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RG7l AG
T e l ,O i 1 8 9 8 8 1 8 0 0
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emailmtoday@sgm,ac.uk
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Fishneeddoctoringtool BrianAustin
171
http:./wwwsgm.ac.uk
Editor
Marinemicrolights:
theIuminousmarinebacteria
DrMerielJones
PeterHerring
iT4
EditorialBoard
'marinesnow'
Theimporlanceof
CarolTurley
177
Professor
DaveKellv
i
rroTessor
tonvt\asn
Giantalgalviruses: Iubricating thegreatenginesof
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planetarycontrolWillieWilson
180
JanetHurst
Fossilized
recordsof pastseas
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lanAtherton
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Gontibutions
RedtidesinthesunsetRobinRaine
190
Thesearealwavswelcomeand
Puttingmarinebiotechnology
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totheEditor
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Februarv
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intheecologicalcycles
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guaranteed.
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forGeneral
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Articles
Regular Features
Other ltems
i
I
L
I
Fish need doctoring too!
BrianAustin
does the saga of fish diseaseacanlly rickettsial septicaemia; a disease
C\7hen
which was first reported
Arguably one of the first landmark in Chile), Moritella uiscosa(winter
!b.gin?
ulcer disease; this
rf
publicationswasin 17 lg,when thedisease,red occurred originally
in farmed salmon in Iceland) and
pest'of eelswasdiscussed.
This condition,which was Pasteurella skyensis(first isolated from
Atlantic salmon in
probably an early name for vibriosis (causedby Vibrio Scotland).
Apart from the newcomers, aquatic animals
spp.), affected eels held in saltwater, and there are have been
subjected to many bacteda (Aeromonas,
descriptionsof heavylossesin Italy throughout the lgth C bry seobacter
i um, F /exi bacter, p b otobacteri un, p seudomonas,
and 19th centuries.Thereafter) many bactetia,viruses Reni bacteriunt,
Serrat i a, Strept ococcus, Vi br i o), viruses [e. g.
and parasitesbecameassociatedwith disease,with new infectious
salmon anaemia (ISA), viral haemorrhugic
speciesbeing recognizedall too regularly.
septicaemia (VHS), infectious pancreatic
ffiThediseases
There are slowly developing 'chronic' diseasesand
faster 'acute' conditions. The slowly developing
mycobacteriosisis a scourge of wild marine fish
popuiations,with diseasesigns including emaciation
(thefish look asif they arestarving)andsalt-likegranules
(granulomas)on the internal organs,especiallythe liver.
These granulomas are virtually pure cultures of
Mycobacteriurn
spp. Mycobacteriosis is also a problem
with somepet fish, with the diseasesignstaking several
years to deveiop. Beware! The bacteria may spread
through abrasionsinro us, causinga complaint known
as fish tank granuloma. Acute diseasesare more
problematic to fish farming where the throughput of
animals is comparatively fast - often only ayearpasses
from hatching of the eggsto the anivalof the deicious
looking fillets in the fishmongers.Diseasesigns may
include:
necrosis
(IPN), infectious haematopoietic necrosis (IHN)I
and
eukaryotic parasires (including sealice and flukes).
Aeromonassalmonicida, which causes furunculosis in
salmon and trout and ulcer disease in carp and marine
flatfish, appears to be spreading from its traditional base
in freshwater to the sea.The organism was first described
in 1894 as a cause of diseasein hatchery-reared brown
Fishmaybecome
infected
withany
of a widerangeof
bacterial
andviral
pathogens
and
eukaryotic
parasites,
BrianAustinreveals
thebackground
to
someofthese
fascinatino
U
,,
0tseases,
B E L OTW
OP:
Anulcer,
caused
byatyplcal
Aeron onas saln onIcida,onthe
flank
ofa goldfish.
REPRODUCED
WITH
PERMISSION
FROM
BACTTRIAI
FISH
PATHOGIIIS
( P R AP
XU
JS
BLISHING)
trout in Germany. Over the next centufy, the organism
became established as a significant killer of sarmonids,
particularly in Europe and North America. Many
isolates were collected, and found to comprise an
extremely homogeneous group, i.e. A. salntonicida B E L OBW
OTTOM:
subsp. salnonicida. The organism produces a brown
diffusible pigment on protein-containing media (such
as tfyptone soyaagar),does not grow readily above
30 oC.
Ab o i(lf u r u n ccl ea)u s e
bd
y
A, salnonicida subsp,sal
n onicida,
o nt h ef l a nokfa r a i n b torw
out
COURT
BE
AS
UY
STIN
erosionof the head(exposingthe brain), fins and tail
(exposingthe backbone)
eyedamage(bulging eyes,bloodsporsor erodedeyes)
gill erosion/fusion(the fish can't breathepropedy)
n
surfaceblood spots(i.e. haemorrhaging,ulcerarion,
abscesses,
blisters/boiis)
distendedabdomenfull of a srraw-colouredsticky
fluid (ascites)
Internally, there may be haemor rhaging, a swoilen
digestive tract full of liquid, indicative of gastro_
enteritis, a swollen kidney, liver andlor spleen,
liquefaction of the internal musculature and,lororgans
and the presence of tumours and/or granulomas.
Vibriosisis a common diseaseof marine fish woddwide,
with the signs appropriately describedas that of a
haemorrhagicsepticaemia,i.e. there is abundantsurface
(particularlyaround the baseof the fins) and internal
(often in the musculature) haemorrhaging and
necrosis/liquefactionof the organs (especially the
kidneys).Sflith advancedcasesofdisease,the pathogenis
rampanrthroughout the infectedanimal.
ffiThepathogens
The rangeof fish pathogensis steadilyincreasingand
newcandidatesregulady appearinthe literature. Topical
examples include Piscirickettsiasalmonis (salmonid
$rs$#$tr#ffitr{$tu#ffiy
rcDAy VOL2g/NOVO2
Im
from samples other
and is notoriously difficult to isolate
IGHT:
UPPR
ER
(
p
e
t
e
c
h
i
a
l
)
h
e
m
o
r
r
h
a
g
e s clinically diseased fish. Indeed, for many years
than
Pinprick
the
The
ofaneel,
onthesurface
on the basis of negative data (i.e' the inability to find
bYitsJaPanese
known
disease
pathogen away from sick fish), the formal description
bY
iscaused
ofSekiten-bYo,
name
was of an organism, which did not occur in the aquatic
domonasangui||isePtica'
Pseu
environment, and was recoverable only from specimens
GDEAR
COURTESY
IGHT:
L O WR
ER
an
gai n g
S u r f ahcaee m o r r h o
as
known
Thedisease
turbot,
adult
bYVtbrio
iscaused
vibriosis
anguillarun,
B AUSTIN
COURTESY
EFT:
B E L OLW
salmonictda
nicida subsP.
A,salmo
agar
so1la
growing
ontr1lPtone
brown
thecharacteristic
revealtng
d i f f u s ipbilgem e n t
B AUSTIN
COURTESY
IGHT:
B E L ORW
ft h e
Ab r o w n - p i g mceonl ot enodY
olA,salnonicida
stage
L-form
g r o w iinnag g am
r edium
B AUSTIN
COURTESY
as
displaying overt signs of disease' It is a moot point
.o ho* scientists thought the organism was transferred
not
between discrete fish populations if water was
soon
was
it
Nevertheless'
medium.
the transport
realtzedthat there were isolates which did not fit into
subspecies salmonicida. Thus, four other subspecies'
.ru-.ly achromogenes,masouci da, smi t h i a and p ectinoIy t i ca'
were proposed to accommodate them' The taxonomic
problem intensified with the recovery of an increasing
nrlmber of isolates with supposedly unusual traits'
including the inability to produce the brown diffusible
pigmenr (or weak pigment production), nutritional
the
fastidiousness, particularly for blood products, and
inability to produce oxidase (other isolates are oxidase'atypical"
positive). Such isolates became regarded as
urrd ur. associated with ulcer formation' Over the last
decades, atypical A. salmonicida has appeared
increasingly as apathogen (causing ulcers) in marine
flatfish in European coastal waters' For the first time'
isolates with an obligate requirement for sodium
chloride (marine?) arc appeating' \7hat will happen
two
next?
S Diseasediagnosis
Fish diseasediagnosticiansseem reluctant to make
judgementsunlessthe sick animal is sacrificed,dissected
unJtissrrestaken for histology and microbiology'The
procedure is not notefl for its speed' Traditionally'
ior bacterial diseases,cultures would be obtained
and characterizedby a comparativelynarrow nnge
of morphological and biochemical tests' Then'
identificationwould rely heavilyon personaljudgement'
Rapid diagnosticsystems'suchasAPI 20E, API 20NE
unJ gtOrOG-GN are now usedwidely, and the useof
*o
'f
*
i+
ll :l
'
I
+
the manufacturer's identification matrices has reduced
the subjectivity of making meaningful diagnoses'
Developments in serology have speeded up diagnoses
comparatively limited developconsiderably. \fith
mental work, the diagnostic laboratory may be
equipped for whole-cell agglutination, indirect or
latex agglutination, the direct or indirect fluorescent
antibody test, \(/estern blotting and the enzyme-linked
immunosorbant assay(ELISA). Some of these systems'
e.g. ELISA, are quick (within an hour), enabling
diagnoses to be made directly from a pathological
specimen without the need for culturing, and may be
used r"motely from the diagnostic laboratory' Of course,
modern molecular techniques (including PCR, DNA
probes and DNA sequencing) have been developed for
and find regular use in the diagnosis of fish diseases'
Unfortunately, these methods are often beyond the
budget of laboratories in developing nations where
much fish farming actually occurs. It is an interesting
point that the owner of the diseased stock likes to
know the names of the species (and, where relevant,
subspecies) of the pathogen causing the disease' The
relevance of this information to disease control is not
always easy to see.
$
S Diseasecontrol
Very little can be done to alleviate disease in wild
stock. In contrast, a wealth of methods have been
devised to eliminate or reduce the impact of diseases
in farmed animals. Methods involve use of vaccines,
non-specific immunostimulants (such as B-1,3 glucan),
dietary supplements (e'g. vitamin C), probiotics'
(e.g'
antibiotic
the
compounds
antimicrobial
genetically
of
oxytetracycline), the development
disease-resistant stock and movement restrictions for
infected animals. Not so many yeafs ago' antibiotics
were the principle means of disease control' However,
there has been a groundswell of opinion against the use
of such medicinally important compounds in the
aquatic environment,
IODAYVOL29l NOV02
IE N$SRSN$SESSN*
with
concerns reflecting
the
I
ry
M
tffi
LE
UPPE
RF I :
The
u p p er ar i n b torw
o udti s p l a y s
a b a d sl yw o l l keind n et y p i coafl
successful but the recenr
b a c t e rki iadl n ed yi s e aassec a u s e d
development
of
oily
byRenibacleriun salmoninarun,
oralizers which enable the Thebottom
fishisa healthy
control
antigens to survive passage REPRODUCED
WITH
PER[/ISSION
BACTffiHL
FISH
PATH00ENS
through the stomach have FR]l,lt
( P R APXU
I SB L I S H I N G )
intraperitoneally) or orally
(historically, this was least
improved
the
approach
tremendously).
Booster
doses may be needed, but
then protection develops
often lasting for the life
of the fish. The spread of
serious diseases, such as
ISA
I
and VHS,
may be
controlled
by movement
restriction
coupled with
LOWL
EE
RF T :
D i s s e c t hi or n
o ua
gfhu r u n colne
a r a r n btor w
o urte v e a ltihneg
l i q u e f ym
i nugs c l e
REPRODUCED
WITH
PER[/ISSION
FR]lltBACT|RIAL
FISH
PArH0Gtlls
( P R AP
XU
I SB T I S H I N O )
a slaughter and disposal
policy.
However,
requires
this
governmental
action and a lot of goodwill
on the part of the owners
ofthe diseasedstock.
S7hat about the future?
There
programmes
ate
underway
to
develop
disease-resistantstrains,
with procedures involving
selective
breeding
genetic
manipulation.
and
Enough said!
fate of compounds (could they enter potable water
tii',Conclusions
supplies or remain in the fish tissues destined for , Aquatic animals may become infected with an ever
h u m a n c o n s u m p t i o n ? ) a n d t h e b u i l d - u p a n d p o s s i b l e increasing range of pathogens and parasites. Details of
transfer of antibiotic resistance to pathogens of human
new developments, especially in diseasediagnosis and
significance. Alternative approaches are needed, and
to some extent probiotics (live organisms which function
control,
regularly
grace the
pages of
scientific
publications. Yet, the pathogens manage to keep one
as beneficial feed additives) are starting to fill the
stage ahead. New challenges emerge, and so the saga
void. Regularly, there have been reports of a wide
range of Gram-positive (notably lactobacilli) and
Gram-negative bacteria (including Aerononas spp.),
continues.
which boost appetite and reduce the incidence of
disease. Anecdotal evidence from Ecuador suggests
that since the first use of probiotics (often Vibrio
alginolyticus) 20 years ago in shrimp
farming,
the
Further reading
O BrianAustin is Professorof Microbiologyin the
S chooI of Li fe S ciences, H eri ot-WattUni versity,
Riccarton,EdinburghEH14 4AS, UK.
Tel.0131 451 3452; Fax0131 451 3009
emaiI b.austin @hw.ac.uk
Austin. B. & Austin. D.A.
G99r. BacterialFish
Patbogens,
DiseaseofFarmed
and Vild F isb, 3rd (Revised)
edn. Godalming: SpringerPraxis.
need for antibiotics has decreasedby 90 %.In addition,
vaccines have become well established as a pilmary
means of diseaseprevention. Commercial products are
available, principally for the control of some bacterial
diseases,including
commonly,
the
vibriosis and furunculosis. Most
vaccines are formalin-inactivated
suspensionsof bacterial pathogens, which are applied by
i m m e r s i o n ( t h e f i s h a r e d i p p e d f o r 3 O - I 2 0 s e c o n d si n
the diluted vaccine), injection (small volumes, often
0.1mI, of the formulations in adjuvant are injected
$\-$$S$'{{"}$-\$iS}il.{}$IYTODAYVOL29/NOV02lE
Marine microlights:the luminous
marinebacteria
PeterHerring
marine
Luminous
bacteriacancause
fishto glowand
seasto shine,
Howdo theydo it?
Howcanwe use
thisamazing
phenomenon
'biomedical in
science?
Luminous bacteria have had a long and the yellow component of the luminescence. Up to
distinguishedcareer,albeit much of it cloaked 1 8 ' C t h e l i g h t i s y e l l o w ; a t h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s i t
in mystery.Glowing meat, fish and shrimp is blue.
were well known to our less-illuminated ancestors
and in t667 Robert Boyle discovered that their light
was reversibly extinguished in a vacuum. A practical,
demonstration of the role of microif unwitting,
Single isolated bacteria do not glow, but colonies do.
'autoinducer',
which
Individual cells produce an
and at a ctitical
accumulates in the medium
in a macabre
organisms was described in I82t
experiment on the eerie light emitted by two dissected
bodies in a London anatomy school. The luminous
material was scraped off and was then used to induce
concentration triggers the production of luciferase,
thereby switching on the luminescence. Different
species have different inducers, but similar systems.
Autoinduction of luminescence is an example of quorum
sensing, in which population density (signalled
other corpsesto glow.
Luminous bacteia
chemically) iirduces metabolic processes, including
virulence, in many non-luminous bacteria.
were grown in culture in the
1870s and27 specieshad been described by 1900. The
present tally of culturable marine species is about 10, S Genetics of lu mi nescence
to detect.
three of them assigned to the genus Photobacterium, Light emission from marine bacteria is easy
and
dim or
to
culture
arc
easy
as
V. fischeri
Species such
five to Vibrio and two to Shewanella. The taxonomy
have
factors
These
appear.
frequently
mutants
dark
the
of
Vibrio
has been frequently revised and some
luminescence.
of
genetic
basis
the
to
dissect
helped
Pbotobacterium,
as
appeared
previously
species
a and b,
Achromobacter. Lucibacterium, Neisseria or Beneckea' Bacterial luciferase is composed of two subunits,
genes
Three
other
genes.
and
luxB
luxA
the
encoded by
There are also two non-marine luminous bactefia'
oftetradecanal.
(luxC,
the
biosynthesis
control
andE)
D
a
strain
and
(Xenorhabdus)
luminescens
Pbotorhabdus
Other genes are essential in particular species.luxF, G,
ofVibrio cbolerae.
H, L and Y are involved with flavin metabolism,
lumazine proteins and the colour of the light' Of the
$$li
Mechanism
involves regulatory
Bioluminescence
How is thelight produced?
the oxidation of a substrate (generically known as
luciferin) in the presence of an enzyme (luciferase).
Bacterial luciferase oxidizes FMNH2, in the presence
of a long chain aldehyde (tetradecanal). All luminous
bacteria share this reaction, but their control systems
differ. ln aitro the reaction emits blue-green light with
at 485-495 nm, yet the light from live
Vibrio fischeri is bluern(max. at 475 nm) because a
blue-fluorescent protein (or lumazine protein) accepts
energy from the reaction and emits light at its own
characteristic wavelength' A strain of V' fisched (Y-1)
a maximum
BELOW:
( at
" C)of
1B
$ $ 9$. . Cult ur
es
m
un phosphoreu
acteri
Photob
Y-1
(left)andVibrio
strain
fischeri
(ri g ht
light
own
byt)heir
BALDWIN
COURTESYTO[/I
also has a yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) and emits
yellow light (max. at J40 nm) (Fig. 1). Sfeakening
the bonds between YFP and the reaction system (e. g.
by dilution
or by raising the temperature) reduces
genes inV. fischeri,luxl conttols production of
autoinduce r and luxR encodes the autoinducer receptor
protein. The interaction of autoinducer and protein
stimulates transcription of the IuxICDABEG operon,
producing light (and more induc et). Vibrio barueyi has a
different regulatory system involving two autoinducers
and its genetic alphabet includes luxL*,M, N, Q, R*,5
and T (where luxLx and luxRx are different in sequence
and in func tion to luxL and IaxR inV. fiscberi).
WApplications
Luciferase genes were cloned in the 1980s and the ease
with which these and other genes can be transferred into
a wide variety of organisms has provided an almost
unparalleled range of tools for studying the regulation
of intracellular processesand for following the fate of
different bacteria under a wide variety of conditions' The
use of these tools is continuously expanding and their
applications as reporters of, for example, gene expression,
quorum sensing, bacterial detection and ceil viability are
of huge commercial and researchvalue.
SSDistribution
luminous marine bacteila occur in freeliving, saprophytic, commensal, symbiotic and parasitic
environments. Most speciescan be found in more than
one habitat, though the species composition in seawater
Culturable
varies widely in different seasons and regions and is
Iargely related to water temperature. Photobacterium
phospboreumgrows at lower temperatures than other
species and is more abundant in northern waters, in
m N$*wsw$silssYroDAYVOL29/NOV02
---t
seasurface to the horizon glowing steadily. Ir occurs mosr
frequently in the Arabian Gulf during the southwest
monsoon Quly and August). The most likely explanation
is luminous bacteria, growing on a surface scum caused
'bloom'
by the decay of a
of aIgae, common during this
period. The one scientific study within a Milky Sea did
IOP
LE FT:
$i g " t Ihel ure
ofthedeep- sea
johnsoni
anglerfish
Melanocetus
tlnculturable
contains
Iuminous
symbi onts.
P H OTO
PJ H E R R ING
indeed find both V. harueyi and glowin g algae, but the
apparent densities of the bacteia from the seawater
wefe too low for autoinduction to occur and several
BOTTO[/
LEFT:
$* 9"* \.The
l arge
l i g ht
or gan
under
theeye0ftheflashlight
fish
PhotobIepharonpaIpebratus(inseI:
byitsownlight)contains
luminous
symbi onts.
