Undertaking phenomenological research in Cyprus: the nature and
impact of Aristotle’s emotions in the Higher Education workplace
Marilena Antoniadou
Manchester Metropolitan University Business School
Aytoun Building, Aytoun Street, Manchester, M1 3 GH, UK
Telephone: 0044 (0) 77 8303 9550
Email: [email protected]
Supervisor, Name: Dr Peter Sandiford
Supervisor, Email: [email protected]
20th EDAMBA Summer Academy
Soreze, France
July 2011
Abstract
The following paper discusses an exploratory study that the author undertakes as part
of her doctoral research. This research refers to a phenomenological investigation of
Aristotle’s fourteen emotions as they were first introduced in his Rhetoric (1984) and
aims to understand how these emotions are experienced by the Higher Education
academics of Cyprus, at work. Inspired by Aristotle’s human emotions, the study
examines the nature and impact of anger, calmness, love, hate, fear, confidence,
shame, shamelessness, benevolence, selfishness, pity, indignation, envy, and
emulation into academics’ workdays, using storytelling. The emphasis is placed on
the interpretive phenomenological approach being taken to this topic and discusses
how the research of emotions can be conceived from this perspective, and why this
conception can facilitate the development of the research.
Key words: emotions, phenomenology, Higher Education, Cyprus, Aristotle,
narratives.
Introduction
While the field of organisational emotions matures, current literature suggests that there is
limited evidence examining the everyday workplace emotions, with the emphasis being on
the phenomenological exploration of people’s subjective accounts (Gooty et al., 2009).
This suggests that there is a need for studies to consider an anthology of the organisational
emotional events, based exclusively on what people have to say and how they feel about
the things they experience at work. Accordingly, this study attempts to investigate the
experience of emotions with stories that people tell about how they feel when they are at
work, relying greatly on Aristotle’s philosophy of emotions. Perhaps the first who
recognised their essential significance, this study recognises Aristotle’s remarkable analysis
of emotion and aims to magnify his work.
The study wants to develop an understanding on emotions in the workplace of academics
and poses the following objectives:
1.
To critically explore the nature of Aristotle’s fourteen emotions as
experienced by the academics of Cyprus within their working environment.
2.
To analyse what it is like to experience these emotions, the main factors that
influence them and their possible impacts.
3.
To investigate how the academics react to and cope with these emotions and
to the emotional demands of their work, and identify which types of emotional
self-management strategies academics use are more successful and those
which are less successful, in managing emotions.
4.
To evaluate the storytelling procedure and identify the positive and negative
implications that storytelling has for the academics through their reflections.
Philosophical Status
This project’s interest is on lived experiences, on the how academics in Cyprus experience
certain emotions and handle each emotional situation at work. In order to understand the
academics’ emotional world, it is useful to know more about their lived experiences, how
these experiences impact upon their well-being, and to identify ways of coping with their
experiences. The exploration of emotions requires the use of a research paradigm which is
able to obtain data that is rich in contextual information and deep in understanding (Ogbonna
& Harris, 2004). Consistent with a range of relevant studies (e.g. Hochschild 1983; Ashforth
& Humphrey 1993; Morris & Feldman 1996; Fineman & Sturdy 1999), this paper preferred
the interpretive paradigm. This paradigm argues that emotions and emotional management
occur in the context of social relations and thus incorporates the notion that emotional
expression is subject to contextual pressures (Morris & Feldman 1996). Accordingly, the
study’s status supports that reality is constructed by individuals involved in any research
situation, having multiple realities, such as those of the researcher, those of the people being
investigated and those of the reader interpreting a study (Creswell, 1994). The particular
ontology best serves the purpose of the study, and therefore, an interpretive approach is a
necessity in order to bring coherence to the data. Thus, it was felt that phenomenology is
likely to be an appropriate research approach when investigating the nature of socially shared
emotions of academics in their work. More precisely, the adopted type of research was
amenable to the interpretive phenomenological approach and the utilization of qualitative
research methods. Phenomenology assumes that even though we cannot be certain about the
independent existence of objects in the external world, we can be certain about how they
appear to us in consciousness (Carson et al., 2001) or as Taylor & Bogdan (1984) say about
phenomenology, "the important reality is what people perceive it to be" (p:2). From this
perspective phenomenology embraces a more relativist ontology, which emphasizes the idea
of a multiple reality having a diversity of interpretations to the world (Creswell, 2007). At
the same time, phenomenology recognises that the meanings people give to events come
from their interactions. This means that people’s interpretations are not entirely
individualistic but the result of social interactions and processes that are shared between
social actors (Willig, 2008). In this sense, knowledge is to some extent socially constructed,
with language having an important role in society. Consequently, the phenomenological
ontology which the study adapts relies greatly to the symbolic interactionist premise.
