Rぐρ
rj″ ′
ι
グルθ711
fro111 ACADEMY。
PROCEEDINGS OF Reprinted
THE BRITISH
171
PROCEEDINGS OF THE BRITISH ACADEMY· 171
Evidence, Inference and Enquity
Evidence, Inference and Enquiry
財 Jた グ″
Philip]Dawid,WilliarnEdited
Twining
by and
ⅣIinli
Vasilaki
Philip Dawid, William Twining and Minli Vasilaki
15
15
Believing the Evidence
Believing the Evidence
JASON DAVIES
JASON DAVIES
The study of ancient religion,
Abstract
Abstract
partly in response to anthropology,
moved
in recent decades away from thinking in terms of 'belief'to studying'ritThe study of ancient religion, partly in response to anthropology, moved
ual': this has a fundamental effect on how we treat the evidence (or decide
in
recent decades away from thinking in terms of 'belief' to studying 'ritwhat evidence is, and what it is evidence oJ).I argue here that the transiual':
this
has a fundamental effect on how we treat the evidence (or decide
incomplete and explore some of the deeper implications of thinktion is
and what it is evidence
of).orI argue
here and
that argue
the transiwhat
evidence
that
explicitly)
implicitly
ing in terms ofis,'belief'(whether
is
incomplete
and
explore
some
of
the
deeper
implications
of thinktion
these continue to hamper our perspective on ancient religion. The'othering in terms ofreligion
'belief' does
(whether
implicitly or explicitly) and argue that
not reside in the'rationality'of their thinking:
ness'of ancient
these continue to hamper
our
perspective
on ancient religion. The 'otherrather, it is axiomatic (their crediting ritual with power to effect changes in
ness' of ancient religion does not reside in the 'rationality' of their thinking:
the wider world).
rather, it is axiomatic (their crediting ritual with power to effect changes in
the wider world).
SoNarwHeRE
1. The naturalness of belief
1. The naturalness of belief
ARouNo 2000, there was an international movement which
encouraged people to put'Jedi'as their religion in censuses. The homepage of
SOMEWHERE
AROUND 2000, there was an international movement which
the Jedi Church says:
encouraged people to put 'Jedi' as their religion in censuses. The homepage of
TheChurch
Jedi Church
the Jedi
says: believes that there is one all powerful force that binds all things
in the universe together ... So quiet your mind and listen to the force within
The
ledi Church believes that there is one all powerful force that binds all things
you!
in the universe together ... So quiet your mind and listen to the force within
you!interesting aspect of this for our purposes is the prominence of the
The
word'believeso, which frames everything that follows. Apparently, if you want
The interesting aspect of this for our purposes is the prominence of the
a religion, even as a joke, you talk about beliefs.t To a modern reader,
to start
word
'believes',
which frames everything that follows. Apparently, if you want
it
seems absurd even to note this: how can a religion not be about belief? A
to start a religion, even as a joke, you talk about beliefs. I To a modem reader,
more interesting question for our purposes is whether it is a useful historical
it seems absurd even to note this: how can a religion not be about belief? A
more interesting question for our purposes is whether it is a useful historical
I
Even more confusingly for us, it seems that it started as a joke but appears to have gained
momentum of its own.
Even more confusingly for us, it seems that it started as a joke but appears to have gained
momentum of its own.
Proceedings of the British Academy,l7l,395434. @ The British Academy 201l.
1
Proceedings of the British Academy, 171,395-434. © The British Academy 2011.
396
Jason Davies
Jason Davies
396
category when talking about ancient religions or indeed any religion th
not reside with a broadly secular framework.2
category when talking about ancient religions or indeed any religion that does
Modern scholarship of religion is built on the attempts since the
not reside with a broadly secular framework. 2
the Victorian era to form a discourse of religion that struggled with
Modern scholarship of religion is built on the attempts since the end of
tural effects of European empire, namely the confrontation with 'pr
the Victorian era to form a discourse of religion that struggled
with the culreligions: typically the question was built around the assumption of Eu
tural effects of European empire, namely the confrontation with 'primitive'
superiority. Thus what needed to be explained was how
got from 't
religions: typically the question was built around the assumption ofwe
European
'here', so we had schemas posited where magic had 'evolved'into r
superiority. Thus what needed to be explained was how we got from 'there' to
which had (in our case) been superseded by science. To be associa
'here', so we had schemas posited where magic had 'evolved' into religion,
with such schemes (the chief culprits areFrazer
Tylor)3 now ac
associatedisnow
which had (in our case) been superseded by science. To beand
death: if we centre our discussions on some kind of evolution from rel
with such schemes (the chief culprits are Frazer and Tylor)3 is now academic
science as they did, anthropology and history become the exhausti
death: if we centre our discussions on some kind of evolution
from religion to
loguing of others'fallibility. It was Emile Durkheim who brought ligh
science as they did, anthropology and history become the exhaustive catathere had been darkness, delved into the mysteries and triumphantly r
light where
loguing of others' fallibility. It was Emile Durkheim who brought
with the laws for anthropology, and like all hero-founders, has found hi
there had been darkness, delved into the mysteries and triumphantly returned
used for contrasting positions ever since. The principle
persists
his words th
with the laws for anthropology, and like all hero-founders, has foundthat
powerfully was that of religion as a projection of a group or societ
used for contrasting positions ever since. The principle that persists the most
Durkheim onwards insistence on the social as the primary area of
powerfully was that of religion as a projection of a group or society-'from
has been a commonplace in anthropology and now also in modern h
Durkheim onwards insistence on the social as the primary area of analysis
Freed from answering the question 'how could
be so wrong?', 'r
has been a commonplace in anthropology and now also inthey
modem
history'.4
becomes a broad point of access to how a society functions, since for th
Freed from answering the question 'how could they be so wrong?', 'religion'
part, 'religion'and politics are impossible to disentangle.s
becomes a broad point of access to how a society functions,
since for the most
That is not to say that the anthropology and
5 history of religion no
part, 'religion' and politics are impossible to disentangle.
secure and agreed basis: it might be said that we are still grappling (alb
That is not to say that the anthropology and history of religion
now has a
greater sophistication) with the original difficulty, namely the sho
secure and agreed basis: it might be said that we are still grappling (albeit with
underlies the experience of confronting for the first time a culture who
greater sophistication) with the original difficulty, namely the
shock that
for granted that the cosmos is a very different place from the one that
take it
underlies the experience of confronting for the first time a culture who
convinced it is (and when I say'we'I mean a typical Western intellectu
that we are
for granted that the cosmos is a very different place from the one
convinced it is (and when I say 'we' I mean a typical Western intellectual with
Given an expected interdisciplinary readership, I have (in contravention of normal
2
practice) cited as few representative secondary sources as is feasible, often with the crite
2Given an expected
I have
contravention
normal
historical re
they areinterdisciplinary
the best place toreadership,
start, especially
for(in
further
reading: Iof
have
also shamelessly
secondary
as because
is feasible,
often
with
the
criterion
thatas a
practice) citedmy
as own
few representative
work for further
details, sources
not least
this article is best considered
they are the best
placenot
to fully
start, treated
especially
for rather
furtherthan
reading:
alsoinshamelessly
referred
matters
there
a newI have
venture
itself. For the
mosttorecen
my own workaccounts
for further
details, religion
not least
this article
is best(2007b).
considered as a gloss on
of Roman
seebecause
Rives (2007)
and Riipke
3Original
matters not fully
treated
there rather
than
a new
venture
in itself.
For
most
recent
publication
(1871),
dates:
(1915),
Tylor
Frazer
butthe
they
have
both general
been reprin
religion
see Rives
(2007) and
Riipke (2007 b).
accounts of Roman
in the case
profoundly
of Frazer)
abridged.
aPrice (1986:
3 Original publication
dates:
Tylor
Frazerof(1915),
but theyof
have
both
reprinted
11).
For (1871),
a full history
the emergence
ritual
as been
point in (and
a focal
studying
in the case ofsee
Frazer)
profoundly
Bell (1997:
l-90).abridged.
4 Price (1986: 511).
full history
offor
thethis
emergence
of ritual and
as a historical
focal pointcommonplace;
in studying religion,
(2001)
See For
e.g. aStewart
anthropological
Riipke (20
see Bell (1997:17-36)
1-90).is one of the most efficient recent versions for newcomers to Roman religion bu
Stewart
(2001)
this anthropological
needed
littleforargument
(1998\, ifcommonplace;
since Beard and
et al.historical
not before. Riipke (2007 b: 6-8,
17-36) is one of the most efficient recent versions for newcomers to Roman religion but this has
needed little argument since Beard et al. (1998), if not before.
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
397
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
397
a secular outlook).6 Of course I might usefully explore non-secular perspectives but space does not permit that and, secondly, those perspectives would
a secular outlook).6 Of course I might usefully explore non-secular perspechave their own distinctively orchestrated blind-spots. My project here is to
tives but space does not permit that and, secondly, those perspectives would
extend secular discourse, not to circumvent it.
have their own distinctively orchestrated blind-spots. My project here is to
One of the results of this ongoing discourse is that we have become far
extend
secular discourse, not to circumvent it.
more sensitive to what we are bringing to the evidence: when we talk about
One of the results of this ongoing discourse is that we have become far
'religion'and 'belief 'we are generally drawing on a predominantly Christianised
more sensitive
to what we are bringing to the evidence: when we talk about
perspective that emphasised inner experience, spirituality, the well-being of
'religion' and 'belief' we are generally drawing on a predominantly Christianised
the
soul (as more important than the body) and some kind of 'core belief'
perspective
that emphasised inner experience, spirituality, the well-being of
(which is suspiciously similar structurally to the Catholic creed).7 If we look
the soul (as more important than the body) and some kind of 'core belief'
for
these, we frequently look in vain (often even when we are looking at
is suspiciously similar structurally to the Catholic creed).7 If we look
(which
That is not in dispute: the difficulty is that the expectations are
Christianity).t
look in vain (often even when we are looking at
for these, we frequently
unconscious or unacknowledged.
often
Christianity).8 That is not in dispute: the difficulty is that the expectations are
The study of Roman religion has a similar history: most twentieth-century
often
unconscious or unacknowledged.
Roman religion wanting because it did not 'fit the bill'.
scholarship
of Roman
religion has a similar history: most twentieth-century
The studyfound
Their
apparent
obsession with ritual, the impossibility of agreeing with the
scholarship
found
Roman religion wanting because it did not 'fit the bill'.
propositions that we inferred underlay their religious practice and a distinct
Their
apparent obsession with ritual, the impossibility of agreeing with the
lack of recognisable'spirituality'led to the impression that the'original', more
propositions
that we inferred underlay their religious practice and a distinct
and altogether more spiritual Roman religion had become ossified to
vibrant
lack of recognisable 'spirituality' led to the impression that the'original', more
the point of meaninglessness by the time we reach the historical (i.e. deciphervibrant
and altogether more spiritual Roman religion had become ossified to
able) period. Thus we were looking for spirituality, rich inner conviction and
the point of meaninglessness by the time we reach the historical (Le. deciphera preoccupation with the well-being of the soul, but all we found was fastidious
able)
period. Thus we were looking for spirituality, rich inner conviction and
and an attachment to'sticking to how things have always been done'.
alegalism
preoccupation
with the well-being of the soul, but all we found was fastidious
persistence of this well-preserved corpse of Roman religion was
The and
legalism
an attachment to 'sticking to how things have always been done'.
accounted for by the suggestion that the elite, more intelligent and discerning
The persistence of this well-preserved corpse of Roman religion was
masses (that is, coincidentally unwilling to believe what
than the credulous
accounted
for by the suggestion that the elite, more intelligent and discerning
modern
scholars happen not to believe either), had kept up a pretence for
than the credulous masses (that is, coincidentally unwilling to believe what
political reasons but clearly signalled to those that could read between the lines
modern scholars
happen not to believe either), had kept up a pretence for
their disapproval of all the nonsense. This position was reasonably consistent
political
reasons but clearly signalled to those that could read between the lines
with itself: it accounted for rather a lot of the evidence we had. So when a
their disapproval of all the nonsense. This position was reasonably consistent
with itself: it accounted for rather a lot of the evidence we had. So when a
6Thus different approaches to religion confront this differently (and I am certainly not in a
position to document them all. See Lambek (2002) as one introduction. On secularism (briefly)
6Stewart
Thus different
approaches
religion
confront
(2003).this differently (and I am certainly not in a
(in greatertodepth)
(2001) and
Asad
TThus Asad
See Lambek the
(2002)
as one church
introduction.
Onoccupied
secularism
(briefly)
position
to document
them
itself
with
(1993: 48)
that has
'it all.
Christian
is preeminently
Stewart
(2001)
and (in greater
depth)
Asad
as(2003).
a verbalizable inner condition of true religion'in the
and testing
belief
cultivating
identifying,
(1993:
preeminently
the Christian
church that
has occupied
itself with
7ThusofAsad
to all religion(s).
generalised
applicable
as an assumption
that48)
this'itisis(wrongly)
midst
arguing
8Lindquist cultivating
identifying,
and(2008:
testing9),belief
a verbalizahle inner condition of true religion' in the
with as
references.
and Coleman
midst of arguing that this is (wrongly) generalised as an assumption applicable to all religion(s).
8 Lindquist and Coleman (2008: 9), with references.
398
398
Jason Davies
Jason Davies
change began it was not so much in the evidence as a wholesale que
whether the position was plausible as a whole.e
change began it was not so much in the evidence as a wholesale questioning
Moving our focus back to anthropology, a major landmark was t
whether the position was plausible as a whole. 9
lication in 1972 of Rodney Needham's Belief, Language and Experie
Moving our focus back to anthropology, a major landmark was the pubsystematic synthesis of philosophical and anthropological scrutinies
lication in 1972 of Rodney Needham's Belief, Language and Experience. A
to conclude that we should abandon all use of the word'belief in dis
systematic synthesis of philosophical and anthropological scrutinies led him
religion:
to conclude that we should abandon all use of the word 'belief' in discussing
Anything that we might please to say, and which in common speech i
religion:
hung on to the handy peg of 'belief', will be better said by recourse
Anything that
we word;
might and
please
to say,
and which
common
speech
is we
usually
other
if we
are clear
about in
what
we want
to say,
shall fin
hung on to can
the handy
of 'belief',
will be better
be said peg
clearly
only by another
word.r0said by recourse to some
other word; and if we are clear about what we want to say, we shall find that it
as Lindquist
and Coleman
can beThus,
said clearly
only by another
word. to(2008) put it, we are drawn to think'a
belief rather than 'with'it.
Thus, as Lindquist and Coleman (2008) put it, we are drawn to think 'against'
Building partly on Needham's legacy and the resulting anthro
belief rather than 'with' it.
ancient history also turned its attention away from aspects of belief, exp
Building partly on Needham's legacy and the resulting anthropology,
and spirituality towards ritual.rr The advantages of studying Roman
ancient history also turned its attention away from aspects of belief, experience
from the point of view of ritual instead of some (usually inferred) b
and spirituality towards ritual. 11 The advantages of studying Roman religion
precisely that most of the evidence that we have is already intensely
from the point of view of ritual instead of some (usually inferred) belief is
around ritual actions.
precisely that most of the evidence that we have is already intensely focused
The march of ritual meant that Feeney (1998) could rhetorically de
around ritual actions.
expectation that we should organise our analysis by'belief': it seemed
The march of ritual meant that Feeney (1998) could rhetorically derail the
the water.
expectation that we should organise our analysis by 'belief': it seemed dead in
A dynamically changing polytheistic system is an exceedingly problema
the water.
in which to find the grounding for a question like'what were the religiou
A dynamically
changing polytheistic
system
is an exceedingly
problematic
placenew
of Augustus?'This
man ...
was participant
in an object
of various
in which to find
the grounding
for aand
question
like 'what
the
religious
beliefs
ditional
cults at Rome
throughout
the were
empire, and initiate into the
of Augustus?'
man ...since
wasthe
participant
in He
an object
of various
and brotue,
traiesThis
of Eleusis
age of 32.
was acclaimed
in new
marble,
ditional cults
at
Rome
and
throughout
the
empire,
and
initiate
into
the
mysterand song as the descendant of Venus and the son of divus Julius. He
since
the of
ageJupiter,
of 32. He
was acclaimed
in marble,
bronze, founder,
papyrus and
ies of Eleusis
vice
regent
founder
of a new temple
of Jupiter's
and song as the descendant of Venus and the son of divus Julius. He was the
Jupiter,
founder of a new temple of Jupiter's founder, and always
vice regent
eRivesof
(1998)
is a useful summary of the various permutations
of scholarship in the
century. Feeney (1998: 3) dates the beginning of the change to the publication of Jocely
rop.229,
9 Rives (1998) is a useful
of theepistemological
various permutations
of scholarship
in the twentieth
aftersummary
a painstaking
and lexical
set of arguments
that sought in
century. Feeney
(1998: index
3) dates
beginning
of the change
to the publication
of Jocelyn
a reliable
'belief'means
of the
what
or can usefully
mean. A case
can be (1966).
made to di
lOp. 229, afterthe
a painstaking
and lexical set
of arguments
that
sought
in vaina for
implications epistemological
of the uses of 'believe'and
'belief(s)'but
space
not permit
does
full ex
of For
what
means
can usefully
mean.toAboth
casethe
canverb
be made
tonoun.
distinguish
a reliable index
here.
purposes,
my'belief'
anyor
cognate
form refers
and the
Nor am I
the implications
thethe
uses
of 'believe'
and 'belief(s)'
but space
not permit
a full
explanation
hereofto
'polite'
uses such
as 'I believe
we'vedoes
already
met' but
rather
those with
here. For my purposes,
cognate
refers
to both theasverb
and the
overtones any
which
have aform
special
significance,
we shall
see.noun. Nor am 1referring
ttThe
uses such
as closely
'I believe
we've already
met'
but rather
those
with Beard
religious
here to the 'polite'scholars
most
associated
process
with this
are Price,
(culmi
North,
jointa publication
theirhave
overtones which
special significance,
shallinsee.
Religionsasofwe
Rome
1998, and John Scheid (most recently Scheid
particular,
In most
11 The scholars
closelyNorth's
associated
this process
Price,probably
North, Beard
(culminating
in in
1968with
dissertation
has are
become
the most
cited D.Phil.
their joint publication
Religions
of Rome
in 1998,
and John
Scheid
(most
recently
Scheid (2005)).
Other notable
landmarks
include
(1982),
Pouillon
(1986)
Price
(1986).
and Phillips
In particular, North's 1968 dissertation has become probably the most cited D.Phil. in the field.
Other notable landmarks include Pouillon (1982), Price (1986) and Phillips (1986).
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
399
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
399
carried a sealskin with him as protection against thunderstorms. In which of
these contexts is the core of belief to be found? (13-14)
carried a sealskin with him as protection against thunderstorms. In which of
these
contexts is theof
core
of belief
to be
found? (13-14)
principle also led to the
The
belief
as an
abandonment
organising
acknowledgement that we still have difficulties if we search for a 'core'elseThe abandonment of belief as an organising principle also led to the
where. When we speak of Roman religion, it is not a simple (single) entity:
acknowledgement that we still have difficulties if we search for a 'core' elseshould we describe 'official'religion (as organised or at least sanctioned by
where. When we speak of Roman religion, it is not a simple (single) entity:
the state)? Or the constellation of practices at other levels (such as family)?
should we describe 'official' religion (as organised or at least sanctioned by
There is perhaps one persistent feature-ritual to get the gods (back, if necesthe state)? Or the constellation of practices at other levels (such as family)?
sary) on your side (a state of affairs known in Rome as the pax deum, 'peace
There is perhaps one persistent feature-ritual to get the gods (back, if necesof
the gods').r2 But beyond that general feature (which Rome shared with
sary) on your side (a state of affairs known in Rome as the pax deum, 'peace
almost every ancient European culture that we know of), we cannot briefly
of the gods').12 But beyond that general feature (which Rome shared with
present any definitive examples, image or oessence'. We know that Rome
almost every ancient European culture that we know of), we cannot briefly
embedded ritual practice deeply into civic life via a rich calendar of sacrifices
present any definitive examples, image or 'essence'. We know that Rome
and several colleges of priests who reported to the Senate rather like expert
embedded ritual practice deeply into civic life via a rich calendar of sacrifices
committees-essentially, an institutionalised habit of getting the gods on their
and several colleges of priests who reported to the Senate rather like expert
side as often as possible.13In Republican Rome, at state level, a key part of what
committees-essentially, an institutionalised habit of getting the gods on their
we call religious practice was concerned with prodigies, adverse signs that
side as often as possible. 13 In Republican Rome, at state level, a key part of what
warned of future problems because they were evidence of a rupture of the peace
we call religious practice was concerned with prodigies, adverse signs that
of the gods (ira deorum, the anger of the gods).ra A prodigy essentially meant
warned of future problems because they were evidence of a rupture of the peace
that something had begun to go amiss with the cosmos but there was usually
of the gods (ira deorum, the anger of the gods).14 A prodigy essentially meant
time to put it right through ritual appeasement.15 Sacrifice allowed for the practhat something had begun to go amiss with the cosmos but there was usually
tice of certain kinds of divination (the entrails of the animal were examined for
time to put it right through ritual appeasement. 15 Sacrifice allowed for the pracsigns by specialist diviners, the haruspices)t6 though that is only a subset of the
tice of certain kinds of divination (the entrails of the animal were examined for
enormous range of divinatory practices we flnd in antiquity. The point about
signs by specialist diviners, the haruspices)l6 though that is only a subset of the
ritual is that it not only gave access to the gods'mood, it was also the remedy
enormous range of divinatory practices we find in antiquity. The point about
for their anger: if the signs continued to be adverse, one could continue making
ritual is that it not only gave access to the gods' mood, it was also the remedy
offerings until they were appeased (a process known as perlitatio).
for their anger: if the signs continued to be adverse, one could continue making
offerings until they were appeased (a process known as perlitatio).
r2A full account of 'how one might influence a god' is much longer than just ritual, but it will
function here as a shorthand for asking for a god's help with the expectation of thanks to the
12
A full account of 'how one might influence a god' is much longer than just ritual, but it will
deity.
13
for their
asking
god's see
help
withetthe
ofmore
thanks
to the
function
as priesthoods
a shorthandand
generally
(1998l. l8-30);
al. expectation
in aRome,
Beard
rolefor
For the here
formal
deity.
Horster (2007), Beard and North (1990), Rives (2007) and Riipke (2007b) (via index).
raFor
13
For the
formal
and their
role in Rome,
see Beard
et al. (1998:
18-30);
more generally
(1992),
religion
see Dowden
introductory
account
of Roman
brief,priesthoods
but nonetheless
a less
North
Rives of
(2007)
andscholarship
Riipke (2007b)
(via index).
Horster
(2007), Scheid
Beard and
themes Riipke
(2003):
on specific
fior(1990),
recent
a summary
North (2000),
14
For a less brief, but nonetheless introductory, account of Roman religion see Dowden (1992),
(2007a).
r5Technically,
North
(2000), with
Scheid
(2003):
for a summary
of recent
scholarship
apply Riipke
to her
thatspecific
did notthemes
your
signs on
was happy
to ignore
cosmos-Rome
(2007a).
business or field of influence (MacBain 1982:29-31). I have argued elsewhere that Fate was a
15
Technically, with
your cosmos-Rome
waspart
happy
to ignore
signs that
diddecide
not apply
to you
her
practice
whether
was to
of religious
'higher'order
outcomes, and
of unavoidable
business
or with
field aofrupture
influence
1982:
29-31).
I have to
argued
elsewhere
Fate was
a
godsthat
were
or things
the relevant
right
by sacrifice
that(MacBain
could be put
were faced
'higher'
order(Davies
of unavoidable
outcomes,
and
religious
practice was to decide whether you
I -21of
and
27 I -82.)
2l part
2004: l}6_1
5, 17 | -6,
unavoidable
16On faced
were
a rupture
that could be put right by sacrifice to the relevant gods or things were
(2003).
whomwith
see Haack
unavoidable (Davies 2004: 106-15~ 171-6~ 211-21 and 271-82.)