P H OTO
PJ H E R R I NG
orders of magnitude lower than that necessaryfor the
Iuminescence to be visible, so rhe bacterial hypothesis
remains likely but unproven.
S Symbiosis
winter and in deep water. Thus in Californian waters V
fiscberi is found throughout the year while V. harueyi
predominates
in summer and P. phospboreum is
occasionally present in winter. The first two species
account for 99 7o of the isolates and occur at densities
of 1-5 per ml. In samples from the Puerto Rico Trench
P. phosphoreurn
is dominant from 200 to 1,000 m(at 14
cells per ml) but samples from 4,000 to 7,000 m had
< 1 luminous cell per litre.
Are there truly free-living luminous marine bacteria?
Possibly not. At best the notionally free-living ones may
simply be en route between substrates. The oceans
contain flocculent organic aggregates, known as marine
snow (see article by Carol Turley on pp. U7-I79),
on
which luminous bacteda abound (in Californian waters
63 % of the aggregates present at night at 60 m were
Iuminous). Saprophytic colonies occur on the surface of
fishes and in shell lesions on crustaceans. Lethal
(parasitic) infections cause sandhoppers ro gloy.
Commensal populations of V. fischeri,V. barueyi and
P. phospboreillnare particularly abundant in the guts
of shrimps and fishes, whose faeces contain viable
luminous bacteria and often glow visibly, both while
sinking and when collected in sediment traps. The
deeper (and colder) the water the more likely P.
pbospboreurn
will be the only species presenr. As the
commonest habitat for many luminous bacteria appears
to be among the gut flora of fishes, the value of
bioluminescence to the bacterium may be to attract a fish
to ingest a luminous particle. A single bacterium emits
only some L03-I04 photons per second and would be
invisible to a fish or shrimp, but a population dense
enough to trigger autoinduction will be bright enough
to see.Glowing colonies on faecesor marine snow are the
bacterium's way of getting from one nutritious
to another.
The dilution
autoinduction
gur
effect of seawater should prevenr
occurring
in'free-living'
bacteia.
'Milky
Sea', has
Nevertheless, one rare phenomenon,
been attributed to them. Seafarersdescribe it as like
sailing over a seaof milk, with the sky dark and the entire
Luminescence
is an important attribute. Although light
energyaccountsfor <0.01 7o of the bacterialcell'stotal
expenditure, >5 % of the bacterial protein may be
dedicatedto luminescence.The main ecologicalrole for
luminous bacteria is probably as light sourcesfor
others.Many marine organisms,from dinoflagellates
to fishes,are bioluminescent.Most specieshave their
own luciferin/luciferasesysrems,but somefishesand
squids contract out the job of light producrion ro
luminous bacteda, culturing them as extracellular
symbionts in special light organs. This splendid
affafigement nevertheless does have its potential
drawbacks.The host needs(1) to maintain the bacteria
in good condition (or the light goesour) and to get rid
ofdead or surplus ones,(2) to restrict the bacteriato
the desiredsite and nor ler them spreadthroughour rhe
body, (3) to be able to switch the light on and off at
will (induced bacteriaglow continuously)and (4) to
ensurethat the right symbionrsarepassedto the next
generation.
None of this is easy- nor is finding out how they do
it. There areabout adozengroupsof fishesthat employ
Iuminous symbionts, both in the deep sea (e.g.
spookfishes,anglerfishesand rattails) and in shallow
water (ponyfishes and flashlight fishes). Shallow
water fishes and squid use V fiscberior Photobacterium
Ieiognathias their symbionts while deep-seafishes,not
surprisingly, use P. pbospboreurn.Anglerfishes and
flashlight fishes contain bacteria that have not yer
beencultured in uitro(Figs 2 and 3). The associationis
very specific- for eachhost speciesonly one kind of
bacteriumwill do - and populationsin the light organs
seemto be clonal. The light organsof most of the fishes
using V.fischeri, P. leiognatbior P.phospboreurn
develop
aspouchesfrom differentpamsof the gut. The symbiont
'selected'
simply has to be
by the light organ from
the normal gut flora. Animals whoselight organsdo
not open into the gut (anglerfishes,flashlight fishes,
pineconefishesand squids)havea more difficult task,
but theselight organsdo haveopeningsro the exterior
through which colonizationpresumablytakesplace.As
we cannot culture the anglerfish and flashlight fish
ss$ffiffisw$stusffiy
IoDAy voL29/NOV02lE
I
L
t
f
I
Further reading
Haygood, M . (199 3). Li Sht
organsymbiosesin fishes.Cdr
ReuMtcrobiol19, 19I-216.
Herring, P.J. &'Watson,
M . ( 1 9 9 3 )M
. i l k y s e a sa:
bi oluminescent puzzle.
MarObsur63,22-30.
Meighen,E. (1994).
Geneticsofbacterial
Annu Rea
luminescence.
28, Il7 -I39 .
Genetics
McFall-Ngai, M. J. (2000).
Negotiationsbetweenanimals
andbacteria:the'diplomacy'
o[rhe squid-Vi br i osymbiosis.
A 126,
CompBiochemPbysiol
411480.
Nealson,K. H. (1993).
Bacterialbioluminescence:
threedecades
of
enlightenment. Naual
ResReu45,13-20.
T ORPI S H T :
f ,ll,:. jr .
symbionts,
we
not
do
know how abundant they
IF THAT'S ANOTHERANaLER F15H
are in seawater. Genetic
ITS SACTERIAMU5T BE THE SIZE
data suggest
that
Af GALT BALL5 I
they
.,1
are related toVibrio species
,
oi
and, remarkably, that each
anglerfish
species has a
d i f f e r e n ts y m b i o n t . ( F i g . 4 l
The light organs offishes
and squids leak bacteria
the
into
seawatef,
surrounding
in
a
steady
the case of
the fishes (107-108 cells
dribble
per
in
hour
containing
from
organs
108-t x 109
bacteria at local densities
of about 1011 cells per
ml) and as adaily expulsion
of 91 % of the bacteria in
the squid. The doubling
time
of the bacteria in
the light organ is much
lower (8 hours to > 5 days)
than when cultured in uifuo, but it is not certain how
the association is enhanced by the role of V. fiscberi
the oxidative stress in the
the host controls the growth rate. The leakage of
symbionts both provides an environmental reservoir
for reinfection of juveniles and offers scope for wider
luciferase in countering
genetic exchange.
colonizers.
The larval light organs of squid and ponyfishes acquire
their bacteria only when exposed to water recently
squid and bacterium has huge potential for interpreting
occupied by leaking adults. Both the squid Euprymna
KATE
DAVIS
SOUTHAMPTON
CARTOON
CENTRE
OCEANOGRAPHY
scolopesand its symbiont V. fiscberi can be cultured
separately and manipulations of the infection process
BELOW:
have clailfied how the right bacterium is recognized
:rri;rl"
fuprynna
lr. Thelittlesquid
a
nd acquired (Fig. 5). At the time of hatching the
eriin
cultu
resVibriof isch
srolopes
Ianal light organ contains no bacteria, but the local
organs.
light
itstwoventral
seawater contains about 500 V fischeri cells per ml.
NGAI
MIVICFALL
PHOIO
Ciliated
lobes
on
the
light organ harvest these
b a c t e r i a ,w h i c h t h e n s w i m
into
crypts
within
the
organ. Here they grow very
rapidly (doubling time 20
Mutants
that are deficient
in
the expression of luminescence are also defective
Insight into the very complex association between
the factors involved in the colonization ofhost tissues by
pathogenic vibrios or other bacterta. Luminous marine
bacteria are no longer just objects of curiosity but
resources for a multitude of biomedical applications aswell as for their hosts.
O PeterHerringis an Honorary Professoratthe
SouthamptonOceanographyCentre,Waterfront
Camp us, European Way,S outhampton
S O14sZH ,U K .
emailp.j. [email protected]. uk
Acknowledgements
minutes) until the crypts
are filled (totalling about
I am most grateful to Tom Baldwin, Kate Davis, Ken
10e cells). V. fischeri is
recognized
specifically
their help with the text and figures.
by the cells in the crypt,
initiating local morphological
changes
and
sending a signal to the
ciliated lobes, which then
wither irreversibly in a
process ofprogrammed cell
death. The specificity of
{sffi$stu*sYroDAYVoL29/NOV02
m s$$*ffi
crypt environment.
Nealson, Margaret McFall-Ngai
and Miriam Ziegler for
F
The importance of Imarine snou/
CarolTurley
@Long-termremoval
of carbon
The
deep
important
global
sea
sink
carbon
is
in
an
the
budget.
About
40 % of global
primary
production
is
carried
by
marine
micro-organisms
out
< 10 pm
in size. $fhile 10-40 % of
primary production may
sink out ofthe upper 100 m
of the north east Atlantic,
most gets remineralized
during its descent so that
Macroaggregates
containing
a wide
rangeof phyto-and
zooplankton
held
togetherina sticky
matrixareknownas
'marine
snowiCarol
Turley
describes
the
importance
of
thesesinking
particles
to the
ecology
ofthe
oceans,
only a small proporrion
arrives on the
deep-sea
bed. Much of the carbon
fixed by the microscopic
photosynthetic
cells in
the upper ocean is recycled
to the atmosphere within
weeks through a dynamic
food web. These single
cells are just too small
*
a*'
and light
to sink
from
the surface of the ocean
and have a significant
effect on long-term carbon
removal. However, some
of the
into
cells aggregated
the
particles,
Iarger
sinking
known
as
marine snow, remove the
carbon for centuries by
transporting it to mid- and
What is'marine snow'? Marine snow is made
deep waters, or evefl for millions of years when it is laid
up of macroaggregates containing
down in sediments.
a wide
range of species and sizes of living and
dead microscopic plants (phytoplankton) and animals
(zooplankton) and their faecal pellets. It was given its
name by divers because the aggregates,which are usually
greater than 0.) mm across, rcally do look like snow
flakes when seen in the water. They are held together
by a sticky matrix of mucopolysaccharides produced by
dying, nutrient-depleted phytoplankton cells or mucus
feeding webs of zooplankton. These sinking particles
also contain an enriched and active population
bacteda,relative to free-livin gbacteda,which
of
arc grazed
by bacterivorous flagellates. Marine snow is the major
component of the flux of organic material to the deep sea
and is generallyproduced in the productive upper 100 m
of the water column. Its production in the ocean cycles
4*a
Supply of food to the deep-sea bed
The arrival of marine snow on the sea bed is the
major determinant of abundance and activity of large
and small deep-sea animals, m^ny of which are deposit
feeders. Many taxa respond to this seasonal influx of
material. For example, populations of opportunist
species may increase and its arrival may rcgulate the
reproduction and growth cycles ofsome animals.
Perhaps the greatesr opporrunisrs are bacteria that
respond rapidly by increased enzyme production, DNA
and protein synthesis and respiration; on occasions an
increase in sediment bacterial biomass can be seen after
this seasonal anival of organic matter. Bacteriaproduce
hydrolytic enzymes which cleave particulate organic
into smaller molecules ro supporr their
alsoexhibits strong seasonalvariation with peaks shortly
matter
after the spring and autumn phytoplankton
metabolism. There is evidence that deep-sea-adapted
bacteria are more effective at degrading the less labile
blooms in
temperate waters such as those in the North Atlantic.
LE
FT:
E p i f l u o r em
s ci e
c rnot g r aopf h s
r e c e nftol yr m emda r i ns e
now
aggregates
showing
therange
of
phytoplankton
redautofluorescing
c e l l(st o pa)n da c r i d i n e - o r a n g e stainb
ea
d c t e rci ea l lcso l o n i z i n g
(bottom)
thesurface
(TOP)
REPRODUCED
FROM
TURLEY
(2000)
FEMS
MtCR1B\]L
tC]L33,
Bg-99
(BOIIOM)
COURTESY
CTURLEY
e#$#ffiffi
ffi${3tu##w
I(tDAy voL29/NOV02m
WSustenanceof free-livingbacteriain the
twi Iight zoneand deep-sea
RIGH T:
showing
diagram
Schematic
the
through
ofcarbon
theflux
column
tothe
water
NEAtlantic
The waters of the twilight
zone and deep sea are
probably the most under-studied oceanic environments,
d
uo
uo
un
Pu- cuourc p d i m p n t
but make up the largest volumes of the oceans. Studies
(2OOO)
FROM
TURLEY
REPRODUCED
lt/llCR]Bl0l
ftrl 33,B9-99
FtMS
have centred on the interfaces, such as the productive
upper ocean, the sediment and coastal environments.
BTLOW:
e ith
a no v e r l y i n g
As e d i m ceonrtw
snow.
layer
ofmarine
KEVIN
BLACK
UNIVERSITY
COURTESY
OF
ABERDEEN
Although
the upper
100m
total water column bacteia. \fle know that these areas
are truly nutrient-replete,
T IO P :
F AR I G H
material than their upper water column counterpafts.
diagram
ofprocesses The metabolic versatility of deep-sea bacteda may,
Schematic
e
n oa
wg g r e gaant d
o na m a r i ns e
therefore, enable the breakdown of compounds thatarc
tsh es u r r o u n d i n g
i n t e r a c tw
i oint h
unavailable to other organisms. Investigations indicate
sea\/Valer,
that bacterial growth in the deep sea is limited by food
CTURLEY
COURTESY
rather then the enormously high pressures and low
BTO T I O M :
FARIGH
temperatures often found there.
ofbacteria
The
distribution
t i oi tnhd e p t h
b i o m aasnsdp r o d u c w
N Lifeon marinesnow
a n di n t e g r aot ve edsru n lzi to n e
Not surprisingly, bacteria and flagellates find the
m e s o p e laangdbi ca t hzyol n eosf
t h eo c e a nwi a
c t ecro l u m n .
marine snow to be rich in organic and inorganic
C.TURLEY
COURTESY
nutrients, which produce active populations in an
otherwise
of the oceanic water
column contains higher concentrations of bacteria, the
greatest reservoirs lie below this - about 50 % of the
nutrient-replete
environment.
Bactetia
so how are these bacteria
surviving?
There is evidence that bacteria attached to marine
snow
may play
an important
role
in
releasing
dissolved organic carbon to the surrounding
and the free-living
extracellular
water
bactefia that live there through
enzymic hydrolysis of the particulate
organic carbon it contains. Presumably, this will be
patchy and sporadic, and in the form of microzones
around the descendingaggregates. But is that sufficient
to sustain them? Some scientists have proposed that
these bacteria also tap the substantial reservoir ofold,
refractory dissolved organic carbon found in the deep sea.
Others have proposed that there is a downward flux of
that colonize the marine snow cleady play an important
the more labile dissolved organic carbon occurring in the
role in the reminerg,hzation and solubilization
upPef oceans.
of
particulate organic carbon, so that many aggregates will
Not surprisingly, these sinking particles are also the
not only be formed in the sunlit waters of the upper
ocean, but will also be recycled there. However, many -
main food resource for the animals that live in these
most likely the larger, stronger aggregates - do escape
scavenge the particles during their descent. However,
to the twilight zoneof the
midwaters and the dark
abyssof the deepseawhere
decomposition rates by
the colonizing bacteria
originating from surface
waters may be reduced by
the cooler temperatures
and higher pressures.
Protein and DNA synthesisin bacteriaattached
to the aggregatesin the
surface waters may be
drastically influenced by
the high pressures(100
atm every 1,000m) aswell
as the low temperatures
experienced during the
sinking of large particles.
The reduced microbial
activity on such particles
may contribute to the
delivery of relatively
undegraded aggregates
to the deep-sea
bed.
L29INOV02
lm W$SNSNNS$-SSN*TODAYVO
watery depths and they have evolved adaptations to
the enormous reservoir of carbon within the free-living
bacteria is also a great potential food resource - ifit can be
captured. Little work has been done on the food web in
deep waters, but there are animals that can filter large
volumes ofwater or capture microscopic cells using their
mucus webs and have the potential
to extract the
bacteria.
N Mechanismfor geneticexchangebetween
isolatedpopulations?
The deep ocean covers 60% of the earth's surface and
previously scientists thought that bacteria surviving at
these enormous pressures and depths, in total darkness,
wefe very isolated from most other bacteria occurring in
the surface of the oceans. However, as many as 1X 1012
bacterial cells per m2 per year, which is equivalent
to around 3 x 10tr plasmid encoded phenotypic genes
per m2 peryear,can be transferred from the surface of the
ocean to the deep-sea bed, a distance of about 4-5km,
through sinking of marine snow. The big question then
is does the formation and sinking ofmarine snow also act
as a method of genetic exchange between populations
previously assumed to be genetically isolated from the
enormous population
sediments?
of bactefia found in deep-sea
ALLYOU NEED FOR
rrl
Z
Further reading
Alldredge, A.L. & Silver,
M . $ f . ( 1 9 8 8 )C
. haracrcrisrics,
dynamicsand significanceof
marinesnow.ProgOceanogr
20,
4r-82.
Deming,J.V. & Baross,
J.A. (2000).Survival,
dormancyand non-culturable
cellsin extremedeep-sea
environments.
In
N on-Ctr/trrrablcM i, n,organiitns
In T heEnuintnnent,pp. I47 197.Editedby R.R. Colwell
& G.J. Grimes.$Tashington,
DC: AmericanSocietyfor
Microbiology.
Lampitt, R.S.,Hillier, \W.R.
& Challenor, P.G. (1993).
S e a s o naanl . l. l i c l v a r i : ri ro n i n
the openoceanconcentratton
of marinesnowaggregates.
Nature362,731-139.
T u r l e y .C . M . ( 2 0 0 0 ) .B a tr e r i : r
in the colcldeep-sea
benthic
boundarylayeranclsedimentwaterinterfaceof the NE
Atiantic. F EMSMicrobiol
Ecol33,89-99.
Conclusions
The formation and sinking of marine snow in the sunlit
upper water column ancl its microbial clegradation
during andafter its descent is of key importance to the
global carbon cycle as well as to the delivery of food ro
organisms within the inner space of the deep-seawarer
c o l u m n a n d o n t h e d e e p - s e ab e d . T h e d e e p o c e a n sa r e
the largest and perhaps the oldest biosphere on Earth and
hold an enormous reservoir of bacteria that is a potential
f e s o u r c eo f d i v e r s e a n d u n i q u e m i c r o - o r g a n i s m s t h a t
may have evolved around 3.) billion years ago. Marine
Tlrdey, C.M., Lochte, K.
& L a m p i t t , R . S .( 1 9 9 5 ) .
Transformationsof
biogenicparticlesdurirrg
sedimentationin the
noftheasternAtlantic Ocean.
Phi/ TransR SocLandB 348,
l7L)-r89.
a rangeof productsforthe rapid and
reliabledetectionof Legionellafrom water
and environmental
samples,includingOxoid
BCYEMedium(withand withoutL-cysteine),
LegionellaLatexTestand DryspotrMLegionella
Kits.
productsfor platecounting/enumeration
in
additionto mediafortheselectivegrowthof
Clostridi um pertring ens,Escherichia coli and
othercoliforms,enterococci,Salmonellae,
ShigellaeandVibrios- suppliedin dehydrated
formator readyto use in platesor bottles.