The current study intends to gather data regarding academics’ experienced and displayed
emotions, and their emotional management strategies within their working environment from
their perspectives. To achieve this, the phenomenological paradigm was identified as the best
means for this type of study, as it assumes that the ontology consists of subjective
experiences, which are intersubjective and interactional.
The origins of phenomenology
The word phenomenology derives from the Greek words ‘phenomenon’, which means
appearance, and ‘logos’, meaning reason or word (Manser & Thomson, 1995).
Phenomenology supports that people can be certain about how things appear in their
consciousness, thus realities are treated as pure phenomena, which is the reason why
‘phenomenology’ is called the science of pure ‘phenomena’ (Eagleton, 1983, p:55).
Nevertheless, the term phenomenology has been used in many and controversial ways in
social science. Depending on the epistemological and ontological position of the researcher,
it is either conceptualised as a philosophy of the Husserlian and Heideggerian school of
though or as a methodology, by Schutz (Goulding, 2005). For Luckmann (1978), the
operative goal in phenomenological research is to describe as accurately as possible the
universal structures of subjective orientation in the world and not to explain the general
features of the objective world. According to Omery (1983) phenomenology is an inductive,
descriptive, research methodology, aiming to investigate and describe all phenomena,
including human experience in the way they appear. In a few words, a phenomenologist is
concerned with describing and uncovering the essential meanings of human experiences,
including the meanings that these experiences have for the individuals and allowing the
essence to emerge.
Husserl’s transcendental phenomenology
Husserl (1931) is regarded the founder of phenomenology in the 19th century and the version
of phenomenology that he described, has been classified "transcendental phenomenology",
which encompasses notions of pure consciousness (Moustakas, 1994). He developed a
universal philosophic method, by focusing purely on phenomena and describing them, that
came to mean the study of phenomena as they appear through consciousness. Husserl is
acknowledged for his concept of the ‘lifeworld’, a schema for describing and classifying
lived subjective experiences. These lived experiences comprise those things which are
common sense and are taken for granted. However, because they are not readily accessible
the aim is to return to these experiences that are taken for granted and to re-examine them
(Hitzler & Eberle, 2004).
An important notion in Husserl's phenomenology is 'essences', the ultimate structure of
consciousness (Crotty, 1998). This means that the aim is to describe the essences of the
consciousness and perception of the human world. Husserl believed that in order to grasp the
pure essence, the researcher must get back to the immediate experience and hold on to it by a
kind of intuition. For Husserl this can be accomplished through what he called
phenomenological reduction, the basis of phenomenological research which grasps the
experience of consciousness (Gibson & Hanes, 2003). Phenomenological reduction is
divided in two procedures: bracketing and reduction. The notion of ‘bracketing’ or according
to Husserl (1931) ‘epoche’, a Greek word meaning to stay away from or abstain (Moustakas,
1994, p.85), concerns the researcher and involves a process which assumes that individuals
are able to separate their preconceived ideas from their lived experiences. Husserl’s intention
was to analyse phenomena for what they are, intuitively and directly and suggested that
knowledge is produced by “setting aside all previous habits of thought, see through and break
down the mental barriers which these habits have set along the horizons of our thinking”
(Husserl, 1931, p:43). It is essential for the phenomenologist to suspend all the held beliefs
about the world, but not in the sense of doubting their existence, rather detaching from them
or even putting them aside. The second procedure, reduction, is a process when the
researcher perceives, thinks, remembers, imagines, and judges the contents that build the
phenomenon (Moustakas, 1994). Gibson and Hanes (2003) further suggested that reduction
is useful when the researcher is interested in understanding the complexity of human
experience and gain a deeper understanding of the meaning of the participants’ experiences
in order to understand the phenomena itself.
