere the bulk of the Alaska populationlives
(the cities of Anchorage,Fairbanks,Juneau,Ketchekan,
and the Kenai Peninsula). Everywhereelse is classified
as rural, although from a southernCaliforniaperspective, no place in Alaska, except perhaps Anchorage,
would be viewed as urban.
Data on injuries and deaths from bear attacks were
compiled from newspaper accounts (primarily in the
AnchorageDaily News) accumulatedby the first author
during 1986-96. Human deaths from bear attacks are
widely reported,and we believe these dataare complete.
Data on injuries from bears, however, are minimal figuresbecause not all injuriesarereportedand some newspaper accounts were probably missed. No agency in
INALASKA* Miller and Tutterrow
BEARMORTALITIES
NONSPORT
Alaska is charged with maintainingrecords of human
injuriescaused by wildlife.
Statistics(F) on trendin numbersof kills were generated by the ANOVA regression in Excel (Microsoft,
Redmond,Washington,USA). x2statisticswere also calculated in Excel. Data on reasons for shooting were
organized ordinally based on degree of danger from
chargingto defense of property,so exact probabilitiesfor
each reasonwere obtained;comparisonswere made with
Kruskal-Wallis(K-W) tests (Mehta and Patel 1995).
RESULTS
Comparisonsof Sportand DLPKills
We obtaineddata from 677 brown bear kills and 361
black bear kills in defense of life or property circumstances during 1986-96. We comparedthese data with
241
hunting kills of 12,615 brown bears and 18,323 black
bears from the same period (Table 1). Statewideduring
this period, DLP kills represented5.2% of the total kills
for brown bears and 3.1% for black bear (Table 1). In
urbanareas, DLP brown bear kills constituteda higher
proportionof total kills (21.7-22.3%) than in ruralareas
(3.1-7.5%) (Table 2). Similarresults were reportedby
Miller and Chihuly (1987) for Alaska brown bear data
prior to 1986. For black bears, a relatively small proportionof total kills were reportedas DLP kills in both
urbanand ruralareas (Table 2).
Both sport and DLP kills of brown bears increased
during 1970-96 (F = 84.4, P < 0.001, andF = 21.2, P <
0.001 for sportand DLP kills, respectively;Table 1, Fig.
1). Numberof black bears killed in sportcircumstances
in Alaska also increasedduring 1970-95 (F = 94.5, P <
0.001), but the numberkilled in DLP circumstanceshas
remainedrelatively constant(F = 1.4, P = 0.24; Table 1,
Fig. 2).
Table 1. Numberof black bears and brown bears shot annually in sport and defense of life and property(DLP)circumstances in
Alaska, 1970-96. Black bear kills were not reported during 1970-73.
Year
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Total
Average
Sportkills
632.0
740.0
834.0
927.0
779.0
827.0
832.0
774.0
819.0
883.0
882.0
887.0
821.0
974.0
1,118.0
1,145.0
1,121.0
1,215.0
1,103.0
1,089.0
1,145.0
1,152.0
1,285.0.
1,126.0
1,042.0
1,127.0
1,210.0
26,489.0
981.1
Brown bears
DLP kills
37.0
24.0
42.0
40.0
41.0
46.0
39.0
45.0
57.0
32.0
47.0
53.0
44.0
59.0
62.0
77.0
57.0
63.0
57.0
60.0
56.0
64.0
83.0
34.0
72.0
55.0
67.0
1,413.0
52.3
%DLP
5.5
3.1
4.8
4.1
5.0
5.3
4.5
5.5
6.5
3.5
5.1
5.6
5.1
5.7
5.3
6.3
4.8
4.9
4.9
5.2
4.7
5.3
6.1
2.9
6.5
4.7
5.3
5.2
Sportkills
Black bears
DLP kills
%DLP
--
673.00
918.00
1,032.00
839.00
815.00
833.00
1,128.00
1,104.00
1,045.00
1,164.00
1,465.00
1,646.00
1,584.00
1,634.00
1,600.00
1,486.00
1,468.00
1,899.00
1,818.00
1,466.00
1,537.00
1,918.00
1,913.00
30,985.00
1,347.20
28.0
30.0
61.0
49.0
105.0
35.0
44.0
45.0
27.0
10.0
45.0
41.0
32.0
26.0
13.0
21.0
30.0
53.0
50.0
23.0
26.0
34.0
48.0
876.0
38.1
4.0
3.2
5.6
5.5
11.4
4.0
3.8
3.9
2.5
0.9
3.0
2.4
2.0
1.6
0.8
1.4
2.0
2.7
2.7
1.5
1.7
1.7
2.5
3.1
242
Ursus 11:1999
Table 2. Numberand percent of kills of brown bears and black bears that occur in defens of life and property (DLP)
circumstances in urbanand ruralportions of Alaska, 1986-96.