16 On whom see Haack (2003).
400
400
Jason Davies
Jason Davies
In a state that placed
great emphasis on divine support, getting
right was a serious matter: a'pious'nation in antiquity was one that d
In a state that placed great emphasis on divine support, getting rituals
looked for adverse signs and appeased the gods promptly. So if we tak
right was a serious matter: a 'pious' nation in antiquity was one that diligently
at one of our best (and, we assume, fairly representative) sources for
looked for adverse signs and appeased the gods promptly. So if we take a look
religion, the annals of the Arval Brethren (a 'minor'priesthood) we
at one of our best (and, we assume, fairly representative) sources for Roman
debate about one's inner relationship with any divinity but rather what
religion, the annals of the Arval Brethren (a 'minor' priesthood) we see not
to be a'technology of supplication'.l7 Whatever Roman religion was,
debate about one's inner
relationship with any divinity but rather what appears
to have put a great emphasis for the most part on expecting practical
of
supplication'
.17 Whatever Roman religion was, it seems
to be a 'technology
the gods had an overweening influence on the outcome of events an
a great emphasis for the most part on expecting practical results:
to have putfailed
and could not find a plausible cause in the human realm ther
the gods had
an overweening influence on the outcome of events and if you
good chance it was down to ritual error.18
failed and could not find a plausible cause in the human realm there was a
The Roman state did not attempt 'personal'conversion in the
good chance it was down to ritual error. IS
sense nor even enforce participation in civic ritual (to our knowled
The Roman
state did not attempt 'personal' conversion in the modern
centuries until a perceived crisis in an 249.|e None of this is to say th
enforce
participation in civic ritual (to our knowledge) for
sense nor even
viduals had no personal input or19practices, just that ritual practice app
centuries until
a
perceived
crisis in AD 249. None of this is to say that indibe the best place to start our enquiries. The 'ritual turn'creates a d
viduals hadmap
no personal input or practices, just that ritual practice appears to
of ancient religion from 'belief'. What becomes importantis who
be the bestwhich
placegods:
to start our enquiries. The 'ritual turn' creates a different
they were not universal or personal in the same way that t
religion
from 'belief'. What becomes important is whose gods,
map of ancient
in monotheism
and they could be induced to join (or change) sides
which gods: they were not universal or personal in the same way that they are
had a history of bringing foreign gods into their fold, thus obtaining
they could be induced to join (or change) sides. Rome
in monotheism and(and
support
also depriving their enemies of their protecting deities).
had a history of bringing foreign gods into their fold, thus obtaining greater
though we had put a personal focus on religion, it became obvious tha
support (and
also depriving their enemies of their protecting deities).20 And
often more useful to think of it at a state level-thus we now speak o
though we paganism'.2r
had put a personal focus on religion, it became obvious that it was
often more useful
to think of it at a state level-thus we now speak of 'civic
Thus in recent decades, Roman religion has seen a massive expan
paganism' .21
interest, and the vast majority of studies focus on identity (what does
Thus intorecent decades, Roman religion has seen a massive expansion of
be Roman/not Roman?)22 Needham's argument won the day, it seems
interest, and the vast majority of studies focus on identity (what does it mean
which makes a recent resurgence of interest in some quarters in 'belie
Roman?)22 Needham's argument won the day, it seems. All of
to be Roman/not
more challenging.23
which makes a recent resurgence of interest in some quarters in 'belief' all the
rTJohn Scheid has published
extensively on the Arval Brethren; the evidence is mos
23
more challenging.
collected in scheid (2005)-Quandfaire, c'est croire ['Believing is doing'].
(2004:9-19,9{.-).
John Scheid18Davies
has published
extensively drawing
on the Arval
Brethren;
theand
evidence
is most recently
heavily
on Horton
Finnegan(1973).
reFor (2005)-Quandfaire,
croire(or
['Believing
is doing'].
collected in Scheid
enforced participationc'est
in rites
(2007b:7-8) has an overview an
not), Riipke
18 Davies (2004:
references.
9-19, 90-4),
heavily
Hortonwhere
and Finnegan
I amdrawing
not referring
toon
instances
individual(1973).
cults or groups were suppre
general enforcement
theparticipation
not),
Rupke
(2007b: 7-8)
has an overview
and further
19For enforced
in rites (or
of the
population's
whole
involvement
in communal
ritual.
20Anot
process
referring
to instances
where
or groups
were suppressed,
but And
references. I am
known
as euocatio
(onindividual
which seecults
Beard
et al. (1998)
via index and
1 13-19, 128-48)).
the general enforcement
of the whole population's involvement in communal ritual.
21A model
20 A process known
as euocatio
which to
seecriticism:
Beard etsee
al.Bendlin
(1998) (2000).
via index and Ando (2008:
that is not(on
immune
22
See, for instance, the collection of Schultz and Harvey (2006).
113-19, 128-48)).
23Ais phenomenon
21 A model that
not immune to
not
criticism:
limited see
Bendlinhistory:
(2000). Lindquist and Coleman's (2008) intr
to ancient
exists the
in the
tension of
ofSchultz
their wishing
22 See, for instance,
collection
and Harvey
to side(2006).
with Needham but finding that 'belief' ju
coming
in anthropology.
23 A phenomenon
notback'
limited
to ancient history: Lindquist and Coleman's (2008) introduction
exists in the tension of their wishing to side with Needham but finding that 'belief' just 'keeps
coming back' in anthropology.
17
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
401
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
401
2. The return of belief
2. The return of belief
King's (2003) 'The organisation of Roman religious beliefs'is one of the most
sustained attempts to restore 'belief' explicitly as a frame of reference for
King's (2003) 'The organisation of Roman religious beliefs' is one of the most
studying ancient religion: it is therefore worth examining the arguments both
sustained attempts to restore 'belief' explicitly as a frame of reference for
for
specific points, but also as opportunities to explore other issues that are
studying
ancient religion: it is therefore worth examining the arguments both
relevant, but perhaps less explicit, elsewhere.
for specific points, but also as opportunities to explore other issues that are
the arguments
It will
argued here
less that
explicit,
elsewhere.that have been employed against the
relevant,
butbeperhaps
of the word 'belief'are not self-consistent, and the calls to banish the term
It willRoman
be argued
here that the arguments that have been employed against the
studies seem premature, for the term 'belief is appropriate and
from
use of for
the describing
word 'belief'
are not self-consistent, and the calls to banish the term
some aspects of the Roman religious experience.
useful
from Roman studies seem premature, for the term 'belief' is appropriate and
usefulfirstly
for describing
some aspects
of the
religious'on
experience.
the grounds that
rejected
theRoman
term 'belief'
that Needham
He asserts
people
of Sudan'.
not
be translated into the language of the Nuer
itHecould
asserts
firstly
that Needham rejected the term 'belief' 'on the grounds that
Second, he argues that 'the word "belief" has a wide range of definitions ...
it could not be translated into the language of the Nuer people of Sudan'.
the lack of a consistent meaning makes the term useless for analysis'. He conSecond, he argues that 'the word "belief" has a wide range of definitions ...
twomakes
arguments contradict each other, on the
that these
tinues
the lackby
ofsaying
a consistent
meaning
the term useless for analysis'. He congrounds that one needs a specific definition to know whether or not it can be
tinues by saying that these two arguments contradict each other, on the
rendered into Nuer. Needham's argument, so the logic goes, is thus'disabled'
grounds
that one needs a specific definition to know whether or not it can be
and we must discard his claim that'belief'should be abandoned.2a
rendered
into Nuer. Needham's argument, so the logic goes, is thus 'disabled'
to estabseems unconvincing to me on two counts: in order
objection
we must
discard
his claim that 'belief' should be abandoned. 24
andThis
is particular (indeed, peculiar) to the modern West, Needham
lish This
that'belief
objection
seems unconvincing to me on two counts: in order to estab·
examines far more languages than just Nuer2s but even if he had limited himlish that 'belief' is particular (indeed, peculiar) to the modern West, Needham
logical problem with asserting
self to one language and culture, I also see no
examines
far more languages than just Nuer25 but even if he had limited himthat something's vacuity or lack of specificity makes it impossible for it to be
self to one language and culture, I also see no logical problem with asserting
translated. There is no contradiction in asserting that the English word'thing'
that
something's vacuity or lack of specificity makes it impossible for it to be
meanings and allusions that it does not have a single Latin
has so many
translated.
There
is no contradiction in asserting that the English word 'thing'
that we are therefore well advised to avoid using the word in
andmeanings
equivalent
has
so many
and allusions that it does not have a single Latin
a different word can always be used with more
Latin
fromthat
translation and
equivalent
we since
are therefore
well advised to avoid using the word in
accuracy. This is precisely analogous to what Needham said of belief,
translation
from Latin since a different word can always be used with more
King goes on to note rhetorically that the term'ritual'can also be said to
accuracy.
This is precisely analogous to what Needham said of belie£
have too many meanings to be of use but has not been discarded.26 Thereby
use
King goes on to note rhetorically that the term 'ritual' can also be said to
have
many meanings to be of use but has not been discarded. 26 Thereby
2aKingtoo
(2003: 276-7).
I note: Penan (which he opens the enquiry with and returns to at intervals); Nuer: 14 44; Meru:
King (2003:
276-7).
deals with Anuak, Navaho, Hindi, Kikchi, four dialects in
24;his
chapter'Comparison'(32-9)
25
1 note:
Penan (which
hePiro,
opensHuichol,
the enquiry
and returns
at Indonesia,
intervals); Nuer:
Meru:
and
Chinese
Roti, 14-44;
thewith
Wewewa
dialecttoin
Philippines,
Uduk,
the
24;
his
chapter
'Comparison'
(32-9)
deals
with
Anuak,
Navaho,
Hindi,
Kikchi,
four
dialects
in
Indotable
covering
facing
a
page
finds
reaches
42
and
themself
reader
Sanskrit. By the time the
the
Philippines,
Uduk,
Piro,Gothic,
Huichol,
Wewewa
dialect
in Indonesia,
Roti, English
Chinese (with
and
and Middle
Old English
Late
Oldthe
English,
European,
Hebrew,
Greek,
Sanskrit.
By the mentioned
time the reader
42 the
andphrase
finds themself
facing
a table covering
Indoappropriate.
'bewildering
array'seems
in thereaches
runningpage
text),
more languages
European,
Hebrew,more
Greek,
Gothic,
Old even
English,
Late Old
English
and and
Middle
English (with
detractors.
(especially)
his critics
from
credit
than this
Needham deserves
26p.278,
more
languages
mentioned
in the running text), the phrase 'bewildering array' seems appropriate.
(1977).
citing Goody
Needham deserves more credit than this even (especially) from his critics and detractors.
278, citing Goody (1977).
2s
24
402
402
Jason Davies
Jason Davies
discounting the argument that a lack of an agreed unified meaning inv
the use of 'belief', King (278) proposes we test a redeflned version of t
discounting the argument that a lack of an agreed unified meaning invalidates
against the Roman evidence:
the use of 'belief', King (278) proposes we test a redefined version of the term
belief
is a conviction that the individual (or group of individual
against the Roman
evidence:
independently of the need for empirical support.
belief is a conviction that the individual (or group of individuals) holds
He citesofantheexample,
independently
need for empirical
support.by a mother grieving for her d
an inscription
which he translates as 'I believe (credo) that some deity or another was
He cites an example, an inscription by a mother grieving for her daughter
of her'.27 Here we surely have a circular argument-the act of transla
which he translates as 'I believe (credo) that some deity or another was jealous
way is supposed to prove that the troublesome concept has relevan
of her'.27 Here we surely have a circular argument-the act of translating this
case might be more persuasive if we had more examples of this ty
way is supposed to prove that the troublesome concept has relevance. The
allowed for comparison. Thirdly, and even more damagingly, King s
case might be more persuasive if we had more examples of this type that
have promoted credo to a higher status in the sentence than it des
allowed for comparison. Thirdly, and even more damagingly, King seems to
would prefer'some god, I suppose (credo), begrudged her existence'.28
have promoted credo to a higher status in the sentence than it deserves: I
Is 'belief' the most appropriate translation here, and if it is
would prefer 'some god, I suppose (credo), begrudged her existence'.28
sufficient evidence to restore its general use? Even within this tiny tex
Is 'belief' the most appropriate translation here, and if it is, is this
divergent readings are possible: do we see almost impossibly heartb
sufficient evidence to restore its general use? Even within this tiny text, vastly
acquiescence to what everyone was saying to a distraught mother w
divergent readings are possible: do we see almost impossibly heartbreaking
finally come to agree that there is no other explanation that makes se
acquiescence to what everyone was saying to a distraught mother who has
senseless nightmare?2e Or, at the other extreme, does credo indicate
finally come to agree that there is no other explanation that makes sense of a a
disdain for whatever the cause of death was, an irritation with the
senseless nightmare?29 Or, at the other extreme, does credo indicate a flippant bo
deciphering a diagnosis? We simply cannot tell since this example
disdain for whatever the cause of death was, an irritation with the bother of c
used for either position (though my preference is for pathos). But t
deciphering a diagnosis? We simply cannot tell since this example could be
this statement positive evidence for one particular frame of mind
used for either position (though my preference is for pathos). But to maketha
cisely the one under suspicion is unconvincing: since elsewhere credo
this statement positive evidence for one particular frame of mind that is preof accepting an inference from visible evidence,30 we should probabl
is unconvincing: since elsewhere credo is used
cisely the one under suspicion
nearer to 'I suppose/I concludell accept/I realise/I deduce/I canno
of accepting an inference from visible evidence,3° we should probably settle
what seems evident'. It seems we could not wish for a better example
nearer to 'I
suppose!I conclude/I accept/I realise!I deduce/I cannot avoid
plasticity of apparently straightforward statements: this evidence is
what seems evident'. It seems we could not wish for a better example of the
entirely at our methodological mercy.
plasticity of apparently straightforward statements: this evidence is almost
entirely at our methodological mercy.
27
quam nei esset credo nescifo quiJ inveidit deus, citingwarmington (1940:22).
28An improvement by
C. S. Kraus on my initial attempt.
2eCompare
quam nei esset
credo nesci[o
qui]Polanyi
inveidit(1962:290),
deus, citingdrawing
Warmington
(1940: 22).(1928: 44-8), relates a
the way
on Levy-Bruhl
An improvement
C. S. Kraus
on my
initial attempt.
where by
a tribesman
comes
to accept
that he must have turned into a lion and attacked a n
29 Compare the
way Polanyi
drawing
on Levy-Bruhl
(1928:
relates
because
he must(1962:
think 290),
within
the cultural
frameworks
and 44-8),
categories
thatanheepisode
inhabits ('
where a tribesman
accept
he must
have turned
into into
a liona and
a neighbour
to us comes
that K.tohad
not that
actually
experienced
turning
lion attacked
and tearing
S. to pieces,
because he must
withinhaving
the cultural
frameworks
and categories
inhabits ('It case
is clear
firstthink
he denied
done so.
But he is confronted
withthat
an he
overwhelming
agains
to us that K. The
had interpretative
not actually experienced
a lion
and
S. to
pieces,
and so at
framework turning
which heinto
shares
with
histearing
accusers
not include
does
the co
so. But
first he deniedofhaving
donedeath
accidental
...')he is confronted with an overwhelming case against himself
30Davies
The interpretative
framework
which he shares with his accusers does not include the conception
(2004:40).
of accidental death ...')
30 Davies (2004: 40).
27
28
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
403
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
403
The statement that a conviction was held without the need for empirical
support is surely a reasonable representation of what most people understand
The statement that a conviction was held without the need for empirical
'believe'to refer to but it is one that can only be meaningful if we make certain
support is surely a reasonable representation of what most people understand
limiting assumptions about its interpretation and application. At face value,
'believe' to refer to but it is one that can only be meaningful if we make certain
it permits not just'anything goes'but'everything goes'(as long as we ignore
limiting assumptions about its interpretation and application. At face value,
evidence). It only becomes meaningful when we use it of conclusions that
it permits not just 'anything goes' but 'everything goes' (as long as we ignore
others have already come to which we cannot accept at face value and thereevidence). It only becomes meaningful when we use it of conclusions that
fore call'beliefs'rather than'deductions'or'conclusions'(and so on). It canothers have already come to which we cannot accept at face value and therenot refer to the process by which 'they'arrived at their 'beliefs'because 'they'
fore call 'beliefs' rather than 'deductions' or 'conclusions' (and so on). It canhave applied some process of discrimination to arrive at aparticular proposinot refer to the process by which 'they' arrived at their 'beliefs' because 'they'
tion. We must distinguish firstly, their gathering of 'evidence'and only secondly
have applied some process of discrimination to arrive at a particular proposiits use in a'reasoned'argument and their formulation of conclusions (beliefs).
tion. We must distinguish firstly, their gathering of 'evidence' and only secondly
To begin with, the Romans would have vigorously contested the claim that
its use in a 'reasoned' argument and their formulation of conclusions (beliefs).
they had no evidence for religious deductions: the historians of ancient Rome
To begin with, the Romans would have vigorously contested the claim that
(i.e. historians who lived and wrote in antiquity) went to great lengths to disthey had no evidence for religious deductions: the historians of ancient Rome
play processes of checking the 'religious'facts at every step of the process(i.e. historians who lived and wrote in antiquity) went to great lengths to disverification (if possible) of signs, scrutiny of witnesses and the weighing of
play processes of checking the 'religious' facts at every step of the processtestimony. They were certainly sensitive to how evidence was more or less plauverification (if possible) of signs, scrutiny of witnesses and the weighing of
sible in different political and social contexts (e.g. adverse signs were more
testimony. They were certainly sensitive to how evidence was more or less plaulikely to be noticed during times of crisis). Beyond that, they were at pains to
sible in different political and social contexts (e.g. adverse signs were more
enshrine the deductive process in their reporting, clearly distinguishing obserlikely to be noticed during times of crisis). Beyond that, they were at pains to
vation of phenomena from the deductions derived from those phenomena
enshrine the deductive process in their reporting, clearly distinguishing obser(foregrounding language such as uideri ('to appear to be/to be evident'), from
vation of phenomena from the deductions derived from those phenomena
which we get'evidence').3r
(foregrounding language such as uideri ('to appear to be/to be evident'), from
wish to imply that King does not know all this (indeed I have
I do
wenot
get 'evidence').31
which
rather unfairly used him as a spokesman for a more general position). He
I do not wish to imply that King does not know all this (indeed I have
must mean not that they thought they had no evidence but that the conclurather unfairly used him as a spokesman for a more general position). He
sions they came to (the gods were angry) are so far from our own that from
must mean not that they thought they had no evidence but that the concluour perspective they might as well have had no empirical evidence. Our intersions they came to (the gods were angry) are so far from our own that from
pretation of lightning striking a temple-a regular prodigy-is utterly differour perspective they might as well have had no empirical evidence. Our interent from theirs (routine expiation of the god's wrath through sacrifice). In
pretation of lightning striking a temple-a regular prodigy-is utterly differother words, his definition amounts to saying they were mistaken, because
ent from theirs (routine expiation of the god's wrath through sacrifice). In
there are no gods and we routinely use 'believe' to signal this paradox-they
other words, his definition amounts to saying they were mistaken, because
accepted that Jupiter was king of the gods but we do not (and find it hard to
there are no gods and we routinely use 'believe' to signal this paradox-they
imagine how they did). At this point a non-historian might well acerbically
accepted that Jupiter was king of the gods but we do not (and find it hard to
remark 'we knew that', as indeed they did to me during Ihe Evidence proimagine how they did). At this point a non-historian might well
acerbically
gramme. Is that the beginning or end of our enquiry? Using 'belief in this
remark 'we knew that', as indeed they did to me during the Evidence pro-
gramme.
Is that the beginning or end of our enquiry? Using 'belief' in this
3rFor
detailed exposition of this kind
(historiography) see Davies (2004).
of handling of
evidence
in one area of Roman
genre
31 For detailed exposition of this kind of handling of evidence in one area of Roman genre
(historiography) see Davies (2004).
404
404
Jason Davies
Jason Davies
way seems to me more about explaining religion away than explor
epistemological world.
way seems to me more about explaining religion away than exploring their
Something does surely have to be explained-it is just that this ca
epistemological world.
done at the level of evidence or evidential reasoning: it is at the lev
Something does surely have to be explained-it is just that this cannot be
axioms upon which the identification of meaningful evidence
the th
done at the level of evidence or evidential reasoning: it is at the level of and
quent evidential reasoning were based. Our secular rejection of the e
axioms upon which the identification of meaningful evidence and the subseof gods in the form that we think they conceived
in does not ne
of the existence
quent evidential reasoning were based. Our secular rejectionthem
proven or repeatedly highlighted. We can disregard any serious discu
of gods in the form that we think they conceived them in does not need to be
truth-content because we already know that we do not agree with the
proven or repeatedly highlighted. We can disregard any serious discussion
of
Romans. Their difference-which is what makes them historically inter
truth-content because we already know that we do not agree with the ancient
is precisely what is avoided by definitions
amount to (simply) rea
historically
interestingRomans. Their difference-which is what makes them that
that that'they were not like us'('they accepted things with a lack of e
is precisely what is avoided by definitions that amount to (simply) reasserting
evidence'). The drawback of this sweeping (and profoundly disorie
that that 'they were not like us' ('they accepted things with a lack of empirical
when you think it through) approach is that we never get near to se
evidence'). The drawback of this sweeping (and profoundly disorientating,
contours of their thinking.
when you think it through) approach is that we never get near to seeing the
Can we then adapt King's strategy and redefine belief (but diffe
contours of their thinking.
After all, historians are accustomed to problematising almost every te
Can we then adapt King's strategy and redefine belief (but differently)?
they use-'state', 'society', 'the self' . .. but the crucial
After all, historians are accustomed to problematising almost everydifference,
term that it s
me, is that with a little practice these problematise themselves.It does
they use-'state', 'society', 'the self' ... but the crucial difference, it seems to
much study of history to realise how difficult notions such as 'stat
me, is that with a little practice these problematise themselves. It does
not take
practice. Such terms refuse to be reductive and insist, by their very u
are in
much study of history to realise how difficult notions such as 'state'
evoking a range of possibilities that must be constantly renegotiate
practice. Such terms refuse to be reductive and insist, by their very usage, on
writer. 'Belief', on the other hand, is utterly reductive (requiring
evoking a range of possibilities that must be constantly renegotiated by thethe
'yes', 'no'and having only one grey area-'don't know'); rather than d
the answers
writer. 'Belief', on the other hand, is utterly reductive (requiring
ing enquiry, it conflates closure (the reasonable ceasing of enquiry) w
'yes', 'no' and having only one grey area-'don't know'); rather than demandclusion (an exhaustion of enquiry).
using'belief'cannot
be his
ing enquiry, it conflates closure (the reasonableThus,
ceasing
of enquiry) with conuseful. The most carefully factual account, when framed in terms of
clusion (an exhaustion of enquiry). Thus, using 'belief' cannot be historically
becomes an extended confirmation of their collective insanity-but
useful. The most carefully factual account, when framed in terms of 'belief', o
pose is to make ancient Rome more intelligible. The project of rehab
becomes an extended confirmation of their collective insanity-but our pur'belief' as a subtle lens of enquiry must defeat itself very rapidly
pose is to make ancient Rome more intelligible. The project of rehabilitating
because'belief is a simplifying designation.32
'belief' as a subtle lens of enquiry must defeat itself very rapidly simply
This is in fact what happens in King's analysis. He proposes tha
because 'belief' is a simplifying designation. 32
beliefs as a reference point in considering Roman paganism and C
This is in fact what happens in King's analysis. He proposes that we use
pagan beliefs but that the former be treated as a polythetic set, highly
beliefs as a reference point in considering Roman paganism
and Christian
of variation and in contrast to the highly organised and regulated C
pagan beliefs but that the former be treated as a polythetic
set, highly tolerant
beliefs. He refers to an anthropological commonplace-that a differen
of variation and in contrast to the highly organised and regulated Christian
beliefs. He refers to an anthropological commonplace-that a different inter32Even if we allowed some scope
to a redefined 'belief', it is hardly as conspicuous
discussions as it is in the modern world, where references to the gods/God are pepp
Even if we 'belief'
allowedclauses.
some scope to a redefined 'belief', it is hardly as conspicuous in ancient
discussions as it is in the modern world, where references to the gods/God are peppered with
'belief' clauses.
32
pretation
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
405
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
405
of the same ritual can unproblematically and simultaneously
be
held by different people about the same ritual.33 Paradoxically, his persistent
pretation of the same ritual can unproblematically and simultaneously be
application to the evidence for a lack of cohesion at the level of interpretation
held by different people about the same ritual. 33 Paradoxically, his persistent
means he is ineluctably drawn into arguing that ritual is the single most reliable
application to the evidence for a lack of cohesion at the level of interpretation
organising principle:
means he is ineluctably drawn into arguing that ritual is the single most reliable
Insteadprinciple:
of attempting to reconcile the contradictions of those beliefs and assert
organising
an orthodox theology, the state priests instead focused on encouraging conInstead of
attempting
to reconcile the contradictions
of those beliefs and assert
practice
formity
in ritual
[orthopraxy] ... The same rituals could be employed
an
orthodox
theology,
the
state
priests
instead
focused
on encouraging conby those who held different beliefs within the context of state-encouraged ritual
formity
in
ritual
practice
[orthopraxy]
...