OxoidMAQSAir Samplerforthemonitoringand
detectionof potentiallyharmful,air-borne
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OxoidDipSlidesand contactplatesforthe
-a
quantificationof bacterialcontamination
quickand easywayto visualisecleanliness
of environmentalsurfaces.
awide selectionof culturemedia,selective
supplementsand diagnosticreagentsforthe
rapid identificationof food-bornebacterial
pathogens,includingSalmonella,Listeria,
CampylobacterandE. coli0157, from food and
environmental
samples.
snow plays a role in the sllstenanceof these microorganismsand in combination with the wide range of
p r e s s u r e sa n d t e m p e r a t u f e s f o u n d i n t h e d e e p s e am a y
c o n t r i b r - r t et o t h e c r e a t i o n o f a h i g h m e t a b o l i c a n d
s
n
0
Z
m
Z
I
\l
v
r
I
rn
tn
J
Z
n
phylogenetic diversity. Obviously, there are still many
u n r e s o l v e dq u e s t i o n s a n d i t i s t h i s a n d t h e f a s c i n a t i o n
'exrreme',
of the unknown that drives researchersin this
at leastto us, envifonment.
O Dr Carol Turleyis a seniorresearcherat
PlymouthMarineLaboratory,ProspectPlace,
TheHoe,PlymouthPL7 1TP,UK.
Tel.01752 633464;Fax01 752 633101
[email protected]
Oxoid Ltd, Wade Road,
Basingstoke,Hants, RG248PW
Tel:+44(0)1256 841144Fax:+44(0)1256 329728
Email:[email protected]
TODAYVOL2g/NOVO2
lE
Giantalgalviruses:lubricatingthe
great enginesof planetarycontrcl
WillieWilson
Manyviruses
havebeenisolated
thatinfect
marine
eukaryotic
phytoplankton.
Someofthese
h,ave
thelargest
genomes
vrrus
known,
-&"
ffiI:
a wonderful quote from Ligbt and Life in
'the
e,Sea,PaulTett stated,
ilLuninatedregion is
Wt
j.7
xW
only a small part of tbe
km mean depth of the
lcean yet it bousesseueral of the great engines of planetary
of different
contro/'. It is well known that the absorption of heat
symmetry and large dsDNA
energy by the ocean and light energy by tiny floating
180 to t60 kb. Marine phytoplankton virus members
of the Phycodnauiridae lie at the top end of this genome
marine plants, known
as phytoplankton,
help to
eukaryotic
size nnge
known.
photosynthetic
activity
provide
algae, which
have icosahedral
genomes ranging from
and represent the largest virus genomes
an
important carbon sink which influences the global
T OL
PE F T :
't.
$ : $ $ " F i n a l s t aogfiensf e c t i o n carbon cycle and even climate. If you find this difficult
c e lwl a s to believe then you only have to look at some of the
i na m a r i nbea c t e r iT
uh
me
from
a natural
seawater
harvested
compelling satellite images of massive phytoplankton
s a m pdl e
i r e co
t lny tao4 0 0 - m e s h
gation, blooms (http://www.soes.soton.ac.uk/staffl tt l ehlsat
gridbyultra-centrifu
copper
t h en e g a t i v e - sw
t ai itnhuer a
d n y l bloompics.html), hundreds of square kilometres in
acetate
Bar,
approx
250nm
area, that writhe spoo\ily across the oceans. Of
WSI Y
TS
COURTE
WO N
course, phytoplankton blooms don't last forever; they
break down through
a taflge of different processes
T OR
PIGHI:
such as simply running out of nutrients (known as
i ; $ 9 f. " F i n a l s t aogfiensf e c t i o n 'bottom-up'control),
being eaten by grazers('top-down'
i nt h em a r i npeh y t o p l a n k t o n
control), or just sinking out as marine snow (seearticle
vtvescens,
Note
the
Pavlova
different
stages
ofvirus
assemblyb y C a r o l T u r l e y o n p p . I 7 7 - I 7 9 ) . O r g a n i c c a r b o n
i nt h ec e lcl y t o p l aSs a
mm p l e s produced in this breakdown process fuels heterotrophic
prepab
r eytdh i n - s e c t i obnaicnkg
bacterial production, which in turn drives nutrient
i n1 9 7 8B!a ra,p p r o5x0 0n m
flow
and biogeochemical cycling through the marine
(NOW
GREEN
COURIESY
JOHN
[/IBA,
PLYMOUT|l)
RETIRED
FORMERLY
microbial loop. Following the discovery of high
RG
IHT:
.$"True
colour
satellite
$;$ig.
i m a goefa h i g rhe f l e c t aEn c e
south
ofPlymouth
huxleyibloon
U Ko n3 0J u l 1
y 9 9 9W a t e t
t h i sb l o o m
s a m p tl e
a sk ef nr o m
contain
ue
pt do1 m i l l i oAn
perml
huxleyi-specific
viruses
II/IAGE
WAS
IHESEAWIFS
PROCESSED
BYTHE
PLYMOUTn
REMOIE
[/IARI
NELABO
RATORY
DAIA
FRO[,1
SENSINO
GROUP
USING
THE
NERC
DUNDEE
SATELLITE
RECEIVINO
STATION
infect
Phytoplankton form the baseof the marine food web and
their
Most of these viruses belong
to the family Phycodnauiridae, a group of viruses that
regulate many aspects of the global environment.
through
viruses that infect a tange of marine
eukaryotic phytoplankton.
S Historyof algalviruses
Surprisingly, observations of phytoplankton
viruses
'virusnew. Numerous observations of
like' particles (VLPs) in eukaryotic algae were
reported in the 1970s as well as many incidental reports
are not
of VLPs
observed in
thin-section
studies of marine phytoplankton.
ultrastructure
conducted
ultrastructure
For example, one
report
on
natural
phytoplankton,
197 4
by
Manton
&
in
Leadbeater,
discussed that VLPs observed tn Cbrysochromu/ina
mantoniaewere apparently similar to VLPs commonly
found in moribund or dead Coccolithus huxleyi (now
referred to as Emiliania huxleyl) cells. Viruses were
clearly
openly
discussed in
these early
however, research into phytoplankton
papers;
viruses never
seemed to be followed up at the time. Just recently,
I was shown some electron micrographs of thin
concentrations ofviruses in seawater reported ln 1989
(up to 108 per ml), another breakdown process was
sections of a marine Pauloua sp. that was full of
hexagonal VLPs (FiS. 2). It was evident that this
added to the cogs of these great engines. \(ould
discovery throw a spanner in their works ?
nutritious phytoplankton, often used as a food source
for feeding zooplankton and shellfish in hatcheries,
*" Marineviruses
was in the latter stages of infection by a large virus.
I was amazed to find that these exciting micrographs
this
\7e now know that the majority of viruses in the
ocean infect bacteda (Fig. 1), with numbers typically
ranging
from
between
10-fold
less and
10-fold
more than bacterial concentrations, though usually
were actually
prepared back in L978t The VLP
'filed'
for long-term storage because
images had been
there was no interest in phytoplankton
viruses 2)
dependent on trophic conditions. Over the last decade
years ago, perhaps surprising given the ecological
implications of virus infection of the malor oceanic
numerous reports have been made on the isolation
primary producers.
F
Despite a few reports ofvirus isolations between 1978
and 1982, it was not really until rhe early 1990s thar
research into phytoplankton viruses was taken seriously
and started gaining momenrum. Reports of high
virus concentrations in seawater caused considerable
excitement amongst biological oceanographers. It soon
became clear that viral action on marine phytoplankton
communities
would
replicate-kill
cycle; their role would have faneaching
go beyond the simple infect-
implications
in determining microbial biodiversity,
nutrient and energy flow, biogas production and global
climatic control.
t$ E huxleyi-specif ic viruses
Take for example, E. buxleyi, a marine coccolithophorid,
which is well known
for forming
vast coastal and
mid-oceanic
blooms that can be easily seen from
space. Following the sudden virus-induced death of
E. huxkyi blooms we have measured high concentrations
(DMS). Sfhen pulses of DMS
of dimethylsulfide
escape to the atmosphere it is oxidized into acidic
compounds that form cloud condensation nuclei; this
increases cloud formation
and consequently affects
global radiation.
suggest that viruses are responsible for the demise of
these E. buxleyi blooms. Cycling of the carbon ourput
through the microbial loop, following the bloom crash,
ensures the succession from an E. buxleyl-dominated
to a more characteristic mixed summer
Most years we see large blooms of E. huxleyi right on
our doorstep in the English Channel, off Devon and
Cornwall (Fig. 3). During these blooms we can easily
phytoplankton
isolate viruses that infect laboratory cultures of
E. buxleyi (Fig. 4). This isolation data, taken together
could be seen as lubricants thar ensure phytoplankton
succession by killing one group to make room and
with
biolo gical data collected during
the blooms,
population
community. Continuing with the'great
engines' analogy then these E. bux/eyi-specific viruses
ABOVE:
,t" Virus
$r$p.
attached
toan
[. huxleyi
cell.
Infected
cells
were
d e h y d r ai ntaenda c e t osneer i e s ,
ovendriedandsputter
coated
with
goldpriortoviewing
inascanning
e l e c t rm
o ni c r o s c T
op
h ve i r u s
p a r t i ci sl a
e p p r o1x9 0n mi n
diameter.
COURTESYK
RYAN
[/BAPLYMOUTH
provide nutrients for differenr groups.
During their characterization we discovered that the
E. buxleyi-specific viruses belong ro a new genus we have
termed the Coccolithouirus (based principally on the
phylogeny of their DNA polymerase gene), which is
within
the virus family Pbycodnauiridae. \7ith the
addition of Coccolithouirusin the family, it questions the
validity of some of the genera, even just something as
'Prymnesiouirus'
simple as naming one of the genera
is
now wrong since E. huxleyi is a Prymnesiophyte, yet
E. huxleyi-specific viruses do not fall into this genus.
Clearly, the Pbycodnauiridae will evolve into a large
complex family or, more likely, split into several families
as new algal viruses are isolated and characterized.
Perhaps the reason for such complexity can be explained
by a recent provocative paper that expanded this
analysis and placed the Pbycodnauiridae
phylogenetic
near the root of all eukaryotic DNA polymerases. It is
believed that some of the first eukaryotic cells resembled
unicellular green aIgae. lf algal viruses appeared at
around the same time and co-evolved with their hosts,
then algal viruses could be dated back more than I.2
billion years.
S Ancientviruses?
The genomes of two
phycodnaviruses have been
completely sequenced, a P arameciurnbursaria C hlorel/a
s.x$sN{*\N$l$$il{$sy
roDAy voL29/NOV02Im
Government
tundingof the
scientifi clearned
societies
Further reading
E nti han ia b u x leyi home page :
http://www.soes.soton.ac.uk/
sraf{lttl
Manton,
I. & Leadbeater,
B.S.C. (197 4). Fine structural
observations on six speciesof
C hry socbromuI ina {ror;' wrld
virus (PBCV-1) and an Ectocarpus siliculosus virus
(EsV-1), and we are in the process of sequencing an
E, huxleyi virus (EhV-86). Their genomes are 33Ikb
(EsV-1) and 410 kb (EhV-86) with
3 7 6 ( P B C V - l ) , 2 3 I ( E s V - 1 )a n d 4 9 3 @ h V - 8 6 ) c u r r e n t l y
identified open reading frames (ORFs) that encode
(PBCV-r),336kb
possible genes. In comparing the genomes of these three
vifuses, they only have nine genes in common,
Danish marine nanoplankton,
particularly
including a description of
same virus family. This information alone indicates that
surprising since they all come from the
C. carupana/tferasp.nov. and a
algal viruses and their genes are ancient, which has
preliminary summary of the
allowed major differences in their sequenceinformation
nanopiankton as a whole.
to evolve. Consequently, studies on algal viruses should
K DanV)densk Sel:kBiol Skr
reveal interesting aspects about the evolution ofgenes
20,t-26.
Schroeder,D., Oke,J.,
Malin, G. & Wilson,'W. H.
(2002). Cocco
I i t bouir us
(Phycodnauiridae):
characterisation
ofa new large
dsDNA algalvirus that infects
Emi / iania buxleyi. Arch Virol
t47,1685-1698.
Van Etten,J.L., Graves,
M.V., Miiller, D.G., Boland,
W. & Delaroque, N. (2002).
large DNA
Pbycodnauiridae
algalviruses.ArcbVirol 147,
1479-rtr6.
Villarreal,L.P. &
DeFilippis, V.R. (2000).A
hypothesisfor DNA viruses
a st h eo r i g i no f e u k a r y o r i c
replication p roteins.J Virol
74,1019-1084.
Wilson, \il/.H ., Taran, G. 4.,
Schroeder,D., Cox, M.,
Oke,J. & Malin, G. (2002).
Isolationof virusesresponsible
for the demise of an Emiliania
bax /eyi l:Ioom in the English
Channel..IuVar B i ol AslocIJK
82,369-377.
and genomes.
,:r,,,
Future perspectives
As more researchersstart investigating algal viruses it is
inevitable that a much greater variety of viruses will be
discovered. There are akeady reports of algal RNA
viruses being isolated that have completely different
characteristicsand infection mechanisms to members of
'lag
phase' of
the Pbycodnauiridae. \7e are clearly in the
our understanding inalgalvirology
and as new genomic
technologies become more widely used in this field, I
predict we will seean exponential rise in interest as the
role of the many genes in these giant algal virus genomes
becomeknown.
O Dr Willie Wilsonis head of the theAquatic
VirologyGroupin ajoint positionbetweenthe
MarineBiological Association(MBA Research
Fellow)and PlymouthMarineLaboratory
(PrincipleScientist).Heis currentlybasedatthe
Marine Biological Association,CitadelH iIl,
Plymouth,PLl 2PB, UK.
Tel.+44 1752 633356; Fax+44 1752 633102
[email protected]
The Governmentorovidessubstantial
fundino
eachyear to the doyal Society(RS) (S29m) a"ndthe
RoyalAcademyof Engineering(RAE)(Sbm),The
Houseof CommonsScienceandTechnology
Committee,chairedby Dr lanGibsonMB has recently
publishedthe reportof its inquiryintowhethergood
valuefor moneyis obtained.The inquiry- to which
SGM submittedevidence- alsorangedovera number
of otherasoectsof the ooerationsof scientific learned
As alwayswiththis Committee,the report
societies,
is outspokenand provocative.
Mostof the governmentf undsprovidedto the RS
and RAE are passedon to the scientificcommunity
- in
the form of researchfellowshiosand awards.The
inquiryconcludedthattheseare highlyregardedby
the scientificcommunity,
and fund valuablework,
but was unableto evaluatewhetherthevwere
in comparisonwith otheischemes.
cost-effective
The Committeerecognized
that manyof ihe
245 otherscientificlearnedsocietiesdid excellent
work,for examplein providingscientificadviceto
governmentand in educationalactivities,
while
receivingno governmentf unding,lt recommended
that governmentshouldmake moreextensiveuse of
the exoertiseof theselearnedsocietiesand orovide
adeouate f inancialcomoensation f o r the ir eff o rts.
the committeefelt that governmentf unding
Overall,
o{ the learnedsocietieswas haohazardratherthan
the productof strategicthinkingin the Officeof
ScienceandTechnology,
In a morecontroversial
sectionof the report,the
Committeeexpresseddisappointment
at the number
of womenamongthe fellowsof the RS and RAE,their
possiblebiasagainstnewerscientificdisciplinesand
otherthanLondon,Oxfordand
universities
Cambridge,
and a perceivedlackof inclusiveness
and transparency.
The Committeewas particularly
criticalof the waythatCopus(formerlytheCommittee
forthe PublicUnderstanding
of Science)sitswithin
t h e R S a n dt h e c o n f u s i o na n d i l lw i l l t h a t t h i sh a s
generated,and recommendedthat it be reformed
as an entirelyindependentumbrellabodyfor science
communication
efforts.receivinoitsfundinodirect
from OST.
The full Report,writtenevidenceand records
of examination
of witnessesare availableat
www. parliament.uk/commons/selcom/s&thome.htm
O Ron Fraser, Executive Secretary
"i
Fossilizedtecords of past seas
ChrisWade& KateDarling
foraminifera (Fig. 1) are
globally distributed acrossthe world's oceans,
forming an important part of the zooplankton.
The planktonic
The calcitic shells of this fascinating group of organisms
are rcadlly preserved in the ocean sedimenrs as microfossils (Fig. 2). They form one of the most complete fossil
r e c o r d s o n e a r t h , s t r e t c h i n g a c r o s ss o m e 1 3 0 m i l l i o n
years. The record is used to date sedimentary rocks
and study evolutionary processes, and is one of the
most important archives of past climate. The species,
abundance and shape ofshells are used to reconstruct sea
surface temperatures. Environmental parameters can
also be deduced from the chemical composition of the
shells. The planktonic foraminifera are therefore used
extensively as indicators ofclimate change.
\fith the advent of molecular biological techniques,
it has become possible to study the evolutionary
relationships between speciesof planktonic foraminifera
living in the oceans today. These studies have led to the
discovery of previously unrecognized genetic diversity,
providing the potential to enhance the role of the
foraminifera. As well as planktonic
ABOVE:
I, Theplanktonic
rr'ir":.,
gerinoides
foraminiferan
Globi
in combination with their fossil record, planktonic
sacculifer.
The
cellisenclosed
foraminifers provide a unique and ideal tool for
witha
i nc a l c i tsi hc e lwl ,h i chha s
addressing important
questions regarding
the
appear in the fossil record long after the benrhic forms,
as e r i eosfi n t e r c o n n e c t i n g
mechanisms of plankton speciation and evolution
and arose from the adaptation ofa benthic species to c h a m b e
Trhsrssp e c iheas a
sn
t hsast e r vaesa
through time.
life in the plankton. Since this has been considered to a r r aoyfs p i n e
n e tf o rs n a r i p
n rge yE n e rigsy
be a major evolutionary step, it was concluded that
a l s go e n e r abt e
ypdh o t o s y n t h e s i s
S Origins of the foraminifera
all planktonic species arose from a single benthic
and
t h i s p e c iceosn t a a
i nl as r g e
It ispossible
to discover
theevolutionary
relationshipsancestor. This hypothesis is not supported by the n t l m boefar l g as ly m b i o w
n thsi c h
amongorganisms
by comparing
theirDNA sequences.genetic data; instead ofthe planktonic speciesclustering a r ed i s t r i b uot ueatdl o nt gh e
t osm a x i mliizgeh t
These relationships are typically shown in the form of in a single group, they occupy three separare locations s p i n e
COURTESY
DRK DARLING
an evolutionary tree (a phylogeny). fo dare, most studies i n t h e m o l e c u l a r t r e e ( F i g . 4 ) , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e
DEPART[/ENT
OFGEOLOGY
AND
of the foraminifera have focused on comparing th.e planktonic way of life has evolved from at least three GEOP||YSICS/ICAPB
UNIVERSITY
OF
ribosomal (r)RNA genes. \fhen their small subunit
independent benthic lines. The planktonic spinose E D I N B U R G H
foraminifera as indicators ofpast climate. Furrhermore,
(SSU) rRNA genes are compared with those of other
eukaryotes, they seem to form one of the earliest
diverging eukaryote lineages in the'tree of life'(Fig. 3).
This placement is interesting becauseit means that the
foraminifera could provide information about events
early in eukaryote evolution. However, more work is
needed because the foraminifera show an exceptionally
fast rate of evolution in their rRNA
senes.
Lineageswith high rates of evolution
are notoriously difficult to place in
evolutionarytrees, and it has been
forms, there are
species that live on the ocean floor. The
evolutionary transition between benthic and planktonic
forms is of considerable interest. Planktonic speciesfirst
benthic
species (foraminiferans with spines) cluster separately
non-spinose species, which are
from the planktonic
located in two separareregions ofthe benthic cluster.
$$Hidden diversityand the implicationsfor
reconstructi ng past cl i m ate
The planktonic fonminifera are divided into
distinct types ('morphospecies')basedupon
the morphology of their shells. One of
the
most interesting outcomes of
genetic studies concefns the extent
of differentiation
within
these
suggestedthat the forami nifer a may
in fact havea far lessancient origin.
morphospecies.