Brownbears
DLP kills
(%)
Sportkills
Area
Urbanareas
Anchorageand Matanuska
Valley3
KenaiPeninsulab
Ruralareas
Southeasternmainland'
AlaskaPeninsulad
KodiakIslandse
Fairbanksarea,north of
AlaskaRangef
WesternCook Inletg
Black bears
Sportkills
DLP kills (%)
108
31 (22.3)
1,000
65 (6.1)
130
36 (21.7)
2,444
42 (1.7)
272
2,856
1,754
559
22 (7.5)
91 (3.1)
116 (6.2)
29 (4.9)
2,090
0
0
2,681
101 (4.6)
0
0
39 (1.4)
685
18 (2.6)
7 (0.5)
1,419
=
ManagementUnit(GMU) 14 (blackbearbag limit 1/year,seasonopen all yearin portion,closed duringsummerin remainder).
b IncludesGMUs 7 and 15
(blackbearbag limit = 2/year, 12-monthseason).
c IncludesGMU 1 (blackbear
bag limit = 2/year,seasonclosed July-August).
d IncludesGMU 9, which has few blackbears
e IncludesGMU 8, which has no blackbears
f IncludesGMU 20 (blackbear
bag limit = 3/year, 12-monthseason).
g IncludesGMU 16 (blackbearbag limit = 3 bear/year,12-monthseason).
aIncludesGame
1400
90
1300
80
1200
70
1100
1000
60 en
-j
Co
-
-I
900
02
50 D
800
700
40
600
30
500
400
Oc
NN03 03
OC 03
NN03 03
N-
03
L cDO
N03 05
N-
N-
05
c00 a)
NN05 05
o
c0
c_
cc
cc cc
Cn
C'
cO
cc
cO
c
c
0c
rC
0
0
ac cc c) ac ac
cc
a)
cOc
0
c
cc
m
Oc
cc
cc
ac
C
)
c
ac,
(
O
20
Occ acc Oc 0c
c
cc
YEAR
Fig. 1. Trends in number of defense of life or property (DLP)-killed (adjusted R = 0.44) and sport-killed (adjusted R2= 0.77) brown
bears in Alaska.
For each sex, there were significant differences in the
age composition of brownbears killed in sportand DLP
circumstances. Subadultmales were more prevalentin
the DLP kills than in sport kills (x 2 = 104, 7 df, P <
0.001; Fig. 3). There were also statistically significant
differencesbetween ages of brownbearfemales killed in
sportandDLP circumstances(X2 = 75.4, 7 df, P <0.001;
Fig. 4). Young adult females (age 4-8) were relatively
more common in brown bear sport kills than in DLP
kills while older females (ages 11-19) were less com-
NONSPORT BEAR MORTALITIES IN ALASKA *
Miller and Tutterrow 243
2100
120
1900
100
1700
1500
80
c,,
1i 1300
C,,
-i
-i
I-
60
~d
0.
-i
O
CD,
900
40
700
20
500-
300
YEAR
Fig.2. Trends in numberof defense of life or property(DLP)-killed(adjusted RI'= 0.02) and sport-killed(adjusted Rf= 0.80) black
bears in Alaska.
60
BROWNBEAR MALES
50
* SPORT-KILLED
40-
MDLP-KILLED
-J
-J
LL
0
z
30-
LU
(L
20-
10
0
T_
6
~~0)
C')
C~~
0)
4
0)
LOP~
b
0)
;L
6-
0)
6-r
0)
C)
AGECLASS
Fig. 3. Age classes of sport-killedand defense of life or property(DLP)-killedbrown bear males in Alaska, 1986-96.
0
CMJ
244
Ursus 11:1999
35
BROWNBEAR FEMALES
30-
? SPORT-KILLED
? DLP-KILLED
25
-J
y 20z
o
15 -
nL
10 -
5-
o
o0
o
c6
o)
u
o)
o,
O6
t
Ac
CA
+
o,
a)
o
cu
AGE CLASS
Fig. 4. Age classes of sport-killedand defense of life or property(DLP)-killedbrown bear females in Alaska, 1986-96.
mon in sport kills than in DLP kills (Fig. 4). Age comparisonsbetween sportandDLP kills of blackbearswere
not possible, as age datawere not availablefor most black
bear kills.
Characteristicsof DLP Kills
Associations with Other Bears.-Most brown bears
(71.8%) andblack bears (90.0%) were alone when killed
in DLP circumstances(Table 3). Shooters reportedthat
offspring accompaniedthe shot bear in 18.5%of brown
bearkills and in 4.2% of black bearDLP kills (Table3).
Typically,female brownbearsin Alaskakeep theiroffspring with them for 2 years, separatingfrom them in
the springof the offspring'sthirdyear of life. Based on
Table 3. Associations of brown bears and black bears killed in
Alaska in defense of life and property (DLP) circumstances,
1986-96. Excludes offspring shot when accompanying their
mother (32 brown bears and 5 black bears).