The
same
rituals
could be employed
(298)
conformity.
by those who held different beliefs within the context of state-encouraged ritual
It conformity.
that this is equivalent to saying that the defining difference
seems to me (298)
paganism
and Christianity is that one organised itself around ritual
between
It seems to me that this is equivalent to saying that the defining difference
and the other around belief, even though he set out to say that they are both
between paganism and Christianity is that one organised itself around ritual
organised around beliefs but differently. Arguing that we should see religious
and
the other around belief, even though he set out to say that they are both
organisation as organised on the basis of largely unregulated assumptions/
organised
around beliefs but differently. Arguing that we should see religious
interpretations (which are highly variable, therefore unpredictable, therefore
organisation
as organised on the basis of largely unregulated assumptionsl
focus for 'organisation') rather than the ritual (whose
not the most useful
interpretations
(which are highly variable, therefore unpredictable, therefore
form was strenuously maintained and altered with the greatest of reluctance
not the most useful focus for 'organisation') rather than the ritual (whose
Rome) seems to me to invert an order of priority. It was the very
in ancient
form
was strenuously maintained and altered with the greatest of reluctance
placed on belief that allowed it to be so utterly variable,
importance
lack of
in
ancient Rome) seems to me to invert an order of priority. It was the very
whereas ritual shows an extremely high level of regulation and conformity in
lack of importance placed on belief that allowed it to be so utterly variable,
its performance.3a
whereas
ritual shows an extremely high level of regulation and conformity in
its performance. 34
Implicit belief
Implicit
Thus farbelief
we have dealt with explicit use of 'belief'by rounding on King's
expression of more widely held positions but it also causes difficulties when
Thus far we have dealt with explicit use of 'belief' by rounding on King's
implicit: even in the scholarship that orientates itself around ritual rather than
expression
of more widely held positions but it also causes difficulties when
belief, there is a tendency for the occasional but trenchant use of deprecatory
implicit:
even in the scholarship that orientates itself around ritual rather than
remarks, as if the writer wishes to signal their distaste, albeit disor sneering
belief,
there is a tendency for the occasional but trenchant use of deprecatory
creetly. Though far from universal, such remarks are not uncommon even in
or sneering remarks, as if the writer wishes to signal their distaste, albeit discreetly. Though far from universal, such remarks are not uncommon even in
"On p. 292,he notes that the Ahka of Burma and Thailand all agreed that a particular ceremony
removed rats but no one agreed on the precise mechanics. Feeney (1998: 128) cites a Shintoist
33 On p. 292,
he notes
thatpriest
the Ahka
of Burma
andsure
Thailand
thatofa the
particular
... there
ritual is]ceremony
meaning
said'I'm
not really
theagreed
a senior
ritual of which
[what all
removed
but no
precise
Feeney
cites a Shintoist
may be
These 128)
discrepancies
true.' (1998:
we are on
notthe
sure
whichmechanics.
of them are
theories
.. .one
but agreed
are manyrats
of which
senior of
priest
said 'I'm
really the
surerevelation
[what the that
meaning
of the ritual
... there
ritual
you'veis]been
'everything
told
initiation
cannot
include
deliberate,
sincea stages
are
many
... but true',
we arefornot
suresee
which
of them
are true.'
(2008:
1l l). These discrepancies may be
which
e.g. Keane
nowtheories
is not actually
up to
3aRtipke (2007b:9-13)
deliberate,
since stages of
initiation
include
the revelation
that 'everything
you've
been told
(not the same
was
as ritual)
wayscan
outlines
that
religious
understanding
see e.g. Keaneeducation
(2008: 111).
up
to now isinnot
for which
and we know that priesthoodtheactually
apparenttrue'
absence
of institutionalised
transmitted
34
(2007 b: 9-13)
outlines
ways that religious
understanding
(not the same
as ritual) was
predominantly
as apprenticeship.
reasonably described
technical
activity-involved
what can
a Riipke
transmitted in the apparent absence of institutionalised education and we know that priesthooda predominantly technical activity-involved what can reasonably described as apprenticeship.
406
Jason Davies
Jason Davies
406
studies that begin by claiming to offer a more sympathetic and nuan
ture of religion. I will argue that the resurgence of belief and the ap
studies that begin by claiming to offer a more sympathetic and nuanced picinnocuous occurrence of deprecatory remarks are different response
ture of religion. I will argue that the resurgence of belief and the apparently
same underlying phenomenon. To appreciate the 'stickiness'of belief
innocuous occurrence of deprecatory remarks are different responses to the
move next beyond a focus on the'inner'and'personal'aspects to the
same underlying phenomenon. To appreciate the 'stickiness' of belief we must
social implications.
move next beyond a focus on the 'inner' and 'personal' aspects to the broader
social implications.
3. The utility of belief: the fiduciary contract
3. The utility of belief: the fiduciary contract
The usefulness (and therefore what lies
behind the impulse to rehabi
of 'belief'lies, I
suggest, in its invocation of a 'fiduciary contract'(alm
The usefulness (and therefore what lies behind the impulse to rehabilitate it)
appeasement gesture, in a secular society). In a nutshell, 'I believe'enca
of 'belief' lies, I suggest, in its invocation of a 'fiduciary contract' (almost an
(and permits) both my certainty but aLso your doubt. If you did not do
appeasement gesture, in a secular society). In a nutshell, 'I believe' encapsulates
did not care in the slightest whether you did), I would say'I know'or o
(and permits) both my certainty but also your doubt. If you did not doubt (or I
treat my position as 'real'and self-evident. In other words, when two
did not care in the slightest whether you did), 1 would say 'I know' or otherwise
are gathered together who believe the same thing, the word'believe'is a
treat my position as 'real' and self-evident. In other words, when two or three
to disappear from their language. Christians'know'that Jesus is risen
are gathered together who believe the same thing, the word 'believe' is at liberty
on. Conversely, from the point of view of the secular hegemony, to
to disappear from their language. Christians 'know' that Jesus is risen, and so
something to be a belief effectively says that the truth claims are bracke
on. Conversely, from the point of view of the secular hegemony, to declare
of secular ('normal') discourse: as Wittgenstein, cited by Needham (19
something put
to be a belief effectively says that the truth claims are bracketed out
it'it isn't a question of my being anywhere near him religious "be
of secular ('normal') discourse: as Wittgenstein, cited by Needham[a(1972: 73),
but on an entirely different plane'.35 As a modern secularist, I might (to
put it 'it isn't a question of my being anywhere near him [a religious "believer"],
position at its bluntest) think you're mad but I will grudgingly allow
but on an entirely different plane'.35 As a modem secularist, I might (to put the
believe what you want-as long as you say and/or act as if it's a be
position at its bluntest) think you're mad but I will grudgingly allow you to
thereby keep it 'private' (which carries the implication of innocuous
believe what you want-as long as you say and/or act as if 'it's a belief' and
ety'). Though Needham discusses this regularly, he focuses on the inn
thereby keep it 'private' (which carries the implication of 'innocuous to socirather than the social compromise involved and (more to my point) the f
ety'). Though Needham discusses this regularly, he focuses on the inner state
this compromise is essential for the continued hegemony of secularism.
rather than the social compromise involved and (more to my point) the fact that
Lindquist and Coleman (2008) offer an anecdote about an acupun
this compromise is essential for the continued hegemony of secularism.
called to treat a participant in their workshop who described his own p
Lindquist and Coleman (2008) offer an anecdote about an acupuncturist,
as'beliefs'.36 They draw our attention to some of the dynamics of the fi
called to treat a participant in their workshop who described his own practices
35This is a strong version
of the observation
by Lindquist
and Coleman
that'in u
as 'beliefs'.36 They draw our attention
to some of
the dynamics
of the(2008)
fiduciary
terms in the way that we do, we have already constructed a hierarchy of value betwee
is a strong
version of the
observation by Lindquist and Coleman (2008) that 'in using these
epistemological
systems'.
16I that we do, we have already constructed a hierarchy of value between distinct
terms in the way
confess to a fascination with their failure to comment explicitly on whether the patien
epistemological
systems'.
reported
any relief. If not, then perhaps they were avoiding offence by what might have
36 I confess to to
a fascination
failurehand,
to comment
explicitly
whether
the patient actually
be gloating;with
on their
the other
if the patient
didon
report
improvement,
they would
reported any themselves
relief. If not,
perhaps
they were
offence bytowhat
might
appeared
position
inthen
a partisan
by avoiding
drawing attention
it. By
theirhave
silence,
they ther
to be gloating;
on the other hand,
the patient
did report
they even
would
put
understandably)
enact if
rather
than challenge
the improvement,
fiduciary contract,
piece
in ahave
called
themselves inBelief'.
a partisan
bythe
drawing
attention
to it.
By their silence,
they therebymedical
(very p
I willposition
return to
awkward
fit of the
'religious'term
to unorthodox
understandably) enact rather than challenge the fiduciary contract, even in a piece called :.\.gainst
Belief'. I will return to the awkward fit of the 'religious' term to unorthodox medical practice.
35 This
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
407
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
407
contract of belief but implicitly deal with it as if it were the spontaneous position of 'the religious'without much external pressure. It seems to me that the
contract of belief but implicitly deal with it as if it were the spontaneous posiself-positioning in a secular (possibly critical) environment of the'religious'as
of 'the religious' without much external pressure. It seems to me that the
tion
'believers'who are acutely aware that they are marginal, is better viewed as an
self-positioning in a secular (possibly critical) environment of the 'religious' as
unequal compromise whose violation by'believers'would be met with great
'believers' who are acutely aware that they are marginal, is better viewed as an
resistance by'non-believers'.37
unequal compromise whose violation by 'believers' would be met with great
I should emphasise that I am avoiding any attempt to describe what'reli-
resistance by 'non-believers'. 37
gious people'do with'belief'.38 I am specifically interested in the way that it is
I should emphasise that I am avoiding any attempt to describe what 'relidiscussion of 'religious people', often under the impression
in secular
deployed
do with
'belief'.38 I am specifically interested in the way that it is
gious people'
the term can be unproblematically borrowed from those people to whom
that
deployed in secular discussion of ' religious people', often under the impression
a Christian says 'I believe in God'to another Christian, it
'it belongs'.
that
the termWhen
can be
unproblematically borrowed from those people to whom
very different in practice from when they say it to a secular
means
something
'it belongs'. When a Christian says 'I believe in God' to another Christian, it
audience, and it means something different again when a non-believer says of
means
something very different in practice from when they say it to a secular
'they believe in God'. In the second case, they are (like the acuanother person
audience,
and it means
something different again when a non-believer says of
puncturist) positioning themselves on Wittgenstein's 'other plane altogether',
another
person 'they believe in God'. In the second case, they are (like the acuand frequently do so as a defensive move (to protect their discourse from interpuncturist)
positioning themselves on Wittgenstein's 'other plane altogether',
rogation on what they would consider inappropriate criteria, such as 'material
and frequently do so as a defensive move (to protect their discourse from interthe third case, while (obviously) a whole range of meanings are
evidence').
onInwhat
they would consider inappropriate criteria, such as 'material
rogation
possible, the situation will generally involve an element of abandoningonormal'
evidence'). In the third case, while (obviously) a whole range of meanings are
discuss the second before focusing more fully on my
will briefly
discussion.
possible,
theI situation
will generally involve an element of abandoning 'normal'
third distinction.
discussion.
I will briefly discuss the second before focusing more fully on my
we think that the secular'conceptions'of 'belief'and'religion', whatever
thirdIfdistinction.
(my first distinction), are in their current usage somehow'spontheirIforigins
we think that
the secular 'conceptions' of 'belief' and 'religion', whatever
we might as well also conclude that most members of
taneous'and'natural',
their origins (my first distinction), are in their current usage somehow 'sponin
the modern West are 'instinctively hard-working' and
minorities
ethnic
taneous' and 'natural', we might as well also conclude that most members of
'naturally polite'(especially to high-status white native Anglophone men) and
ethnic minorities in the modern West are 'instinctively hard-working' and
women, instinctively happy to be routinely interrupted and'put straight'
that
'naturally
polite' (especially to high-status white native Anglophone men) and
just prefer to do the lion's share of the housework (they
in discussion,
by men
that
women,
instinctively happy to
be routinely interrupted and 'put straight'
grumbling
about it-that's just what women do)."
even enjoy
by
men in discussion, just prefer to do the lion's share of the housework (they
not then be so surprised by the acupuncturist's proclamation of
should
evenWe
enjoy
grumbling
about it-that's just what women do).39
his practice as a set of beliefs. He appears to be under no illusions about where
We should not then be so surprised by the acupuncturist's proclamation of
the boundaries lie, and he kept them dutifully even while practising his art.
his
practice as a set of beliefs. He appears to be under no illusions about where
the boundaries lie, and he kept them dutifully even whi1~ practising his art.
37One word will probably suffice to evoke the forces unleashed by the breaking of the fiduciary
contract-creationism. On the other side, there is the violation of religious privacy when Richard
37 One word
will
probably
to 'memes'
evoke thetoforces
unleashed
by the breaking
the fiduciary
the most
religion,ofwith
(pathologise)
medicalise
thesuffice
idea of
forward
Dawkins put
contract-creationism.
On the
other
thechildren
violationnot
ofto
religious
privacy
when Richard
religion.
be taught
his side,
directthere
callsisfor
being
obvious threat to the truce
Dawkins
putsee,
forward
thethousands
idea of 'memes'
to medicalise
38On which
1234). with the most
Keane (2008:religion,
references,(pathologise)
of possible
amongst
not to
to describe'beliefs'and'religion':
be taught religion.
obvious
threat
to the
truce being his direct
calls for children
3eThus, even
problematic
when used
words
like'concept'become
38 On which see, amongst
thousands
possible references,
(2008:
123-4).
claims to neutrality
implicit
of their
or of
transactions
by virtueKeane
they are better seen as strategies
39
Thus,
even words like 'concept' become problematic when used to describe 'beliefs' and 'religion':
and
naturalness.
they are better seen as strategies or transactions by virtue of their implicit claims to neutrality
and naturalness.
408
Jason Davies
Jason Davies
408
Had he begun to 'attempt to convert'his patient or audience (merely re
his practices as 'factually based'rather than as 'beliefs'would proba
Had he begun to 'attempt to convert' his patient or audience (merely reporting
sufficed), the breaching of the boundary would no doubt have been ma
his practices as 'factually based' rather than as 'beliefs' would probably have
clear to him.
sufficed), the breaching of the boundary would no doubt have been made very
Focusing now on my third distinction, the ascription of 'belief'by
clear to him.
believer', anything circumscribed as a belief becomes a deliberately con
Focusing now on my third distinction, the ascription of 'belief' by a 'nonepistemological black box, impenetrable by usual methods and
believer', anything circumscribed as a belief becomes a deliberately constructed
acknowledged to be idiosyncratic and non-hegemonic.4 Thus, wherea
epistemological black box, impenetrable by usual methods and publicly
cussion framed entirely within a shared paradigm can potentially e
acknowledged to be idiosyncratic and non-hegemonic. 40 Thus, whereas a dismutual agreement and understanding between peers, when 'religi
cussion framed
entirely within a shared paradigm can potentially end with
'belief'enter
the frame, 'toleration'(admittedly, often impatient) is
mutual agreement and understanding between peers, when 'religion' and
realistic form of closure or truce (unless one wants an insoluble argum
'belief' enter the frame, 'toleration' (admittedly, often impatient) is the only
We can now begin to appreciate more fully the propensity to invoke
realistic form of closure or truce (unless one wants an insoluble argument).
since the boundary must be ongoing redrawn and reaffirmed in sec
We can now begin to appreciate more fully the propensity to invoke 'belief':
course, and since the scholar of religion is constantly confronted
since the boundary must be ongoing redrawn and reaffirmed in secular dismaterial, an enactment of secular identity is as much a necessary par
course, andhistoriographical
since the scholar of religion is constantly confronted by alien
art as is footnoting sources responsibly. Put diff
material, an'beliefing'-discerning
enactment of secular identity is as much a necessary part of the
explicit or inferred propositions and thereby co
historiographical
art as
is footnoting sources responsibly. Put differently,
ing strange
practices or statements as beliefs-is the primary way
'beliefing'-discerning explicit or inferred propositions and thereby constitutmanage 'the other'and its normality is such that it would be conspic
ing strange practices or statements as beliefs-is the primary way that we
absent, raising suspicions that the historian or anthropologist
manage 'the other' and its normality is such that it would be conspicuous if ha
native'. Put rather forcibly into a nutshell, if it doesn't make sense to
absent, raising suspicions that the historian or anthropologist had 'gone
best called a belief. Since the function of calling things 'beliefs'is prot
native'. Put rather forcibly into a nutshell, if it doesn't make sense to us, it's
to define secularity's modes and axioms, it is not surprising that it bec
best called handicap
a belief: Since the function of calling things 'beliefs' is protectively
to a sympathetic treatment of the past-it is not suppose
to define secularity's
modes and axioms, it is not surprising that it becomes a
sympathetic but rather to establish unequal positions. Thus 'exp
handicap to
a sympathetic treatment of the past-it is not supposed to be
ancient religion in terms of 'belief '-a refusal tobe drawn into a discu
sympathetic
but rather to establish unequal positions. Thus 'explaining'
is a
self-defeating venture. The following discussion is therefore m
ancient religion in terms of 'belief'-a refusal to be drawn into a discussionexploration of our historicising, 'beliefing' gaze than about the hi
is a self-defeating venture. The following discussion is therefore more an
objects of our analysis-it is about what we risk doing ro evidence rath
exploration of our historicising, 'beliefing' gaze than about the historical
with it.
objects of our analysis-it is about what we risk doing to evidence rather than
with it.
4. Beyond Needham
4. Beyond Needham
There is a particular consequence of 'beliefing'which makes historical d
tion very difficult: framing any'knowledge system' or'thought system'
There is a particular consequence of 'beliefing' which makes historical description very difficult: framing any 'knowledge system' or 'thought system' within
aoWe
40
shall return below to the theme of 'believing in'non-hegemonic medical practices.
We shall return below to the theme of 'believing in' non-hegemonic medical practices.
'belief'has
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
409
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
409
a flattening, homogenising and
unifying effect on its propositions,
dilemmas and epistemological functioning-which is easy
to
demonstrate
'belief' has a flattening, homogenising and unifying effect on its propositions,
with an example.
dilemmas and epistemological functioning-which is easy to demonstrate
I were
to mention'Roman knowledgs', ffiy sense is that it would evoke
withIfan
example.
an expansive sense of possibility in the reader: they would expect something
If I were to mention 'Roman knowledge', my sense is that it would evoke
nuanced, no doubt rather hit-and-miss 'compared to modern understanding'
an expansive sense of possibility in the reader: they would expect something
(but in the right sort of area)-complex if somewhat muddled and operating
nuanced, no doubt rather hit-and-miss 'compared to modern understanding'
by recognisable or at least discernible rules. If, however, I speak of 'Roman
(but in the right sort of area)-complex if somewhat muddled and operating
a bounded jumble of beliefs, all of equal value to us
religion',
I instead
or evoke
at least
discernible rules. If, however, I speak of 'Roman
by recognisable
(none) and of equal interest (as oddities). Thus, if someone asked me 'what
religion', I instead evoke a bounded jumble of beliefs, all of equal value to us
Romans know?'it would be an odd question that they would surely
did
the and
(none)
of equal interest (as oddities). Thus, if someone asked me 'what
not
expect a complete answer to (my response would be something like 'pull
did the
Romans know?' it would be an odd question that they would surely
up a chair and bring refreshments . ..'). Yet I am routinely asked'what did the
not expect a complete answer to (my response would be something like 'pull
Romans believe?'with the 'natural'expectation that I can somehow identify
up
a chair and bring refreshments ...'). Yet I am routinely asked 'what did the
render something intelligible. My greatest difficulty is that, apart
and briefly
Romans
believe?'
with the 'natural' expectation that I can somehow identify
the fact that we have extensive information that can be called'religious'
from
and briefly render something intelligible. My greatest difficulty is that, apart
(which
no means lends itself to great brevity), their relationship with their
from thebyfact
that we have extensive information that can be called 'religious'
practices
By this I mean it was not a private relationship
not 'religious'.
(which bywas
no means
lends itself to great brevity), their relationship with their
'simplistic and bizarre propositions' that were viewed with
or two
with one was
practices
not 'religious'. By this I mean it was not a private relationship
great suspicion by mainstream society: they were mainstream society.
or two 'simplistic and bizarre propositions' that were viewed with
with one
bringing 'belief in implies a preference to constitute its objects of
greatThus,
suspicion
by mainstream society: they were mainstream society.
interest as a single entity or set of conjoined and virtually inseparable entities
Thus, bringing 'belief' in implies a preference to constitute its objects of
so that the boundary of 'rationality' canbe drawn. What gains more from this
interest
as a single entity or set of conjoined and virtually inseparable entities
process in our society is secular rationality rather than'religion'(which gains
so that the boundary of 'rationality' can be drawn. What gains more from this
apart from knowing where the ghetto begins
transaction
nothinginfrom
our the
society
is secular rationality rather than 'religion' (which gains
process
and ends). By identifying what we cannot or will not accept or engage with as
nothing
from the transaction apart from knowing where the ghetto begins
equals ('that's a belief', 'so is that ... and that too ... I don't have to work
and
ends). By identifying what we cannot or will not accept or engage with as
we are also defining what we can.Intellectually, there is now 'us'
them out')
equals
('that's
a belief', 'so is that ... and that too ... I don't have to work
and'them'. Since what'they'have in common is that they are 'not uS', we lean
them out') we are also defining what we can. Intellectually, there is now 'us'
towards grouping them into one category and can then act as if they are'all
and
'them'. Since what 'they' have in common is that they are 'not us', we lean
the same'.
towards
grouping them into one category and can then act as if they are 'all
This is an inevitable aspect of identity-building and (I stress) one I wish to
the same'.
(rather than decry). The particular drawback for the historian that I
explore
This is an inevitable
aspect of identity-building and (I stress) one I wish to
to is that this flattening and grouping perspective
wish to (rather
draw attention
explore
than decry). The particular drawback for the historian that I
does not equip us to find out what is 'abroad'in any detail.at Imagine a world
wish
to draw attention to is that this flattening and grouping perspective
traveller returning home triumphant with discovery-'they're all foreign!'
does not equip us to find out what is 'abroad' in any detai1. 41 Imagine a world
traveller returning home triumphant with discovery-'they're all foreign!'
arlindquist and Coleman (2008: 8) similarly offer that, when we speak of beliefs, we are
'assuming that a homogeneous, hegemonic worldview prevails in the culture of others in contrast
and Coleman
(2008:nuanced
8) similarly
offerofthat,
when
we own
speak
of beliefs, we are
in our
society'.
character
culture
contested,
the heterogeneous,
toLindquist
'assuming that a homogeneous, hegemonic worldview prevails in the culture of others in contrast
to the heterogeneous, contested, nuanced character of culture in our own society'.