Heidegger’s hermeneutic phenomenology
Husserl's successor, Martin Heidegger, was known as the father of "hermeneutic
phenomenology" (Packer, 1985). Heidegger focused on the study of everyday human
existence and what it means to be a human being. He believed that an individual does not
have to be separated from the context in which he or she lives. As a result, Heidegger refused
the notions of ‘bracketing’ and ‘transcendental phenomenology’ and defended that the
phenomenologist needs to refer to the person's background, so every experience would entail
an interpretation on the person's background and history. Also, unlike Husserl, he believed
that prejudices are important to valid interpretation and achieving understanding and rejected
that understanding requires us to separate ourselves from our world (Dreyfus, 1987).
Heidegger argued that understanding is only possible because we have our being-in-theworld, which he considered a key notion of the human every day experience (Dreyfus, 1991).
Heidegger (1962) claims that interpretation enables us to have a world and being born in to
the world implies the occurrence of understanding. Through being-in-the-world the
Heideggerian phenomenology aims to discover the fundamental meaning of Being. For
Heidegger, the way we make sense of our world derives from the interpreter's unique way of
being-in-the-world. The person is viewed in relation to his relationship to the world, which is
the main concept about existence because it is the place in which one is. In this sense, people
are self-interpreting and self-defining beings, because they are what they take themselves to
be and how they interpret themselves in their relationships and practices (Taylor, 1987).
Heidegger’s view of the person concentrated on its relationship to the world, and derived
from the basic concern of what it means to be a person in the world. In his work ‘Being and
Time’, Heidegger (1962) linked phenomenology with the hermeneutical tradition. The word
hermeneutics can be traced back to the Greek, messenger-God, Hermes whose role was to
translate messages from Gods into a language that humans could understand (Palmer, 1969).
The Greeks credited Hermes with the discovery of language and writing. Hermeneutics in the
simplest sense mean ‘interpretation’. As a methodology, by its definition is interpretive in
nature and emphasis is placed on the understanding of the context of the researcher as well as
the other through the use of language (Annells, 1996). A basic principle of hermeneutics is
that the researcher is expected to recognise their biases and incorporate them into the
research as hermeneutics recognise the inability of the researcher to remain completely
unbiased from his or her own prejudices and cultural context. Therefore, the researcher
interprets the world reflexively to bring new knowledge. The hermeneutic philosophy as it is
understood within the social sciences, does not attempt to render a complete understanding of
the world, but instead, it aims to reach a better understanding of the social world.
Hans-Georg Gadamer, Heidegger’s student, understood the impossibility of being
prejudgments-free in the interpretation of the world to have a powerful influence. Like
Heidegger, Gadamer rejected Husserl’s bracketing and phenomenological reduction and
defended that repressing prejudices would only result in a distorted interpretation (Palmer,
1969). The prejudices of the researcher are viewed as a vital part of the hermeneutic process
and for gaining new insight. For Heidegger and Gadamer, interpretation is not seen as an
isolated activity. Gadamer, stressed the important role of reflective interpretation of the text
in order to achieve a full and meaningful understanding. As Moustakas (1994) wrote, the
reflective interpretative process includes not just a description of the experience as it appears
in consciousness but also an analysis and interpretation of the underlying conditions,
historically and aesthetically, that account for the experience.
The study’s standpoint
The study adapts interpretive (hermeneutic) phenomenology as defended by Heidegger and
Gadamer, who highlighted the usefulness of the impossibility to remain unbiased and
emphasised that the researcher interprets the world reflexively. Heidegger's prime interest
was to find the basis of understanding and supported that understanding is grounded in the
person's background history and knowledge, and that interpretation is only possible in
accordance with the interpreter's own understanding. The study assumes that reality cannot
be represented as an objectified structure and that it does not exist independently of an actor.
Knowledge is social in nature, hence, the view taken in this research is that knowledge is a
result of our social interactions. Our knowledge depends on the socio-historical context of its
creation, including individual frames of reference and experiences (Cohen & Manion, 1994).
When considering the research topic, Aristotle’s fourteen emotions as experienced by
academics at work, a functionalist framework seems to prevent the investigation of the
phenomenon and its meaning. To gain an insight into the way emotions are experienced, it is
necessary to gain first-hand experience of the process itself, which is possible if an
interpretive framework is adopted.