Alone
With offspring>1 year old
With offspring<1 year old
With littermate
With anotheradult
Total
Brown bears (%)
377 (71.8)
56 (10.7)
41 (7.8)
27 (5.1)
24 (4.6)
525 (100.0)
Black bears (%)
215 (90.0)
1 (0.4)
9 (3.8)
6 (2.5)
8 (3.3)
239 (100.0)
this, a null hypothesis can be formed that two-thirdsof
adultfemale brownbearsshouldbe accompaniedby offspringand one-thirdshouldbe withoutoffspring. Based
on these expectedvalues, DLP deathsof 22 solitaryadult
femalesandof 60 adultfemalesaccompaniedby offspring
(Table4) did not differfrom expected values (x2 = 1.18,
1 df, P = 0.21).
Sex Ratio in DLP Kills.-More brownbearadult(>4.9
yearsold) females (85) thanmales (61) were shot in DLP
circumstances(X2= 0.32, 1 df, P = 0.04; Table4). Fiftythree percent of brown bears of all ages killed in DLP
circumstanceswere males; this ratio did not differ from
50:50 (X2 = 5.4, 1 df, P = 0.02; Table4). Among subadults, there were more males than females in the DLP
kills (x2 = 15.8, 1 d.f., P < 0.001; Table 4). Similarly,
more male than female black bears (all ages) were shot
in DLP circumstances (x2 = 38.8, 1 df, P < 0.0001;
Table 4). Tests based on age categories for black bears
were not possible because of the paucityof age data.
Reasonsfor DLP Kills.-The distributionof reasons
forDLP shootingsdifferedbetweenblackandbrownbears
(Kruskal-Wallis= 25.5, P < 0.001). A largerproportion of brown bear DLP deaths resulted from circumstances in which the shooter thought the bear was an
immediate threat (40.8%) than for black bears (16%;
NONSPORTBEAR MORTALITIES
IN ALASKA * Miller and Tutterrow
245
Table4. Associationsof brownbearsandblackbearskilledinAlaskaindefenseof lifeandproperty(DLP)circumstances,
1986-96. DatapresentedherevaryfromthatinTable3 becauseof missinginformation
in some records
Alone
With offspring1> yearsold
With offspring<1.0
With littermate
With anotheradult
With its mother
Total
Brownbearsadultsa
Males(%)
Females(%)
58 (95.1)
22 (25.8)
0
33 (38.8)
0
27 (31.7)
0
0
3 (4.9)
3 (3.5)
0
0
85
61
Brownbears(allages)
Males(%)
Females(%)
224 (84.2)
100 (46.5)
47 (21.8)
4b(1.5)
3b(1.1)
36(16.7)
12 (4.5)
7 (3.2)
8 (3.7)
11(4.1)
12 (4.5)
17 (7.9)
215
266
Blackbears(allages)
Males(%)
Females(%)
129 (91.4)
42 (77.7)
0
1 (1.8)
0
8 (14.8)
3 (2.1)
1 (1.8)
5 (3.5)
2 (3.7)
4 (2.8)
0
141
54
aAdults definedas bears>4.9 yearsold.
b
Apparenterrorsby respondentsin classificationof age of companionbears,as adultmales shouldnotbe accompaniedby offspring.
Table 5. Reasons reported for shooting
circumstances, 1986-96.
brown bears and black bears in Alaska in defense
Brown bears
Reason
All bears
Bear was an immediatethreat (charging)
Bear was thoughtto be dangerous
Toprotectproperty
Total
Adult (>4.9 years old) bears
Bear was an immediatethreat (charging)
Toprotect property
Total
Black bears
No. males (%)
No. females (%)
92 (30.9)
104 (34.9)
102 (34.2)
298
126 (53.4)
57 (24.2)
53 (22.5)
236
26 (15.5)
88 (52.4)
54 (32.1)
168
11 (16.4)
27 (40.3)
29 (43.3)
27 (38.0)
19 (26.7)
71
66 (74.1)
11 (12.3)
89
26 (15.7)
54 (32.7)
165
11 (17.1)
26 (40.6)
Table 5). Only 29.0% of brown bear deaths and 35.3%
of black beardeathswere identifiedas resultingfrom the
need to protectproperty(Table5).
Reasons for DLP kills differed by sex for adult (>4.9
year-old) brown bears (Kruskal-Wallis= 18.79, P <
0.001; Table 5). More females and fewer males were
shot when they were describedas chargingthanexpected
underthe null hypothesis. Conversely,more males and
fewer females were shot to protectproperty.
A large proportion(84.4%) of the adultfemale brown
bearswith offspringthatwere shot in DLP circumstances
were shot because they were charging (Table 6). However, only 40.7% of adult female brown bears classified
Table 6. Reasons reported for shooting adult brown bear
females (>4.9 years old) reported as being alone or with
offspring in defense of life and property(DLP)circumstances
in Alaska, 1986-96. Data for black bears are unavailable as
black bear ages were not systematically obtained.