41
410
Jason Davies
Jason Davies
410
Needham might have challenged such a traveller to attempt a descri
the places visited without mentioning'foreignness'as an exercise not
Needham might have challenged such a traveller to attempt a description of
('but they are foreign') but towards a more informative description. W
the places visited without mentioning 'foreignness' as an exercise not in truth
tire of a description that ran 'they had foreign buildings for the forei
('but they are foreign') but towards a more informative description. We would
ple, with foreign animals ...'yet we are accustomed to accounts of ot
tire of a description that ran 'they had foreign buildings for the foreign peotures (or subcultures) that repeatedly invoke'belief'(preferably in a fa
ple, with foreign animals ...' yet we are accustomed to accounts of other culmonotheistic divinity).4'The sheer embeddedness of the fiduciary c
tures (or subcultures) that repeatedly invoke 'belief' (preferably in a familiarly
means that the impact of this taxonomic gesture on how we see the e
monotheistic divinity).42 The sheer embeddedness of the fiduciary contract
is virtually invisible to us.
means that the impact of this taxonomic gesture on how we see the evidence
As a result of this unifying process that makes all religions equal
is virtually invisible to us.
haps 'equally unequal'), distinctions made within the 'religious' re
As a result of this unifying process that makes all religions equal (or permeaningless to us-all the food was equally foreign. In addition,
haps 'equally unequal'), distinctions made within the 'religious' realm are
binary overtone strongly predisposes us to look actively for its shado
meaningless
to us-all the food was equally foreign. In addition, belief's
plete scepticism. With all practices and propositions singularised an
binary overtone
strongly predisposes us to look actively for its shadow, com(even isolated) criticism of a religious judgement or action by its pract
plete scepticism. With
all practices and propositions singularised any single
can easily (almost automatically) therefore taken to be dismissing all r
of a religious judgement or action by its practitioners
(even isolated)
criticism
judgements. Any
ancient writer who criticises a particular instance (e.g
can easily (almost automatically) therefore taken to be dismissing all religious
diagnosed prodigy that was just a coincidence) is in danger of being
judgements. Any ancient writer who criticises a particular instance (e.g. a misas a (suspiciously modern-sounding) 'sceptic'as if a single example
diagnosed prodigy that was just a coincidence) is in danger of being held
up
than-total affiliation with a single proposition acts like a needle to a ba
as a (suspiciously
modern-sounding)
'sceptic'
as
if
a
single
example
of
lessThe anthropologist Mary Douglas used to tell an anecdote about
than-total affiliation
with a single proposition acts like a needle to a balloon. 43
elder she had spent time with who laughed as he said 'if it's really imp
The anthropologist Mary Douglas used to tell an anecdote about a tribal
we consult the oracle again the next day, just to check it got things righ
elder she had spent time with who laughed as he said 'if it's really important,
is unscholarly since it cannot be referenced but the most noteworthy
we consult the oracle again the next day, just to check it got things right'. This
that she added that she usually refrained from introducing it into
is unscholarly since it cannot be referenced but the most noteworthy point is dis
because 'people wouldn't understand': she was concerned that once
that she added that she usually refrained from introducing it into discussion
conceded that they were not unwaveringly and completely sure abo
because 'people
wouldn't understand': she was concerned that once it was
greatest oracle, the entire edifice of their religion would look ready
conceded that they were not unwaveringly and completely sure about their to
over. Even scholarship that talks of plural 'beliefs'and demonstrates
greatest oracle,
the entire edifice of their religion would look ready to topple
plex set
of reasonings struggles to escape this unifying and flatteni
over. Evendency-multiplying
scholarship that talks of plural 'beliefs' and demonstrates a comblack boxes does not change the fact that all the id
plex set of reasonings struggles to escape this unifying and flattening tenstill of an equal order in their impenetrability. With this gaze, it is v
dency-multiplying black boxes does not change the fact that all the ideas are
impossible for us to see any distinction between the different orders of
still of an equal order in their impenetrability. With this gaze, it is virtually
ing or appreciate what can and cannot be criticised. At best, the desc
impossible for us to see any distinction between the different orders of reasonwe end up with lacks any nuance or depth: in a nanative (whether fic
ing or appreciate what can and cannot be criticised. At best, the description
we end up with lacks any nuance or depth: in a narrative (whether fictive or
azFot
a compelling glimpse into the power of language to render the familiar (sensible)
bizane, see the satire of anthropological writing that is the account of the Nacirema
42 For a compelling
le56). glimpse into the power of language to render the familiar (sensible) into the
a3
bizarre, see the
satire
of anthropological
that
the account
of and
the 94).
Nacirema (Miner
For
examples
of this kind ofwriting
(2004: 44
reading,
seeisDavies
1956).
For examples of this kind of reading, see Davies (2004: 44 and 94).
43
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
411
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
411
'factual') written in ancient Rome, there might be mention of a prodigy in
passing but we cannot tell whether this is a trivial detail or a deeply significant
'factual') written in ancient Rome, there might he mention of a prodigy in
clue to the ancient reader about how events look like unfolding.a With regard
passing hut we cannot tell whether this is a trivial detail or probably
a deeply significant
akin to a
to 'religious'cues, our sensitivity to ancient narratives is
clue to the ancient reader about how events look like unfolding. 44alone
With underregard
let
registers,
film
who
barely
modern child watching a disaster
akinuninto a
to 'religious' cues, our sensitivity to ancient narratives is probably the
stands, the scene where the hydraulic brakelines on a car entering
let
alone
undermodern child watching a disaster film who barely registers,
habited desert are accidentalty ruptured or the bolt works loose from the
stands, the scene where the hydraulic brakelines on a car entering the uninaeroplane's wing on take-off. Even if they do, they cannot see its significance
habited desert are accidentally ruptured or the bolt works loose
from the
later events or the different magnitude of another, trivial, scene in the
for
aeroplane's wing on take-off Even if they do, they cannot see its significance
ordering of events.
for later events or the different magnitude of another, trivial,
scene in the
If this is what belief 'actually means'in the way we use it, is it possible to
ordering of events.
work historically with this meaning, of this singularising gaze? This seems
If this is what belief 'actually means' in the way we use it, is it possible to
pointless to me, as well as self-defeating. Firstty (pointless), it abandons the
of this singularising gaze? This seems
work historically with this meaning,
main advantage of using the term (drawing a line between us and them by
it abandons the
pointless to me, as well as self-defeating. Firstly (pointless),
instead asserting that 'they' were drawing a line between themselves and
main advantage of using the term (drawing a line between
us
and them by
another 'them'). Secondly (self-defeating), if we are moved to redefine belief,
instead asserting that 'they' were drawing a lineprojecting
between its
themselves
and
effect back in
we must take responsibility for the fact that we are
another 'them'). Secondly (self-defeating), if we are moved toinredefine
belief,
Y/believed Y'
time: that is to say, if we were to say that'group X believed
we
must take responsibility for the fact that we are projecting
its up
effect
back in
a position
took
group
in
antiquity
a
that
concluding
then we would be
Y/believedtoY'a
time: that is to say, if we were to say that 'group X believed inallegiance
comparable to a modern religious group-declaring their
then we would be concluding that a group in antiquity
took up a position
framework or set of propositions that they knew took them out of step with
their
allegiance to a
comparable to a modern religious group-declaring
mainstream society, to whom their discourse was rather impenetrable and
framework or set of propositions that they slippage
knew took
them
out
of step
the
applywith
of details as we
also rather trivial. In such a scenario, some
mainstream society, to whom
their
discourse
was
rather
impenetrable
and
'society').
term would be tolerable (as it is in notions like 'state', 'power'and
also rather trivial. In such a scenario, some slippagemore
of details
as we apply the
convoluted problems
But such a project is doomed: it would present even
term would be tolerable (as it is in notions like 'state', 'power' and 'society').
than our current concerns, as a simple example will show.
problems
But such a project is doomed: it would present even more convoluted
One group that set itself apartin such a way in the early Roman Empire
than our current concerns, as a simple example will show.
was the sect that would eventually establish its own hegemony-Christianity.
One group that set itself apart in such a way in theour
early
Roman Empire
and
problematised
If we say that'early Christians believed in their God',
was the sect that would eventually establish its own vehemently
hegemony-Christianity.
their
asserted
nuanced meaning would be that by doing so, they
If we say that 'early Christians believed in their God', our
problematised and
adherence to a singularised proposition and thereby established their connuanced meaning would be that by doing so, they vehemently
asserted their
ftary identity and mutual solidarity. But because we are so accustomed to
adherence to a singdlarised proposition and thereby established
their conusing the word unproblematically, our subtlety becomes completely invisible,
accustomed
to
trary identity and mutual solidarity. But because we are so
and it reads like an unproblematised and unreconstructed version whose reusing the word unproblematically, our subtlety becomes completely
invisible,
dundancy is obvious-.of course early Christians believed in God (otherwise
and it reads like an unproblematised and unreconstructed version whose regSuch difficulty
found, a
dundancy
is obvious-of
course
early
believed
inprogramme
God (otherwise
Evidence
religion: as the
to Christians
exclusive
is of course not
similar set of problems occur across disciplines and paradigms. But only religion and the'wrong'
here) are
theme found,
and undeclared
Such ofdifficulty
of course
not exclusive
religion:
as the Evidence
programme
a
is a shadowy
will havetonoted
the reader
medicineis(which
kinds
has an
at least
disciplinary
similar
set of problems
occur acrossmarginalised,
disciplines and
paradigms.
But onlythinking
religion and
the 'wrong'
whereas
and pre-emptively
automatically
quarters.
medicine (which
the reader
willtohave
noted isinamost
shadowy
and undeclared theme here) are
kinds
legitimacy
claim
and accepted
initialofestablished
44
automatically and pre-emptively marginalised, whereas disciplinary thinking at least has an
initial established and accepted claim to legitimacy in most quarters.
4t2
412
Jason Davies
Jason Davies
they would not be Christians). There is no way to use 'belief' to indic
this was their forging a (or even inventing the) fiduciary contract in a
they would lar
not be Christians). There is no way to use 'belief' to indicate that
context rather than our enacting a flduciary contract in response
this was their
a (or even inventing the) fiduciary contractin a particuIt isforging
much easier (as Needham pointed out) to use a different expressio
lar context even
rather than our enacting a fiduciary contract in response to them.
this attempt to rescue the term'belief'collapses in on itself.a5
It is much easierThe
(as Needham pointed out) to use a different expression. Thus
insistence on believing is partly what has made defining religio
even this attempt
to rescue the term 'belief' collapses in on itself.45
such a notoriously insoluble problem-as a family, 'religion'and 'r
The insistence
on believing
is partly what has made defining religion itself
things'(things
to believe, even when they are actions rather than propo
problem-as
a family, 'religion' and 'religious
such a notoriously
insoluble
are united only by that which they
are not-intelligible and meani
things' (things
to believe,
even when they are actions rather than propositions)
secular
discourse. Thus it is only when working towards an anthropo
are united secularism-articulatin
only by that which they are not-intelligible and meaningful to
g our means of judgement-that Asad
g
secular discourse.
Thus it is only when working towards an anthropology can
of
more meaningful
and negative description of 'religious beliefs'as 'eve
secularism-articulating
our means of judgement-that Asad can give us a
the modern state can afford to let go'.+a For our purposes, 'beliefs'acco
more meaningful
and
negative
description of 'religious beliefs' as 'everything
become'anything that
secular thinking cannot (and does not wish to,
the modernafford
state can
afford
to
let
go' .46 For our purposes, 'beliefs' accordingly
not to) meaningfully
engage with'and is an actively attributed
become 'anything
that secular
thinking cannot (and does not wish to, and
can
rather than
a neutral and innocuous description. The implication is
to) meaningfully
engage
with'
and
is
an
actively
attributed
status
afford not full
range of epistemological handicaps that Needham so painstakingl
innocuous description. The implication is that the
rather thanmented
a neutral
as and
something
accidental and largely unconscious
epistemological
handicaps that Needham so painstakingly actually
docu- r
full range of
valuable purpose-to
declare that we can do without certain things
mented as therefore
something
and largely unconscious actually reveal a
theaccidental
elasticity of the criteria rather than the nature47 of the p
declare
that
we can do without certain things. It is
valuable purpose-to
tions that allows almost anything
we choose into the'category'of
therefore the
elasticity
of
the
criteria
rather than the nature of the proposi-belie
though Needham can say, after
discussing the issue of conviction as a d
tions that allows
anything we choose into the 'category' of belief. Thus,
aspectalmost
of belief,
that in the final analysis 'evidentially it could not pos
though Needham can say, after discussing the issue of conviction as a defining
aspect of belief, that in the final analysis 'evidentially it could not possibly be
a5ln fact, this also forms part
of a broader historical issue, namely that verbs are
unproblematisable (for lack of a suitable discourse or method), whereas nouns lend th
rather
45 In fact, this
also well
formstopart
it (either
of a broader
historical
issue, namely
thathabits).
verbs are
generally
that or we
have developed
stronger
So if
we say (ou
bounds
of lack
religion)
of a that
suitable
discourse'questioned
or method),
whereas
unproblematisable
(for
the Romans
what
a statenouns
shouldlend
be', themselves
we can easily i
rather well todifficulty
it (eitherwith
thattranslating
or we have
developed
stronger
habits).
So ifperiod
we say('state'is
(outsideanthe
modern
concepts
into any
historical
examp
used already).
is much'questioned
bounds of religion)
that the ItRomans
whattoa problematise
state should be',
we can easilyany
indicate
a
more difficult
'question'with
succinctity
that advertises
problematisation.
our
is an example
I
have
difficulty withway
translating
modem
concepts
into any historical
periodeasily
('state'
If we cannot
problematise
an 'ordinary'v
of doing
with onetoasproblematise
moresodifficult
'question' with uany
and in a
used already).project
It is much
complex as 'believe'seems
place to start.
foorsuccinctity
a6Asad (2003:
147). Asad's study
If weofcannot
easilyinforms
problematise
an 'ordinary'
verb, the
way that advertises our problematisation.
secularism
this discussion
to a great
extent b
doessonot
permit
engagement
with
one as
complex aswith
'believe'
seems aof
poor
to start.
project of doing
the fullness
his place
account.
See Keane liooa: I l0) fo
and
difficulties
('if we informs
46 Asad (2003:sentiments
147). Asad's
study
of secularism
this discussion
to of
a great
extent
but space
define [religion]
in terms
strange
beliefs,
then exp
properly understood,
when
does not permit
engagement
with the fullness
of his account.
See Keane
110)
for
those beliefs
are not strange,
what(2008:
remains
of
thesimilar
category?,
a7I
to stress
we this
define
[religion]
in aterms
of strange
beliefs, then
why,
sentiments and wish
difficulties
('ifthat
analysis
is not
complaint:
this account
is notexplain
tempting
i=he rea
theunderstood,
abandonment
of beliefs
when properly
those
are not strange,
what
remains
of thegoes'
category?').
all judgement
in a world
'anything
where
and Uf tnougtrts a
Allknowledge
systemsis have
47 I wish to stress
that this analysis
not aan
complaint:
thisactively
accountdefines
is not tempting
intothey
identity (i.e.
what theythe
arereader
and whal
and flattening
things down
of all judgement
in a to
world
where
'anything
goes'
and all thoughts
equaL le
the abandonment
a literal
relativity
where
everything
is equallyare
meaningful
situation
nothing
is (i.e.
meaningful.
All knowledge
systemswhere
have an
identity
actively defines
are and to
what
theyusare
not)awar
But it what
ls an they
exploration
make
more
of our
thinking-i.e.
to arathe
and flatteningcontours
things down
to own
a literal
relativity where
everything
an extension
of is
theequally
secularmeaningful
project of leads
analysis
denial
of thatis project.
situation where
nothing
meaningful. But it is an exploration to make us more aware of the
contours of our own thinking-i.e. an extension of the secular project of analysis rather than a
denial of that project.
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
413
413
of a society believed anything in common' (1972:92),
notthe
see that it might be supremely convenient for us to speak as if they
he
does
said
that
members of a society believed anything in common' (1972: 92),
said that the members
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
routinely (ideologically) discards the
thatit secular
Gwen,
did.
he does
notthen,
see that
might bediscourse
supremely convenient for us to speak as if they
(while nonetheless noting the existence of
in itself
meaningful
as then,
religious
that secular
discourse routinely (ideologically) discards the
did. Given,
religious as an object of serious
discard
we not simply
religion),
religious could
as meaningful
in itself
(whilethe
nonetheless noting the existence of
profoundly
alien to us, why not just admit it and spend
It rsnot
historical
religion), study?
could we
simply discard
the religious as an object of serious
promising
areas?
more
time onstudy? It is profoundly alien to us, why not just admit it and spend
our
historical
is that 'religion' and 'politics' are usually
difficulty
obvious
ourThe
timemost
on more
promising
areas?
which means that avoiding'religion'is
the modern
outside
inseparable
The most
obvious
difficultyWest,
is that 'religion' and 'politics' are usually
We must make the attempt-in all historiography, there
option.the
ieally anoutside
not
inseparable
modern West, which means that avoiding 'religion'asis
endeavour to make the unfamiliar as accessible
is
a constant
not
really an tension
option. as
Wewemust
make the attempt-in all historiography, there
difference and this should be no
their particular
disguising
without
we
is acan
constant
tension
as we endeavour
to make the unfamiliar as accessible as
we cannot acceptably equate all knowledge-systemsBut equally,
exception.
we can without
disguising
their particular difference and this should be no
loss of meaning. Secularism has probably
catastrophic
a
to
lead
wouldBut equally, we cannot acceptably
that
exception.
equate all knowledge-systemselse a foreigner' is no longer enough
'calling
everyone
point
where
the
reached
that would lead to a catastrophic loss of meaning. Secularism has probably
ways of dealing with alterity on its own (but
explore
mustthe
reached
point more
wherenuanced
'calling everyone
else a foreigner' is no longer enough
-it
(and the best opportunity for this is the current
expanded)
necessarily
-it
must explore
moreterms
nuanced ways
of dealing with alterity on its own (but
in reflexivity).ot
interest
necessarily
expanded) terms (and the best opportunity for this is the current
project (which goes well beyond History) is not served by conthis
But
interest in
reflexivity).48
'belief'has continued to appear in our
contract:
the fiduciary
enact
tinuing
But to
this
project
(which goes
well beyond History) is not served by conbe drawn and pointing out the inadequacies
line must
accountstobecause
tinuing
enact thethe
fiduciary
contract:
'belief' has continued to appear in our
we have for the job does nothing to comtool
only
the
of
did)
(as Needham
accounts
because the line must be drawn
and pointing out the inadequacies
done. In a sense, Needham's admirable study just
be
must
that
plete
task
the
(as Needham did) of the only tool we have for the job does nothing to comterm 'belief illegitimate (or at least,
making
bydone.
everything
madethe
plete
task thatharder
must be
In athe
sense, Needham's admirable study just
when moderns describe ancient religion they either
result, by
As aharder
contested;.on
made
everything
making the term 'belief' illegitimate (or at least,
insert) 'belief'deliberately or they follow the
the right
insert (or argue
contested).49
As for
a result,
whentomoderns describe ancient religion they
either
miss the spirit) by avoiding the term but nonetheZe\tgeist(but
letter of
insert
(orthe
argue
for the right
to insert) 'belief' deliberately or they follow the
to signal to their colleagues that they
less find
of themselves
the Zeitgeistineluctably
(but miss tempted
the spirit) by avoiding the term but nonetheletter
material by the use of trenchantly placed and
by their tempted
been infected
notthemselves
havefind
less
ineluctably
to signal to their colleagues that they
suffice) derogatory remarks. Paradoxically, Needham's
(mild
usuallyby
mildlynot
have
beenwill
infected
their material by the use of trenchantly placed and
one of his conclusions that we are only dealing with
has undermined
legacy(mild
mildly
will usually suffice)
derogatory remarks. Paradoxically, Needham's
legacy has undermined one of his conclusions that we are only dealing with
asStewart (2001).
aeFor this reason,
I suspect Stewart's (2001) thoughts on integrating anthropologists'personal
Stewart (2001).
more
convictions into seculai discourse is unlikely to succeed until secularism has found a
49 For this reason, I suspect Stewart's (200 1) thoughts
on integrating anthropologists' personal
nuanced approach to its 'other': 'religious'conviction has already 'lost'a central and unproblematic
convictions
into secular discourse is unlikely to succeed until secularism has found a more
be
place in p"Ufi" discourse-that's why it is 'private'. Put differently, such a project could not
nuanced
approach to its 'other': 'religious' conviction has already 'lost' a central and unproblematic
restricted to anthropology if it were to be successful. We will return to this in due course.
place in public discourse-that's why it is 'private'. Put differently, such a project could not be
restricted to anthropology if it were to be successful. We will return to this in due course.
48
414
414
Jason Davies
Davies
'belief if someone Jason
actually brings the word into the conversation:
have a'belief that dare not speak its name'.50
'belief' if someone
actually brings the word into the conversation: we now
To sum up so far, before we move to the second part of my argument
have a 'belief
that
dare
not speak
its name'. 50
creates far more
problems
than it solves for historical enquiry. To begin
To sum up
so
far,
before
we
move
to the second part of my argument, 'belief'
forces the reader to confront
and hold in their mind the compiexities,
creates far more
problems than
it solves for historical enquiry. To begin with, it dif
and distortions
of the
attached framework rather than requiring the a
forces the reader
to confront
andwork.
hold in their mind the complexities, difficulties,
part of the
do that
More prograrnmatically, it shifts th. r-p6uri
and distortions
of
the
attached
framework
rather than requiring the author to
study, as has been said, to propositions
we infer underlie their practice
of the
work. More programmatically, it shifts the emphasis
of our
do that partthan
those things which we can identify (namely rituals) as what they
study, as hashave
beenconsidered
said, to propositions we infer underlie their practices rather
central to their practice. Crucially, even
alert rea
than those things
can identify (namely rituals) as what they an
seem
to
strugglewhich
not towereduce
ancient religion to a series of binary relationship
an
alert
reader
will
have considered
central
to
their
practice.
Crucially,
even
believed, or they didn't. But the most telling objection is that
struggle notfiduciary
to reducecontract
ancient (even
religion to a series of binary relationships-theyenac
with acknowledgement oi its difficulties)
believed, orotherness
they didn't.
the most telling objection is that enacting thecem
thatBut
we are
trying to demystify by writing about them in
fiduciary contract
(even
acknowledgement of its difficulties) cements the
place. We
arewith
e{fectively abandoning the attempt to familiarise as soo
we
are
trying
to demystify by writing about them in the first
otherness that
start thinking in terms
of 'beliefs'. Aligning ourselves with the secular
place. We are
effectively
abandoning
the attempt to familiarise as soon as we
does
not require
us to invoke 'belief'-indeed the temptation to do so
start thinking
in
terms
of
'beliefs'.
Aligning
with the secular project
sound a warning bell that we haveourselves
slipped into anachronism. And it is
the
temptation
to do so should
does not require
us
to
invoke
'belief'-indeed
our understanding of 'religion'that will suffer-we cannot
grasp the his
we
have
slipped
into
anachronism.
And
is not just
sound a warning
bell
that
Rome without addressing their cultus deorum (roughly,it'the
cultivation
our understanding
of 'religion'
thatawill
suffer-we cannot grasp the history
of
gods'). This
is still only
partial explanation, both for the explicit calls
Rome without
addressing
their
cuItus
deorum
(roughly,
'the
cultivation
of
the
refurbishment of 'belief'and the perceived need for distancing
still only'belief')
a partialthrough
explanation, both for the explicit calls for1as
thea su
gods'). Thisforis evoking
dismissive remarks. Deprecating 'belief, b
of 'belief'
and the perceived need for distancing (as a substitute
refurbishment
loguing
its drawbacks
is like cutting off the heads of the Hydia-it has
for evokingachieved
'belief') its
through
dismissive remarks. Deprecating 'belief'
by catapurpose
even in the case of many who endeavour to heed
loguing its have
drawbacks
is
like
cutting
off
the
heads
of
the
Hydra-it
has
not yet
to dig a bit deeper.
achieved its purpose even in the case of many who endeavour to heed it. We
have to dig a bit deeper.
5. Sincerity
5. Sincerity
Many discussions of belief
have noted that one 'cannot will oneself to bel
But the discussion has tended to end at that point, thus only alludin
Many discussions
belief have noted that one 'cannot will oneself to believe'. 51 ,b
shadowyofnegative
aspect. It comes more into focus if we inveri it: a
But the discussion
has
tended to end at that point, thus only alluding
to a
cannot will themselves
not to believe and belief could
described
'believer'
shadowy negative aspect. It comes more into focus if we invert it: abe
cannot will themselves not to believe and belief could be described as the
50'wherg
then, do we get the notion of belief from? ... statements of
belief are the only e
for the phenomenon; but the phenomenon itself appears to be no
more than the cu
making
statements'(Needham
50 'Where, then,
do wesuch
get the
notion of belief from?
... l0g).
statements of belief are the only evidence
1972:
5rNeedham (1972:8H).
for the phenomenon; but the phenomenon itself appears to be no more than the custom of
making such statements' (Needham 1972: 108).