Most of them
show an exceptionally high level
of genetic diversity in their SSU
S From ocean floorto
planktoniclife
Despite the reservations about
BELOW:
[ ' i * , i i . Am i c r o f o s s i l o f
t h ep l a n k t of n
o irca m i n i f e r a n
lVeogIoboquadrlnapachy
derma,
o b t a i nf e
r odm
m a r i ns e d i m e n t s
COURT
DE
R
[ /SKYU C E R A ,
DEPARIMENT
OFGEOLOGY
ROYAL
HOLLOWAY
UNIVERSITY
OFLONDON
rRNA
d
externalrelationships,studies of
W*
W
foraminiferalSSUrRNA seneshave
provided a great deal of information
about evolutionary relationships within the
genes, and many include
more than one genetically distinct
&tr
S
entity (Fig. 5). Some of these
genetic types may warranr classification
as separare
'cryptic'
species.
This finding is important becauseof the role
ji::sSS$*$S.{{}'\*TODAYVOL2gl NOV02 IE
$!ii$
[l t, i
Seas (Fig. 5), and also in individuals from the
(Fig. 5).
EasternPacificand MediterraneaninO. uniuersa
These findings are important becausethey suggest
past climates. For climate
it
has that gene flow is occurring on a global scale,with
reconstruction
been assumed that each genetic intermixing betweenpopulationsasfar apaftas
morphospecies is a single the Arctic and Antarctic, or the Pacific and Atlantic.
with
a specific This is at odds with the observation that many
entity
(and
morphospecieshave high levels of genetic diversity
thus
ecological
and include more than one geneticallydistinct entity.
preference. If
climatic)
the distinct genetic types For diversity to arise, it is generally consideredthat
morphospecies there must be some form of barrier to gene flow. It is
within
thereforeunclearhow diversity arosein the planktonic
are in fact adapted to
habitats,
and foraminifera when there are apparently no effective
different
barriers to gene flow. The planktonic foraminifera
exhibit different ecological
and climate preferences, raise intriguing questionsconcerning the processof
speciationin the oceans.
then the assumption that
of
micro-
foraminiferal
fossils in reconstructing
morphospecies
each
a
of
characteristic
climate would
ticular
is
paF
be
wrong. If this is so, there
may be significant
in
climate
Recent
that
errors
models
current
of
reconstruction.
work
suggests
different
genetic
types are indeed associated
with
different
environ-
ments. If it does become
possible
to
these newly
distinguish
recognized
genetic types in the fossil
record. the
role of the
foraminifera as indicators ofpast climate could be greatly
TOP
ABOV
E :
treeshowtngenhanced.
Fig. ffi,Evolutionary
t
oftheplanktonic
theorigins
Theeukaryote
crown
foraminifera
g ro u
allm ult ic ellu l aW
r Globalgeneflow andthe implicationsfor
i npc ludes
the
origin of newspecies
(including
eukaryotes plants,
and
and
s ev er a l Genetic studies of the planktonic foraminifera have
a n i ma
lsf ungi)
groups
protists alsobegun to illuminate the processes
ofunicellular
other
of speciationin
of
indicate
thelevel
Percentages
the oceans. Despite the high degree of genetic
inthetree,
forbranches
support
diversity observedin their SSUrRNA genes,identical
sequence types (genotypes) have been found in
ABOV
BO
ET T O M :
treeshowingindividuals collectedat oppositeendsof the globe in
S$9.4. Evolutionary
planktonic
therelationship
between
severalmorphospecies(white boxes,Fig. )). Perhaps
(readnor
and
bent hic
d ange)
(blue).
Iheplanktonicmost remarkableis the discoveryof identical rRNA
foraminifera
further
subdividedgenotypes in individuals collected from the Arctic
species
canbe
( s pino s eand
; Antarctic subpolarregionswithin eachof the cooli n to
sp e cwit
iesshpines
without
spines water morphospeciesG lobigerinabulloides, Turboratalita
red)
and
those
(n o n - s pinos
e; ,
or ange)
quinquelobaand Neogloboquadrina(Fig. 5). This is
thelevel
of
indicate
Percentages
forbranches
inthetree. surprising, as thesemorphospeciesare only found in
support
O Dr Christopher Wade is a lecturer in Geneticsat
the Universityof Nottingham,UK.
Tel.Ol 15 970 9405: fax015 970 99Oo
emaiI [email protected]
O Dr KateDarlingis an N ERCAdvanced Research
the high latitudes and are absent from the tropical Fellowin the Departmentof Geologyand
regions,which are considereda formidable barrier to Geophysicsllnstituteof Cell, Animal & Population
gene flow. Similarly, identical rRNA genotypeshave Biology atthe Universityof Edinburgh, UK.
been found within the warm-water morphospecies emai|: kdarling @glg.ed.ac.uk
Orbulina uniuersa and Globigerinoidessacculifer in
individuals collected from the Caribbeanand Coral
sw&#e$sYroDAYVoL29INOV02
l@ Nv$s*ffi
Further reading
Darling, K.F., $/ade, C.M.,
Kroon,D.,LeighBrown,
AJ. & Bijma,J,( 1999).The
diversityanddistribution of
modern planktic foraminiferal
small subunit ribosomalRNA
genotypesand their potential
astracersofpresentandpast
oceancirculations.
Paleoceanograp
hy 14, 3-tZ.
Darling, K.F., \Vade, C.M.,
Stewart,I.A., Kroon, D.,
Dingle, R. & Leigh Brown,
AJ. (2000).Molecular
evidenceforgeneticmixing of
Arctic andAntarctic subpolar
popuIationsofplanktonic
foraminifers.N ature40 5 .
4341.
de Vargas,C., Norris, R.,
Zaninetti,L., Gibb, S.W. &
Pawlowski, J.G999).
Molecularevidence
ofcrypric
speciation
in planktonic
foraminifersand their relation
to oceanicprovinces.ProcN atI
AcadSci USA 96, 2864-2868.
)
Vade, C.M., Darling, K.F.,
Kroon, D. &LeighBrown,
4.J.0996).Early
evolutionaryorigin of the
planktic foraminiferainferred
from SSUrDNA sequence
comparisons.
J Mol Eaol43,
o/l-o/
rJ
1
-\ ll
.-'l
I
/.
U P PL
EE
RF T :
irirrt"
:i Evolutionary
treeshowing
hiddd
e inv e r si intpyl a n k t o n i c
f o r a m i n im
f eor rapl h o s p e c i e s
S e q u e nacr ecso l o t l raecdc o r d i n g
t ow h e trheew
y e rceo l l e c t e d
( s eFei g6 f o rd e t a o
i l isc o l l e c t i o n
s i t e sl d) e n t i sc ea ql u e nacrees
h i g h l i g hi ntw
eh
di t P
e ,e r c e n t a g e s
indica
t ht el e v eolfs u p p of or tr
b r a n c ihnet hset r e e
L O WLEERF T :
$ r i gt,i ' "S i t eosfc o l l e c t i o n
P l a n k t foonriacm i n i f ehraavnes
b e et a
n k ef n
rom
t h eC o r S
a le (ao f f
A u s t r atlhi aeC) ,a r i b b e
t haen
S o u t hC
ea
r nl i f o rBniigahi ntt h e
Eastern
Pacific,
the[/editerranean
theArctic
andtheAntarctic.
UK bathing watens:a successstory,
but,..
av
be
t ofir"{h"*d.'l
,1rnere
Tt-l
KeithJ6nes
The EC Bathing N7ater Quality Directive
Pressure
(7 5lI601EEC)hasbeenaround for 25 yearsand
groups
believe
in that time UK coastalbathing watershave
thatsewage
improved their compliancefrom 5J % in 1988190to
theseais 97 % in 2O0I.In the north-westthe cleanup hasbeen
entering
to the
dangerous
nothing short ofspectacular.In 1994 all the bathing
healthof bathers watersfrom the Ribble estuaryto the northern end of
andto ihemarine MorecambeBay failed the Directive. By 200I, they had
Keith all passed,eventhoseat Blackpool.This successstorycan
environment.
the be put down Iargelyto the water companiesbuilding
Jonesexplains
measures new sewagetreatmentworks, ceasingthe dischargeof
current
untreated sewageinto estuariesand coastalwaters,
to protectwater
replacingthe sewerinfrastructure,replacingshort sea
quality
and
outfallswith long seaoutfallsand,more recently,tertiary
some
describes
problems
thatmay treatmentofeffluentswith UV radiation.
provedifficultto NWhatcausedit?
solve.
The pressure for this enormous expenditure of finance
and engineering has come from unelected gfoups, such as
Surfers Against Sewage(www.sas.org.uk) and the Marine
Conservation Society (www.mcsuk.org), a prctty hostile
media and above all the EU. which has threatened the
UK Government with daily fines if standards are not
met. The cost, around f 10 billion, has been largely borne
by the customers of the privatized water companies.
BEL OW :
tip
fromawaste
$$9.$" Gulls
foraging
onanestuary
KJ.EOSNE
COURT
Y S
in 2001,tp I97o
DefenceCouncilclosedL3,4IObeaches
asp).
on 2000 (http ://www.nrdc.orglwater/oceans/nttw.
NThetests
The testing of the UK's 433 bathing watersis under the
remit of the Environment Agency. Twenty water
N Notjustthe UK
It is not just a UK problem. St-Tropezlost its Blue Flag samples,roughly one per week, are taken during the
award in 2000 and in the US the Natural Resources bathing season,which runs from 15 May to 30
September.Each sampleis analysedfor the density of
faecalindicators(representative
of the animal gut) which
shouldnot exceed10,000 total coliformsper 100 ml and
2,000 faecalcoliforms per 100 ml of water. To comply
with the EC Directive,9S 7oof the samples(at least19
out of 20) must meetthesestandards.
N Thestandardsareset to change
The EC is, at this very moment, revising and updating its
legislation on bathing waters to take into account
changes in science, technology and a perceived risk to
health. This will
almost certainly result in a much
tighter bathing water quality standard [a minimum of
2OO faecal streptococci (intestinal enterococci) per
100 ml water and 500 Escbericbiacoli per 100 ml water
compliance is proposedl. It has been estimated (DEFRA)
that this will entail a fall in compliance in the UK from
97 % to 67 %. Considerable further expense will be
necessary to meet the new standards. Flowever, it
remains to be seen whether tangible benefits to health
accrue and if the expense is justifiable in anything other
than aesthetics.
N Whywill compliancewith the new regime
bedifficult?
There are fluctuating
densities of faecal indicator
bacteda in coastal waters which are unconnected with
m
N$*NSW$Sfu$SYTODAYVOL29/NOV02
sewageeffluent. This is shown in the nomh-westby
sporadicfailures,eachon different dares,during this
year's bathing seasonat separarebathing warers:
Southport,MorecambeNorth and MorecambeSouth.
Thesefailuresareassociated
with two main problems,
the sameoneswhich will makecompliancewith the new
morerigorousstandardsdifficult.
the resort'spiers. Kay's group havecalculatedthat each A B OV
LFFT:
E
starling is equal to one human in E. coli equivalents. $$6.tr. 0ystercatchers
on
Bay,
However, they have also reasonedthat, as bird faeces Morecambe
JON
, S YE S
contribute directly to bathing watersand human faeces C OU RKTE
aresubjectto primary, secondaryand tertiary trearmenr,
which reducesthe number of E. coli by a factor of 2-3 or 4 A B O V E :
$$9.$. (a)Faecalsam
f r omple
logs, the I25,000 starlingsare equivalentto between
godwit
abar-tailed
andfootprints.
I,2t 0,000 and1,250,000,000humans!
(b)Gullfaecal
sample
withgull
Problem 1 - diffuse $CIurcesof pollution. Diffuse
A huge research effort is underway globally to footp
rints.
pollution is caused predominantly by agricultural pinpoint the origins of pollution and to distinguish C OU RKIE
S YE S
JON
run-off and flocks of birds. Agricultural run-off in
wet weather can include faecesfrom grazing cattle Table | . Faecal colifiorms in livestotil< faeces"
farm slurry and sewage sludge
and sheep, farm slurries and manures, and sewage
sludge put to land. Animal faeces and farm wasres
SmPle,,,.,i ,' '
F,qccal
colffotm$Fergtnm
cancontainlargenumbersof faecalindicators(Thble1).
,',:,
, tl8xlqu-4,5;1gu
David Kay's group at the Centre for Environment and faem,:$railngshiep
"' 2.3x105-6,7x'l0s
-grailng
Health in lVales hascalculatedthe daily production of Faeces
cafile,,
faecalcoliforms by farmanimals and compared them to Farm,slurry,putto
, ,:i , l:2x104-B,,lxt06
,
land,,.
E. coliequivalentsfrom humans. Cattle are equivalent
puttoland
sludge
Sewag'e
1,7x106-2'0xl06
to 2.8 humans,pigs to 4.7 htmans and sheepto 9.5
humans.Once on landfaecal coliforms can survive for
of faecal indicator bacteria
up to 8 weekswith a 796 (time for a log reduction in l?able2i
bywildHdson
Bat
numbers)of 3.3 daysin summer and I 3.4days in winter.
Run-offcanbe minimized by farmersfollowing DEFRA
Bird
FaeqalcoJifoims[pergramf aeeBsl
guidelines,but little canbe donein wet weather.
' 'l
gffi,.,, ,:' ,,1,,.i.,,' .. ?li1011'
The input from flocks of wild birds is evenharder to Bar,-tailnd
. , ' : ' ' ,' ': ,' . , , . , 1 4 7 x 1 ,0i ,1,1, l
prevent. Table 2 shows the levels of faecalcoliforms 0yitercatchoi'.,,.',,''',..
':'
' 1., ,1,',.1,.'
r,,, ,,,, ,: , ,:5r3X10[ : : .:
excretedby wild birds on MorecambeBay.As there are Knot
..
' ,,ii
many thousandsof wild birds on the Bay they have a
,,, I4X10!I | ,,
t f B l , l d u: 'c: 'k, ' r . , . ',,, ,.
considerable
impact on indicator numbers and may be
'.
'
'
'
.,,.,'
t
,
",,l ,,,', " .1,:' ,: , ,,i, 2:6x105
, ,.'
responsible
for the sporadicfailuresduring the bathing Lapwing:
t.
season
andhigh densitiesofthe bacteriain winter (Figs 1, 0ullsthayl',.,,,,,..,..1I,
' i ',
1.',l,... .l, ,,, ,. 1,'8x107,
',1,0i1010.'
l''.i..,.
.,
2and3).
,,
,,,
..
0uils(wasfe
tip) ,
,' ..i,
,,'.rl,,,, .
:'
Thereis an interesting situation in Blackpool, where
,.:,t ' .:' r:. :
.,,'. ,,..,
Mall3'd
.,t.,',1,,,,: -,. i8i.1010,.::
.,,
thereareroughly 125,000 starlingsroosting nightly on
WKffiffiffiffi*ffiEffiWIODAYVOL2g/NOVO2
IM
U P PR
EIRG H T :
t he
c har
s howing
t
S* 9$. . P ie
in
ofsunshine
monthly
distribution
UK
thenorth-west
KJEOSNE
C OURT
Y S
between faecal pollution caused by humans and by
livestock and birds. At Lancaster, for example, we are
using DNA fingerprinting to match genotypes of E. coli
isolated during routine analysis of bathing waters with
different animal sources.
Since the clean up of sewage discharges the
GHT:
L O WREIR
contribution which diffuse pollution makes to bathing
witthhe
e
$ $ p.$
. "Com plianc
ofbathing waters has increased.
standard
coliform
faecal
inthemorning
sampled
waters
(I)
(ffi )a nafdt er noon
Prablem 2 * ths weather. $Thatever their source, the
KJEOSNE
C OURT
Y S
survival of indicator bacteria in water is controlled by the
weather, and nothing can be done about this. For example,
at Morecambe the construction of a sewage treatment
plant and the replacement of a short sea outfall with a
long one resulted in a7 5 7o rcd:uction in faecal coliforms
during the bathing season,but had no effect during the
non-bathing season. This is because of increased
diffuse pollution
in the non-bathing season and the
influence ofweather. Temperature and light are the main
bactericides in bathing
100
waters. Faecal indicators
90
die off much faster in warm
water than in cold. For
example, faecal coliforms
in sewage effluent survive
for 2 weeks in sterile
Morecambe Bay seawater
at 17 "C in comparison to
oC (in the
7 weeks at 10
dark). In sunlight, survival
is measured in hours and
Further rcading
Crowther,J.,Kay,D. &
lWyer,M.D. (2002).
minutes, not weeks. At
Lancaster latitudes, the
T16 for E. coli in seawater
is only 30 minutes inJune,
but is not even reached
80
a)
8
70
$
s60
3
bo
-n
$
Eo 4 0
v
^0 30
LL
20
10
0
Heysham
MorecambeSouth
MorecambeNorth
Relationshipbetween
during day-long sunshine
microbialwaterquality and
S'Theremaybe troubleahead...'
condi tionsin
in the winter. It is quite surprising to rcahze that almost
environmental
coastalrecreationalwaters:
half the annual amount of sunshine that occurs in the \fhy do I think this? \flell, it is going to be difficult to
the Fylde coast,UK. lVaterRes north-west IJK occurs in just 3 months: May, June and reduce further the background level offaecal indicators
35,40294038.
in bathing waters where there is substantial agricultural
July(Fig.4).
In 1997 we showed that during the bathing seasonall run-off or flocks of wild birds. In the south of the EU,
Crowther,J.,Kay,D. &
'Wyer,
M.D. (2002). Faecalwhere bathing waters are warm and clear and exposed to
three of Morecambe's bathing waters failed the Bathing
in
i ndicatorconcentrations
S7ater Quality Directive when sampled in the eady intense sunlight, the problem may be minor. However,
watersdraining lowland
morning, but passed in the late afternoon (Fig. )). The in the north-west of the UK. where the water is cold and
catchmentsin the UK:
turbid and where there is much less sunshine,
difference is attributed to the indicator bacteria from
relationshipswith land use
sewage and diffuse pollution surviving during darkness compliance with any new standards will be difficult and
andfarming p ractices.\Water
and being killed by UVB during daylight. Indeed we may not be possible.
Res36,I725-1734.
proposed that all bathing waters throughout the EU
Obiri-Danso, K., Jones, K.
Biological
should be sampled in the early morning to allow for the O Dr KeithJonesis SeniorLectLtrer,
&Paul, N. (1999).Theeffect
Scrences,LancasterUniversity,Lancaster
worst casescenario.
ofthe time of sampling on the
LAl 4YQ,UK.
Overall, failure to comply with the EU Bathing
complianceofbeachesin the
Tel.01524593993
likely
on
cold,
cloudy
is
more
Directive
Sfater
Quality
north-westUKwith the EU
emaiI k.jones @lan caster.ac.uk
and windy wet days sampled in the eady morning
Directive on bathing water
qnliry.J CoastConsau5 ,
t i-58.
than on warm, sunny still days sampled in the late
afternoon.