Reason
Alone(%)
With
(%)
offspring
Bear was an immediate
threat (charging)
Bear was thoughtto
be dangerous
Toprotect property
12 (50.0)
52 (86.6)
6 (25.0)
5 (8.3)
6 (25.0)
3 (5.0)
24
60
Total
of life and property (DLP)
No. males (%)
No. females (%)
67
64
as alone were shot because they were charging (Table6)
(Kruskal-Wallis= 12.89, P < 0.001).
Typeof PropertyDamaged or Threatened.- A dwelling was indicatedas the most common type of property
damagedor threatenedby brownbears(18.9%)andblack
bears (35.3%) killed in DLP circumstances (Table 7).
For brown bears, a game orfish cache or game kill was
the second most common type of propertythreatenedor
damaged;threatsto this type of propertywere much less
common for black bears killed in DLP circumstances
(Table 7). For both species, threats or damage to livestock, camping gear, pets, andfood constituted similar
proportionsof cases wherethreatsor damageto property
was indicated(9.7-14.8%; Table 7).
Valueof PropertyDamaged.-Respondents were asked
to reportthe value of damage caused by bears they shot
in DLP circumstances.For brownbearsandblack bears,
respectively,72% and 55% of respondentsindicatedthe
question did not apply (Table 8). For both species,
slightly morethanhalf of respondentswho indicatedthat
the bearcaused damagereportedthatthe damagecaused
was in the range $100-999 (Table 8). Damage exceeding $1000 was reportedin 17.9% of DLP brown bear
deaths (where damage was reported)comparedto 7.6%
for blackbears(Table8). Dollarvalues reportedarethose
enteredby the respondentandwere not adjustedto a constantcost basis.
246
Ursus 11:1999
Location of Kills.-For brown bears, most DLP kills
(75.7%) occurred in areas identified by the shooter as
Table 7. Property reported to be threatened or damaged by
brownand black bears killedin DLPcircumstances in Alaska,
1986-1996. Multipleresponses are all tabulated.
Type of propertythreatenedor damaged
Dwelling
Game or fish cache or game kill
Domestic reindeer,livestock, or poultry
Campinggear
Pets
Food
Otherproperty
Landvehicle, boat, or airplane
Subsistenceor commercial
fishing equipment
Total responses
Cases for
brown
bears
(%)
87 (18.9)
68 (14.8)
60 (13.0)
51 (11.1)
48 (10.4)
47 (10.2)
45 (9.8)
37 (8.0)
17 (3.7)
460
Cases for
black
bears(%)
84 (35.3)
9 (3.8)
28 (11.8)
24(10.1)
23 (9.7)
26 (10.9)
33 (13.9)
8 (3.4)
3 (1.3)
238
rural(Table 9). The largest proportionof kills in rural
areas(36.9%)occurredin back country(not close to any
cabin, dwelling,or campsite)followed by kills in or near
a village or remotecommunity(22%;Table 9). The largest numberof black bearDLP kills also occurredin rural
areas(47.1%),andthe largestproportionof these (33.9%)
occurredat or near a permanentresidence in a remote
Table8. Valueof damage ($US)reportedcaused by brownand
black bears killedin DLPcircumstances in Alaska, 1986-96.
Damagereported($US)
<$100
$100-999
$1000-5,000
>$5,000
Total responses
ResponedDoes not apply
Data missing
Cases for brown
bears(%)
44 (28.0)
85 (54.1)
21 (13.4)
7 (4.5)
157 (100)
403
117
Cases for black
bears(%)
37 (39.8)
49 (52.7)
5 (5.4)
2 (2.2)
93 (100.1)
144
124
Table 9. Responses from persons shooting brown and black bears in DLPcircumstances in Alaska, 1986-96, to the question
Whichof these best describes where the bear was killed.
Locationkilled
Rural
In back country(not close to any cabin, dwelling,or campsite)
At or near a temporarycampsite
At or near a lodge or seasonal-use cabin in a remotearea
At or near a permanentresidence in a remotearea
In or near a village or remotecommunity
Public campground
Subtotal
Urban
In or near an urbanarea (town,city, etc.)
In or near a dumpor garbage containerin an urbanor village area
Subtotal
Agricultural
Livestockranch orfarm
Near reindeer
Subtotal
Industrial
Logging camp or logging road
Mining operation
At or near a development,constructionor miningsite
(not in an urbanarea or village)
Subtotal
Fishing-related
At a set net or subsistencefishing site
Near a cannery or relatedfacility
Near a salmona weir
Subtotal
Other
Totalb
a
Oncorhynchusspp.