51 Needham (1972: 84-6).
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
415
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
415
absence of will (automony) between the believer and the believed.s2I would
here
this identification as 'sincerity'and it is my contention
suggest
absencewe
ofrefer
will to
(automony)
between the believer and the believed. 52 I would
that we stumble over most of all in connection with
is actually
that
we referthe
to block
this identification
as 'sincerity' and it is my contention here
suggest
'belief'.
that is actually the block that we stumble over most of all in connection with
If we provisionally define 'sincerity'as the identification of the self with a
'belief'.
belief,53 many of Needham's confusingly disparate qualities are easier to
If we provisionally define 'sincerity' as the identification of the self with a
his project as an analysis of the expectationr we
group.
might
belief,53We
many
ofredescribe
Needham's
confusingly disparate qualities are easier to
implicit in invoking 'belief'that brings the
the sincerity
it is
belief:
have
group.ofWe
might
redescribe
his project as an analysis of the expectations we
contradiction and long-term and
lack of in
conviction,
of ittotal
expectation
have of belief:
is the
sincerity implicit
invoking 'belief' that brings the
(transience implies shallowness of sincerity) amongst
unwavering
expectation commitment
of total conviction, lack of contradiction and long-term and
This demands the singularisation of the 'believed'already
believers.
religious
unwavering
commitment
(transience implies shallowness of sincerity) amongst
else could one be sincere about it? It is also sincerity that
touched
religiousupon-how
believers. This
demands the singularisation of the 'believed' already
on belief) is required by the believer.5a Put differaction (based
implies
upon-how
else could
one be sincere about it? It is also sincerity that
touchedthat
reasonably assumed to have begun life among
is
fairly
'belief
though
ently,
implies that action (based on belief) is required by the believer. 54 Put differan expectation they have of themselves, in secular discourse
'the religious'as
ently,
though 'belief'
is fairly reasonably assumed to have begun life among
as a standard to which we intend to hold religious people to:
it'the
is appropriated
expectation they have of themselves, in secular discourse
religious' as an
group for themselves thereby becomes a more rigid
of asone
an
it is aspiration
appropriated
a standard to which we intend to hold religious people to:
one group has of another. That is too complex
that for
and expectation
demand
an
aspiration
of one group
themselves thereby becomes a more rigid
here but it does not help matters when one religion functions very
to exploreand
demand
eXPectation that one group has of another. That is too complex
another, which is the situation we have here. With these expecfrom but
differently
to explore here
it does not help matters when one religion functions very
the older models of Roman religion asserted vehemently
of
sincerity,
tations
differently from another,
which is the situation we have here. With these expecdenied 'belief') that the elite were insincere (sceptical but
(in
that
language
tations of sincerity, the older models of Roman religion asserted vehemently
rituals). As it became obvious that this was insufficient
performing
stilllanguage
(in
thattheir
denied
'belief') that the elite were insincere (sceptical but
the polar opposite-a conclusion of
we rituals).
drifted towards
evidence,their
for the
still
performing
it became obvious that this was insufficient
oinsincere'was replaced by oneAs
This has caused us almost as
of 'yes, sincere'.55
the polar opposite-a conclusion of
for the evidence, we drifted towards
as the old charge of insincerity and disbelief.
many problems
'insincere'
was replaced
by one of 'yes, sincere'.55 This has caused us almost as
is easy to see how the subtle unifying perspective of 'beliefing'a society
It
many problems as the old charge of insincerity and disbelief.
need for sincerity rather than (e.g.) critical
to how
a perceived
leads
or group
It is easy
to see
the subtle unifying perspective of 'beliefing' a society
Since secular discourse permits the existence of belief-systems yet
reflection.
or group leads to a perceived need for sincerity rather than (e.g.) critical
fine-tuned judgementswithinthose worlds, it must take the word
cannot make
reflection.
Since
secular discourse permits the existence of belief-systems yet
as the only hope of engaging meaningfully with
as it stands
of adherents
within those worlds, it must take the word
cannot
make fine-tuned
judgements
is therefore a contradiction in terms: we might say, for
'Insincere
them.
of
adherents
as belief
it stands
as the only hope of engaging meaningfully with
them. 'Insincere belief' is therefore a contradiction in terms: we might say, for
s2Perhaps the most famous example
from antiquity is the process described inhis Confessions
of Hippo struggled to align himself with God's will rather than his own'
52
Perhaps
most famous
example
from sense
antiquity
is the process
described
in his Confessions
53I
but as a
(still visible
in 'identical')
of identity'
the radical
have used
might the
therefore
whereby
Augustine
of 'identity'has
Hippo struggled
to align
withwith
God's
will rather
than
his own.
sameness.
than
difference
morehimself
associated
become
tool,
methodological
53sNeedham
I might therefore
havethese
usedaspects
the radical
sense his
of 'identity'
visible
in 'identical')
but
as a
reliable
them as
he debunks
though
work and (still
throughout
deals with
methodological
tool,that
'identity'
hastobecome
associated
withthey
difference
thanfelt
sameness.
expectations.
are widely
to which
indicatesmore
the extent
he needs
definitions, the fact
54Needham
with these
aspects
throughout
and
though
he debunks
as reliable
s5
phrases
such as
so them
unpalatable
is still
a little
practices
thiswork
to us,his
of their
strangeness
Given thedeals
definitions,
thereligion
fact that
he needsbecame
to indicates
the extent to which they are widely felt expectations.
common.
seriously'
'taking their
S5 Given the strangeness of their practices to us, this is still a little unpalatable so phrases such as
'taking their religion seriously' became common.
whereby Augustine
416
Jason Davies
Jason Davies
416
rhetorical effect, that if one must have a belief, it really ought to be one
dying for or certainly going to some trouble for. Beliefs
are conven
rhetorical effect, that if one must have a belief, it really ought to be that
one worth
apparently superficial are rather unconvincing. What would Lindqui
dying for or certainly going to some trouble for. Beliefs that are convenient or
Coleman have made of the acupuncturist if he had said as he left'You
apparently I'm
superficial are rather unconvincing. What would Lindquist and
never completely sure whether it will work
supposed to!'? Wo
Coleman have made of the acupuncturist if he had said asasheit'sleft
'You know,
think less of the Archbishop of Canterbury if he admitted that he only
I'm never completely sure whether it will work as it's supposed to!'? Would we
the Church because he had nothing better to do and had just muddled
think less ofever
the Archbishop of Canterbury if he admitted that he only joined
since? Those seem unlikely to gain an understanding
e
along
the Churchmodern
because he had nothing better to do and had just muddled indulgenc
computer specialist (engineer, lawyer, teacher ...) might sa
ever since? Those seem unlikely to gain an understanding indulgence, yet a
things with relative impunity because we would
understand'them
modem computer specialist (engineer, lawyer, teacher ...)Just
might
say these
out it necessarily undermining our opinion of their practice. We take
things withgranted
relative impunity because we would 'just understand' them withthat sincerity is 'a good thing'that makes some small compen
out it necessarily undermining
our opinion of their practice. We take it for
for the 'wrongheadedness'of being religious in the first place, as it were
granted that
sincerity is 'a good thing' that makes some small compensation
the high value placed on sincerity in religion is not'spontaneous'and'na
of being religious in the first place, as it were. 56 But
for the 'wrongheadedness'
deliberately cultivated within many religious movements for their ow
on
sincerity
in religion is not 'spontaneous' and 'natural':
the high value
placed
poses, sincerity is then implicitly demanded by the
world
deliberately cultivated within many religious movements for secular
their own
pur-as the
antee of meaningful and predictable dealings with people who do not o
poses, sincerity is then implicitly demanded by the secular world as the guarby the same rules. 'If you are going to have different axioms (and the
antee of meaningful and predictable dealings with people who do not
operate
deductions) from the mainstream, then please at least be predictable
by the same
rules.
'If
you
are
going
to
have
different
axioms
(and
therefore
know how to relate to you'. This, I suggest, is why sincerity is so import
deductions)religion,
from the mainstream, then please at least be predictable so we
and we are uncomfortable in its absence.
know how to relate to you'. This, I suggest, is why sincerity is so important in
The high value of sincerity is so important that it is protected from
religion, and
are uncomfortable in its absence.
ful we
scenarios: in situations where even grudging acceptance seems inapp
The high
value
of sincerity is so important that it is protected from harmate, 'sincerity'is avoided (the preferred alternative is something like 'fa
ful scenarios:
in
situations
where even grudging acceptance seems inappropribecause the category of 'sincere'would be damaged by such an assoc
ate, 'sincerity'
is
avoided
(the
preferred alternative is something like 'fanatic')
Thus 'sincere'(the praiseworthy guarantee that 'the business of the othe
association.
because the category of 'sincere' would be damaged by such an
be kept away) must pertain only to what is constructed as private-reli
Thus 'sincere' (the praiseworthy guarantee that 'the business
of the other' will
fanatics are therefore characterised by the fact that they have crossed th
be kept away)
must pertain only to what is constructed as private-religious
into the public sphere (that is one way we can tell they are'fanatics').s7 Sin
fanatics areand
therefore characterised by the fact that they have crossed the line
belief are so intertwined as to make it impossible
have mean
into the public
sphere (that is one way we can tell they are 'fanatics').57to
Sincerity
'belief'without
sincerity (although the opposite is not true).
and belief are so intertwined as to make it impossible to have meaningful
'belief' without sincerity (although the opposite is not true).
56Based
on experience, I must again stress that I am endeavouring to make visible the
position (to which I am personally committed, albeit with Rortian irony) with rhetorical exagg
56 Based on experience,
I mustrather
againthan
stress
that aI sincerely
am endeavouring
to make
the become
secular clear
and mild parody,
stating
hostile opinion,
as visible
I hope will
57ForI deconstruction
am personally committed,
albeit
with
Rortian
withof
rhetorical
exaggeration
position (to which
of the claim
religion
that
is irony)
'a source
violence',
see Asad (2003
and mild parody,
rather than stating
a sincerelyithostile
opinion,
I hope willfor
become
clearer.state to co
Notwithstanding
his argument,
is often
more as
convenient
the secular
S? For deconstruction
claim(impossible
that religion
is 'a source
of with
violence',
seedialogue)
Asad (2003:
8-12).
terrorism of
as the
religious
to fathom
or deal
through
in origin
where p
For other
Notwithstanding
his argument,
it is oftenofmore
convenient
for the as)
secular
state toLindquist
constructand C
brief consideration
'beliefs'as
(constructed
'private'see
(2008:9).(impossible to fathom or deal with through dialogue) in origin where possible.
terrorism as religious
For other brief consideration of 'beliefs' as (constructed as) 'private' see Lindquist and Coleman
(2008: 9).
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
417
417
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
can therefore extend my earlier contention and say that the project to
sympathetic but flawed project to rehabilitate
'belief
is actually
restore
therefore
extend a
my earlier contention and say that the project to
I can
implicit sincerity to our subjects, because in
this
restoring
ancient
restore religion
'belief' by
is actually a sympathetic but flawed project to rehabilitate
'belief',
the only alternative seems to be to deny
imposed by
choiceby
binary
the
ancient
religion
restoring this implicit sincerity to our subjects, because in
and anthropologists) nowadays find that distasteful and
we (historians
it,
theand
binary
choice imposed by 'belief', the only alternative seems to be to deny
other hand, deprecatory remarks may then reflect our
On theand
unconvincing.
anthropologists) nowadays find that distasteful and
it, and we (historians
do seem to have sincerely believed some rather
that
disappointment
unconvincing. On
thethey
other hand, deprecatory remarks may then reflect our
we had been thinking they were so rational).
things (and
strange
disappointment
that
they do seem to have sincerely believed some rather
we perhaps use sincerity as the basis of enquiry (as has been attempted
Can
strange things (and we had been thinking they were so rational).
so seems to me hopeless and inappropriate: arguing for
To douse
'belief')?
withCan
we perhaps
sincerity as the basis of enquiry (as has been attempted
concluded his study with the
straightforward-Needham
fairly
'hopeless'is
with 'belief')? To do so seems to me hopeless and inappropriate: arguing for
human experience is that
about
fact
comprehensible
assertion
is fairlysolitary
straightforward-Needham
concluded his study with the
'hopeless'that'the
place
to start. Even taking
promising
is not a
itassertion
is incomprehensible'which
that 'the solitary comprehensible fact about human experience is that
value'(sincerity) is methodologically suspect: classtatements 'at face
textual
it is incomprehensible'
which is not a promising place to start. Even taking
(who are not the same as ancient historians) are more interested in the
sicists
'at face value' (sincerity) is methodologically suspect: clastextual statements
(irony) and, given that an important movement of recent decades in
opposite
sicists (who
are not the same as ancient historians) are more interested in the
the authorial persona (as opposed to 'person') sincerity is a
exploration
the
opposite
(irony)of
and,
given that an important movement of recent decades in
is being further and further left behind.58 Statements are
that
point
of
reference
persona (as opposed to 'person') sincerity is a
the exploration of the authorial
persuasive) rather than enactments of sincerity,
(rhetorical
and
'strategic'
point of reference that is being further and further left behind. 58 Statements are
we have become attuned to the fact that even a phrase like'mean what
because
'strategic'
(rhetorical and persuasive) rather than enactments of sincerity,
As a corrective to the days when textual anafrom
transparent.
you say'is
because
wefar
have
become
attuned to the fact that even a phrase like 'mean what
statements that could be represented as 'what the
of assembling
lysis say'
consisted
you
is far from
transparent. As a corrective to the days when textual anathis is entirely appropriate-no one would argue for
really thought',
author
lysis
consisted
of assembling statements that could be represented as 'what the
(especially of fictive material). The intractin a modern
such position
author
really thought',
thisauthor
is entirely appropriate-no one would argue for
is that meaning requires context to be usefully intelligible-and
able difficulty
such
position in
a modern author (especially of fictive material). The intractchange, often rapidly. A statement like 'I am an academic'has
will
this
context
able difficulty is that
meaning requires context to be usefully intelligible-and
meaning in the modern day from thirty years ago. Making it
changed
a
vastly
this context will change, often rapidly. A statement like 'I am an academic' has
demands an extended and nuanced commentary. So
to an outsider
aintelligible
vastly changed
meaning in the modern day from thirty years ago. Making it
disciplines that specifically address
approaches-the
it seems that
outsider
demands an extended and nuanced commentary. So
intelligible
to antextual
us against this project.
itexplicit
seemsstatements-warns
that textual approaches-the disciplines that specifically address
we can apply to consider the sincerity
Are statements-warns
there then other methodologies
explicit
us against this project.
There is a discourse about sincerity centred around the writof our
Are subjects?
there then other methodologies we can apply to consider the sincerity
Habermas, but (from my limited forays into it) that is
the philosopher
ings
ofsubjects?
of
our
There is a discourse about sincerity centred around the writideal speech community' of equalsof 'an
the notion
organised
ings
of the around
philosopher
Habermas,
but (from my limited forays into it) that is
organised around the notion of 'an ideal speech community' of equals-
I
On 'authorial intention' and especially the case that the author is no more privileged than any
reader to prescribe the interpretation of a statement, the most accessible general starting point
58 On 'authorial intention'
and especially
therhetorical
case that aspects
the author
is no more
privileged than
any
Lendon
historiography,
of Roman
For the
for literature is Fish (1994:183).
prescribe
theagainst
interpretation
of a statement,
the most accessible
general
starting(though
point
reader
references
of relevant
collects agreatnumber
such readings,
(2009),towhile
arguing
58
Fishpoint).
(1994: 183). For the rhetorical aspects of Roman historiography, Lendon
for
literature
missedistheir
he has
(2009), while arguing against such readings, collects a great number of relevant references (though
he has missed their point).
418
418
Jason Davies
Jason Davies
emphatically not applicable here. The historical and textual account
cerity and authenticity given by Trillin e 0972) (and drawing on
emphatically not applicable here. The historical and textual account of sinapproaches) is at once more and less than
need here. But his si
on textual
cerity and authenticity given by Trilling (1972) (and we
drawing
sincerity (and move to 'authenticity') in a range of historical and literar
approaches) is at once more and less than we need here. But his situating
texts does permit us to broadly comment that sincerity only exists as a'n
sincerity (and move to 'authenticity') in a range of historical
and literary conand unproblematised state until we actually begin
it: its u
texts does permit us to broadly comment that sincerity only existstoasexamine
a 'natural'
and'naturalness'(i.e. implicit claim of being unchanging and common
and unproblematised
state until we actually begin to examine it: its unitary
humanity) dissolves as it becomes clear that, like virtually every other ob
(i.e.
implicit
claim of being unchanging and common to all
and 'naturalness'
historical enquiry its particular relevance and meaning becomes differe
humanity) dissolves
as
it
becomes
clear that, like virtually every other object of
depending on which speciflc time and place we are interested in. Mor
historical enquiry,
its
particular
relevance
and meaning becomes differentiated
ever, then, we should be wary of assigning'sincerity'to
individ
More than
depending on which specific time and place we are interested in. historical
The lack of suitable methodology should not surprise us: 'since
ever, then, we should be wary of assigning 'sincerity' to historical individuals.
simply not an appropriate mode of enquiry for history. Even if we did
The lack of suitable methodology should not surprise
us: 'sincerity' is
way of assessing the total affiliation of a person(a), historians must ma
simply not an appropriate mode of enquiry for history. Even if we did have a
ise it. We could say'Cicero genuinely wanted the Roman Republic to s
way of assessing
the total affiliation of a person(a), historians must marginalwithout
too much controversy, but what is of more historical interest
say
'Cicero genuinely wanted the Roman Republic to survive'
ise it. We could
he formed an opinion about this in the first place. It was only an issue b
without tooofmuch controversy, but what is of more historical interest is that
the threats to the political order and even if
were to begin wi
opinion about this in the first place. It was only we
an issue
because
he formed an
proposition
about Cicero's sincerity, our histofical gaze would slide
of the threats to the political order and even if we were to begin with this
rather rapidly as the assertion prompts more usefully historical que
proposition about Cicero's sincerity, our historical gaze would
slide off it
such as 'who exactly was Cicero to want this?'(an ideologically com
rather rapidly as the assertion prompts more usefully historical
questions
oligarch? merely someone who had succeeded in that system? the ph
such as 'who
exactly
was
Cicero
to
want
this?'
(an
ideologically
committed
pher? the man who knew nothing different?). Assessing sincerity (and in
oligarch? merely
someone who had succeeded in that system? the philosostate) cannot be a valid part of the historical gaze-it must yield to
pher? the man
who
knew nothing different?). Assessing sincerity (and interior
more appropriate, questions.
state) cannot be a valid part of the historical gaze-it must yield to other,
For all these reasons, I doubt very much that many historians
more appropriate, questions.
explicitly address the issue of 'sincerity'and religious experience in the
For alljects-Green
these reasons, I doubt very much that many historians would
(2007) struggles to address some of its implications in co
in their subexplicitly address the issue of 'sincerity' and religious experience
tion with a particular cult, with mixed results. But all the reasons tha
jects-Green (2007) struggles to address some of its implications in connecinstinctively avoid it shouldapply also to 'belief'(including the implied s
tion with a particular cult, with mixed results. But all the reasons that
they
for belief that I have tentatively diagnosed). Put bluntly, as long
should apply also to 'belief' (including the implied searchas it
instinctively
avoid
it
historian's mind, however far back it is pushed, it
longcolour
as it isthe
in enquir
a
for belief that IfI have tentatively diagnosed). Put bluntly, as will
we shift to 'ritual'without fully problematising sincerity we the
is
pushed,
it
will
colour
the
enquiry.
historian's run
mind,
however
far
back
it
the risk of merely displacing the search for sincerity from propositio
If we shift
to 'ritual' without fully problematising sincerity we therefore
practices
by looking for some kind of unifying or unified meaning or p
run the risk
of
merely
displacing the search for sincerity from propositions to
pation, and this search goes on even when the evidence refuses to be orga
practices by looking for some kind of unifying or unified meaning or particithis way. That is, much of our current exploration, rather than being alon
pation, andlines
this search goes on even when the evidence refuses to be organised
of 'Romans (sincerely) believed that Jupiter was king of the gods'is
this way. That
is, much of our current exploration, rather than being along
the
implicitly
in the domain of 'Romans (sincerely) believed that ritual wou
(sincerely)
believed
that
Jupiter
was
king
of
the
gods'
is
now
lines of 'Romans
the gods on their side and that future events would then play out as
implicitly in the domain of 'Romans (sincerely) believed that ritual
would get
the gods on their side and that future events would then play out as they
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
419
419
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
wished'. We therefore reach the point where sincerity must, like belief, be
unveiled and then excised from ovr gaze and I propose to do that by the judiwished'. We therefore reach the point where sincerity must, like belief, be
cious use of irresponsible open questions that draw on our modern (familiar)
unveiled and then excised from our gaze and I propose to do that by the judiunderstanding of how knowledge-systems function (or rather, of how people
cious use of irresponsible open questions that draw on our modern (familiar)
function within knowledge-systems). Given my irresponsibility in what follows,
function (or rather, of how people
understanding of how knowledge-systems
I must first offer a disclaimer.
function within
knowledge-systems). Given my irresponsibility in what follows,
By and large, history is a discipline centred on honouring the distinctiveI must first
offer a disclaimer.
ness and contingency of its subject material, and building (often creative) repBy and large, history is a discipline centred on honouring the distinctiveresentations of other societies.se To introduce an analogy risks going against
ness and contingency of its subject material, and building (often creative) repthis ethos: analogies have a levelling effect and making things look more
resentations of other societies. 59 To introduce an analogy risks going against
similar is to risk being not just un- but a-historical. This historical emphasis
this ethos: analogies have a levelling effect and making things look more
on distinctiveness means that the introduction of analogy simply provides more
similar is to risk being not just un- but a-historical. This historical emphasis
material that needs historical explanation. Thus analogies from other historion distinctiveness means that the introduction of analogy simply provides more
cised societies (e.g. from mediaeval France to the ancient world) run the risk
material
that needs historical explanation. Thus analogies from other historirather than solving our problems. Conversely, analogies with
of multiplying
cised
societies (e.g. from mediaeval France to the ancient
world) run the risk
the modern day run the risk of appearing to invite relativism by putting modof multiplying rather than solving our problems. Conversely, analogies with
ern propositions on the same footing as those of the ancient world. If this was
the modern day run the risk of appearing to invite relativism by putting modnot problematic, we would not be discussing'belief in the first place. Direct
ern propositions on the same footing as those of the ancient world. If this was
comparisons of content (knowledge, beliefs) damns us either to Frazer's
not problematic, we would not be discussing 'belief' in the first place. Direct
shadow (documenting the steady rise of humanity from the murky befuddlecomparisons of content (knowledge, beliefs) damns us either to Frazer's
ment of the past to the shining enlightenment of the present) or, depending
shadow (documenting the steady rise of humanity from the murky befuddleon one's audience, the crippling charge of relativism-once invoked, such a
ment
of the past to the shining enlightenment of the present) or, depending
description (when used as an accusation) utterly obscures enquiry. So I must
on one's audience, the crippling charge of relativism-once invoked, such a
ask my reader actively to ward off the shade of Frazer and Tyler on the one
description (when used as an accusation)
utterly obscures enquiry. So I must
hand, and the suspicion of a relativising argument on the other and, armed
ask my reader actively to ward off the shade of Frazer and Tyler on the one
only with the modern magical amulet of careful wording, make a strictly
hand, and the suspicion of a relativising argument on the other and, armed
limited foray into analogy with the modern age.
only with the modern magical amulet of careful wording, make a strictly
I stress that my invocation of modern knowledge is limited to one purpose
limited foray into analogy with the modern age.
only (and it is nothing to do with content or the truth of propositions): it is to
I stress that my invocation of modern knowledge is limited to one purpose
evoke the relationship that we have with modern knowledge and suggest that
only (and it is nothing to do with content or the truth of propositions): it is to
relationship with their 'religious'practices than the
it is the relationship
to a Romanthat
we have with modern knowledge and suggest that
evokecloser
way modern secular thinkers claim that modern religious people relate to their
it is closer to a Roman relationship with their 'religious' practices than the
religion. And my intention is strictly limited to a negative purpose-to strip
way modern secular thinkers claim that modern religious people relate to their
away the unconscious habit of seeing ancient religious events programreligion. And my intention is strictly limited to a negative purpose-to strip
matically through the filter of sincerity (we can still choose to consider it, it
away the unconscious habit of seeing ancient religious events programjust loses its default priority). I make no claims to contribute to the field of
matically through the filter of sincerity (we can still choose to consider it, it
just loses its default priority). I make no claims to contribute to the field of
seJenkins (1995) (and his other, similar, publications, all of which draw on the writings of the
pragmatic philosopher Rorty (especially Rorty (1989). For an account tailored to Roman
59
Jenkins (1995)see(and
his other,
similar,
publications,
all of which draw on the writings of the
(2009)
(contra
historiography
Batstone
Lendon (2009)).
pragmatic philosopher Rorty (especially Rorty (1989». For an account tailored to Roman
historiography see Batstone (2009) (contra Lendon (2009».