_'l
Redtides in thesunset
RobinRaine
'Redtides'areone
Marine phytoplankton are the microscopic,
single-celled algae that inhabit the surface
typeof harmful
few tens of metres of the sea. Thev are found
algalbloom,Robin
acrossall oceans in concentrations ofseveral thousands
Rainedescribes
of cells per litre. Their existence is critical to virtually
howthe bloomsare all the other organisms found in the sea, as they are the
formedandthe
primary producers of organic mateilal and are right at
effects the very start of the marine food chain. \7hen there is
unpleasant
theycan haveon
sufficient light and nutrients they can proliferate into
marinelifeandits
enormous concentrations of up to millions of cells per
humanconsumers. litre. These events are referred to as blooms. Most
blooms are extremely beneficial to the marine ecosystem,
either for the filter-feeding
t07erecognize two basic types ofharmful algal blooms.
1 .Larye blooms of species that cause water discolorations, that can result in foams or scums. or that
indiscriminately
kili fish and other fau.na due to
oxygen depletion.
2. Species which produce toxins. These chemicals can
either be directly toxic to fish and invertebrates, or
have an indirect
mode of action when, though
harmless to filter-feeding shellfish, they can find their
way through the food chain into humans causing a
l.afigeof extremely unpleasant gastrointestinal and
neurological illnesses.
bivalve shellfish such
as oysters, mussels, scallops and clams, for the larvae
N Red tides and other exceptional blooms
of commercially important crustaceans and finfish, or
It is believed that the first written reference to a harmful
for other marine food chains.
algal bloom appears in the Bible as one of the plagues of
Egypt (Exodus 7 ,20-21):' ...all tbewaters that uere in tbe
t,000 species of marine phytoplankton
are known to exist, a number that is still rising with
About
recent advances in technology. A very small number
riaer were turned to blood. And tbefisb tbat was in the riuer
died; and the riuer stank, and tbe Egyptians could not drink of
of these speciesare potentially harmful. These can either
the water of the riuer.. .'. This has been interpreted as a
contaminate seafood with toxins, cause serious human
non-toxic bloom-forming
health problems, proliferate and kill fish, or otherwise
alter ecosystems in ways that we perceive as harmful.
populated that it generated anoxic conditions result-
The scientific community refers to these events with
'harmfil
algaI blooms', or HABs. In
the generic term
'red
tides' (see
the popular press they are often called
Oxygen depletion can be due to high respiration by
Fig. 1), but this is a misnomer as it refers to only one
bloom.
particular
term HAB
form of potentially
harmful
ing in indiscriminate
algawhich became so densely
kills of fish and other fauna.
the algae, particularly at night, but more commonly
is caused by bacterial respiration during decay ofthe
event. The
S7ater discolorations caused by algal blooms can be
is likewise not at all precise, as a bloom
quite spectacular and spread over a wide area. For the
implies a massive proliferation of phytoplankton cells,
BELOW:
yet some species contain toxins so potent that only
$ $ m$" . A ne x a m polfae r e dt i d e ' .
a small number need be pfesent to seriously contaminate
/
BILL
BACH[/IANN
COURTESY
shellfish.
BRARY
SCIEN
PH
CO
ELTI O
most part these are caused by a group of phytoplankton
called dinoflagellates. On these occasions, the sea
becomes coloured red-brown, as dinoflagellates contain
apigment known asperidinin which is brick red. Hence
the term'red tide'.
A common bloom-forming
phytoplankton
species in
European coastal waters is known as Pbaeocystis.This is a
tiny flagellate cell, about 3 pm in diameter, which has the
ability to form dense colonies embedded in mucus (Fig.
2a). Colonies are commonly 5-10mm across and are
visible to the naked eye. Pbaeocyrllsblooms in May and
is often associated with the accumulation of foam on
beaches along the North Seaand Irish Sea.The colonies
also give an odour to the sea,which can become quite evil
if they are washed ashore. Another aspect of Phaeocystis
blooms is that post-bloom sedimentation can lead to
deoxygenation near the sea bed. One such event in2007
kilied 10 million kg of mussels (worth Euro 20 million)
in the western Oosterschelde, Holland.
WToxic blooms
Althoughanumberofphytoplankton
havedirect
species
toxic effectson marine organisms,theseeventsare in
practice difficult to observe.They aremost likely to be
observedat fish farms where fish are containedin cages
and cannot escape.Kareniamikimotoiis a dinoflageilate
that not only forms red tides but also containstoxins
for local Indian tribes to
LEFT:
$r6. S. (a)Phaeocystis,
s yc e l lasr e
water was phosphorescent, T h o u s aonftdi n
e m b e d idne
mdu c ui nse a c h
an indication that dino(b)Karenta
colony
mikinotoi,a
flagellates are present.
(c)Alexandriun,
redtide0rganism.
s i cphr o d u cPeSsP
a g e n twJ h
The causative alkaloid
(d)Dinophysis,
a genus
toxins were what we now toxins
r e s p o n sf iobrm
l eu cD
h
SP
know as saxitoxins which
(e)Pseudo-nitzsch
ia- a diann
give rise to a syndrome
w h i cphr o d u cdeosm oai c i da n
known as paralytic shell- a m n e s ihce l l f ips0hi s 0 nti0nxgi n
( aE) ;
fish poisoning (PSP).These C 0 U R TRE0SBY
R
I NA I N
(b);GERT
CUSACK
HANSE[l
are so potenr that less CAROLINE
( c )G
; E0RG
d )0; T T
[ l Il C
ND
A E R(M
t h a n a p i n h e a d q u a n r i r y , R 0 BR
( eE)
I NA I N
eat shellfish when the sea-
which can easily accumulate in a 100g helping
of shellfish, can be fatal
(Fig. 3). Fortunately, the
dinoflagellates which contain these toxins (Fig. 2c)
are in general terms infrequent around the coast
of Northern Europe. More
commonly, particularly in
summer, one fi nds species
that contain toxins which
rise to diarrhoea
give
and in more extreme cases
nausea, vomiting
and
abdominal pain (diarrhoeic
shellfish
poisoning
or
DSP). The dinofl agellate
g e n u s D i n o p h y iss c o n r a i n s
many species with this
group oftoxins (Fig. 2d).
Until
the late 1980s,
dinoflagellates were con(Fig. 2b). It is known to kill fish, but it is extremely
toxic to lugworms, and the disappearance of worm casts
sidered as the cause of
toxic events arising from shellfish poisoning. However,
a new type of poisoning occurred in Prince Edward
in an intertidal mud is highly indicative of the presence
of this species. A massive bloom of aflagellate called
Island, Canada when over 100 people became ill after
eating cultured mussels. The importance of this evenr
Chrysocbromulina polylepslr in 1988 spread over some
7t,000 sq. km of the Skaggerak and Kattegat and up
was that the toxin involved, domoic acid, was produced
by a diatom known as Pseudo-nitzschia(Fig. 2e). Diatoms
the Norwegian coast. It indiscriminately
had hitherto been regarded as either totally harmless or
even extremely beneficial to the marine ecosystem.
Contamination of some rypes of shellfish with domoic
killed large
numbers ofseaweeds, invertebrates and fish.
HAB events caused by toxicity resulting from eating
contaminated shellfish have been with us for a long
time. An event which occurred during the surveying
of British Columbia by Captain George Vancouver in
acid now occurs regularly in Europe. The toxin has also
found its way via the marine food chain into seabirds such
as cormorants, and even sea lions along the Californian
1793 was one of the first ever recorded. A landing party
coast with lethal results.
went ashore, at an area now known as Poison Cove, and
ate shellfish contaminated with dinoflagellate roxins.
'sickness,
On their return, there was much
giddinessand
numbness'among them. One, John Carter, died and
$r Monitoring for harmfulspecies
Monitoring for phytoplanktonand their toxins in
Vancouver named the bay Carter Bay to mark this tngic
shellfish plays a vital role in aquaculture. The increasing
use of the coastal zone for this industry demands rhat
episode. Interestingly, he also noted that it was taboo
every precaution is taken to avoid conraminated product
$!t${::!1,i'.i'}s${;$*",**}\*roDAyvol2g/Nov02IEl
10,000
n\ !'
'=
a\
J.<r
PE
vs
1,000
.c5
RX
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\x
xq
trYJ
I
i-*
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--s
q"
"."$"
---
""*-
\*r.-
"'-'""*
."-
being released into the market. Indeed, under the EC
ABOVE:
f$9"i,4"
Comparison
ofdoses
directives 911492 and 20021221, member states are
o fa l g at ol x i n( P
s SaPn da
required to'cbeck tbe possiblepresenceof toxin-producing
cyanobacterial
toxin)
necessary
to
k i lhl u m acnosm p aw
r ei tdho t h e r plankton in production and relaying udters, and biotoxins in
liue biualue molluscs'. The actual cost of this is quite a
k n o wpno i s o n s
burden. Sfater and shellfish sampling together with
ADAPTED
FROM
E GRANEL
T/1
( 1 9 9E9U
) R 0 -HSACBT E N C E subsequent analysis for phytoplankton and toxins
INITIATIVE,
EUROPEAN
COM[/I
ISSION,
amounts to approximately 1% of turnover of the
BR U S S E L S
shellfish industry in Ireland. However, this figure can be
trebled iftrade lossesdue to harvest closures and other
health costs are added on. Comparable figures are found
in most states involved in shellfish production. The price
of monitoring
is, however, worthwhile
as shown by the
extremely high quality of shellfish available on the
market today.
#Thefuture
The number of recorded instances of HAB events is on
the increase.It is at present difficult to discern whether
this is a true reflection of achangingmarine environment
or simply a result of the increase in monitoring
of a
globally expanding industry. Attempts have been made
to link the increase in HABs with climate variability and
global warming, yet there is no evidence whatsoever to
show this as yet. One potentially serious way an HAB
species can be introduced is in the ballast water of ships,
returning from long distances after off-loading their
catgo. Evidence that toxic species had been introduced
into Australian waters in this way was gathered in the
1980s. Many phytoplankton
have dormant stages in
their life cycle and can easily remain viable in ballast
water for extended periods of time
before being
discharged in other parts of the world. Countries have
been slow to respond to this threat, but at least there are
now some controls on discharging ballast water near
areas of aquaculture. It is up to us to remain vigilant
in our activities so we may continue to enjoy the fruits
demer.
in
C Dr Robin Raineisthe SeniorResearcher
PhytoplanktonEcology atthe Martin Ryan
lnstitute,National Universityof lreland, Galway,
lreland.
Tel.+353 @)gt 52441 1 ext.2271
Fax+353 (o)gt 525005
emaiI [email protected] e
lE wx*ffiffiwffi$s*$$ffiyroDAyvol29/Nov02
Putting marine biotechnologyon
themap
B.Shimmield
Graham
&DavidH,Green
The conception of the European Centre
Thereisgreat
for Marine Biotechnology (ECMB) is one
potentialto
exploit
consequence
of 35 yearsof researchactivity
themarine
at the Dunstaffnage Marine Laboratory,located just
environment
tothe north
of Oban on the N7est Coast of Scotland. ECMB's
benefit
of usall.The challenge
is to foster and stimulate the development of
newEuropean
esoteric and applied research ideas, and to translate them
forMarine into products or processes for a vaiety of markets
Centre
Biotechnology
aims from agriculture to healthcare. The rich flora and fauna
to achieve
this
of Scottish coastal warers to the Atlantic continental
objective.
shelf are to be the source of both inspiration and
research material. Moreover, the environmental focus
of the laboratory's research will ensure that the
development of marine biotechnology does not cause
an impact on the very environmenr from which these
ideas stem.
S Fromsmallbeginnings
The seedsof ECMB were sown aslong agoas1967 when
the Scottish Marine Biological Association(SMBA)
movedfrom Millport,Isle ofCumbrae,to Dunstaffnage.
From its new locationSMBA operatedunder the Natural
Environmental ResearchCouncil'sdirection, latterly
changingits nameto the ScottishAssociationfor Marine
Science(SAMS)to reflectits continuedexpansionand
changesin researchfocus.SAMS now operaresunder its
own managementand boardoftrustees.
SAMS current wide-ranging researchfocuseson
natutal and anthropogenic effects on the foreshore,
coastal,continental and arctic marine environments.
Fieldsinclude geochemistry,biogeochemistry,
marine
physics,deep-sea
fisheries,ecologyofin-shoreand offshorevertebrate and invertebrate fanna,zooplankton,
microbial ecology,ecologicalmodelling, aquaculture
'
and marinemicroalgae.
SAMS' researchers
havebeenin the headlinesthrough
their involvementin the developmentofEurope'slargest
artificial reef, to be sited in Loch Linnhe, fust north of
Oban, and alsowith the ecologicalimpacts of dredging
in the North Atlantic on raredeep-watercorals.
WECMBethosandfunction
ECMB, operating as a separate limited company within
the SAMS group, will fulfil two different, but closely
related, functions. First, it will conduct irs own
commercial marine biotechnology programme, based in
Iargepanon the researchactivity ongoing within SAMS.
Second, ECMB will function as a business incubator for
both home-grown and external ventures, nurturing new
companies in a supportive environment, with accessto
state-of- the -art Iaboratory facilities and offi ce space. It i s
\
WBackingfor ECMB
The decisionto establishECMB was taken in 2000 as
part of the wider redevelopmentofSAMS and its existing
facilities.The €8.3 million buitd programme and the
appointmentofa ProjectExecutivehasbeenpart-funded
by the EuropeanUnion, with additional moniescoming
from Highlands and IslandsEnterprise,Argyll and the
IslandsEnterprise,ScottishExecutiveand commercial
lending sources.Dr Jo Oliver was appointed as the
ECMB Project Director in mid-2002. Shehasextensive
research experience, and has seen through the
commerciahzatronof many biotechnologyideas.Her
time is presently divided between the ECMB and
consultancywork associatedwith the wider biotechnology sectorin Scotland.
hoped that accessto sophisticated equipment, support
services and facilities will obviate some of the burn
N Resourceavailability
associated with high-tech start-ups. Moreover, tailored
business packages will be available to all incumbents of
ECMB, and those organizations choosing to make ir
their home, will have accessto facilities such as aquada
theECMB
for aquaculture
facility.
tm wxswwwstusffiYroDAYvol2g/Novo2
I
I
Tenantcompanieswill haveaccessto a wide diversity
of SAMS research,providing an ideal environmenr
for the development of strategic alliances between
companiesand researchers.
Collaborationwill be further
encouragedthrough useofthe sharedreception,library,
eating and conferencespacethat joins the new SAMS
facllity with ECMB. ECMB will actively encourage
networking, with the long-term aim of being parcof a
network of facilities throughout and beyondEurope.To
this end links are being establishedwith organizations
aroundthe globe,including the University ofMaryland's
CentreofMarine Biotechnologyin Baltimore.
and mariculture
experimentation.
Microalgal
culture
facil-
WUnderpinning research
A number of SAMS-basedprojects have biotechthe services of the Culture
nological potential. Current researchexamining the
Collection of Algae and bacterial flora associatedwith toxin production by
Pror.ozoa (CCAP). CCAP
harmful algal bloom species,has identified some
(marine) is the national
key bacterial groups with specific application and
collection of some 500 bioremediationpotential. Identification and charactermarine micro- and macroization of the putative biosyntheticgenesinvolved in
algae species housed and the production of microalgal toxins is also being
maintained
at
SAMS, pursued.Another research
areais the possibleharnessing
which
can be accessed of marine flora and fatna for bioremediation, and
for academic. research developmentof aquaculturemethods for sustainable
and commercial purposes. production of bioactive molecules.The laboratory's
Large-volume algal culture
Marine Technology group has and continues to
will be possible within
develop remote sensing devices and data recovery
the new CCAP facilities.
technology that have specific value and use within
Conjoined
with
the marineindustries.
ities are available through
LE FT:
Aerial
viewoftheDunstaffnage
site
and
surrourlditlg
environs.
Ihelaboratory
isthecluster
of
bui l di ings
nthecentof
re
t he
photograph.
COURTESY
DAVE
MELDRUM
B FLOW :
Model
ofthenewSAMS
laboratory
being
built
atDunstaffnage
Ihe
ECMB
wingisthefront-most
building,
tobeready
foroccupation
i ntheautumn
of2003,
COURTESY
SAMS
CCAP is the microbiology
and marine algal research
WTheway ahead
group, focussing on eco-
ECMB has an exciting future and is putting marine
logical and population
biotechnologyfirmly on the map. To seethe site take
studies oftoxic algal bloom
shape,visit the SAMS website(www.sams.ac.uk)
and
species and the associated click on the webcam. For further information about
bacteria. A key feature of this group is the molecular
genetics facility, housed next door to CCAP, with both
facilities designed for class II biological containment.
The laboratories are well equipped for bacteriological
work and genetic manipulation. SAMS also currently
operates two
research vessels, both berthed at
Dunstaffnage and available for a range of tasks within
Scottish coastal warers. The laboratory also houses the
NERC National Centre for Scientific Diving, from
which qualified staff undertake a r^nge of underwater
activities. The value of immediare access to coastal
waters, cannot be overstated as one of ECMB's greatest
assets.
theECMB,seethe website(www.ecmb.org)
or conract
Dr Jo Oliver ([email protected])
or Professor
Graham
Shimmield.
O ProfessorGrahamShimmield FRSEis fhe
Director of SAMS (g [email protected]) and David
Greenis a New ZealandFoundationfor Research,
Science & TechnologyPostdoctoralFellow hosted
by SAMS ([email protected]).
Both can be
contactedat ScottishAssociationfor Marine
S cience, D unstaffnage Marine Laboratory, Oban,
Argyll PA37 1QA, UK.
Tel.Ol 631 559OOO;FaxOl 631 559001
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Gouncil Membership
chairinginthe absenceof the
OTheGeneralSecretary,
members
of Council,
warmlythanked
theretiring
President,
Professor Golin Harwood, Professor Richard
Elliott andDr Lynne Macaskie fortheirdedicatedwork
Wewishall
aselectedmemberson behalfof the Societv,
wellinthef uture.
ourretiring
colleagues
Gouncil and postgrcduate/postdoctoral
members
therange
O Council
spentsometimediscussing
of activities
aimedatthissectionof themembership.
already
planned,
therewillbeayoung
Amongtheactivities
attheSpring2OO3meetingof the
members'workshop
hostedbytheEducation
&Training
in Edinburgh,
Society
Group(seep,2OD,ftisalsohopedto arrangeregional
eventsforthissectorof themembership,
New Members of Gouncil and
Group Gommittees 2OO2
t
Council
WitheffectfromlTSeptember2002,ProfessorlanPoxton(UniversityofEdinburgh)
commenceshis5-yeartermas Editor-in-Chief
of Journalof MedicalMicrobiology.
Following
thecallfornominations
to fillfourvacancies
forelectedmembers
of Council,
thefollowinghavebeenelectedunopposed
to servefrom 17 Septemb
er 2OO2:
PeterAndrew
I Professor
I Professor
Jeff Cole
Jeff Errington
I Professor
lProfessorGeoffreySmith
University
of Leicester
University
of Birmingham
of Oxford
University
lmperialCollege,London
Biographies
of the newCouncilMembersappearon p. 198. Bydrawingof lots,it was
Andrew,ColeandSmithwillservefor 4 years;Professor
decidedthatProfessors
Errington
portionof Professor
willservefor 1 year,being
the unexpired
lanPoxton's
termasan
witheligibilityto
for afurther4-yearterm,
electedmember,
standfor re-election
Groups
Industrial liaison
NewCommittee
Members,elected
bypostalballot(ClinicalVirologyand
Microbial
to seektheviewsof itsmembers
(allotherGroups)to servefor 3 yearsareasfollows:
O Councilhasdecided
lnfection)
orelectedunopposed
thedistribution
of a questionnaire
inindustry
andapproved
Cells&CellSurfaces
willprovide
thisautumn(seep.200).lt hopesthereplies
University
of Edinburgh
lDrDavid Smith
inthis
of members
a basisfor lookingattheconcerns
Glinical Mioobiology
in relation
to future
important
sectorofmicrobiology
lmperial
London
I ProfessorBrianSoratt
College,
plansof the Society.