Brown bears
n
%
Black bears
n
%
161
71
43
64
96
1
436
28.0
12.3
7.5
11.1
16.7
0.2
75.7
15
21
21
41
17
6
121
5.8
8.2
8.2
16.0
6.6
2.3
47.1
37
24
61
6.4
4.2
10.6
89
11
100
34.6
4.3
38.9
10
10
20
1.7
1.7
3.5
5
0
5
1.9
0.0
1.9
16
2
3
2.8
0.3
0.5
18
0
1
7.0
0.0
0.4
21
3.6
19
7.4
7
5
4
16
17
576
1.2
0.9
0.7
2.8
3.0
100
1
1
0
2
8
257
0.4
0.4
0.0
0.8
3.1
100
respondentsprovideda single answer,11 provided2 answers,and 1 provided4 answers.Forblackbears235 provideda single
answerand 11provided2 answers.
b Forbrownbears550
NONSPORTBEAR MORTALITIES
IN ALASKA * Miller and Tutterrow
area (Table9). Comparedto brownbears(10.6%of DLP
kills), a relatively large proportionof black bear kills
(38.9% of DLP kills) occurredin urbanareas (Table9).
Activity of Person Shooting Bear.-For both species
of bear, the person shooting the bear most frequently
described their activity as at home or dwelling (32.6%
and46.6%for brownandblackbears,respectively;Table
10). The next most common activity for persons shooting DLP brown bears was hunting (32.1%). Hunting
was comparativelyuncommonfor personsshootingDLP
blackbears(4.9%);a largerproportionof DLPblackbears
were shot by persons working(8.5%) or by agency officials conductingmanagementactions (21.9%;Table 10).
For both species, only a small proportionof DLP kills
resulted from persons who were sportfishing or photographing (Table 10).
Personswho listed theiractivitywhen they shot a DLP
brown bear as hunting,fishing or photographing were
most commonly in searchof deer (Odocoileushemionus;
33.3%), moose (Alces alces; 18.2%), brown bears
(12.3%), caribou(Rangifertarandus;10.0%),or salmon
(7.3%;Table 11). Deer are uncommonin Alaska except
for an introducedpopulationon KodiakIsland and adjacent Afognak Island and in southeasternAlaska.
Timingof DLP Kills.-DLP kills of brown bears increasedduringspring,peakedin July,andremainedhigh
and constant until den entrance in November (Fig. 5).
Black bearkills also increasedduringspringto a peak in
July. A likely contributingfactor to this July peak was
the closure of black bear hunting seasons in some areas
duringthe summer. This closure of sporthuntingmeans
that nuisance black bears that were shot could not be
claimed as sportkills.
The temporalpatternof DLP deaths varies based, to
some degree, on the age of the bear. Subadultbrown
bears (age 1.0-4.9 years) were most commonly shot in
July-September(59.2%). A smallerproportion(43.6%)
of adult bears (>4.9 years) was shot during July-September. More adultbears (23.5%) were shot duringOctober than during any other month.
The temporalpatternof DLP brown bear kills varies
by region, depending on human activities in those regions (Fig. 6, Miller and Chihuly 1987)). This is most
noticeable in the Kodiak and Shuyak Island area where
frequency of kills is relatively constant throughoutthe
yearexceptfor October-Novemberwhenmanydeerhunters are in this area (Fig. 7). The Octoberpeak in southeasternAlaska (Fig. 7) also coincides with deer hunting
seasons there. As noted above (Table 11), deer hunting
was the most common activityfor personswho shot DLP
brown bears while hunting,fishing, or shooting photos.
The large proportionof DLP kills on the Alaska Peninsula in July-August coincides with sport, subsistence,
andcommercialfishing activitiesfor salmonandthe peak
in Septemberwith the popularcaribou hunting seasons
(Fig. 7). In the interiorand western coast region, which
Table 10. Responses from persons shooting brown and black bears in DLP circumstances
What were you (the person who killed the bear) doing when you first saw the bear?
Shooter s activity
At home or dwelling
Hunting
Officialpublic safety or wildlifeagency response or conductingdepredation
or other control operation
Working(streamcensus, geological studies, survey, mapping,etc.)
Camping
Sportfishing
Reindeerherding
Travelingon road
Hiking
Commercialfishing
Wildliferesearch
Mining
Photography
Subsistencefishing
Logging-relatedactivity
Other
Totala
Data missing
247
in Alaska, 1986-96, to the question
Brown bears
No.
%
191
32.6
188
32.1
48
8.2
Black bears
No.
%
115
46.6
12
4.9
54
21.9
26
20
14
11
9
8
6
5
4
4
4
3
45
586
118
21
4
5
0
1
3
1
1
1
0
1
10
18
247
119
4.4
3.4
2.4
1.9
1.5
1.4
1.0
0.9
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.5
7.7
100
8.5
1.6
2.0
0.0
0.4
1.2
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.0
0.4
4.0
7.3
100
a Forbrownbears534
respondentsprovideda single answer,24 provided2 answers,and 1 provided4 answers.Forblackbears237 respondents
provideda single responseand5 provided2 responses.