Although early phenomenologists had diverse views on epistemological and ontological
questions, there is a common core which justifies the use of the label. In summary,
phenomenology is an approach that acknowledges and values the meanings that people
ascribe to their experiences. Moreover, in the case of this research, this is grounded on
Heidegger's phenomenological hermeneutics (or interpretive phenomenology). However, this
does not mean that it follows Heidegger's method, since Heidegger did not have a method as
such. Nonetheless, central notions of Heidegger's and Gadamer's philosophy of hermeneutic
phenomenology, such as reflective interpretation and understanding the participants’ context,
are used to guide the procedures of the study.
Research Methodology
Phenomenologists believe that human behaviour must be experienced first hand to be
understood (Lee, 1992) and embrace qualitative methods, which is why sometimes the terms
are used interchangeably. Qualitative researchers, in their effort to ‘get close to the data’,
frequently develop strategies such as face-to-face techniques of participant observation,
intensive interviewing or total participation in the activity being investigated to uncover the
subject's orientations (Filstead, 1970). When the aim is to take people’s verbal expression
seriously and provide rich explanation about a phenomenon, qualitative methods seem more
appropriate to gain more in-depth information that may be difficult to convey quantitatively
(Strauss & Corbin, 1998).
An interpretive approach aims to understand human action (Schwandt, 2000) and focuses
towards the significance of personal experiences, attitudes, and beliefs recognising the role of
subjective experience in the research process (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994). Subsequently, the
fundamental task of an interpretive researcher is to examine the meanings of experiences and
phenomena from the perspectives of the research participants (Coleman & Briggs, 2002).
More specifically, the research employs a qualitative methodology, strongly associated with
the interpretive phenomenological paradigm, as the most relevant for a detailed description
and a rich insight into the participants’ emotional experiences and the way they interpret
them (Lee, 1992; Saunders et al., 2000).
Τo get closer to academics’ emotional experiences it was considered appropriate to develop
an in-depth understanding of the meanings they attach to these experiences. In fact, when the
research is about experienced emotions the researcher should be interested in the social
interactions and situations, the events, since they are the main sources of experienced
emotion (Briner, 1999) and have the biggest importance in organizations (Weiss &
Cropanzano, 1996). Furthermore, Scherer (1984) suggested, that it can be difficult to study
emotions experimentally and objectively because emotions are often regulated, thus, difficult
to observe some of its specific components. Certainly, each kind of research has its own uses;
nevertheless, the types of information obtained from an interactive interview are different
from those obtained in a quantitative structured questionnaire (Tauber, 1987). Moreover,
other quantitative studies (e.g. Rafaeli & Sutton, 1988; Fisher, 1997) which had emotions as
the examined variable, have proven that emotions cannot be treated as independent from the
meaning that individuals assign to them, confirming Miles and Huberman (1994) who
supported that quantitative data might miss contextual details, since grasping the meaning
from the individuals is a basic advantage of the qualitative research and must not be ignored.
Also, researchers seem to agree that qualitative research can be used to understand any
phenomenon in which little is yet known and is of major use in contexts that are underresearched (Strauss & Corbin, 1998; Carson et al., 2001). Even though quantitative research
has made an excellent contribution to the literature, in countries like Cyprus where research
is extremely narrow in the area of emotions, peoples’ experiences and interactions need to be
examined firsthand, which is possible if an interpretive framework is adopted.
Data collection
Storytelling and more specifically narrative interviews will be used as the main data
collection method. The recognition of narratives is found in the argument that they are the
primary means by which people make sense of the world and themselves within this world.
Brown (1998), for example, argued that narratives or stories can be described as a sensemaking tool, as they have the ability to depict our experience of this world and us within this
world. Therefore, the act of narrating is an act of meaning, as people struggle to make sense
and show the different choices they made and how they dealt with them (Plummer, 2001).
This understanding of narrative relates to the study’s aim to explore how people construct
meaning in their perspectives on their everyday emotional experiences at work.
Sampling
The study adapted the concept of purposive sampling (Schatzman & Strauss, 1973), as the
most important kind of non-probability sampling, to identify the primary participants.