GlinicalVirology
Finance
NationalVirusReference
I MsFionalrwin
Laboratory,
Dublin
muchof
considerthat
mayrarelystopto
O Members
Institute
I Dr DavidPaton
of AnimalHealth,
Pirbright
andfostering
whattheSocietyisableto do in itspromotion
I Dr PeterSimmonds
University
of Edinburgh
management
reliesuponprudentfinancial
of microbiology
Education &llaining
TheSociety
assets.
of theSocietyanditscharitable
University
of Wales,Bangor
I DrSueAssinder
butdedicated
theunglamorous,
continues
to benefitfrom
of Manchester
I Dr BobCoooer
University
andit maybetimelyto notethat
workof itsTreasurers
Manchester
Metropolitan
University
I DrChristineJones
itsbudgetsfor
spentsometimethisyearreviewing
Council
I Dr BrianMartin
University
of Birmingham
of themarkets,
thefutureinthelightof theturbulence
Universityof Lancaster
I DrJackieParry
At present
whichhaverecentlyaffectedallinvestments,
I DrJoyPerkins
University
of Huddersfield
itsf ullrangeof activities,
but
hopesto maintain
Council
(Manchester
Metropolitan
I DrJoannaVerran
University)
takesoverasConvener
doesnotjusthappen
weshouldallrememberthatthis
Environmental Mioobiology
automatically,
of Exeter
lDrJon Porter
University
Proposed Biosciences Federation
Universiiy
of Hertfordsh
ire
I Dr DavidNaseby
reportedthattheInterim
OTheExecutive
Secretary
Eukaryotic Micrcbiology - No vacancies
Executive
Committee
of the proposedBiosciences
Fermentation & Bioprocessing - 1vacancy
per
a nominal
hadmetandCouncilapproved
Federation
BiotechFineChemicals,
Lonza
I Dr FransHoeks
f undingto establish
the
to provide
member
subscription
I DrJulieMiller
CBD PortonDown
lifesciences
Federation,which
it ishopedwillrepresent
Food&Beverages
ongenencrssues,
Institute
of FoodResearch
I DrJerryWells
New covers and styles for the SG M journals
lrishBranch
of theSociety
Committee
O A reporlfromthe Publications
CarlowInstitute
of Technology
I Dr DavidDowling
thata newuniformandrecognizable
to Councilrevealed
for allfourof theSoctety's Microbial Infection
housestylewouldbe introduced
lmperialCollege,
London
I Dr NeilFairweather
journals
of
fromJanuary2003.Seep.213for apreview
University
of Liverpool
I DrCraigWinstanley
TheSocietywilltakeoverthe Journalof
thenewdesign.
from
the presentpublishers,
MedicalMicrobiologyfrom
Physiology Biochemistry & Molecular Genetics
thatdate.
of Leeds
I Dr MaryPhillips-Jones
University
Dr
Maggie
University
of Nottingham
I
Smith
O Alan Vivtan,GeneralSecretary
of Cambridge)
takesoverasConvener
I Professor
GeorgeSalmond(University
Systematics & Evolution - No vacancies
Virus
University
of Cambridge
I DrJohnCarr
University
of Cambridge
I Dr PaulDigard
Institute
of Virology,
Glasgow
I DrJohnMclauohlan
RichardRandall(University
of st Andrews)takesoverasConvener
I Professor
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Inpursuitof Councilpolicyto raisethe profileof
microbiology
to government,the Professional
Affairs
Officer,Dr Geoffrey Schild, hasbegunto organizea
Microbiology
Awareness
Campaign,starting in Scotland,
ThefirstplanningmeetingwasheldattheRoyalSociety
of Edinburgh
inSeptember.
A groupof eminent
microbiologists
basedin Scotlandandrepresenting
a
rangeof specialisms
discussed
howtoapproach
the
ScottishParliamentandScottishExecutiveto raise
microbiological
issuesandto offerexperlise,
Two
representatives
of the ScottishMicrobiology
Societywere
present.
Dr Schildwasalsodelighted
to welcomethe
chairmanof the Scottish ScienceAdvisorvCommittee
(SSAC),ProfessorWilson
Sibbett,
andHeadof the SSAC
Secretariat,
DrAvrilDavidson,tothe
meetinqandreceive
theiradvice.
Thenextstageinthecampaign-will
beto hold
aneventin Edinburgh
earlyin 2003 to whichministers,
MSPsandofficialswillbe invited.
Therewillbe shorl
presentations
on microbiological
issuesof importance
in
Scotlandandan exhibition.
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orto becomeinvolved
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RickstudiedBiochemistry
gn,pleasecontactDr Schild(theschilds@btinternet,the Universitv
campai
of Manchester
andMicrobiologyatthe
com)or JanetH urstat SGM HO (,hurst@sg
m.ac.u
k).
Geolge
andmvPhDwasonthe
University
of Leeds,where
effectof potentialsucrose
Salmond
hethenundertook
a PhD
substituteson in vitro
on herpessimplexvirus
aspectsoftoothdecay,One Aftera microbiology
supervised
byDick
degree(Strathclyde),
I
of theseasoectswasthe
Killington,
At Leedshewas
studiedbacteriophageattachment
of organisms
fortunateto becomea ctose
hostinteractions
for a
to toothsurfacesandmv
WearedelightedtowelcomeGonstantSystems Ltd
friendandcolleague
of the
PhD(Warwick),
thendid
research
primarily
has
asthefirstCorporate
Memberof the Societv,
Constant
lateBobHoness,whohe
postdoctoralresearchon
continued
to
focus
on
Systemsisa Britishcompany,
parlof the ScbreGroupplc,
totheNIMR,
E.coli celldivisionqenetics followed
attachmentand
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Providi
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I lectJredfor 2
formation,
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companyhasbeeninvolved
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oncellretention,lam
biotechnology
companies,
universities,
researchinstitutes
WC.Russbllatthe
thereforeheavilvinvolved
in andSerratia(protein
andagencies.
Thecompanysuppliesaversatilerangeof,
University
of St.Andrews,
secretion,
antibioticand
interdisciplinarywork
as
a
models,
suitablefor manydifferentapplications
in
wherehe beganworkon
pigmentproduction,
member
of
the
Universitv
microbiology
andcellbiology,
Fulldetailsof productsand
the molecular
biologyof
gene
Materials
Research
Group. phytopathogenesis,
services
areavailable
onthewebsite:www.constant
paramyxovi
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regulation
andquorum
systems.com
orfromthecompany's
HeadOffice:
lam delighted
to be
hismainresearch
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Since1996,r
ConstantSystems
Ltd,Low March,Daventry,
thenewConvenerof
Norlhants
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havebeenin Cambridge
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I havebeeninvolved
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in
paramyxovtruses
virulence
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clientsareservedthroughaglobaldistribution
network.
undergraduate
teaching
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metabolite
regulation.
I have circumventintracel
throughoutmycareerinthe servedon Counciland
anti-viraldefence
Forinformation
on the benefitsof CorporateMembership
Department
of Biological
mechanisms,particu
larly
GroupCommittees
for
ofSGM,seewwwsgm.ac.ukor contactthe Membership
at Manchesrer
thoseinducedbv
C&CS,PB&MGandF&8,
Office(01 18 988 1803,emailmembers@sgm,ac,uk). Sciences
Metropolitan
University.
As
interferons.
Pleasecontactmewitn
a Readerin Microbiology
I
suggestions
for future
havemanagedto maintain PB&MGmeetings
or
activityin bothresearchand committeemembershio.
teaching,
evenpublishing
TheSocietynoteswithregretthedeathsof DrArthurA.
papersin bothareas!ln
King (Membersince19d'4)andDr Richald Powell
undergraduate
coursesI
( M e m b e r s i n 1c 9
e91).
havebeeninterested
in
studentcentredlearning
activities,
including
g roup
work,TheEducation
Grouo
looksforwardto promoting
Congratulations
to lan Atherton, DeputyManaging
andsupporting
microbiology
EdiIor,MicrobioIogy andProduction Editor,MicrobioIogy
education
withinthe
Today,on
hisengagementtoAlex,We
wishthemevery
Societyandbeyond,. ,
happiness
inthef uture.
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NewMembensofGouncil
forelectedmembers
of Council,
the
to fillfourvacancies
Following
thecallfornominations
to servef rom 17 September 2002.
following havebeenelectedunopposed
Professor
PeterAndrew
lgraduated
asa biochemist
in 1973fromthe Universitv
of Wales,Aberystwyth,
to do a
whereI remained
of
PhDontheferredoxins
redalgaewithLyndon
Rogers.I movedto London
in l9T6toworkattheMRC
Studies
Unitfor Laboratory
I soent8
of Tuberculosis,
yearsthereworkingonthe
interactionof M.tubercuI osis
Thistime,
andmacrophages,
togetherwitha greatyearat
NewYork,
CornellUniversity,
of my
wasthefoundation
In
interests,
currentresearch
1984| movedto Leicester
wherecurrentlyI
University,
amProfessorof Microbial
in Oxford,workingonthe
molecular
biologyof spore
formationin Bacillus
subtilis.He
hasremained
at
Oxfordsincethen,viaa
RoyalSocietyUniversity
Research
Fellowshio
and
atthe
thena lectureshio
DunnSchoolof
SirWilliam
He was recently
Pathology,
appointed
to the new
at
Chairof Microbiology
the DunnSchool,
Jeff's
mainresearch
interests
especially currently
on howbacteria,
lieinthecellcycle
E.coli,adaptf romaerobicto andcellmorphogenesis
growth.He was
anaerobic
of B.subtilis.
theSGM HonorarvGeneral
1979 until
Secretarvfrom
1984.He oersuaded
the
Counciltoform
Physiology
and
Microbial
Biochemistry
Group,for
whichhewasboththef irst
(afterhis
andlastConvener
tenure,thegroupwas
mergedwiththeGenetics
As the Chairman
of
Group).
Physiology
the Microbial
he isamemberof
Section,
Boardof the
the Executive
Federation
of
European
He willsoon
Biotechnology.
of
becomeEditor-in-Chief
FEMS MicrobiologyLette rs.
Professor
Geoff Smith
t
Professor
'iil,tl,-""o,","nu
Jeff Errington
B1iffiffi
Thetheme
andlmmunology.
of myresearchisthe
interaction
of bacterial
pathogens
andtheir
butI liketo
environments,
takea broadapproachto the
mylab
topic.Theworkin
variesfromstructureand
of
functionanalysis
virulencefactors,biofilm
formation
to hostresoonse
to infection,vaccine
new
develoomentand
In
methods
of diagnosis,
I amco-ordinator
of Jeff didhisfirstdegree
addition,
theBiological
Sciences
atthe Universitvof
(Microbiology)
and
degree.
Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
thena PhDin microbial
geneticswithAlanVivianat
ThamesPolvtechnic.In
19 8 1 h ei o i n e Jd o e l
groupat the
Mandelsiam's
JeffColehaspublished
istryDepartment
Biochem
over150 refereedpapers
Professor
feff Gole
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is
GeoffrevSmith
Wellcome
TrustPrincioal
FellowandHead
Research
of Department
of Virology
at lmperial
London.
College,
hisPhD
He obtained
influenza
virusin
studying
N I M RM
, i lH
l i l il n 19 8 1 . A sa
postdoctoralfellow
at N lH,
U S A ( 1 9 8 1 - 8 4h)e
vaccinia
virusas
developed
vectorand
an exoression
workingwith
continued
poxviruses
to
afterreturning
the U K,firstin Cambridge
(1985-89), thenin Oxford
(1989-2000) andnowat
His
lmperialCollege.
groupstudiesthe
research
interactionsof ooxviruses
withthe hostcelland
immunesvstem,Forthelast
5 vearshe hasbeen
Cbnvenerof
theSGM
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SGMmemberDrSydney
Brenner(The Molecurar
Berkeley,
SciencesInstitute,
CA,USA)who haswonThe
NobelPrizein Physiology
or Medicine
for2002.
Theawardissharedwith
Professor
H,RobertHorvitz
(MassachusettsInstitute
of Technology,
USA)and
(Sanger
SirJohnE,Sulston
Centre,Universityof
Cambridge,
U K)fortheir
discoveries
concerning
geneticregulation
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programmed
celldeath.
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coffeetime
onFriday2T
andfor several
Seotember
subsequent
daysto raise
funds.The
monevwas
addedto donatiohs
from
delegates
who hadjoined
inthe charitypubquizat
t h e S G Mm e e t i n ign
Loughborough
theweek
before.ExecutiveSecretary
RonFrasertook
on the role
testingthe
of quizmaster,
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had
the highestscoreandwona
bottleof sparkling
wine.
Pickledgherkinswere
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scoringteam,Archer's
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ThePresident's
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members
of theSocietyfor
oneof thefollowing:
1. Travelling
to presenta paperor a posteron a
microbiological
topicat a scientificmeeting
2, Attendinga shortcourse(upto twoweeks)
3, Makinga shortresearch
visit- largerawardsare
available
for shortresearch
visits
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thecountryof residence.
Allapplicants
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fora higher
degree,or in afirstpostdoctoral
position,
in acountryinthe
European
Union.
Onlyoneapplication
maybe madeto the
fundduringthetermof a studentship
orfellowship,
Thefull
rulesof theschemearepublished
ontheSGMwebsite,
fromwhichapplication
formsmaybe downloaded,
Theschemeto encourage
excellence
inthestudvof
microbiology
by
undergraduate
students
continues
to bewell
in
studentswillbe acceptedat receivedin universities
of
the endof theirintercalated theU K andReoublic
Institutions
offering
studies,
butnotduringtheir lreland,
qssssRR
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electiveperiod,
ffisW\S'tSSs
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numberof awardsto enable mustbeon a microbiologicalan SGMprize,basedon
subjectStudentships
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in
undergraduates
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not be awardedfor projects microbiology
inthe
microbiolog
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yearof study
projects
duringthesummer thatarepartof degreework, penultimate
maybe held
for a BSc.Thedeoartmenr
vacation,
Thepurposeof the A studentship
wasableto choosethetvoe
awardsisto orovideunder- in a laboratoryawayfrom
of assessed
workfor which
graduates
withexperience the normalplaceof study,
butit mustbe locatedwithin the prizewasawarded,
of researchandto
of
Of the 70+ deoartmenrs
encourage
themto consider theU K or Reoublic
lreland.
circulated,48
made
a careerinscientific
nominations.
Each
research,
Thestudentshios 4. Applications
willbe
prizewinner
willreceivea
providesupportat a rateof
assessed
bya Council
certificate,
a chequefor
91 50 perweekfor a period AwardPanel,basedonthe
of upto 8 weeks.An
reportsof two referees,
The S50 andavear's
freeUndeigraduate
additional
sumof upto
schemeiscompetitive
and
Membership
of theSociety.
$400 for specificresearcn applications
willbejudged
costsmavalsobeawarded, primarily
on thescientific
Undergraduate
Applications
on behalfof
meritsof the projectandthe Microbiology
Prizesare
namedstudentsarenow
suitability
of thestudent,
awardedannually
andthe
invitedfromSGMmembers Onceanawardhasbeen
invitations
for nominations
in highereducation
offered,it cannotbe
in 2003 willbecirculated
institutions
andresearch
transferred
to another
nextMay.Detailsarealso
institutes,
Detailsof the
student,
available
ontheSGM
schemearegivenbelow.
website.
5, Theawardswillprovide
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rateof S 150 perweekfor a
1. Applicants
mustbe
period
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membersof theSocietv
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workingina higher
weeks.An additional
sum
education
institution
or
research
instituteinthe UK of upto S4O0for specified
researchcostsmavalsobe
or Reoublic
of lreland.
Grantsaie maoe
Applications
mustbe made awarded.
Areyouplanning
any
to the institution
to which
on behalfof a named
projectsto promotethe
theapplicant
belongs,
not
student,Morethanone
publicunderstanding
of
to the supervisor,
on the
application
froma
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applications
being 6. lt isa condition
of the
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submitted,
departments,/ awardthatthestudenr
to S 1
areavailable
to
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submitsa briefreportof the f und ,000
appropriate
activities.
ranktheapplicants.
research
at thecom'oletion Applications
areconsidered
2, Studentsmustnormallv of thestudentshio.
on a firstcome,firstserved
be inthe penultimate
yeai
basisthroughoutthe
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mustbe
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calendaryear.
madeonthe appropriate
courseandregistered
at
form,whichisdownloadable
an institution
inthe U K or
fromtheSGMwebsite,
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closingdate
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for students
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costsof accommodation
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following
Societymeetingsin 2003:University
of
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0rganizer:
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(l0Aprilpm)
2002
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sari
acuk)&
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24-25April2003
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Exploiting genomes: basesto megabases in
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LEO
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NEGATIVT
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BIOCHEMICAL
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AND
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14-1
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achema6dechema
de;
;email
1122
Sandringham,
Victoria
3i91,
www,achema
de)
(www,conferencestrate
gy.
Au$ralia
com
au)
L
ffi-ffiffiffiffiffi
Promega Young Microbiologist
oftheYear
lf you haveany
storiesor news
in
for oublication
you
or if
Gradline,
wouldliketo seeanv
topicsfeatured,
oleasecontact
mtoday@sgm.
ac.uk
ThisyearthePromegaPrizeruleswere changed.
Promegawillno longerbe holdingIhe YoungLife
wheref inalistsf romfive
Scientistof the Yearcontest,
Thusthe ten
differentsocietiescompetefor S2,OOO.
SGM f inalistsfor the 2002 PromegaPrizewho were
on'l 7 September at
j udged on their oralpresentations
h e e t i n g , v i etdo w i n S 6 0 0 ,a t r o p h y
t h e L o u g h b o r o u gm
and the title of YoungMicrobiologistof the Year.fhe
secondprizewas 9400 andthe thirdprizeS200.
A s u s u a l t h es t a n d a r dw a s a m a z i n g lhy i g ha n dt h e
had avery
judges,chairedby PeterWyn-Jones,
difficultiob,The lecturetheatrewas packed.The
of
winnerwas Dr Andrew MacDonald (University
Leeds) for his talkThe hepatitis C virus/VS5Aprotein
inhibits activatingprotein 1 (APl ) function by
interfering with MAPK signallingpathways.Second
prizewentto DouglasWest (Universityof
of a
Cambridge)who spoke on Characterization
AhasA allelicreplacementmutant of Streptococcus
equisubspeciesequiandthird prizeto Natalie
of Cambridge)who covered
Simpson (University
Antibiotic production by Erwiniacarotovorasubsp.
carotovora:what's driving the car?The winners were
announcedat the SocietyDinnerand PresidentDavid
Hopwoodpresentedthe prizes.The runners-upeach
receiveda chequefor S25 f romthe SGM and all
f inalistswillhavef ree Societymembershipnextyear,
to everyonewho took partin the
Congratulations
comoetition.
The vi*w f r*ret t$t* t*p.. "
M icrobioIogy Today Iookth e o pportunity to f ind o ut th e
w i n n e r s ' v i e wosn t h e c o m p e t i t i o an n dt h e i ro p i n i o n so f
PhDs.
careerprospectsfor microbiology
Givingthe reasonsfor choosinghis research
topic,Andrew said,'lam fascinatedby host-virus
interactionsand I strongly believethat by
understanding h ow viru sesmanip uIate celIuIar
pathways we shall move one step closerto better
treatment of chronic viralinfections.ljumped at the
chance to study in the labs of Mark Harris and Dave
Rowlands,We believe we may have highlighted a
novel mechanismby which hepatitis C virus(HCV)
causes oncogenesis.Although the data are
preliminary, they are very exciting and we are currently
expandingour knowledge in thtsarea. We hope that in
time we can use novel inhibitorsof the /VS5Aprotein
f rom HCV as a therapeutictreatment.'