,~~~~~~~
248
Ursus 11:1999
35
30
* BROWN BEARS
*BLACK BEARS
25
C/)
w
w
a-
,) 20 -
LI.
0
C,)
-J
-J
2
IL
-J
15 -
-J
I-
0
10 -
5 -
0
FM
Jan-Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Sep
Aug
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Fig. 5. Month of defense of life or property (DLP) kills of brown bears and black bears in Alaska, 1986-96.
is most of the state, most DLP brown bear kills occur
when Alaskans are hunting (September) or involved in
otherrecreationalactivities in ruralareas (July-August).
Injuriesto PeopleCaused by Bears
Most of the personsshootingbrownbearsor blackbears
in DLP circumstances indicated that no human injury
occurred (98.5% for brown bears and 99.2% for black
bears). For the brown bear DLP reports, minor human
injurieswere reportedin 2 cases, injuriesrequiringhospitalizationin 6 cases, and human death in 2 cases. For
black bear DLP kills, there was 1 incident of minor human injury and 1 case of human death. Records which
had no response to this question were not included in
these percentages.
However,when injuriesor deathsfrom bearsoccurred,
the bear frequently was not found, so these data under
representthe frequency of injury to people from bears.
Based on newspaperaccounts of humaninjuryresulting
from bear attacksduring 1985-96, there were 36 brown
bear incidents that resulted in 33 human injuries and 5
deaths and 4 black bear incidents that resulted in 3 hu-
man injuries and 1 death. For brown bears, the average
duringthis 12-yearperiodwas 2.75 injuries/yearand0.42
deaths/year. For black bears, the aver,age duringthis 12year period was 0.33 injuries/year(Taable 12). The fatal
w
Interior &
estern Coas
,
Alask
Ala
Pn
Kodiak
Fig.6. Regionsof Alaskaused to evaluiatedefense of life or
property
(DLP)killsof bears,1986-96.
v
INALASKA* Miller and Tutterrow
NONSPORT
BEARMORTALITIES
249
40
35
30
- 25
Ix
Co
nel
20
m
mn
I
o 15
10
5
0
Jan-Mar
Apr
Jun
May
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Fig. 7. Monthof defense of life or property(DLP)kills of brown bears by region of Alaska, 1986-96.
black bear incident occurred in 1992 and was the only
humanfatalityfroma blackbearattackin Alaskaof which
we are aware. We may not have heardof fatalities that
occurredpriorto about 1975.
Table 11.
Target species of hunters, fishermen, or
photographers shooting brown and black bears in DLP
circumstances in Alaska, 1986-96.
Targetspecies
Deer
Moose
Brown bear
Caribou
Salmon
Sheep (Ovis dalli)
Black bear
Elk (Cervuselaphus;
Afognak Island Population)
Goats (Oreamnosamericanus)
Other
Total
Does not apply
Brown bears
No.
%
Black bears
No.
73
40
27
22
16
10
7
6
33.3
18.3
12.3
10.0
7.3
4.6
3.2
2.7
2
1
1
0
3
2
2
0
4
7
219
354
1.8
3.2
99.9
0
2
15
228
DISCUSSION
Except in large cities, the Alaska Departmentof Fish
and Game (ADFG) makes little effort to systematically
collect reportsof conflicts betweenbearsandpeople that
are commonly collected in other jurisdictions. In Anchorage,Alaska's largestcity, the ADFG and the Alaska
Departmentof Public Safety offices receive hundredsof
calls each year reportingbears passing through yards,
knockingover trashcans, and similarincidents.The frequency with which such calls are received varies annually, depending on environmentalvariables that affect
natural foods and on newspaper accounts of injuries
caused by bears (R. Sinnott,Alaska Departmentof Fish
and Game, Anchorage,Alaska, USA personal communication, 1997). Many of these calls are for sightings or
minorincidents. In Alaska and otherjurisdictions,just
a few individual bears may generate the bulk of such
incident reports. We believe the DLP reportswe examined here representmore serious conflicts between humans and bears, because each resultedin the death of a
bear. For bear populationmanagement,we believe that
incidents resultingin a bear's death are most significant
to document.
250
Ursus 11:1999
Table 12. Annual tabulation of number of defense of life and property (DLP) kills of brown and black bears and known incidents
of human death or injurycaused by bear attacks in Alaska, 1986-96.
Year
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Total
DLPs
118
89
89
70
81
86
117
133
57
98
89
115
1,024
Brown bearattacks
Humandeaths
Humaninjurie
0
5
1
0
0
1
1
2
0
0
0
2
0
1
1
2
0
1
0
6
2
6
1
6
5
33
In Alaska, DLP deathsto both brown bears and black
bears remain a small fraction of total human-caused
mortalities. However, for brown bears in urban areas,
DLP mortalitiesrepresenta significantproportionof total mortalities. Because both sportand DLP brown bear
kills are increasing in Alaska and the bear populations
arenot thoughtto be increasing(Miller 1993), it is likely
thatDLP deathswill become an increasingproportionof
human-causedbrown bear deaths in more areas of the
state.