Appropriately, a purposeful sample, includes academics both men and women who work in
Cypriot universities. In purposive sampling the number of participants can be influenced by
multiple dimensions, like time or availability (Strauss, 1987; Koerbert & McMichael, 2008)
and other times from the nature of the topic, the scope of the study, or the amount of useful
information obtained from each participant (Morse, 2000). As in ‘theoretical sampling’
(Glaser & Strauss, 1967) a guiding principle is the concept of theoretical saturation, the
point in which researchers no longer see new categories, concepts or dimensions appearing
in the research and the data being collected appear redundant (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). As
the study was mainly exploratory, with a broad scope dealing with a variety of emotions
and questions, it was not possible to estimate an exact number of participants from the
beginning of the data collection as there was the need to continuously bring new
participants into the study until all aspects of the phenomenon had been obtained (Morse,
1991).
Data analysis
The collected data will be analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA)
(Moustakas, 1994; Smith & Eatough, 2007), which aims to capture the richness and
complexity of the participants’ emotional experiences (Eatough et al., 2008).
In IPA all stories are recorded and transcribed, allowing the reduction of data and the
preparation for a more focused analysis. According to Moustakas (1994) a special dimension
in the phenomenal analysis is horizonalisation, a process in which the researcher extracts
significant for the study statements from the transcribed interviews and with a sensitive
stance determines how these statements can be conceptualized. Thus, the researcher studies
the transcribed material, horizonalizes the data and regards every horizon or statement
relevant to the topic and question as having equal value. The meaning (or meaning units) of
these statements are listed and clustered into common themes. These clustered themes are
given a descriptive label and are used to develop the textural descriptions of the experience
while the meanings of the phenomenon are constructed. Each broad theme can be subjected
to a more detailed analysis, which can lead to the formation of more specific categories
within each theme (Cassell & Symon, 2006). In order to display these themes and subthemes,
tables are produced (Miles & Huberman, 1994), which comprise each concept.
Finally, the interpretative activity of the researcher and the participants’ stories produce a
narrative account with rich, insightful conclusions (Eatough & Smith, 2006). Smith and
Osborn (2008) outline that IPA is a two-stage interpretation process, allowing both the
researcher and the participant to enter into interpretation; while the participants attempt to
make sense of their world, the researcher tries to make sense of that attempt. Hence, IPA,
which focuses on experiences, is concerned with trying to understand what it is like from
the participants’ view, in order to take their side.
Epilogue
The originality of this study is emphasised by its ability to conceptualise a range of
emotions within one study in a country where research is limited. The participants’
emotionality is explored in detail using an ancient typology of emotions introduced by
Aristotle applied in today’s workplace, offering a multidimensional view of the
emotional life of academics. These emotions have not been explored together before in
the working environment and given that the study of emotion adds a vital dimension to
how organisations are understood (Bolton, 2000) the study’s uniqueness becomes even
clearer. Sadly, phenomenological research in the field of emotions is extremely limited
in Cyprus. Indeed, a problem with phenomenological research is the time the
interviewees have to spend on the interviews and the revision of the researchers’ reports.
Particularly when phenomenological research involves academics from the time element
is more important because they usually are busy with multiple tasks. Another issue that
a researcher has to tackle is that they need to build a relationship of trustfulness with the
interviewees so that they will be open to share their experiences with honesty.
Even though researching in a phenomenological way is problematic it is still a valuable
methodological approach that offers a lot of opportunities to the researcher. Researchers
that are interested in the Cypriot environment have in many cases to develop and test
theories, hence qualitative research methods are useful in contexts that are underresearched (Carson et al. 2001), as they provide rich and insightful descriptions of
human views (Moustakas, 1994). Through this phenomenological investigation, the
formulation of a model is suggested to be a contributing feature to the field as it will
enable greater clarity and depth of understanding people’s emotions in organisations.
It is also suggested that the research findings can be advantageous for managers by giving
them considerable knowledge on the experienced emotions of their employees, while the
research can become a good guide for the students to learn how their teachers feel, what
irritates them, what pleases them and what captures their attention. Exploring their
psychological world could be the key for better relations and a helpful element for their
studies.
Finally, the use of storytelling can portray emotions and enable the detailed description of
verbal behaviour evaluating at the same time the role of storytelling in investigating
emotions at work and emotion-handling strategies. The research aids future research and the
development of theories of specific emotions that have not yet been researched in the
context of academics and lends support to the argument that emotions at work should be
investigated more enthusiastically, especially to countries like Cyprus where research
wishes substantial contribution. This study hopes to assist the recognition of the relevance
and importance of emotions in any organisation which will provide an additional way of
thinking about organisations to the more traditional rational approaches (Fineman, 2000).
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