CurrentlyAndrewis workingas a postdocrnthe lab
wherehe did his PhD,His contractlastsforthe next
1B m o n t h sH
. e h o p e st o c o n t i n u el i f ei n a c a d e m i a n d
p r o g r e s st o a s e n i o rl e v e la; p p l y i n gf o r a f e l l o w s h i tph a t
a l l o w sh i mt o s p e n dt i m ew o r k i n ga b r o a dp, r e f e r a b liyn
Europe,whilststillbeingbasedin the U K.Whatare
h i so p i n i o n so f c u r r e n ct a r e e ro p p o r t u n i t i ei sn
microbiology?
'lthinkthat life as a biologicalscientist is bleak!
There is very little money in this field of work and
fewergrants appearto be renewed.lthinkthat it is a
very worryingtime for us all. Until the problems of low
pay,slow careerprogressionand uncertainrenewal
of contracts are addressed,I believe that people will
continue to leavescience. This will be verybad for
microbiologyand biologicalscience in generaL'
w i t hs o m ek i n dw o r d sf o r t h e S G M ,
A n d r e wc o n c l u d e d
'l wouldjust like to thankthe SGM for its continued
support of my research,During my PhD lwas awarded
a President'sFund orant to work in Finland under the
WinnerAndrew
lt was during thistime
tutorship of Prof. rcZtb Sat<sela,
Macdonald, who gained
that I first began the workthat ultimatelywon me the
h i sP h Di n 2 0 0 1, a n dw h o
Promega Prize,so I am verygrateful.'
w o r k si n t h e M o l e c u l a r
Douglas West, who is beginningthe thirdyear
VirologyResearchG roup
of his PhD in the Departmentof ClinicalVeterinary
at Leeds,said,'/was
. ewas
M e d i c i n eC, a m b r i d g ew, o n s e c o n dp r i z eH
inc redibly pl eased when
'l
amazedto reachthe f inals. displayeda poster at
I heard I had receivedthe
theWarwickmeetingand sawjust how much effort
Virus Group nominatton,
everyonehad made to presenttheir work. The
However,my pleasure
standard was veryhigh,so to be selected forthe final
turned to worry when I
was fantastic,On the day before the competition I
real2ed that I would have
was nervous!| must havespent most of the time in a
to return to give a second
seminar room practising - people must have thought
talk in the finals! On the
I was mad talking to myself for so long! But I wasn't
day lwas incredibly
leavingfor Loughborough unttl lwas happywith it.'
nervous.I arrivedat the conference firstthing in the
morning and spent the rest of the day wandeilng
H o w d i d D o u gf e e l w h e nh e h e a r dt h e r e s u l t s ? ' A t t h e
around trying to think of anything but my talk. When I
conference dinnerthe Promega Prizes were awarded.
entered the lecture theatre and started listening to the As people were presented with awards and lefttheir
other speakers,I realizedthat itwould not be an easy
seatsmy heart began to pound in my chest. Then to
ride!When I heard the results I was overioyed.I felt a
hear I was awarded second pnze - lwas ecstatic!
huge amountof pride and shock,'
At CambridgeI have extremelygood supervision,ln
t h e r e a s o n sf o r h i ss u c c e s sA, n d r e wa d d e d , particularProfessor Duncan Maskell,DrJosh Slater
Outlining
'l
and DrJames May provide invaluableadvice both
am avery confidentpublicspeakerand lthinkthat
scientificallyand on other work related skills,such as
this came across in my talk.I also believethat I
presentation,so I think I can thank them for the
presented clear,concise PowerPointslides which
success I have encounteredand the confidence to
helped to put my point across,especiallyto an
believern myself.'
audience that did not work in the same field,'
@f
l$tt,q:;$t{:ii$t$i}$..{5.{$
Of his research,Doug said,'Ihe opportunityaroseto
work in Professor Maskell's lab on the equine
respiratory pathogen Streptococcus equi subsp. equi.
Not only is this a fascinating bug, but the fact that the
laboratory provided the chance to work with both
pathogen and natural hostwasjusttoo good to pass
by.Mytalkwas based on the poster I presented at
Warwick, which described the work I completed atthe
beginning of the secondyear of my PhD. I am
characte rizing targ eted deIeti on/i ns erti on m utants in
S. equi with the aim of creatinq an attenuated strain.I
havi: achievedsome interesing resultsso far,but
there is so much moreto do.'
which concerns strains
which harbo ur m utations
in the S | 2 subunit of the
305 ribosomeand do not
produce carbapenem.
This is very interesting
as many other species
with mutations atthe
same site,such as
Baci IIus s ubti Iis, have
been documented to
overp ro duce anti bioti cs.
This parti cuIar Erwinia
causes significant
Futureplanshavenotyet beenset,althoughDoug is
seriouslyconsideringhiscareeroptions,'I do not think economic lossthrouoh
potatoes,io I
lwill continue mv researchin academiahere or abroad. soft rot of
would
like
to think that my
The standard of scientific researchers is very high, so
studies on the regulation
securing ajob is increasingly difficult, with so many
young scientistsof calibreapplying forthe same posts. of antibioticand other
virulence factors
I hope thatwinning second place in the Promega
might help in a better
Young Microbiologistof theYearwillhold me in
understandingof the
good stead forjob applications!
pathogen and the design
Generallyhe feelsthat currentcareeropportunities
in
of strategies to prevent
microbiologyare good,'Thereare so manyfieldsof
infection.'
research to pursue - something for everyone's taste. I
What of the future?
am interested in human/animal pathogens and their
Natalie'splansare
host interactions. Thanks to the work of the research
undecided,
althoughshe
councils and societies, careers in microbiology and
to stayin
science in general are receiving much better publicity. wouldlike
science.'l imaginethat
This can
good thing and raise the profile of
.onlyb.ea
finding a science-related
sctencetn soctety;
job in Cambridge won't be
D o u gw o u l dl i k et o t h a n k t h eB B S R Cw h o f u n d h i s
too difficult due to the
studentshipand allthe staffat Cambridgewho are
large number of
makinghis PhD afun and rewardingexperience.
m olecu Iar biology firms
in the area,l believe
Thirdprize-winner
that current career
Natalie Simpson is in
opportunities in
thefinalyearof her PhD
microbiology are
in the Deoartmentof
g enerally g ood, especially
Biochemistryat
if you have molecular
Cambridge,
Speakingof
biology experience,
the contest,Nataliesaid,
'l put a great
although if you wantto do
deal of effort
research with o ut yo urself
into my poster and was
becoming a supervisor,
veryhappywhen lwas
then no,'
told it had been put
forward forthe Promega
Prizecompetition,
However,'when I learned
thatI had to do atalk lwas
a bitscared!Onthe dayI felt reallyill,I wastoldI looked
likelwasgoingto passout!WhenI heardl'dgotthird
prizelwas reallysurprisedanddelighted.Everyone
whoparticipatedgaveverygood talksandit must
havebeena nightmaretojudge. Thefactorswhich
contributed
to mysuccess?Well,
an understanding
supervisor
andlabcolleagueswhogaveme advice
andwhohadto sitthroughendlessrepetitions
of my
talk!Some
of themtravelledupto supportme on the
daywhichwasmuchappreciated,'
'lworkon theproductionof carbapenem
antibiotic
byErwiniacarotovorasubsp.carotovoraand for my
presentation
ltalkedabouta smallpartof my work
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and science communication alsoa reouirement
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had a day out
Participants
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sponsoredby Unileverand
Bio-Rad,
Sch o o lsM em ber s hip
costsonlySl0ayear.
Forthis,a named
teacher representative
wi l l re ceiv e
MicrobiologyToday
eachquarter,advance
andcopies
notification
of newmicrobiology
teachingresources,
feesfor
anddiscounted
on SGM
attendance
trainingcoursesand
Application
workshops,
formsare availableat
www.sgm.ac.uk
lG:n-rs**
A boat trio down the river
Thames,
winetastinganda
G a l ad i n n e rp r o v i d e dl i g h t
r e l i e fi n t h e e v e n i n g sT, h e
feedbackfromthe teachers
was extremelypositiveand
they left feelingconfident
a n d e n t h u s i a s t i ca b o u t
microbiology.
Website:
wwwmicrobiology
o n l i n e . or g, uk
En q u ir ies :
education@sgm,ac.uk
Ovgrtolou...
are
Contributions
welcomefrom teachers
who haveinteresting
materialto
microbiology
share,suchas novel
usefuI
investigations,
tipsorgoodsourcesof
A copyof
information.
th e p o s t - 16r es our c e
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wh o ses ubm is s ion
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&DARIEL
LIZSOCKETT
PHOIOS
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BURDA
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SGM Post-l6
SummerSchool
f 5-f 9fuly 2OO2
University of
Reading
(Lt
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boruu:e
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J'e,.c1-r ScL,o4.
Fiftyteachersattendedthis
r e s i d e n t i acl o u r s e ,w h i c h
was kindly hosted by
School
ReadingUniversity
o f F o o d B i o s c i e n c e sT.h e
programmewas carefully
designed to reflect the
contentof the
microbiology
currentpost-16 examining
b o d y s p e c iifc a t i o n s ,b u t
a i m e d t o g o b e y o n dt h e
basics by coveringthe
latest research findings
in each topic, put into
context.
There was a range of
cutting edge talks by
exoertsin theirfieldwhere
i s s u e ss u c ha s t h e u s e o f
pre-and probiotics,
microb i a l g e n o m i c s , b i o fi l m s ,
q u o r u ms e n s i n ga n d a n t i microbialresistancewere
exolored,The Summer
School put microbiology
,-,{c
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International Reseatch Fellowship
report
Uropathoqenic
fimbriae
oT
Proteus
mirabilis
I Pablo
Zunino
Wh e nl l a n d e d
at
LondoH
n e a th roown 1 2
Ma y 2 0 0 2 ,ibt ro u g h t
backhappymemories.
I remembered
when
I firstarrived
intheUK
d u ri n g
i h eu n u s u a lhl yo t
s u m m e r o1f9 9 5 . T h eIn ,
stayedfor morethan3
yearsdoingmyPhD
u n d eth
r es u p e rv i s i o fn
BELOW:
'' : I TYPical
P,mirabilis
sw a rmming
ot ilit y .
ProfessorDuncanMaskell,studyingthe roleof
Proteus mirabilisfimbriae
in urinarytract infections.
will needfurthercharacterization
in Uruguayand in
theUK.
Thistime I was generouslyawardedan Internaiional
ResearchFellowshipby the SGM to work againin
ProfessorMaskell'slab in the Departmentof Clinical
VeterinaryMedicineatthe University
of Cambridge,
Thisgaveme the chanceto do furtherresearchon
uropathogenicP. mirabilisfimbriaeand their potential
rolein urinarytractinfections,
continuingthe
collaborative
activitiesbetweenProfessorMaskell's
laband my lab in Uruguay.
I usedseveraldifferenttechniquesto characterize
other P. mirabiIis Iimbrialmutants,includino
transmission
electronmicroscopylff V) (Fig,Z) anA
a d h e s i o nt o c u l t u r e du r o e p i t h e l i ca el l l sA
, l l t h es i n o l e
fimbrialmutantstestedsl'roweda significantdecrEase
in the numberof adheredbacteriawhentheywere
comparedto the wildtype,althoughno differences
couldbe notedwhenthe wildtype andthe mutants
were analysedbyTEM,Thismhybe explainedby the
fact that P. mirabilisexpressesseveraltypes of
fimbriaesimultaneouslv
and that ihere couldtherefore
be redundancyin the system,
P. mirabilisis an opportunistic,Gram-negative
bacteriumthat can causeseriousurinarvtract
infections(Fig,1), lt hasa widevarietyoTpotential
T ORPI G H T :
r,,, I P,nirabilislinbriaevirulencefactorsthat mayact in a concertedway to
colonizethe host,includingdifferentkindsof fimbriae
(TEM).
that couldmediatebacterialadhesionto the
PH OT
PZ.OUNI
S NO
uroeoithelium.
The planwas to
generatea double
mutantlackingtwo of
the most potentially
imoortantfimbriae
relatedto adhesionto
the uroepithelium,
to
characterizeother f imbrial
mutantsthatwe had
previously
generated
andto sequencedifferent
genesof the operon
encoding ihe P. mirabilis
fimbriaecalled
U r o e o i t h e l iC
a le l l
Adhesin(UCA),Although
fimbriaeare not essential
for bacterialviabiIity,
the generationof a
doublefimbrialmutant
was not an easytask,
However,aftertrying
differeniapproaches,I
obtaineda varietyof very
promisingclonesthat
Finally,
I sequenceddifferentgenesof the operonthat
encodesUCA,Duringmy previousstayin Cambridge
for my PhD,I cloneddifferentUCA genesusinga
)u-Zapvector,
Duringthis lastvisitlcharacterizedsome
of thoseclonesand one of them was selectedfor
primerwalkingsequencing.
Sequencedataalready
collectedindicatethat UCA fimbriaeare secretedand
assembledth roug h th e chaperone-us her pathway.
Afterthisnew stageof avery productivehistoryof
collaborativeresearchwork betweenboth labs,we are
planningto preparea new grantproposalrelatedto
differentaspectsof uropathogenicP, mirabilis
pathogenesis,
I wouldliketo thankthe SG M for the fellowshioand I
am particularly
gratefultoDrJane Westwellfor all her
help,I extendmythanksonce moreto DuncanMaskell
forreceivinm
g e i nC a m b r i d g e
a n dt o a l l t h ep e o p l ei n
his lab,especiallytoDrAndrewPreston,I really
enjoyedmy 3 monthsstayin Cambridge,a small,
warm and alwaysexcitingtown,
I Dr Pablo Zunino, lnstituto de lnvestigaciones
Biol69icas Clemente Estable, Montevideo, Uruguay.
lnternational DevelopmentFund
rcport
6thWorkshop
inMolecular
Biology
andDisease,
Vietnam
12-16
August2002
I Simon
Cutting
Onceagainthe SGM has supportedthe ongoing
programof trainingin Vietnamby sponsoringthe 6th
Workshopin MolecularBiologyand Diseaseheldat
the NationalInstituteof Hygieneand Epidemiology
(N lH E) in Hanoi.N lH E is the premierresearch
institutein Vietnam(formerlyknownas the Hanoi
PasteurInstitute),
employingover350 scientists
dedicatedto the controlof infectiousdisease,
preventivehealthcareandthe studyof microbiology
a n d i m m u n o l o g yN,l H E h a sl a r g ea n d u n i q u ea n i m a l
facilitiesincludingvarioussimianspeciesand is an
"H.T
three maiorinheriteddiseases(Duchennemuscular
dystrophy,
ia and familialadenomatous
B-thalassaem
polyposis)
was performedusingwell-established
PCR
methods.
The second practicallab course 'PCR Diaanosis
of M icrobial'Pathoge ns'used real-time pdR to
demonstratea numberof importantPCR applications,
includingthe detectionof Mycobacteriumtuberculosis
in sputa,hepatitisB, hepatitisC and denguevirusin
humansera,and PCR-ELlSAtodetectwhitespotted
'
virussyndrome(WSSV)and monodonbaculo
v i r u s( M B V ) f r o ms h r i m p s a m p l e E
s ,a c ho f t h e s e
pathogenspresentsa majorproblemto Vietnamwith
contaminatedbloodbeingusedfortransfusions,
and
an increasein TB and viraldiseasesseverelyaffecting
theiraquacultureindustry.
Thiscourse,givento 46
students,was organizedby Dr PhamHung Van(Ho
Chi MinhCityUniversity
of Medicine),
Dr HuynhAnh
H o n g( R H U L )a n d D r S i m o nC u t t i n g( R H U L )a n O
(Vietnam)for the
we thank Bio-RadLaboratories
generousloanof theiriCyclerand reagentsfor the
durationof the course.
The SGM has now supportedfour workshopsin
Vietnamandthis has had a measurableimoacton the
qualityof researchin Vietnam,includingthe use of
PCR in diseasediagnosis.
Indirectly,
theseworkshops
haveenabledfiveVietnameseworkshopstudentsto
enterPhD programsin overseaslabsas wellas
three to obtainpost-doctoralpositions.Some of the
lecturerswho haveattendedthese workshooshave
alsodevelopedresearchcollaborations
with
Vietnamesescientists,
including Dr An n Walker who
is workingwiththe HanoiMedicalSchooltoevaluate
inheriteddisordersin Vietnamand Dr Cuttingwho is
w o r k i n go n a c h o l e r a v a c c i nper o j e c t w i t hN I H E ,l n
summary,
we offerourthanksto the SG M for
supportingtheseworkshopsand makingan impact
on preventivehealthcare in Vietnam,
Forinformationon this andfutureworkshoos
in VietnamcontactDrSimonCuttino
(s,cutting @rhul.ac.uk)
LE FI:
Simon
Cutting
demonstrates
to
Vietmanese
colleagues
during
a
P CwRorkshop
B E LOW :
N IHH
Eanoi
, V i etnam ,
PHOTOS
S.CUTTINO
importantcentrefor vaccinedevelopmentas well as
co-ordinating
phasell-l | | trials.lts own company,
producesa numberof importantvaccines
VaBioTech,
including rabies,Japaneseencephalitisvirus,hepatitis
B anda new oralcholeravaccine,
Ourprogrammeconsistedof two practicallabs,
Thefirst'Mutation Analysis of lnherited Diseases'was
(RoyalHolloway
organizedby Dr MariaPohlschmidt
Universityof London,R H U L), Dr An n Walker (Royal
Freeand UniversityCollegeMedicalSchool)and
Dr DarekGorecki(University
of Portsmouth)and
had16 students,The detectionof mutationsrn
diseasegeneshas becomeincreasingly
important
forthe diagnosisof inheritedand somaticdiseases.
Hence,the analysisof humanDNA usingrapidPCR
techniques
is now an integralpartof the procedure
usedfor the diagnosis,assessmentand preventionof
thesediseases.
Thislabcoursewas designedto
understand
the underlyingrationaleof the current
approaches,
andto assesstheircontribution
to
diagnostic
medicine.Analysisof patients'DNA of
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MicrobiologyToday
E d i t oM
r erielJones
takesa lookat some
papersin current
issuesof the
journals
Society's
w h i c hh i g h l i g hnte w
andexciting
in
developments
microbiological
researcn,
ffiruffiffis$ffis
Wfuwff$wfue
ffiffiffi$ffis&
Althoughvaccination
have
campaigns
significantlyreducedthe
numberofmeasles
cases
worldwide,
therearestill
outbreaks
of thedisease,
According
to
evenin Europe.