Black bear sport kills are increasing in Alaska, but
reportedDLP deathsarerelativelyconstant. We suspect
that DLP black bear deaths may also be increasing,but
thatsuch increasesaremaskedby liberalblackbearhunting regulations,which encouragesreportingDLP black
bear kills as sport kills. Black bear sport huntingregulations are typically liberal in urban areas of Alaska.
AroundFairbanks,for example, bears may be shot year
around,there is a 3 bear/yearbag limit, and black bear
baiting is permitted. This doubtlessly explains the extremelylow frequencyof DLP kills aroundFairbanks,as
well as on the Kenai Peninsula, where similar circumstances exist.
DLP kills of both bear species appearto increase following newspaperaccountsof attacksby bearsanddeaths
caused by bears. The largest numberof DLP deaths to
bears (83 brown bear DLPs and 50 black bear DLPs)
occurredduring 1992 (Table 12). Duringthatyear there
was a fatal mauling of a running child by a garbagehabituatedbrown bear in a remote village, a fatal mauling of a tourist by an apparentlypredatoryblack bear,
and a widely-reportedmaulingof the OutdoorsEditorof
the state'slargestnewspaper(TheAnchorageDaily News)
during a hunting incident.
Black bearattacks
Humandeaths
Humaninjuries
0
1
0
0
O
0
0O
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
11
3
In 9 of the 40 incidents in our 12-year collection of
newspaperaccounts of humaninjury and deaths caused
by bears, the bear involved was shot. This illustrates
that the number of injuries and deaths to humans reportedin our DLP recordsunderestimatesthe total. Our
file of newspaperaccounts also underestimatesinjuries
(but not deaths),because not all injuriesarereportedand
all newspaperaccounts are probablynot in our file.
The prevalence of young males and older females in
the DLP kills of brownbearscomparedto sportkills suggests that DLP kills have a mixed impact on bear populationscomparedto sportkills. Youngmales areprobably
the most expendable component of bear populations,
whereas adult females are the least expendable.
The high numberof subadultmales in DLP kills compared to sport kills doubtless results from young males
dispersing from maternalhome ranges and encountering humansin areaswherehumansareintolerantof their
presence. It may also resultfrom preferencesof hunters
for larger,adult bears.
Relative to sportkills, DLP kills take a higherproportion of adultfemale brown bears. This may be because
adult female bears frequentlyare accompaniedby offspringandhuntersareconstrainedby law andethics from
shooting them.
DLP kills of brown bears noticeably increase during
periods when human activities such as hunting or fishing occur in specific regions of Alaska. Similarresults
were reportedby Miller and Chihuly(1987). Black bear
DLP kills peaked duringthe summerperiod when some
areas have closed black bear hunting seasons. At other
times, bears that would otherwise have been claimed as
DLP kills are reportedas sportharvests.
We examinedthe dataon DLP kills by sex and reason
for the killing to evaluate whether adult female brown
NONSPORT
BEARMORTALITIES
INALASKA* Miller and Tutterrow
bearsaccompaniedby offspringaremoredangerousthan
other bears. Under the assumptionthat two-thirds of
adultfemale brownbears shouldbe accompaniedby offspring, the frequency with which solitary and females
with offspring were shot in DLP circumstancesdid not
vary from expected. Also, male and female brownbears
constitutedequivalentproportionsof adult bears shot in
DLP circumstances. However, female brown bears accompaniedby offspring were significantly more prevalent than unaccompaniedbears in the category of bears
thatwere shot because they were immediatelydangerous
(charging). These datasupportthe hypothesisof Herrero
(1985) thatfemalebrownbearsaccompaniedby offspring
are more aggressive thanadultfemales not accompanied
by offspring. Adult male brownbears,on the otherhand,
were more likely to be shot to protectpropertythanadult
females.
Brown bears shot in DLP circumstanceswere much
more likely to have been shot because they were immediately dangerous than DLP black bears. Black bears
were more likely than brown bears to be shot because
they were consideredpotentiallydangerousor to protect
property. This difference probably reflects behavioral
differences between the 2 species. Herrero(1985) suggested thatbrownbearswere more aggressivethanblack
bears because they evolved in more open habitatswithout escape cover.
It is clearthatsome people needlessly shotbrownbears
because they consideredthe bearto be immediatelydangerous or charging. Over200 brownbearDLP kills were
justified on this basis during a period when we documenteda totalof 33 injuriesand5 deathsto people. Better
education on how to recognize a dangerousbear would
help reduce some needless shootings. However, such
educationalefforts are overwhelmedby sensationalaccounts of bearattacksin popularmedia, especially sporting magazines. Such accounts tend to leave a more
indelible impressionon public perceptionsthan reasonable educationalefforts.