420
420
Jason Davies
Jason Davies
anthropology more widely (though their habitual disinterest in Roman
is aplzling phenomenon in itself, as Rtipke (2007b:9) also notes in p
anthropology more widely (though their habitual disinterest in Roman religion
my arena is strictly ancient Rome.
is a puzzling phenomenon in itself, as Riipke (2007b: 9) also notes in passing):
These analogies are not introduced in a move towards greater kno
my arena is strictly ancient Rome.
but greater ignorance; towards discarding a methodology that handic
These analogies are not introduced in a move towards greater knowledge,
enquiry by confronting it with rhetorical comparisons in the form o
but greater ignorance; towards discarding a methodology that handicaps our
simple questions. It is a slightly uncomfortable venture, but in this situ
enquiry by confronting it with rhetorical comparisons in the form of some
seems inescapable: we already have an implicit analogy since belief and
simple questions. It is a slightly uncomfortable venture, but in this situation it
ity, in their complexity, amount to an analogy in themselves. The c
seems inescapable: we already have an implicit analogy since belief and sincertherefore not between 'no analogy'and inappropriate modern ones
ity, in their complexity, amount to an analogy in themselves. The choice is
which flawed analogy to use.
therefore not between 'no analogy' and inappropriate modern ones, but of
Lengthy disclaimer aside, let me therefore pose some very brief qu
which flawed analogy to use.
Are we interested in whether the lawyers who drafted the human rig
Lengthy disclaimer aside, letjudge
me therefore pose some very brief questions.
were sincere? Does a
have to be sincere to fulfil his or her role?
Are we interested in whether the lawyers who drafted the human rights act
consider that rocket scientists should be sincere in their work? Philoso
were sincere? Does a judge have to be sincere to fulfil his or her role? Do we
Engineers? Is 'sincere'the right word to use when querying a medic
consider that rocket scientists should be sincere in their work? Philosophers?
diagnosis? Does it make sense to ask whether physicists are sincere abou
Engineers? Is 'sincere' the right word to use when querying a medic about a
theory? If that one seems vaguely plausible, given the confusion and diff
diagnosis? Does it make sense to ask whether physicists are sincere about string
of string theory, how many scientists would not consider the fo
theory? If that one seems vaguely plausible, given the confusion and difficulties
question provocative: 'do you believe in gravity?'
of string theory, how many scientists would not consider the following
It is a strain to answer questions like these. Sincerity is not easily
question provocative: 'do you believe in gravity?'
modated within the relationships that we have with these kinds of kno
It is a strain to answer questions like these. Sincerity is not easily accomand to introduce it hinders our understanding of the scientist's relat
modated within the relationships that we have with these kinds of knowledge
with physics, or a lawyer's relationship with what she or he is drafting
and to introduce it hinders our understanding of the scientist's relationship
on). In fact, we can envisage a situation where a professional does the
with physics, or a lawyer's relationship with what she or he is drafting (and so
while gritting their teeth in a personal maelstrom of objection, or con
envisage a situation where a professional does their duty
on). In fact, we can job
a shoddy
done by someone who is wholeheartedly behind a proj
while gritting their teeth in a personal maelstrom of objection, or conversely,
course some kind of answer can be given to my questions but the s
a shoddy job done by someone who is wholeheartedly behind a project. Of
dislocation (even offence) and inappropriateness that accompanies the
course some kind of answer can be given to my questions but the sense of
is precisely my point: if our interest is in understanding something rath
dislocation (even offence) and inappropriateness that accompanies the attempt
protecting ourselves from it,'sincerity' and'belief' should be avoided.
is precisely my point: if our interest is in understanding something rather than
I intend to gain two interlinked freedoms here: firstly, to illustrate t
protecting ourselves from it, 'sincerity' and 'belief' should be avoided.
cerity is simply irrelevant to any knowledge-system's appropriate oper
I intend to gain two interlinked freedoms here: firstly, to illustrate that sinwe are thinking as or like historians. This does not mean that our subj
cerity is simply irrelevant to any knowledge-system's appropriate operation if
not have feelings, opinions and so on: it acts as a backdrop to give tho
we are thinking as or like historians. This does not mean that our subjects do
sonal matters some meaning. In interaction with our knowledge syste
not have feelings, opinions and so on: it acts as a backdrop to give those perthink of aspects such as professionalism, integrity, considered judgeme
sonal matters some meaning. In interaction with our knowledge systems, we
performance of roles rather than sincerity. I do not wish to suggest t
think of aspects such as professionalism, integrity, considered judgement and
ancient world was an exact mirror of the present, merely to raise the pos
performance of roles rather than sincerity. I do not wish to suggest that the
that we should expect a potential spectrum not unlike ours.
ancient world was an exact mirror of the present, merely to raise the possibility
that we should expect a potential spectrum not unlike ours.
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
421
421
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
Experience shows that a number of my readers will react to the very idea
of judging sincerity in modern agents precisely because it is unfair, unknowExperience shows that a number of my readers will react to the very idea
able, irrelevant, divisive and unprofessional. They may also object to the
of judging sincerity in modern agents precisely because it is unfair, unknowimplicit comparison of a 'level playing field' of modern discourses against
able, irrelevant, divisive and unprofessional. They may also object to the
ancient, but again, it seems to me we are jumping at shadows. Let me be clear
implicit comparison of a 'level playing field' of modern discourses against
that firstly, this is an experiment in perspective, intended to have a bearing on
ancient, but again, it seems to me we are jumping at shadows. Let me be clear
our understanding of antiquity (not the present) and secondly that by explorthat firstly, this is an experiment in perspective, intended to have a bearing on
ing this, I am in fact extending (not diminishing) the secular project. If secular
our understanding of antiquity (not the present) and secondly that by explorhistory cannot meaningfully explain the religious (the other) on its own terms,
ing this, I am in fact extending (not diminishing) the secular project. If secular
then it has effectively failed.
history cannot meaningfully explain the religious (the other) on its own terms,
Sincerity is a vast topic, larger than belief, and could easily merit a far
then it has effectively failed.
greater study than is offered here-but then, our purpose was to unveil it just
Sincerity is a vast topic, larger than belief, and could easily merit a far
enough to shoo it away. I have argued that we should actively refuse to seek it
greater study than is offered here-but then, our purpose was to unveil it just
in an account of ancient religion since it is both irretrievable and-when you
enough to shoo it away. I have argued that we should actively refuse to seek it
get down to it-irrelevant. We should be looking instead, with fewer preconin an account of ancient religion since it is both irretrievable and-when you
ceptions, at how people managed in societies (ot conversely, how societies
get down to it-irrelevant. We should be looking instead, with fewer preconmanaged people). For the most part we see people interacting with complex
ceptions, at how people managed in societies (or, conversely, how societies
thought-systems and finding their way through life in relation to those, negotimanaged people). For the most part we see people interacting with complex
ating understandings, tolerating uncertainties, making judgements within the
thought-systems and finding their way through life in relation to those, negotiexplanatory frameworks they inhabited.
ating understandings, tolerating uncertainties, making judgements within the
explanatory frameworks they inhabited.
6. Beyond Belief
6. Beyond Belief
Our enquiry has been less about what we can say about the ancient world than
what we should not. What then can we talk about? I have suggested 'ritual'
Our enquiry has been less about what we can say about the ancient world than
but, having cleared some space, we should consider whether there are other
what we should not. What then can we talk about? I have suggested 'ritual'
potentially fruitful options. A first encounter (through text, at least) with the
but, having cleared some space, we should consider whether there are other
ancient world confronts the modern reader perhaps most of all with what
potentially fruitful options. A first encounter (through text, at least) with the
appears to be a pervasive interest in prediction (divination). Space does not
ancient world confronts the modern reader perhaps most of all with what
permit any disentanglement of divination from religion but the two are closely
appears to be a pervasive interest in prediction (divination). Space does not
linked in ritual at least. But we cannot characterise the ancient world as somepermit any disentanglement of divination from religion but the two are closely
how 'obsessed with prediction'if we are seeking what is genuinely different
linked in ritual at least. But we cannot characterise the ancient world as somefrom our own. Prediction (forecasting, guessing, planning) is just as pervasive
how 'obsessed with prediction' if we are seeking what is genuinely different
in our lives as it appears to have been in theirs. Indeed, as the anthropologist
from our own. Prediction (forecasting, guessing, planning) is just as pervasive
Robin Horton found, an interest in 'prediction, control and explanation'
in our lives as it appears to have been in theirs. Indeed, as the anthropologist
seems to be a universal concern.60 Once again, though we are confronted by
Robin Horton found, an interest in 'prediction, control and explanation'
seems to be a universal concern. 60 Once again, though we are confronted by
@
Horton and Finnegan
60
Horton and Finnegan (1973).
(197 3),
422
422
Jason Davies
Jason Davies
strange practices, they have a certain logic that derives from deeper a
tions: if there are gods who define future tendencies and who care ab
strange practices, they have a certain logic that derives from deeper assumpworld of men, it makes sense to try to find out what they intend. So div
tions: if there are gods who define future tendencies and who care about the
confronts us with a similar situation as 'religion'-axiomatic dif
world of men, it makes sense to try to find out what they intend. So divination
underlying complex local practices.
confronts us with a similar situation as 'religion'-axiomatic difference
If I were to give the briefest possible account of the most cha
underlying complex local practices.
question and the locus of genuine alterity in the study of ancient (
If I were to give the briefest possible account of the most challenging
Roman) religion it would be not concerned with the thought-system th
question and the locus of genuine alterity in the study of ancient (not just
up around a different set of axioms (which we refer to in its totality
Roman) religion it would be not concerned with the thought-system they built
religion(s)'or'their beliefs') but rather with the fact that it was almost
up around a different set of axioms (which we refer to in its totality as 'their
sally axiomatic that one could influence gods through ritual, which w
religion(s)' or 'their beliefs') but rather with the fact that it was almost univerally animal sacrifice.6r I am unconvinced we are currently in a pos
sally axiomatic that one could influence gods through ritual, which was usuexplore this but more optimistic that if we treat the practices and inte
ally animal sacrifice. 61 I am unconvinced we are currently in a position to
tions that derive from it as reasonably intelligible corollaries, we c
explore this but more optimistic that if we treat the practices and interpretamore insight than locating our perplexity at the level of those deductio
tions that derive from it as reasonably intelligible corollaries, we can gain
practices. This is not a particularly distressing state of affairs-it is un
more insight than locating our perplexity at the level of those deductions and
me whether we would benefit from directly tackling the question 'w
practices. This is not a particularly distressing state of affairs-it is unclear to
ritual sacrifice an almost universal feature in antiquity (not to men
me whether we would benefit from directly tackling the question 'why was
extraordinary number of other cultures)?'62 Directions for that enquir
ritual sacrifice an almost universal feature in antiquity (not to mention an
emerge as other studies continue to mature.
extraordinary number of other cultures)?'62 Directions for that enquiry might
The interesting question, it seems to me, is how textured our respo
emerge as other studies continue to mature.
become when we consider questions that, sidestepping the hugely di
The interesting question, it seems to me, is how textured our response can
axioms, assume that their relationship with those axioms was not
become when we consider questions that, sidestepping the hugely divergent
unlike ours with our secular ones. Can we have an account of ancient
axioms, assume that their relationship with those axioms was not entirely
that embraces the full spectrum of possible responses? Antiquity was
unlike ours with our secular ones. Can we have an account of ancient religion
with people who were deeply committed at a personal level, extraor
that embraces the full spectrum of possible responses? Antiquity was replete
adept and knowledgeable as state officials, sceptical, iconoclastic, a
with people who were deeply committed at a personal level, extraordinarily
authority, relatively indifferent, particularly interested, pragmatic,
adept and knowledgeable as state officials, sceptical, iconoclastic, averse to
unconsciously out of step with everybody else, confused, addicted, com
authority, relatively indifferent, particularly interested, pragmatic, cheeky,
incompetent, opportunistic, ignorant, hyperbolic, anachronistic ... but
unconsciously out of step with everybody else, confused, addicted, competent,
vast majority of the time wholly within the paradigm of their
incompetent, opportunistic, ignorant, hyperbolic, anachronistic ... but for the
Furthermore, we have tended to privilege the extant voices of dissent
vast majority of the time wholly within the paradigm of their society.
critics who are distinctive and contrary by definition but we should not
Furthermore, we have tended to privilege the extant voices of dissenters and
estimate the power of 'business as usual': 'the speculative religious ide
critics who are distinctive and contrary by definition but we should not underfew, mostly aristocratic and idiosyncratic] individuals cannot be our ya
estimate the power of 'business as usual': 'the speculative religious ideas of [a
(Rtipke (2007b: t2).
few, mostly aristocratic and idiosyncratic] individuals cannot be our yardstick'
6rFor a summary of ritual practices in Rome, see most recently
Scheid (2007), also Riipk
b: 12).
(Riipke (2007
137-53) and Beard et al. (1998:35-8).
62Which
For a summary
of ritual
practices
in Rome,
most
recently
Scheid
also Riipke
is not
to say that
it hassee
not
been
broached:
(1987) fo
see(2007),
e.g. Burkert
et al.(2007b:
137-53) and propositions
Beard et al. (1998:
35-8). (1992) is one of those who foreground sacrifice to the newco
and Dowden
62Which is not to say that it has not been broached: see e.g. Burkert et al. (1987) for a set of
propositions and Dowden (1992) is one of those who foreground sacrifice to the newcomer.
61
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
423
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
423
At this point, it is only fair to mention the Epicureans, philosophers whose
resistance to organised religion is well documented: but the existence of a
At this point, it is only fair to mention the Epicureans, philosophers whose
small (if apparently vocal) subset of iconoclastic intellectuals proves nothing
resistance to organised religion is well documented: but the existence of a
other than the existence of a small subset of intellectual intellectuals. That in
small (if apparently vocal) subset of iconoclastic intellectuals proves nothing
itself does not seem unduly surprising in a society as sophisticated as Rome.
other than the existence of a small subset of intellectual intellectuals. That in
They may have been the fiercest organised critics of religion in antiquity but
itself does not seem unduly surprising in a society as sophisticated as Rome.
their influence does not seem to have led to any discernible changes in ancient
They may have been the fiercest organised critics of religion in antiquity but
practice, even though it is clear that some effort had to be made to respond to
their influence does not seem to have led to any discernible changes in ancient
itpractice,
in a way
that disabled its extreme claims by the time of the late Republic.
even though it is clear that some effort had to be made to respond to
They were emphatically a rather inevitable end of a spectrum rather than the
it in a way that disabled its extreme claims by the time of the late Republic.
last word on whether 'one should believe': an ancient Roman's relationship
They were emphatically a rather inevitable end of a spectrum rather than the
with
religion
was not a 'yes/no' scenario, where the existence of a 'better'
on whether
'one should believe': an ancient Roman's relationship
last word
argument would bring down the entire edifice, any more than the presence of
with religion was not a 'yes/no' scenario, where the existence of a 'better'
one or two vocal left-wing politicians in a position of moderate but genuine
argument
would bring down the entire edifice, any more than the presence of
influence makes it impossible for a right-wing government to function.
one or two vocal left-wing politicians in a position of moderate but genuine
influence makes it impossible for a right-wing government to function.
Believing in medicine
Believing
in interesting
medicine comparison that can be made (fairly fortuitously) with
There is an
the world of ancient medicine that permits one last warning against expecting
There
is an interesting comparison that can be made (fairly fortuitously) with
as an authenticating feature of 'believing strange things' in the
sincerity
the
world of ancient medicine that permits one last warning against expecting
ancient world. There is a striking parallel between the treatment of ancient
sincerity as an authenticating feature of 'believing strange things' in the
religion and the treatment of ancient medicine insofar as much scholarship in
ancient world. There is a striking parallel between the treatment of ancient
can be peppered with deprecatory remarks.63 These two are the
both spheres
religion
and the treatment of ancient medicine insofar as much scholarship in
different-and
areas in which the ancient Romans and Greeks seem most
both spheres can be peppered with deprecatory remarks. 63 These two are the
us. The word 'believe'is close to hand when talkincomprehensible-to
often
areas in which the ancient Romans and Greeks seem most different-and
ing about their medicine.e We do not say that the medic Galen made deducoften
incomprehensible-to us. The word 'believe' is close to hand when talkwithout evidence even though we do not agree with any item of his
tions
ing
about their medicine. 64 We do not say that the medic Galen made deducreasoning or his prescriptions: indeed it has been argued that, within the
tions
without evidence even though we do not agree with any item of his
understanding of his day, he did the best job possible (Hankinson (1989)).
reasoning or his prescriptions: indeed it has been argued that, within the
What is useful for us is that ancient medicine is broadly divided (by us) into
understanding
of his day, he did the best job possible (Hankinson (1989».
What is useful for us is that ancient medicine is broadly divided (by us) into
63
Scholars are actively moving away from the distinction as ananchronistic (Lloyd 1979) and
impoverished (e.g. Nutton (2004:12,16), van der Eijk (20M)) but the habit is as engrained as it
63
are actively moving away from the distinction as ananchronistic (Lloyd 1979) and
isScholars
convenient.
sWhich allows(e.g.
impoverished
Nutton
16), van dermy
Eijk
(2004» but
the the
habit
is asorthodox
engrained
as it
presses
more
is that
impression
acupuncturist:
return (2004:
to our 12,
us to
isonconvenient.
'alternative'medicine, the more the fiduciary contract is invoked by supporters of the latter,
64 Which allows us to return
our acupuncturist:
impression
is that
the medics
more orthodox
presses
to
are unlikely
since
be enough,
will probablymynot
contract
with varying success. The to
on
'alternative'
medicine,
the
more
the
fiduciary
contract
is
invoked
by
supporters
of
the
latter,
model
of
divinity.
a
rival
not
try
to
construct
whereas
they
do
rival
model
of
the
body,
tolerate a
with varying success. The contract will probably not be enough, since medics are unlikely to
tolerate a rival model of the body, whereas they do not try to construct a rival model of divinity.
424
424
Jason Davies
Jason Davies
what we call the 'rational' (Hippocratic/humour-based) and the 'irr
(religious).6s
what we call the 'rational' (Hippocratic/humour-based) and the 'irrational'
However, ancient medicine is intelligible to us in two ways that re
(religious).65
not: firstly, we can follow (without agreeing with) their humoral rea
However, ancient medicine is intelligible to us in two ways that religion is
which is extensively documented, but also because we grant it an eas
not: firstly, we can follow (without agreeing with) their humoral reasoning,
ing since it is orientated around the body (which we grant to exist) rath
which is extensively
documented, but also because we grant it an easier hear'supernatural
forces' (which we do not). The analysis of the deploy
ing since it terms
is orientated
around the body (which we grant to exist) rather than
such as 'irrational'to describe 'religious'medicine-the incon
'supernatural
forces' (which we do not). The analysis of the deployment of
within
the realm of the misguided-is a particular form of the fiducia
terms such as 'irrational' to describe 'religious' medicine-the inconceivable
tract that sits uncomfortably because no sooner has the distinction bee
within the realm of the misguided-is a particular form of the fiduciary conthan scholars point out the epistemological seamlessness of the two d
tract that sits uncomfortably because no sooner has the distinction been made
in ancient thinking. van der Eijk (2004:189-90) highlights this diffi
than scholars point out the epistemological seamlessness of the two domains
connection with the Hippocratic text Regimen IV ( De Victu IV) whi
in ancient thinking. van der Eijk (2004: 189-90) highlights this difficulty in
with medical interpretations of dreams:
connection with the Hippocratic text Regimen IV (De Victu IV) which deals
on the one hand,
this work has sometimes been dismissed as one of
with medical interpretations
of dreams:
'primitive' and 'unscientific' treatises of the Corpus Hippouaticum .
on the one hand,
this work
sometimes
been dismissed
as one
of the most
other hand
... it has
expounds
a comprehensive
philosophy
medical
about
'primitive' and
'unscientific'
of thethe
Corpus
nections
betweentreatises
nature, man,
worldHippocraticum
and the divine......onasthe
such,
other hand ...
it expoundsthe
a comprehensive
medical
about
the conparadoxically,
work represents
Greek philosophy
'rational'. i.e.
philosophically
nections between
nature,
man,high
the extent.
world and the divine ... as such, perhaps
medicine
to a very
paradoxically, the work represents Greek 'rational'. Le. philosophically inspired,
The
difference
is that the medical material has proven fertile gro
medicine to
a very
high extent.
understanding ancient culture and the negotiation of identity in recog
The difference
the medical material has proven fertile ground for
terms asisanthat
epistemological enactment of their broader values.66 In th
and the negotiation of identity in recognisable
understanding
ancient
culture
then, we are accustomed
to detecting nuances in their
thinking, even
enactment
of their broader values. 66 In that field
terms as anweepistemological
would not consider it usefully
applicable. What would happen if we a
accustomed
to detecting nuances in their thinking, even though
then, we are
that
'religious'thinking
had the same (or greater) level of internal co
we would not
consider
it
usefully
applicable. What would happen if we assumed
and integrity whose landscapeisfar more differentiated and nuanced
that 'religious' thinking had the same (or greater) level of internal coherence
have hitherto considered, reflecting a truly sophisticated and var
and integrity
whose landscape is far more differentiated and nuanced that we
engagement with 'matters religious'? I wish to close with some spe
have hitherto
considered, reflecting a truly sophisticated and variegated
and experiment in that vein.
engagement with 'matters religious'? I wish to close with some speculation
and experiment in that vein.
Trouble with divination
Firstly,
in the study of individual texts, especially 'troublesome' on
Trouble with
divination
charge
of scepticism
has been a persistent one and
I shall briefly
discu
Firstly, in sibly
the study
of individual texts, especially 'troublesome' ones, the
the most influential of these, Cicero's On Divination. Cicero wrote
charge of scepticism has been a persistent one and I shall briefly discuss possibly the most
65Theinfluential of these, Cicero's On Divination. Cicero wrote a great
situation is not helped by the existence of a school of medical thought in antiqui
as 'the rationalists'.
66For
instance
(2000). of
situation
is not
helpedFlemming
by the existence
65 The
as 'the rationalists' .