Our data suggest that increased conflicts with both
species of bears result from constructionof cabins and
other dwellings in remote areas. In cases where bears
were shot to protectthreatenedproperty,a dwelling was
the most common type of propertybeing threatenedby
bears. Game or fish harvestedby a sportspersonwas the
second most common type of threatenedpropertyresulting in DLP deaths of brown bears;this type of property
resultedin black bearDLP deathsless frequently. Reintroductionof brown bears into areas where sport hunting and sportfishing are common likely will result in an
increase in human-bearconflicts. In Alaska, protection
of harvestedgame or fish is not a legal reason to shoot
251
bears underDLP regulations,but this law is seldom enforced because shooterstypically claim additionaljustifications.
Although industrial development such as mining or
logging results in increased DLP bear deaths, most of
the DLP deaths to both species of bears resulted from
people who describedtheiractivityas being at theirhome
or dwelling (32.6% for brown bears, 48.6% for black
bears). The low numberof DLP deaths accompanying
industrialdevelopmentmay reflect intentionalefforts by
these industriesto avoid conflicts with bears. In other
cases, it may reflect efforts to conceal the frequency of
DLP deaths to lessen governmentinterferencein their
operations.
For brown bears, huntersmade almost the same proportion of DLP kills (32.1%) as persons at their homes
or dwellings. Deer, moose, and caribou hunterskilled
the largestproportionof DLP brownbears (61.6% combined). These ungulates are prey for brown bears and
many of these DLP kills may have resulted when bears
were attemptingto usurphunterkills.
In most cases therewas no economic damagereported
by bears being killed in DLP circumstances(71.9% of
brown bear DLPs and 60.7% for black bears). In the
cases where economic damagewas reported,however,it
was <US$ 1,000 in 82.1% of brown bear DLP killings
and 92.5% of black bear killings. These data
underrepresentthe damageby bearsbecause they do not
include damage when the bear is not shot.
Bears shot in DLP circumstances,insteadof surviving
to be harvested in sport circumstances or viewed and
photographed,arean economic loss to Alaska. The gross
value of successful Alaskan brown bear and black bear
hunting trips by non-residents was estimated to be
$11,954 and $8,810 (US 1991), respectively (Miller et
al. 1998). ForAlaskaresidents,these values were $1,286
and $1,114 (US 1991) for brown bears and black bears,
respectively (McCollum et al. 1996, Miller et al. 1998).
Gross economic value of wildlife viewing trips during
which bears were seen was estimated to be $962 (US
1991; Miller et al. 1998). The value of a bear to these
hunting and viewing uses exceeds the economic loss
causedby bearsshot in DLP circumstancesin most cases.
Based on analysis of newspaper accounts and other
records, Middaugh(1987) documented85 injuries plus
20 fatalities from brown bear attacks in Alaska during
1900-85. At face value, these early recordsyield an injury rate of 1/yearand a death rate of 0.24/year. This is
about 36% of the averageannualinjuryrate and 57% of
the deathrate based on the brown bear attackswe found
in our newspaper files during 1985-96. Middaugh's
records,like ours,doubtlessunderestimatethe actualfre-
252
Ursus 11:1999
quency of injuriesfrom bearattacksbecause not all injuries are reported in either set of records. However,
Middaugh'sdata are consistent with our conclusion that
the increasinghumanpopulationof Alaska andincreased
back-countryuse associated with tourismcontributesto
increasedfrequencyof brown bear attackson humans.
The increasingtrendof brownbeardeathsin bothDLP
andsportcircumstancesin Alaskamay foreshadowa day
when sportkills will have to be limited to keep total bear
deaths within sustainablelevels. The Kenai Peninsula
is currentlythe only area in Alaska where management
planscall for constrainingsportkills of brownbearswhen
combined sport and DLP kills of female bears exceed
thresholdlevels. This type of managementlikely will
need to be adoptedin additionalareas if currenttrends
continue.
Our data on causes and kinds of DLP deaths to bears
in Alaska indicates what to expect in other areas should
bears be reintroducedor increase in abundance. However, each area has different attractantsand potentials
for bear problems. Alaska, for example, has little conflict between bears and apiaries;the rest of the United
States likely will have less interactionbetween salmon
fishermen and bears.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We acknowledgethe contributionof many Alaska Departmentof Fish and Game (ADFG) biologists and Division of Fish and Wildlife Protectionofficers (Alaska
State Troopers)for collecting the informationpresented
in this report. J. Sabrowski (ADFG) assisted in data
analysis and E. Becker (ADFG) helped with the statistical analysis. Helpful commentson earlierdraftsof this
manuscriptwere providedby G. Del Frate. Furthervaluable commentswere madeby refereeJ. Clark,an anonymous referee, technical editor M. Munson-McGee,and
editorM. Vaughan. This projectwas fundedby Federal
Aid in Wildlife RestorationProjectW-24-4, Study 4.26.
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