66 For instance Flemming (2000).
a school of medical thought in antiquity known
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
425
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
425
deal across several different genres that seem to represent different positions
(they can be broadly as a political orator, philosopher and as letter-writer).
deal across several different genres that seem to represent different positions
On Divinationbelongs firmly in his philosophical works, and is often treated
(they can be broadly as a political orator, philosopher and as letter-writer).
as the text where he'speaks his mind most obviously'(sceptically) even though
On Divination belongs firmly in his philosophical works, and is often treated
itasdiffers
from the position adopted in many of his other writings.
the text where he 'speaks his mind most obviously' (sceptically) even though
This text, written in 4544 ncn (Wardle 2006: 42-3), has attracted a great
it differs from the position adopted in many of his other writings.
deal of attention over the years. It is written in the form of a discussion
This text, written in 45-44 BeE (Ward.le 2006: 42-3), has attracted a great
between his brother Quintus (book one) and'Cicero himself'('Marcus', book
deal of attention over the years. It.is written in the form of a discussion
two): Quintus puts forward a case for divinationo and Marcus then sets out a
between his brother Quintus (book one) and 'Cicero himself' ('Marcus', book
rebuttal. Many scholars have considered the second book to have the last
two): Quintus puts forward a case for divination, and Marcus then sets out a
word on the issues and then ascribed this conviction to Cicero himself. But it
.rebuttal. Many scholars have considered the second book to have the last
is not that simple: discussion of this text's significance has been sporadic but
word on the issues and then ascribed this conviction to Cicero himself. But it
intense since 1986 and opinions are starkly divided. Though attempts have
is not that simple: discussion of this text's significance has been sporadic but
been made to complicate the reading of this text as a straightforward refutaintense since 1986 and opinions are starkly divided. Though attempts have
divination, many remain convinced that the text represents a clear
tion of
been
made to complicate the reading of this text as a straightforward refutastatement of scepticism.6T Given the interwoven relationship of divination
tion of divination, many remain convinced that the text represents a clear
and religion, it is a short step to say that he also rejected the entire religious
statement of scepticism. 67 Given the interwoven relationship of divination
apparatus.
and
religion, it is a short step to say that he also rejected the entire religious
I am not in a position to enter here into the debate about how to read the
apparatus.
text beyond outlining some lines of enquiry, though it will become obvious I
I am not in a position to enter here into the debate about how to read the
favour a version that precludes the idea that a single (albeit eminent) statesman
text
beyond outlining some lines of enquiry, though it will become obvious I
held a position so profoundly out of step with his contemporaries. For now, I
favour a version that precludes the idea that a single (albeit eminent) statesman
shall address the 'so what anyway?'factor.
held
a position so profoundly out of step with his contemporaries. For now, I
if he was sceptical? What is that evidence of? Treating him as sceptishallWhat
address the 'so what anyway?' factor.
cal would force us to posit all kinds of profound changes in his thinking where
What if he was sceptical? What is that evidence of? Treating him as scepti(to simplify grossly) his political and legal writings are broadly conservative,
cal would force us to posit all kinds of profound changes in his thinking where
a supporter of religious institutions, but his philosophical works are utterly
(to simplify grossly) his political and legal writings are broadly conservative,
unconventional. He would be somewhere between an arch-hypocrite and a
a supporter of religious institutions, but his philosophical works are utterly
man who single-handedly thought his way out of his entire cultural frameunconventional. He would be somewhere between an arch-hypocrite and a
work-hardly
a typical venture in any society. Comparisons from our world
man
who single-handedly
thought his way out of his entire cultural frameof a young religious man becoming an old atheist are emphatically not directly
work-hardly a typical venture in any society. Comparisons from our world
applicable: it would be more like an internationally recognised scientist being
of
a young religious man becoming an old atheist are emphatically not directly
converted in our day. That will appear plausible as an analogy-but only with
applicable: it would be more like an internationally recognised scientist being
the assumption that the proportion of people who undergo such a change is
converted in our day. That will appear plausible as an analogy-but only with
the assumption that the proportion of people who undergo such a change is
6TComplex: Beard (1986), Schofield (1986), Krostenko (2000), Rasmussen (2003). Wardle (2006:
8-28) seems rather unconvinced; Harris (2003:27) is more emphatic ('attempts to show that
67
Complex:
Beard
(1986),does
Schofield
(1986), Cicero's
Krostenko
(2000),
Rasmussen
(2003).
what it (2006:
seems
meanWardle
not mainly
Book
2 of De
not represent
views,
or does
divinatione
8-28)
seems
unconvinced;
Harris
(2003:
27) isinmore
emphatic
show that
(2009: ('attempts
is
position
172, 183 fortoexample)
rejected')
and his
Harris
to mean,
arerather
to be firmly
Book
2 of De divinatione does not represent Cicero's views, or does not mainly mean what it seems
unchanged.
to mean, are to be firmly rejected') and his position in Harris (2009: 172, 183 for example) is
unchanged.
426
426
Jason Davies
Jason Davies
if sceptical (in our sense) p
phers then were even rarer (if prominently loquacious) than religious c
roughly the same in both societies. What if sceptical (in our sense) philosoin the modern age? What sort of witness to 'normality'would he be
phers then were even rarer (if prominently loquacious) than religious converts
case? We can be adamant that Cicero was not typical of his age, even
roughly the same in both societies. What
in the modern age? What sort of witness to 'normality' would he be, in that
pointing at his voluminous literary output. The more positive we
case? We can be adamant that Cicero was not typical of his age, even just by
Cicero was out-and-out sceptical, the more we emphasise his differe
pointing at his voluminous literary output. The more positive we are that
thus marginalising him we devalue him as a historical witness of th
Cicero was out-and-out sceptical, the more we emphasise his difference. By
stream. So, if we work on this basis that he formulated such a clear and
thus marginalising him we devalue him as a historical witness of the mainposition, we should also minimise his historical impact.
stream. So, if we work on this basis that he formulated such a clear and extreme
This is unfortunately the opposite of what has happened. Rather,
position, we should also minimise his historical impact.
become an icon towards which our attention has gravitated, and'scep
This is unfortunately the opposite of what has happened. Rather, he has
become the biggest and most clearly labelled sticker on the map of r
become an icon towards which our attention has gravitated, and 'sceptic' has
Rome: the fact that we are not so sure what to write on the other labe
become the biggest and most clearly labelled sticker on the map of religious
not help (and'believed'/'pious'/'took it seriously'do not seize our atte
Rome: the fact that we are not so sure what to write on the other labels does
the same way as something familiar).68
not help (and 'believed'/'pious'/'took it seriously' do not seize our attention in
I would prefer to argue that even if he was an absolute sceptic, it
the same way as something familiar).68
interesting to see his arguments virtually buriedinthe context, to of
I would prefer to argue that even if he was an absolute sceptic, it is more
ease with which we diagnose belief/disbelief: it is just too easy to foc
interesting to see his arguments virtually buried in the context, to offset the
without some relief, on the one position we think we can relate to
ease with which we diagnose belief/disbelief: it is just too easy to focus, not
strange world of Roman religion. Of course, it might be objected th
without some relief, on the one position we think we can relate to in the
assuming that the rest of the aristocracy did not share a sceptical posit
strange world of Roman religion. Of course, it might be objected that I am
cannot prove this, even though that general model has been discarded
assuming that the rest of the aristocracy did not share a sceptical position and
most part, but I base my assertion on two brief observations. Firstly, w
cannot prove this, even though that general model has been discarded for the
that he did not do away with Roman practices, even if that was what
most part, but I base my assertion on two brief observations. Firstly, we know
trying to do: the Roman state and people continued to perform ritu
that he did not do away with Roman practices, even if that was what he was
centuries until sacrifice was forcibly stopped by the Christian emperors
trying to do: the Roman state and people continued to perform rituals for
et al. (1998: 375,387-8)). Further, to pick one example of many, arg
centuries until sacrifice was forcibly stopped by the Christian emperors (Beard
from another of his philosophical works (On the Nature of the Gods) in
et al. (1998: 375, 387-8»). Further, to pick one example of many, arguments
of traditional divination are cited over four centuries later by the h
from another of his philosophical works (On the Nature of the Gods) in favour
Ammianus Marcellinus (21.1.13-14). In other words, he did not convi
of traditional divination are cited over four centuries later by the historian
contemporaries to throw the towel in on the'elite pretence'and abando
Ammianus Marcellinus (21.1.13-14). In other words, he did not convince his
nation. Either he failed to convince them of the sceptical case or they
contemporaries to throw the towel in on the 'elite pretence' and abandon divistood that he was not making that straightforward case (as Beard and
nation. Either he failed to convince them of the sceptical case or they underhave argued.) Secondly, if any of the foregoing argument is accepted
stood that just
he was not making that straightforward case (as Beard and others
did not boil down to the simple yes/no answers that we, conditio
have argued.) Secondly, if any of the foregoing argument is accepted, things
'belief' keep expecting: Cicero expected a far more nuanced response
just did not boil down to the simple yes/no answers that we, conditioned by
challenges.
'belief' keep expecting: Cicero expected a far more nuanced response to his
challenges.68e.g.
Haynes (2003) draws on'the sceptical Cicero'as a symbol at intervals. It does not i
her many insights but it does overly privilege scepticism in the overall picture.
Haynes (2003) draws on 'the sceptical Cicero' as a symbol at intervals. It does not invalidate
her many insights but it does overly privilege scepticism in the overall picture.
If
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
421
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
427
we refuse to apply a binary 'belieflng' approach and insist on a more
contextual and complex one, other positions can come into better focus. The
If we refuse to apply a binary 'beliefing' approach and insist on a more
broad historical answer (why this text? why then? why that way?) can then be
contextual and complex one, other positions can come into better focus. The
located in the social and political domain and give us a more historically satisbroad historical answer (why this text? why then? why that way?) can then be
factory commentary. Thus, in this vein, Krostenko (2000) argues that though
located in the social and political domain and give us a more historically satisthe text is taken to argue for intellectual reasons against the entire edifice of
factory commentary. Thus, in this vein, Krostenko (2000) argues that though
divination at all levels to modern 'fiduciary-minded' scholars, it is driven by
the text is taken to argue for intellectual reasons against the entire edifice of
an urgent political agenda. Cicero is critical of the position taken in both
divination at all levels to modern 'fiduciary-minded' scholars, it is driven by
books, in response to the extreme problem of Julius Caesar's meteoric rise to
an urgent political agenda. Cicero is critical of the position taken in both
power and attempts to appropriate the influence available through divinatory
books, in response to the extreme problem of Julius Caesar's meteoric rise to
means. His chosen method was to problematise profoundly the status of divipower and attempts to appropriate the influence available through divinatory
nation and contextualise all its offerings within other considerations (some-
means. His chosen method was to problematise profoundly the status of divithing I intend to explore in more detail on another occasion.) He did this
nation and contextualise all its offerings within other considerations (someknowing full well that the role of divination was deeply enmeshed in Roman
thing I intend to explore in more detail on another occasion.) He did this
life and was not going to disappear because he wrote some philosophical
knowing full well that the role of divination was deeply enmeshed in Roman
works that encouraged his peers to be reflective and critical (as opposed to
life and was not going to disappear because he wrote some philosophical
sceptical, in the modern sense.)
works that encouraged his peers to be reflective and critical (as opposed to
Just for comparison, several academics have said to me in recent years
sceptical, in the modern sense.)
that they are worried about the future of science, which they describe as
Just for comparison, several academics have said to me in recent years
being 'stalled'and odeeply problematic': comic websites such as <http://www.
that they are worried about the future of science, which they describe as
phdcomics.com/> and <http://xkcd.com/> lampoon science from the most
being 'stalled' and 'deeply problematic': comic websites such as <http://www.
deeply committed scientific position and expertise: their interest is not in
phdcomics.com/> and <http://xkcd.com/> lampoon science from the most
debunking science but in redeeming it. That does not mean they know where
deeply committed scientific position and expertise: their interest is not in
the next step lies except to carry on going. Thus when Cicero explicitly says
debunking science but in redeeming it. That does not mean they know where
that his account is aimed at 'educating the young'by emancipating philosthe
next step lies except to carry on going. Thus when Cicero explicitly says
ophy from its Greek origins, we should not dismiss the claim even if we find it
that his account is aimed at 'educating the young' by emancipating philosextremely hard to chart the assumptions he is negotiating within. We should
ophy from its Greek origins, we should not dismiss the claim even if we find it
not assume that our lack of understanding is proof of his incoherence or map
extremely hard to chart the assumptions he is negotiating within. We should
the methodology of belief onto his dialogue, however well it seems to fit: it is
not assume that our lack of understanding is proof of his incoherence or map
impossible to square this claim with his complex, multivalent and undeniably
the methodology of belief onto his dialogue, however well it seems to fit: it is
critical account as long as we think sincerity should have anything to do
impossible to square this claim with his complex, multivalent and undeniably
with it.
critical account as long as we think sincerity should have anything to do
I should not overstate this case-many such rich accounts do already
with it.
exist, though perhaps the most sophisticated (such as Cicero's text) have not
I should not overstate this case-many such rich accounts do already
yet been given the fullest treatment that they might attract. Given the poverty
exist, though perhaps the most sophisticated (such as Cicero's text) have not
of extant texts that expose the inner workings of divinatory and religious
yet been given the fullest treatment that they might attract. Given the poverty
reasoning, to be handed a severe critique as a starting point is quite a handiof extant texts that expose the inner workings of divinatory and religious
capped beginning. But as time goes by, more and more authors are accomreasoning, to be handed a severe critique as a starting point is quite a handimodated to a methodology that explores their negotiation of identity-complex
capped beginning. But as time goes by, more and more authors are accomthinking within their system that takes us away from the simplifying mould of
modated to amethodology that explores their negotiation ofidentity-complex
thinking within their system that takes us away from the simplifying mould of
out of some of our difficulties.
So, for instance,if Mary Douglas, when writing Natural Symbols.
chosento dwell on Roman evidence,she might haveposited, as an examp
428
lawn
Daries(c.509-31nce) (high grid/high group, to
Republic
a hierarchy,the Roman
regulatedsocialhierarchy and a high de
strictly
It exhibited a
her terms).un
cu
'belief'. Weofare
also retreating
from giving
the greater
to written
t~\l'
The Dionysiac
that society.
of priority
of members
expectations
internalised
(gender,
c
when it comes
'understanding'
'what theybehaviour,
thought', erosion
since so of
often
'indi\iduJ.:
differences
scg,
with its wild unkempt
186to
and
constitute
the irruption
rule rath<."~of sect(
exaggerations,
alternatives
a sudden
andmisunderstandings
so on) would represent
free/servile
status
than the exception'
5): of
while
belief
persists
as (from
a methodolog:-.
31 ncn), on the o
Empire
The
stress.70
group')2007a:
grid/high(Riipke
at a time
'cultic'aspects
we risk taking
onewith
stepitsforward
two back. acrossthe political and social spec
greaterand
hand,
A more(high
difficult
area is of
thethe
broader
one, of
of the
ancient
society
as a whole.
W;:contras
on the
emphasis
outsider,
otherness
awareness
quali
run the risk
of unnecessarily
alienating
the
reader
with
a
litany
of
stran~::
special
group
charisma
and
by
his
purifies
the
'good'
who
leader
a
hiera
practices aswould
we describe
Roman
religion
(however
factually).
With
the
histori,',
rigidity
of
stress
the
laid
less
on
that
havehad beena society
vio
graphical shift
to more
and been
polyvalent
it becomes
POS~I'
not-infrequently
pronedescription,
to factions and
more'ironic'
articulate,
become
ble to experiment
more:
we are moving
away
from privileging
a single mod.:: the Ro
(1990)-similarly
then-compares
Gordon
of leadership.
changes
and becoming
moretoaccustomed
looking tentatively at societies through
'a bottle of to
Vim'.71
Emperor
more than one Iparticular
lens ('just
how it looks')
without
thinking
that as Cult
(generally
known
grid/group
model
that to
thesee
am informed
the model exhausts
thea truth,
and one
this tentativeness
is, inand
my opinion,
a \\<.1:applicatio
exhaustive
in anthropology,
marginal
Theory) is
out of someRoman
of our material
difficulties.
in this framework would arguably do more for Cult
Natural
Symbols,
haJ
So, for Theory
instance,
if Mary
Douglas,
to seewh
(so itwhen
and
only lightly,
mustwriting
be applied
for History
than
1 f a broa
chosen to dwell
on
Roman
evidence,
she
might
have
posited,
as
an
example
t
with
questions
generate
more
provokes). But it does allow us to
a hierarchy,scope
the Roman
Republic
(c.509-31
BCE)
(high
grid/high
group,
to
u~
than hitherto: all the 'religious'behaviour in the upheaval going f
her terms).69 It exhibited a strictly regulated social hierarchy and a high degrc.:
of internalised
expectations of members of that society. The Dionysiac cult (1f
6 e D o u g l a s( 1 9 7 0) .
186 BCE, with
itsthe
wild
unkempt behaviour, erosion of differences (gender, c1as,,r0On
elision of normal boundaries,North (1979):on the cult in greatestdetail Pailler (1
free/servile Pstatus
represent
irruption
of sect and
('10\\
vi a i ndex.
1 - 3 ) .Be ard
et al . (1998:91-6)
ke ( 2 0 0 7 ba:3sudden
9 8 8 )so
;m oon)
ce n tlyRiip
st r ewould
a i l l e r( 1and
7 ' G o r d oat
n (a
1 9time
9 0:2 5of
5 ) . stress. 70 The Empire (from 31 BCE), on the oth~r
grid/high group')
hand, with its greater 'cultic' aspects across the political and social spectrum
(high awareness of the otherness of the outsider, emphasis on the contrasting
'good' leader who purifies the group by his charisma and special qualities)
would have had been a society that laid less stress on the rigidity of a hierarch:-.
become more articulate, been prone to factions and not-infrequently violent
changes of leadership. Gordon (1990)-similarly then-compares the Roman
Emperor to 'a bottle of Vim' .71
I am informed that the grid/group model (generally known as Cultural
Theory) is a marginal one in anthropology, and exhaustive application of
Roman material in this framework would arguably do more for Cultural
Theory than for History (so it must be applied only lightly, and to see what it
provokes). But it does allow us to generate more questions with a broader
scope than hitherto: all the 'religious' behaviour in the upheaval going from
'"Douglas (1970).
"lOn the elision of normal boundaries. North (1979); on the cult in greatest detail Pailler (I 9861.
Pailler (1988); most recently Rlipke (2007b: 31-3), Beard et al. (1998: 91-6) and via index.
"Gordon (1990: 255).
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCEBELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
429
Republic to5,mf,i.I,
Empire can be purposefully
as abe
failed
attempt to
reas- as a f
purposefully
explored
Empire can
Republic toexplored
that appro
of
charisma
to
see
what
that
approach
yields.
We
already
sert hierarchy
in
face
see
what
to
charisma
of
face
in
Sm rer
seri hierarchy
we fbllow
if
that
as
a
political
change,
but
if
we
follow
the
logical
extent
of
knew{* about
but
change,
political
1r{atr
knew about that as a
t
grouping
Douglas's model, it prompts Douglas's
us to consider
grouping
the
formerly
disparate
consider
to
prompts
us
model, it
pattern
legitimate
religious changes to see if historically
legitimate
patterns
emerge
(and
prompts
religiouschangesto seeif historically
questions
hierarchy
unconsciously
going
with or unc
hierarchy
supporting
Cicero
nF 'was Cicero supporting
like 'wasor
questions
r rq'?r:E like
the times
andEGaiding the rise of
charismatic
leadership'?)
the rise of charismaticleadership
:l
li:"liI:
times and aiding
the
comparing
In addition,
comparing
the oddities
Republicwhen
to Empire
can the Re
many
tlr ,i;r r r' * many oddities when
In addition,
flr
be recast: the strange transition
the status
of hermaphrodites
as prodigies
status of herrna
transition in the
the strange
recast:
be in
with a chan
to perspective,
'high group/low
makes more sense within thismakes
perspective,
with awithin
change
this
more sense
grid'. For a period during the Republic,
hermaphrodites
were
treated
as
highly
hermaphrodite
Republic,
the
grid'. For a period during
prodigies)
toxic occurrences (un typicallytoxic
for prodigies)
in their
own right
had to in
be their ow
forthat
(untypically
occurrences
Yet un
great urgency.72
Yet
under
the
Empire,
Pliny
disposed of and expiated withdisposed
great
urgency.T2
of and expiated with
as p
informs us that though they were
onceusconsidered
as they
prodigies
a
once considered
were (indicating
that though
informs
they are cl
significant violation of cosmicsignificant
boundaries),
they are
'now amongst
cosmic boundaries),
of classified
violation
of boundaries).
Given
that a major
exotic treats'73 (an insignificantexotic
violation
of boundarie
violation
(an insignificant
treats'73
grid' societies
grid' societies
is group/high
the preservation
of norms,is the pr
concern of 'high group/high concern
of 'high
in a society
with
'low than
hermaphrodites would attracthermaphrodites
greater attention
than attract
greater
attention
would
just be cu
indeed
grid'. In the latter society, theygrid'.
would
indeed
just
be
curiosities.
would
they
In the latter society,
the enq
and
indeed
never
This tentative exploration doesThis
not tentative
exhaust the
enquiry
not
exhaust
does
exploration
B
in
could (we would be going native
in (we
anthropology).
But native
it does allow
us to
anthropology).
would be going
could
impulsive
sensefrom
of non-sense
by refusingsense
to of no
detach ourselves from our first
our first impulsive
ourselves
detach
an anachronistic
Perhapsaninanachronistic
the mean- one).
privilege one model (especiallyprivilege
(especially
one modelone).
this strange
just this
as eclipses
strange pheno
time medicine had accommodated
accommodated
hadphenomenon
iime medicine
accepteda
went from having a predictive value
to
being
accepted
as
a
routine
part
of the
being
value
to
predictive
a
having
went from
non-sign
workings of the cosmos (and therefore
being
non-significant).74
being
(and
therefore
cosmos
workings of the
histo
I do not wish to retrospectively
turn
Roman
history
into
a
lost
footnote,
Roman
turn
I do not wish to retrospectively
pro
have
my examples
have
proven
we
don't
need
it
albeit of a great scholar andalbeit
my
examples
and
of a great scholar
Douglas).
(Gordon (1990), for instance, does
not cite
Douglas).
Cultural
Theory
is too
not cite
does
(1990),
for instance,
(Gordon
main value
introducing
is main
to bring
to of
ourintroduc
reductive for our purposes: thereductive
value
the
purposes:it
our
forof
awareness that we could configure
our approach
ancient
religion
a great to anc
ourinapproach
configure
could
that we to
awareness
explicitly chos
on one of
explicitly
chosen
ratheron
than
supplied
number of ways before settlingnumber
one
settling
ways before
a
a polyvalent
as 'natural'. The greatest benefit
such a polyvalent
approach
would
the
suchbe
benefit of
'natural'.
The greatest
asof
l-
-;
i2 Be a r de t a l. ( 1 9 9 8 :8 0 n . 2 5 ) .
"Beard el al. (1998: 80 n. 25).
et in prodigiis
7rpliny Nrtturctl
7' Pliny Nalural Hislories (7.34) olim alldrogyllos
uocalosHistorie.s
el ill prodigiis
IIU/lC uero uocct[os
ill delidi.>.
(7.34\IllIbilos
otim anth'ogtttos
,oDavies
that they rve
74 Davies (2004: 98-9). A common feature
of prodigies
is that
were notfeature
'natural'
but space is
does
of prodigies
A common
(2004:98
9).they
did not mea
andand
not permit discussion of what the Romans
meant,discussion
and did not
by Romans
'nature'. meant,
Lindquist
what the
of mean,
not permit
(1982)note
that thecategorieso
Coleman (2008: 6), building on Pouillon Coleman
(1982) note
that the bLrildingon
categories of
'nat ural'
and 'supernatural'
Pouillon
(200g:6).
are a modern construct that does not always
bear useful
relationthat
to other
cultures'
perspectives
bear useful relation to ot
always
does not
construct
are a modern
430
430
Jason Davies
constant relllinder Jason
of the Davies
ide010gical pOwer Of Our chOsen approach:fu
more,平 ultiplicity is the apprOach that anthrop010gy has taken tOwards ri
constant reminder
of the
of our
furtherso atlcast
wc ideological
are in good power
60mpany.75
1tchosen
is mOreapproach:
interesting
tO see wha
experiinental
applicatiOn
Of anthropology
that rnodel provOkes
as atowards
respOnseritual,
than tO est
more, multiplicity
is the approach
that
has taken
lishare
it inasgood
a hegemonic
modelItlbr
ancient
religionotoA see
generalising
company.75
is more
interesting
what the synt
so at least we
model
is not likely
tO model
be helpFul
in teasing
Out the particularity
Of ancie
experimental
application
of that
provokes
as a response
than to establish it as a Rome―
hegemonic
model
for ancient
religion.better
A generalising
synthetic
it a1lows
us tO identify
which questiOns
are useful,
―unless
apprOpriate
taking
a cue froin
cOmparative
studies.
model is not
likely to thenl,by
be helpful
in teasing
out the
particularity
of ancient
Rome-unless Resolutely
it allows usabandOning
to identifytalk
better
which questions
are useful, then
Of`belief'and
the sympathetic
task Of es
an taking
anachronistic
sincerity
fOrces studies.
Our attentiOn ontO decipheHng
appropriatelishing
them, by
a cue from
comparative
particular
cOnstellatiOn
Of pOwer
religiOn
Resolutely
abandoning
talk of 'belief'
andthat
the Rornan
sympathetic
taskreflected
of estab-and au
ised.7物 αr is currently
sincerity aforces
our attention
ontowedeciphering
theitirre
lishing an anachronistic
histOrical
universal,and
can wOrk with
tive Of the degree
Of Our
Of cultural
axioms.The
difFusiOn
of power
thatfainiliaHty
Roman religion
reflected
and authorparticular constellation
of pOweruniversal,
is sOmething`we
understand'and
are accustOme
ised. That isconcentration
currently a historical
and we can
work with it irrespecis a preFerable
OptiOn tOaxioms.
re_enacting
own culture‐
tive of the working
degree with,and
of our familiarity
of cultural
The Our
diffusion
and
s
concentration of power is something 'we understand' and are accustomed to
working with, and is a preferable option to re-enacting
irボ our own culture-shock.
lf庶
For instance,
adopting non-secular
perspectives,
a'solum飩
e
un“
nこ which
.t蠍 some suggestnasbttd
a d狙 0
tion'to 'thewith
problem
and/Or flt
of religion',
intO the secular
only displaces
gaze in l the incommensurability (we
:ポ
lnstead
rnasking thei.e.privilege
of we
must choose those
weofunderstand,
those that
can
build a relationship
ο″
r distinctiveness
in these way
tO unpack
de五 berately
with and/orneed
fit into
the secular
gaze in the
whatprocess).
we instinctively brand as`religiOus'sO th
explorethe
howprivilege
each sOciety's`[religiOus]pOSSibilities
and authOrit
masking
of our distinctiveness in these ways,
we
Insteadweofcan
status'gained
theirwhat
particular
character as`products
Of histOrically
need to unpack
deliberately
we instinctively
brand as 'religious'
so thatdistinc
disciplines
and society's
forces'(Asad
1993:53-4).I
have argued
that the best sit
we can explore
how each
'[religious]
possibilities
and authoritative
thattheir
in our
case is Htual,fOr
reasons:■ of
historically
distinctive
status' gained
particular
charactertwO
as 'products
rstltt it is vastly
more appЮ p
becausethat
anthrop010gy
is for
alsO bus
disciplinesthan
and propositiOnal
forces' (Asad beliefs,and
1993: 53-4). secOndly
I have argued
the best site
that in ourendeavOu五
case is ritual,
for
two
reasons:
firstly,
it
is
vastly
more
appropriate
ng tO exhaust what ritual_centred discussiOn has t0 0fFer.
than propositional
beliefs,
because
anthropology
also busy
Many will
feel and
that secondly
the argument
prescnted
here is t00is1ate:as
l have dO
mented,thcre
arewhat
plenty
Of studies discussion
that dO successfully
endeavouring
to exhaust
ritual-centred
has to offer.evade the traps
my sense
is that
we havehere
notisfully
abandoned
it,and
cOntinu
Many `belief':but
will feel that the
argument
presented
too late:
as I have
docuhave are
an uncOnsciOus
fascinatiOn
thatsuccessfully
quietly hampers
mented, there
plenty of studies
that do
evadeOur
theunderstanding.T
traps of
'belief': but my sense is that we have not fully abandoned it, and continue to
have an unconscious
fascination
hampers
our understanding.
The
蹴 淵
凛 that
謄 quietly
謂 棚
t∬:Ψ
首,Tlξ
T羅 淵 :1お よ
鷺∬漁
intelligibly
frOm that.If of
we the
100kancient
the real`Othemess'in
the eye withOut
true-andfairly
currently
insoluble-alterity
world is the presumpblinking
withOutthebeing
drawn
questiOns 'the
Of hOw
cOuld be
andand
therefore
world,
can intO
be influenced:
rest'they
follows
tion that gods,
different
froln
us,we
in a pOsitiOn
tO write better
histOrtt
describing a
fairly intelligibly
from
that.
If are
we look
the real 'othemess'
in the
eye without
redescribing
ourselves
bunch Ofof
pcople
dOingcould
what people
blinking and
without to
being
drawn anOther
into questions
how they
be so do.
different from us, we are in a position to write better history, describing and
redescribing to ourselves another bunch
doingl』what people do.
Iり :∬ of people
:調 F:霊
11:lt繁
鷲
rl:T憮為崎翻 鷺臨胤 庶漱i
ぬ
∞
∝
ぬ
∝К ∬
ねれ
職 ∽
尋
胤∫
撃
‰靴器ド
襴
tools fbr analysis and renection.
認
鵠犠
轟聰重
電
75Bell (1997: 91), after surveying the major approaches otTers that 'the lack of any definitive
winner in the history of theory does not mean that scholarship on ritual has not forged useful
tools for analysis and reflection.
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
431
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
431
These thoughts have had an extremely long gestation and therefore I must acknowledge firstly the Wellcome Trust (the History of Medicine Programme) for fundNote.
These thoughts have had an extremely long gestation and therefore I must acing
a postdoctoral position at UCL during 200U3, where some of this began to take
knowledge
firstly the Wellcome Trust (the History of Medicine Programme) for fundclearer shape. The Leverhulme Evidence Programme allowed me to continue the procing
a
postdoctoral
position at VCL during 2000-3, where some of this began to take
ess of simplifying them to the point of being this article, not least by allowing for a
clearer
shape.
The
Leverhulme
Evidence Programme allowed me to continue the procsecond participation with the Wellcome Trust, at their Centre for the History Medicine
essUCL,
of simplifying
the point
of being
thisofarticle,
not on
least
allowing for a
anby
interdisciplinary
kind to
to host
a series
seminars
who werethem
enough
at
second
participation
with the
Wellcome
Trust,
at their Centre
for the History
Medicine
offered
by the
the guidance
Finally,
I must
acknowledge
ancient dreams.
study of
Note.
at UCL, who
were kind enough to host a series of seminars on an interdisciplinary
referees.
anonymous
study of ancient dreams. Finally, I must acknowledge the guidance offered by the
anonymous referees.
References
References
Ando, C. (2008), The Matter of the Gods: religion and the Roman Empire, vol. 44
(Berkeley, CA, University of California Press).
Ando,
(2008),Genealogies
The Matter
the Gods:
religion
the Roman
vol. 44
in Christianity
reasons
of powerEmpire,
andand
of of
Religion:
discipline
Asad, T.C.(1993),
of
California
Press).
(Berkeley,
CA,
University
and Islam (Baltimore, MD, Johns Hopkins University Press).
discipline
and reasons
ofpower
in Christianity
Asad,
(Stanford,
modernity
(2003), Genealogies
Islam,
ofReligion:
the Secular:
Christianity,
Formations of
T. (1993),
Asad, T.
and
(Baltimore,
MD,
Johns Hopkins University Press).
Press).
University
CA, Islam
Stanford
T. (2003), Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, modernity (Stanford,
Asad,
Batstone, W V[ (2009), 'Postmodern historiographical theory and the Roman historians',
CA,
Stanford
University
Press).
(2009),
pp.4l-62.
in Feldherr
Batstone,
W
W
(2009),
'Postmodem
historiographical
theoryof
andaLatin
the Roman
historians',
Ifte
discourse',
(1986),
'Cicero
Divination:
the formation
and
Beard, M.
in
Feldherr (2009), pp. 41-62.
Journal of Roman Studies,T6:3346.
Beard,
M. (1986), 'Cicero and Divination: the formation of a Latin discourse', The
Beard, M. and North, J. A. (eds.) (1990), Pagan Priests: religion and power in the ancient
of Roman
33-46. Press).
Journal
Cornell 76:
University
NY,Studies,
world (Ithaca,
1.
A.
(eds.)
(1990),
Priests:
andpower inCambridge
the ancient
Beard,
M.
and
North,
(1998),Pagan
Rome (Cambridge,
of religion
Religions
Price,
S.
M.,
North,
J.
and
Beard,
(Ithaca,
N~ Comell University Press).
world
Press).
University
and Price,
S. (1998),
of Rome
(Cambridge,
Beard,
(New York,
University
OxfordCambridge
(1997), 1.Ritual:
perspectives
andReligions
dimensions
Bell, C.M.,
M. North,
University
Press).
Press).
C. M.
perspectives
and
dimensions
(Newreligious
York, Oxford
University
Bell,
pluralism
in late
(2000), Ritual:
civic
compromise:
'Looking
beyond the
A. (1997),
Bendlin,
Press).
republican Rome', in E. Bispham and C. Smith (eds.), Religion in Archaic and
Bendlin,
A. (2000),
'Looking
beyond
the civic
compromise:
pluralism
in late
(Edinburgh,
Edinburgh
experiencereligious
evidence
and
and ltaly:
Republican
Rome
E.
Bispham
and
C.
Smith
(eds.),
Religion
in
Archaic
and
republican
Rome',
in
University Press), pp. 115-35.
Republican
Rome and Italy: evidence and experience (Edinburgh, Edinburgh
Burkert,
W., Girard, R. and Smith, J. Z. (1987), Violent Origins: ritual killing and cultural
University Press), pp. 115-35.
formation (Stanford, CA, Stanford University Press).
Girard,Rome's
R. and Religious
Smith, 1. Z.
(1987),Livy,
Violent
Origins:
killingonand
cultural
Burkert,
gods.
their
and ritual
Ammianus
Tacitus,
History:
Davies, J.W,
P. (2004),
(Stanford,
CA,
Stanford
University
Press).
formation.
(Cambridge,
Press).
Cambridge
University
IJK,
1. P.M.(2004),
Rome's
Religious
History:
Livy, Tacitus,
and Ammianus
on their
gods.
Davies,
(London,
(2nd edn.)
(1970),
in cosmology
Symbols:
explorations
Natural
Douglas,
(Cambridge,
UK,
Cambridge
University
Press).
Barrie and Jenkins).
Douglas,
(1970), Religion
Natural Symbols:
explorations
in cosmology
(2nd edn.)
(London,
Press).
(London,
Bristol Classical
and the Romans
K. (1992),
Dowden, M.
Barrie
and
Jenkins).
and
beliefs.
contexts,
(1998),
cultures,
Religion
at
Rome:
Literature
and
D.
Feeney,
C.
Religion University
and the Romans
Dowden,
K. (1992),
(Cambridge,
Press).(London, Bristol Classical Press).
Cambridge
D. A.
C. (1998),
Literature
Religion at
Rome: cultures,
beliefs.
Feeney,
Historians
Romanand
to thecontexts,
(ed.) (2009),
Theand
Cambridge
Companion
Feldherr,
(Cambridge,
Cambridge
University
Press).
(Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).
Feldherr, A. (ed.) (2009), The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Historians
(Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).
432
Jason Davies
Davies
Fish, S. (1994), There'sJason
No such Thing as Free Speech, and it's a good thing,l
York, Oxford University Press).
Fish, 8. (1994),
There's No
Such Thing
as Free
and it's
good thing,
too gender,
(New na
Flemming,
R. (2000),
Medicine
andSpeech,
the Making
of aRoman
Women:
York, Oxfordauthority
University
Press).
(New
Celsus
to
Galen
York,
Oxford
University
Press).
from
Flemming, R.
(2000),J.Medicine
Making
of Roman
Women:
gender, and
nature,
and (
(1915), and
Fraze4
Thethe
Bough:
Golden
a study
in magic
religion
authority from
Celsus
to
Galen
(New
York,
Oxford
University
Press).
Macmillan).
Golden
Bough:
a studyloosely
in magic
and religion
Frazer, 1. (1915),
Goody, The
J. (1977),
Against
"Ritual":
structured
thoughts(London,
on a loosely
Macmillan).topic', in S. Moore and B. Myerhoff (eds.), Secular Ritual (Assen/Amsterd
'Against pp.25-35.
"Ritual": loosely structured thoughts on a loosely defined
Goody, 1. (1977),
Gorcum),
topic', inGordon,
8. MooreR.and
B. Myerhoff
Van
(1990),
'Religion(eds.),
Roman Ritual
in the Secular
Empire:(AssenJAmsterdam,
the civic compromise
and it
Gorcum), pp.
in 25-35.
Beard and North (1990), pp.233-256.
and at
itsAricia
limits',(Ca
Gordon, R. (1990),
the Roman
Empire:
theand
civicthe
compromise
(2007),
Green, 'Religion
C. M. C. in
Roman
Religion
Cult of Diana
North (1990),
pp.
233-256.
in Beard andCambridge
University Press).
and the dans
Cult of
Diana at
Aricia
(Cambridge,
Green, C. M.Haack,
C. (2007),
(2003),Religion
M.-L.Roman
Les haruspices
le monde
(Bordeaux,
romain
Auson
Cambridge
University
(1989), 'Galen and the best of all possible worlds', Classical Q
Hankinson,
R.Press).
Les haruspices dans le monde romain (Bordeaux, Ausonius).
Haack, M.-L. (2003),
39:206-27.
'Galen
and'Roman
the bestopinions
of all possible
worlds',
ClassicalofQuarterly,
Hankinson, Harris,
R. (1989),
(2003),
W. V
about the
truthfulness
dreams', The
39: 206-27. of Roman Studies,93: 18-34.
(2003),W.
'Roman
opinions
about
truthfulness
of dreams',
The Journal
Harris, W V.Harris,
V. (2009),
Dreams
and the
Experience
in Classical
(Cambrid
Antiquity
of Roman Studies,
93:University
18-34. Press).
Harvard
(2009), H.
Dreams
Experience
Classical Antiquity
(Cambridge,
Harris, W V.Haynes,
(2003),and
The
History ofinMake-Believe:
Tacitus
on Imperial MA,
Rome (B
Harvard U niversity
Press). of California Press).
CA, University
of Make-Believe:
on Imperial
Rome (Berkeley,
Haynes, H. (2003),
(2007), 'Living
Horster,The
M. History
professionals
on religion:Tacitus
and personnel',
in Rtipke
of California Press).
CA, University
pp.33142.
Horster, M. Horton,
(2007), 'Living
onFinnegan,
religion: professionals
andModes
personnel',
in Riipkeessays
(2007 a),
R. and
R. H. (1973),
of Thought:
on thi
pp. 331-42. Western and non-Western societies (London, Faber).
Horton, R. Jenkins,
and Finnegan,
R. H.
(1973), IsModes
of Thought:
essays on thinking in
K. (1995),
on'What
History?':
from Carr and Elton to Rorty an
Western and(London,
non- Western
societies (London, Faber).
Routledge).
'What
Is History?':
fromnobility
Carr and
to Rortyofand
Jenkins, K. Jocelyn,
(1995), On
(1966),
H. D.
'The Roman
andElton
the religion
the White
republica
(London, Routledge).
Journal of Religious History, 4: 89-104.
'The Roman
nobility of
andthe
thesenses
religion
republican
Jocelyn, H. Keane,
D. (1966),
W. (2008),
'The evidence
andof
thethe
materiality
religion',
ofstate',
Journal of Religious
History,
4: 89-104. Institute,NS 110: S127.
of the Royal
Anthropological
Keane, W (2008),
'The
evidence
the senses and
materiality
of religion',
Journal A
(2003),
King, C.
'Theoforganization
ofthe
Roman
religious
beliefs', Classical
of the Royal22(2):27s-312.
Anthropological Institute, NS 110: 8127.
King, C. (2003),
'The organization
Roman(dis)belief:
religious beliefs',
Classical
Antiquity,
Krostenko,
B. A. (2000), of
'Beyond
rhetorical
form and
religious sy
22(2): 275-312.
Cicero's de Divinatione', Transactions of the American Philological Ass
Krostenko, B. A.
(2000),),130:353-91.
'Beyond (dis)belief: rhetorical form and religious symbol in
(1974Cicero's Lambek,
de Divinatione',
Transactions
Philological
Association
M. (2002),
A Readerofin the
the American
Anthropology
(Oxford, B
of Religion
(1974- ),130:
353-91.
Publishing).
the Anthropology
Religion
(Oxford,
Blackwell
Lambek, M.Lendon,
(2002), J.AE.Reader
(2009),in'Historians
without of
history:
against
Roman
historiogra
Publishing).Feldhen (2009), pp. 2440.
(2009), 'Historians
historiography',
Lendon, 1. E.
Levy-Bruhl,
L. (1928), without
The'Soul'history:
of the against
PrimitiveRoman
(London,
George Allen in
and U
FeldherrLindquist,
(2009), pp.G.
24-40.
and coleman, S. (2008), Against belief?', Social Analysis,52(I)
Levy-Bruhl,Lloyd,
L. (1928),
'Soul'
of theMagic,
Primitive
(London,
AlIenstudies
and Unwin).
(1979),
G. The
E. R.
Reason
and George
Experience:
in the or
Lindquist, G. and
Coleman,ofS. Greek
(2008),science
'Against
belief?', Social
Analysis,
52(1): 1-18.
development
(cambridge,
cambridge university
Press).
Lloyd, G. E. R. (1979), Magic, Reason and Experience: studies in the origin and
development of Greek science (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).
432
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
433
433
BELIEVING THE EVIDENCE
MacBain, B. (1982), Prodigies and Expiation: a study in religion and politics in the
Roman Republic (Collections Latomus, vol. 167) (Brussels, Latomus).
MacBain,
B. (1982),
Prodigies
and Expiation:
a study American
in religionAnthropologist,
and politics in 58:
the
'Body
ritual among
the Nacirema',
H. (1956),
Miner,
Roman
Republic
(Collections
Latomus,
vo!.
167)
(Brussels,
Latomus).
s03-7.
'Body
ritual
among the
58:
Miner, H. (1956),
(Oxford, Anthropologist,
Oxford University
Language
andNacirema',
ExperienceAmerican
Belief,
R. (1972),
Needham,
503-7.
Press).
Needham,
R. (1972), Belief, Language and Experience (Oxford, Oxford University
North,
J. A. (1968), 'The inter-relation of state religion and politics in Roman public
Press).
life from the end of the Second Punic War to the time of Sulla', unpublished
North,
1. A.thesis,
(1968),
'The inter-relation
of Oxford. of state religion and politics in Roman public
University
D.Phil.
life
from
the
end
of
the
Second
PunicinWar
to the time
of Sulla',
unpublished
of the
Proceedings
Rome',
(1979),
Republican
'Religious
toleration
A.
North, J.
D.Phil.
thesis, University of Oxford.
Cambridge Philological Society, 25: 85-103.
North, J.
I A.
A. (2000),
(1979), Roman
'Religious
toleration
in and
Republican
Rome',
Proceedings
of the
in the Classics,
Surveys
(Greece
Rome New
religion
North,
25:
85-103.
Cambridge
Philological
Society,
University
Oxford
vol. 30) (Published for the Classical Association, Oxford,
North,
I A. (2000), Roman religion (Greece and Rome New Surveys in the Classics,
Press).
vol. 30)
(Published
forMedicine
the Classical
Association,
(Routledge,
London).Oxford, Oxford University
Ancient
Nutton,
V. (2004),
Press).
Pailler, J.-M. (1936), 'Lieu sacr6 et lien associatif dans le dionysisme romain de la
Nutton,
V (2004),inAncient
Medicine
(Routledge, London).
de I'Ecole
Collection
Republique',
frangais de Rome, vol. 89. (Rome, Ecole
Pailler,
I-M. de
(1986),
'Lieu
sacre et lien associatif dans le dionysisme romain de la
pp.26l-73.
Rome),
Frangaise
Republique',
in Collection
de I'Ecole
franrais
vol.d Rome
89. (Rome,
Ecole
et en ltalie,
186Rome,
av. J.-C.
la rtpression
de de
Bacchanalia:
Pailler,
J.-M. (1988),
Fran«;aise
de
Rome),
pp.
261-73.
vol.270 of BEFAR (Rome).
Pailler,
I-M.C.(1988),
Bacchanalia:
la repression
de 186
av. I.-C.inathe
Rome
et enEmpire
Italie,
Roman
knowledge
of religious
sociology
R. (1986),'The
Phillips,III,
vo!.
270
of
BEFAR
(Rome).
16(3):
2677-773.
II,
ANRW
AD
284',
to
R. (1986),
'TheKnowledge:
sociology oftowards
religious
knowledge in
the Roman
Phillips,
(London,
philosophy
a post-critical
(1962),
Personal
M. C.
Polanyi, Ill,
AD
284',
ANRW
11,16(3):
2677-773.
to
Routledge and Kegan Paul).
Polanyi,
(1962), Personal Knowledge: towards a post-critical philosophy (London,
Pouillon, M.
J. (1982),'Remarks on the verb "to believe"', in M. Izard and P. Smith (eds.),
Routledge
and Kegan
Paul).
structuralist essays in religion, history, and myth
Betief
and Transgression:
Between
onChicago
the verb Press),
"to believe''',
Pouillon,
I (1982),
'Remarks of
pp. 1-8.in M. Izard and P Smith (eds.),
(Chicago,
IL, University
Between
Belief
and
Transgression:
structuralist
essays
history,
and myth
(Cambridge,
Asia Minor
cultininreligion,
Price, S. (1986), Rituals and Power: the Roman imperial
(Chicago,
IL,
University
of
Chicago
Press),
pp.
1-8.
Cambridge University Press).
S. (1986),
Rituals
and
Power:
the Roman
imperial cult
in Asia
(Cambridge,
Price,
(vol. Minor
L'Erma
34) (Rome,
Rome
(2003),
Portents
in Republican
Public
S.W.
Rasmussen,
Cambridge
University Press).
di Bretschneider).
Rasmussen,
S. W'Roman
(2003), religion
Public Portents
Republican Rome
(vo!. 34) (Rome, L'Erma
345-65.
revived',inPhoenix,52
Rives, J. (1998),
di
Bretschneider).
(Oxford:
Blackwell Publishing).
Rives, J. (2007), Religion in the Roman Empire
Rives,1.
religion
revived',
Phoenix,(Cambridge,
52: 345-65. Cambridge University
(1989),'Roman
Irony,
and Solidarity
Contingency,
Rorty, R.(1998),
Rives,
1. (2007), Religion in the Roman Empire (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing).
Press).
Rorty,
Contingency,
Irony, andtoSolidarity
(Cambridge,
Cambridge
University
to
(Blackwell
Companions
Roman Religion
(ed.) (2007a),
A Companion
Riipke,R.J.(1989),
Press).
the Ancient World) (Malden, MA, Blackwell Publishing).
(2007a),
A Companion
to Roman
Religion
(Blackwell
Riipke,
(Cambrdige,
Press). Companions to
Polity
(2001b),
Religion
of the Romans
Riipke, IJ. (ed.)
the Ancient
World)
(Maiden, MA,toBlackwell
Publishing).
(Bloomington, IN, Indiana
Roman Religion
An Introduction
Scheid,
J. (2003),
(2007b),
Religion of the Romans (Cambrdige, Polity Press).
Riipke,1.
Press).
University
1.
(2003),
An Introduction
to Roman Religion (Bloomington, IN, Indiana
Scheid,
(2005),
Scheid, J.
Quand faire, c'est croire: les rites sacrificiels des Romains (Paris,
University
Aubier). Press).
(2005), Quand faire, c'est croire: les rites sacrificiels des Romains (Paris,
Scheid,
Scheid, 1.
J. (2007),'sacrifices for gods and ancestors', in Riipke (2007 a), pp. 263-72.
Aubier).
Schofield, M. (1936),'Cicero for and against divination', The Journal of Roman
Scheid,
I (2007),47-65.
'Sacrifices for gods and ancestors', in Riipke (2007 a), pp. 263-72.
Studies,T6:
Schofield, M. (1986), 'Cicero for and against divination', The Journal of Roman
Studies, 76: 47-65.
434
434
Jason Davies
Jason P.
Davies
Schultz, c. E. and Harvey,
B. (eds.) (2006), Religion in Republican lta
classical Studies, vol. 33) (cambridge, cambridge university press).
Schultz, C. Stewart,
E. and Harvey,
~ 'Secularism
B. (eds.) (2006),
Religion in to
Republican
Italy (Yale
C. (2001),
as an impediment
anthropological
researc
Cambridge
University
Press).
Classical Studies,
vol.
33)
(Cambridge,
p
An t hr o o I o gy, 9 (03): 325-8.
to anthropological
research'
Social Pre
Stewart, C. (2001),
as an impediment
Trilling,'Secularism
L. (1972), Sincerity
(Oxford, Oxford
and Authenticity
University
325-8.
Anthropology,
Tylor, 9(03):
E. (1871),
Primitive Culture (New York, Harper).
Trilling, L. (1972),
and Authenticity
(Oxford,
Oxford
Press).
van derSincerity
Eijk, P. (2004),
'Divination,
prognosis
prophylaxis:
and University
the Hippocra
TyIor, E. (1871),"On
Primitive
Culture
(New 4)
York,
Harper).
(De Victu
Dreams"
andits near eastern background', in H. Horstm
van der Eijk, ~ and
(2004),
'Divination,
prognosis
and prophylaxis:
theNear
Hippocratic
work
(eds.), Magic
M. Stol
and Rationality
in Ancient
Eastern and
Graec
"On Dreams"
(De Victu
4) andand
its near
eastern
background',
Medicine
(Leiden
pp. l872l7.in H. Horstmanshoff
Boston,
Brill),
and M. Stol
(eds.),D.
Magic
andCicero
Rationality
in Ancient Near
Eastern andBook
Graeco-Roman
(2006),
Wardle,
on Divination:
De divinatione,
/ (Oxford, C
Medicine (Leiden
Press).and Boston, Brill), pp. 187-217.
Cicero E.
on(1940),
Divination:
De of
divinatione,
Book 1 (Oxford,MA,
Clarendon
Wardle, D. (2006),
Warmington,
Remains
old Latin lV(Cambridge,
Harvard U
Press).
Press).
Warmington, E. (1940), Remains ofold Latin IV (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University
Press).