W H O a n dU N l C E F , t h e r e
havebeen30 millioncases
resulting
in
in recentyears,
mostof
900,000deaths,
in regions
themoccurring
witha lowrateof vaccination
However,
andmalnutrition.
theproportion
of children
whoarevaccinated
and
varies,
evenin Europe,
at the Robert
researchers
in Berlinhave
KochInstitute
recentlypuIledtogether
killaboutthree
thatcausetuberculosis
Thebacteria
information
to givea
manymore.
peopleeveryyear,and
causemiseryto
million
insightintothe
workwellagainst fascinating
andantibiotics
Althoughbothvaccination
effectsof differentrates
somestrainsof Mycobactertum tuberculosts,otherstrains,
methodsto shrugoff of vaccination.
havedeveloped
anditscloserelatives,
exactly
noonereallyunderstands
theseefforls.Inaddition,
Vaccination
against
T OR
PI O H T :
the immunesystemandcause
evade
how
mycobacteria
into
l d e n t i f i c aotfdi oi fnf e r e ni cnae s
wasintroduced
measles
at
ledbyEdithDullaghan
researchers,
Canadian
v i r u l eanntda v i r u l el anbt o r a t o r y disease.
inthe 1970s.In
Germany
a
havebeendeveloping
Columbia,
of British
Strains theUniversity
strain
oIM.tuberculosts
theformerEastGermany,
strains
to compareallthegenesf romseveral
weresubjected newtechnique
H3/Ra
andH37Rv
vaccination
wascompulsory
searchfor onesthatareessentialfor
withHlnfl of thesebacteriato
afterdigestion
to2DBGD
and)95 o/oof childrenwere
T htew os a m p lwees rreu ni n
ntvulnerabilities
thatcouldlead
orto pinpoi
causingdisease,
vaccinated,
Intheformer
p a r a lilnesle p a r a
d teen a t u r i n g to newtreatments.
bacterial
Theycallittwo-dimensional
WestGermany,
itwas
g r a d i egnetl sC o r r e s p o a
n rdei na gs genomescanning,
or2DBGSforsho11.
voluntary,
and60-70 o/oof
o ft h eg e l(s25 x 35 c mf)r o m
( ian s eb to x e s ) Thistechnique
After
isolating
theDNAfromthebacteria childrenwerecovered.
involves
a nv dH 3 7 R
H37R
sp
s h o nwu m e r o
uo
s t sh aat r e
Then
to qutit upintosmallpieces.
andthenusingenzymes
i d e n t i bc e
a tl w etehnet w os t r a i n s . theyseparate
thebitson a gel,asin DNAfingerprinting,
s p o(t4 )t h aits
H o w e voenre
notone,
usetwocharacteristics,
exceptthatthe researchers
p r e s ei nHt 3 7 R
i sva b s efnr ot m
Theresultisa slabof gelthatlooks
the pieces.
to
separate
wah i laen o t hsepro(t6 )
H37R
of a
f romthespray-can
i nt l y as if it hascaughtthedroplets
a p p e at orm
s i g r adt ief f e r e n
thegel,
runs
diagonally
across
An
arc
of
dots
graff
iti
arlist.
thetwostrains
of DNA.
snippet
to anindividual
eachcorresponding
E[i DULLAGHAN
COURTESY
Althoughtheyareallsmearedtogetherat oneedge,away
FOR
INSTITUTE
BC RESEARCH
AND
WO[/lEN
SHEALTH fromit individual
CHILDREN'S
spotsstandou|
V A N C OC
UA
VN
EA
RD A
patternof thesedotsis remarkably
Unlikespraypaint,the
atasmallregionisenoughto
Simplylooking
reproducible,
L O WR
E IRG H T :
Indeed,
when
speciesandstrains.
C o l o utrreadn s m i seslieocnt r o n identifyMycobacterium
twostrarns
thattheyknewwere
compared
the researchers
m i c r o g roafm
p he a s vl ei rsu s
p a r t i cbl eusd d ionugftr o m
an
inonegene,allthespots
asmallchange
identical
exceptfor
i n f e c tceedl(la tb o t t o m )
onecorresponding
wereinthesameplacesexceptforthe
PHOTO to thatgene.Althoughtheirworkisverymuch'proof-ofNIBSC
/ SCIENCE
COURTESY
LIBRARY
isanaddition
to themethods
present,2DBGS
concept'at
geneticdifferences
thatwillbe neededto unravelthe
P IATGEE :
OPPOS
of mycobacteria.
betweenvirulentandavirulentforms
r or a p h
o ni c g
T r a n s m i sesl ei ocnt rm
s h o w ipnagrot fa n e g a t i v e l y
Dullaghan, E.M., Malloff, C.A., Li, 4.H., Lam, \il7.L.& Stokes,
stained
cellolHalononas
R.Sf. (2002). Two-dimensional bacterial genome display: a method
K[tlM1376T.
halocynthiaestrain
for the genomic analysis of mycobacteria. Mirobiology 748,
B a r ,50p m .
3).rr-31r7.
ROHDE
OBF
DR[,4ANFRED
COURTESY
GER[,1ANY
m,P*.t{*:N{:}$St{:$tllli$Y
in 1990,the
reunification
highinthe
rateremained
East,andincreased
inthe
West,sothat now90 o/oof
arevaccinated.
6-year-olds
Between1999and2001,
the researchers
monitored
thesituation
througha
GermanMeaslesSentinel
Thisinvolved
programme.
a
'1,273
networkof
paediatricians
andgeneral
practitioners
acrossthe
countryto reportcasesand
collectclinical
samples:
1,755suspected
measles
caseswerereported,
and
f romabouthalf
samples
weretestedinthe
laboratory.
Measles
virus,
like
comesin
everything,
differentversions
called
genotypes.
ltspresence
in
clinicalsamples
canbe
shownusingthe
polymerase
chainreaction
forthedetection
of theviral
^annma
Y""""
Thon tho
researchers
checkedthe
genotype
fromthe
of oneof thevirus
sequence
genesin about12 o/oof the
confirmedcases.After
amassing
datafor 2 years,
thereweretwo veryobvious
trends.First,therewere
manyfewercases
of
measlesineastern
inwesternor
Germanythan
regions,
indicating
southern
givento
theprotection
youngchildren
bya
consistently
highrateof
vaccination.
Theother
featurewastheassignment
There
ofthegenotypes.
wereoneortwo
genotypes
predominant
in
thewestandsoutheach
year,each
involved
in a
numberof infections.
This
patternistypicalof regions
of theworldwherethevirus
fromchildto child
circulates
astheyactasa permanent
reservoi
r of infection,The
situation
wasverydifferent
intheeast,wheretherewere
afew scatteredcases,
causedbymanydifferent
varieties,
ltwasveryclear
thattheseinfections
didnot
locally,
originate
butwere
broughtintothearea,
Animals,
plants,
f ungiandsomebacteria
havebiological
Theyhavein-built
rhythms
clocks.
circadian
so manyof their
fashionoverabout24 hours.
activities
changeina rhythmic
Thisextends
f romobvious
thingslikesleeping
andwaking
to thelevels
of individual
inthecell.lt isallcontrolled
oroteins
f roma seriesof clockproteins
thatsetupandmaintain
the
rhythms.
lnthe cyanobacterium
Synechococcus
elongatus
threegenes, kaiA,kaiBandkaiC,encode
theclockproteins
anddisruption
of anykaigeneaffectstherhythm.
Researchers
in NagoyaUniversity
inJapanaretryingto
understand
howthesethreeproieinswork.Theyalready
knewthatKaiAwascrucialto
esiablishing
andmaintaining
therhythm,
although
thebacterium
couldstillgrowifthis
protein wastotallyabsent.lt controlsitsownlevelwithin
eachcell,andalsoincreases
the levelsof KaiBandKaiC,To
KaiAbetter,
understand
the researchers
deviseda systemto
measure
the lengthof thecircadian
rhythmeasily.
Toseethe
rhythm,theyinsertedanextragenethatwould makethe
produced
KaiBandKaiC.
cellsglowwheneverthey
They
measured
thebrightness
of thebacterialcells
withasensitive Theseapeach,
knownto thescientif
iccommunity
as
camerathat
automatically
recorded
itswaxingandwaning, Halocynthia
aurantium,lives
inthecoldwatersof theArctic
(sea-squirts)
SeanearJapan.
lt isa memberof theascidian
Tocreatethemutations,they
exploited
oneof thewellthatspendtheiradultlivesimmobile
(PCR). groupof animals
and
knownproblems
withthe polymerase
chainreaction
atlachedto a rockwherecrabsandstar-fishf indit a tasty
Thisreaction
allowsshorllengths
of DNAtobecopied
meal.The
barrel-shaped
bodyofthisanimalispeachmanytimes,
andisthebasisof manymolecular
biological
andit livesaloneor insmallgroups.
A closerelative
Theproblemisthatbecause
techniques.
the reaction
takes coloured
skinned,
boiledandeatenin KoreaandJapan,but
placein atest-tube,
iftheenzymemakesa copyingmistake, ispicked,
theseapeachhasescaped
thehumantable,although
the
allthecell'susualmethodsfordetection
andcorrection
are
HandsandMindCompany
inJapanistryingto develop
a
Molecular
gotogreateffortsto avoid
missing.
biologists
riedsea-peach
f lakes,
theseerrors,
buttheJapaneseresearchers
realized
thatthis marketforf reeze-d
wasa perfectwayto
createlotsof randommutations
within Formicrobiologists
of the Russian
Academyof Sciences
putthemutatedcopiesof thekaiA andtheGerman
lhe kaiAgene.Theycould
Collection
of Micro-organisms
andCell
genebackintothebacterial
cells,
letthecellsgrowandthen Cultures,
oneinteresting
featureof thisanimalisa bacterium
lookforoneswherethe rhythmof brightness
hadchanged, thattheyisolated
fromitsgills.Theyranitthrougha battery
indicating
hadbeenaffected.
thatthecircadianthythm
of teststo discover
whatit was,andrealized
thatit wasa
Thesurveythrew
upa
numberofcasescausedby
a newgenotype,
DZThis
wasinteresting
becauseits
nearestrelative
camefrom
brandnewspecies.
lt f ittedintothegenus Halomonas,which
aninfection
in lllinois,USA, Outof about4,000copiesof thegene,almosta tenth
wasrecently
redefined
to accommodate
awiderangeof
inthecircadian
rhythm.
Inthreecausedabnormalities
thathadsupposedly
been
bacteria
thatrequirea salinehabitat.
However,
therewere
Therewas quarlersof these,thelengthof the rhythmwaslonger,
and
caughtin Europe.
insomeof itsfats,genesandthe
arrhythmic,with
noobviouspatternat all. sufficientdifferences
a dramatic
shiftfromC2 and the remainderwere
thatitconsumes,todisting
uishitf romany
Thesearrhythmic
cellshada lotlessactivity
of the kaiBand compounds
D6to D7 inoneyearin
knownspecies.
Considering
itssource,
theresearchers
previous
ideathat
ThedistinguishingkaiCgenes,confirming the researchers'
Germany.
decidedthatitwasonlyappropriate
to nameit Halomonas
thesegenes.Therewasonlya singlecell
featuresof D7 arechanges KaiAactivated
halocynthiae.
inanantigenthatthebody's wherea changetothe kaiAgenehadmadethecircadian
rhythmshorter.
isthatKaiA
immunesystemusesto
Oneobviousimplication
Romanenko, L.A., Schumann, P., Rohde, M., Mikhailov, V.V.
hasadirectroleindetermining
thetimingofthe
recognize
themeasles
virus. somehow
& Stackebrandt, E. (2002).Ha/omonashalocynthiaesp.
nov., isolated
rhythm.
Theresearchers
circadian
discovered
thatthe
However,
the surveydata
from the mari ne ascidianHa/oclnthia aurantiunt. IntJ SlstEaol
mutations
affecting
the lengthof thecircadian
rhythmwere M irrcbiol 52, l - 61 -l-- 2.
indicate
thathighratesof
togetherintwo regionsof the KaiAprotein,
inanycasegive clustered
The
vaccination
arrhythmic
mutantshadmutations
inotherpartsof KaiA,
protectionregardlessof
suggesting
thatdifferent
regions
areimporlant
incontrolling
genorype,
the levelsof KaiBandKaiC.Theresearchers
intendto follow
Santibanez, S., Tischer, A.,
up thisstudy,
to discover
exactlyhowKaiAcanplaya dual
Heider, A., Siedler,A. &
roleincircadian
inthiscyanobacterium.
time-keeping
Hengel, H. (2002). Rapid
replacement of endemic measles
virus genotyp es.J G enViroI 83,
2699-2108.
Nishimura, H., Nakahira, Y., Imai, K., Tsuruhara, A.,
Kondo, H., Hayashi, H., Hirai, M., Saito, H. & Kondo,T. (2002).
Mutations in KaiA, a clock protein, extend the period ofcircadian
rhythm in the cyanobacteriu m Synecbococcus
elongatusPCCT 942.
M icrabi o/ agy I 48, 2903-2909.
.".,'TOIIAYVOL29INOV02
n
'itlt'is$l$ll$s:':ir*$tf-rsi{iq:u*$:'i$
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$r:ii'i-$*'l*i*"t*
ii r*$i*
r$i${fili$i.$
$xl$i'$*-$,$i
Onlytimewillrevealthe
to the
fullconsequences
healthof peoplelivinginthe
UKof eatingmeatfrom
cowsinfectedwithBSE
i nt h em i d - 1 9 8 0asn d
early-1990s.So far,over
1O0peoplehavediedfrom
a diseasethatis probably
with
causedbyinfection
thesameagentthatcauses
BSEincattle,aso-called
for
Reasons
prionprotein,
the uncertaintyarethe
indetectingprions,
difficulty
thedecadesthatit may
takebeforepeopleshow
and
anydiseasesymptoms
the lackof anytreatmeni
to offer.Thediseaseis
nowcalledvariant
disease
Creutzfeldt-Jacob
(vCJD) becauseof its
to theveryrare
similarity
disease,
Creutzfeld-Jacob
that
disorder
a neurological
intheearly
wasidentified
yearsofthe20thcentury
sheepwithBSEbyusing
a bloodtransfusionf rom
anotherBSE-infected
sheep,Ina recentpaperin
JGV,theyhavereported
of this
ontheprogress
studyoverthefollowing
twoyears.Anotheranimal
symptoms
hasdeveloped
of thedisease,
characteristic
andtwo moreappearto
havetheveryfirstsignsof
19
Theremaining
illness.
sheepthathavereceived
eitherwholebloodor cells
frominfectedanimalsare
stillingoodhealth,
havea
Theresearchers
s e c o n d g r o u p o f 2s lh e e p
thathavebeentnfusedwith
bloodandcellsf romsheep
that hadnaturallycontracted
Thisisa diseaseof
scrapie.
sheep,causedbya prion,
whichhasbeenpresentin
andhas
the U K for centuries
never,asfar asanyonecan
tell,beenpassedonto
people,
Fourof thesesheep
many
Nevertheless,
The
becameillwithscrapie,
thingshavebeendoneto
their
confirmed
thedtsease researchers
trytoeradicate
of thedisease
identification
incattleandto removeany
bytestingthebrainsand
nitiesfor
furlheropportu
peopleto becomeexposed othertissuesof thesesheq
Two
tothecauseofthedisease. for prionproteins,
furthergroupsof sheep,that
Oneof theseischangesto
havereceivedbloodfrom
the BloodTransfusion
healthysheep,
Serviceinthe U K,because perfectly
haveshownnosignsof
of thepossibilitythat
disease,
neurological
vCJD,unlikeCJD,couldbe
throughblood.
transmitted
Oneof the mostinteresting,
Recentresultsf roma
featuresof
andworrying,
by
experiment
long-term
theseresultsisthatseveral
atthe Institute
researchers
wereof
of thetransfusions
in
forAnrmalHealth
bloodthatcamefrompreandCompton
Edinburgh
healthy
apparently
clinical,
thatthis
areindicating
that
sheep.Thissuggests
mighthavebeenavery
in
thelevelof infectivity
Twoyears
wiseprecaution,
thatappearto be
animals
agoDrNoraHunterand
perfectlyhealthymaybe
othersreportedthatthey
anyone
muchhigherthan
to infectone
hadmanaged
Allthesheep
hadimagined.
EE N$SRSW${FfuS$WIODAYVOL29/NOVO2
havesofartakenaround
600 daysto starltoshow
signsof diseaseafterthe
Several
bloodtransfusions,
thistime
havenotreached
limityet,
sotheresearchers
do notknowif thecurrent
resultof about10oloof
in
resulting
transfusions
or
diseaseisthefinaltotal,
whetheritwillbehigher.
Hunter, N., Foster,J.,
Chong, A., McCutcheon, S.,
Parnham, D., Eaton, S.,
MacKenzie, C. & Houston, F.
(2002 ). Transm issionofprion
diseasesby blood transli-rsion.
-2905.
J G enVirol 83, 2897
iS
+ . I
-ruh:'**uffi
#h
sffiqsNsWs$ffiNm$$ww
wNwR-wNm
Nus
Turbotisoneof a numberofspeciesof fishthatarebeing
farmed,aswellascaughtinthewild,lt isimportantthatthe
intheirgut,and
youngf ishacquirethecorrectmicroflora
thatsome
havediscovered
researchers
at GhentUniversity
and
helpthef ish-frysurvive
strainscanactually
bacterial
grow.Theyhavenowstudied22differentbacteriafromthe
gutsof healthyyoung turbotto learnexactlywhattheyare,
andwhetherparlicularmolecularbiologicaltechniquesare
thanothersfortheiridentification.
moresuitable
to generatea
allowedthe researchers
Onetechnique
thewholeof
largenumberofbandsof DNA,representing
wereobviously
genome.
Although the patterns
thebacterial
all22isolatesfell
frommembersof the familyVibrionaceae,
f rom
separate
clusterthatwascompletely
intoa distinctive
the
knownspeciesof thisfamily.When
allthecurrently
of a single
thesequences
triedcomparing
researchers
gene,theycameupwitha similarresult;allthe bacterial
strainsfromtheturbotweresimilartoeachother,butdistinct
that
fromothermembersolthe Vibrionaceae.Othertests
DNAandalsoat
of bacterial
lookedatthecomposition
acidsandthe
internalfatty
antibiotics,
sensitivityto
sugarsthattheycoulddigest,addedto the pictureof the
of thesenovelbacteria,
characteristics
inthesamedirection,the
Withallthedatapointing
a new
havediscovered
feelconfidentthatthey
researchers
bacterialgenus,whichtheyproposeto callEnterovibrio,in
of the
of bothitsguthabitatandmembership
recognition
Vibrionaceaefamily,
C.C.,Goris,J.,
F.L.,Hoste,B.,Thompson,
Thompson,
(2002).
B.,Huys,L.,DeVos,P.& Swings,J.
Gomez-Gil,
Enterwibrio noruegicusgen. nov., sp. nov., isolated from the gut of
tutbot(Scophthalmusmaximus)larvae: a new member of the family
Vi bri onaceae.I ntJ Sy st EaoI Mi crobi oI 5 2 (in pr ess).
ABOVE:
toa life
hasadapted
Iheturbot
of
ontheseabed
andisa master
l ot o kl si k e
c a m o u f lT
ah
g teu r b o
it isborn,
but
fishwhen
arry
other
and
thebody
flattens
asit matures
totheleftside
theright
eyemoves
t heef i s hs
e v e n t utaolbl ye c o m
topside
PAT
OREILLY
COURTESY
( W WFW
I S H I NW
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whichdetectpiecesof DNA,
Molecular
biologymethods,
haveprovided
microbiologists
withapuzzle.lf
theycan
pathogeninsomething,
detecttheDNAofa bacterial
but
grow,is it,or isit not,a potential
cannotgetthebacteriato
sourceof infection?The
argumenthascontinued,
asboth
DNAdetection
andbacterial
culturemethodshave
Researchers
havealsobecomemore
imoroved.
knowledgeable
aboutthelivesof bacteriainthe normal
environment,ratherthanin pamperedlaboratory
conditions.
Consequently,
thereisintenseinterestinthe hypothesis
that
canadopta'viablebutnon-culturable'
state,
somebacteria
Thisproposes
thatsomebacteria
thatarenormally
easyto
growcanchangein adverseenvironments
sothatalthough
culture
theyareno longerdetectedbyconventional
methods,
theyarestillalive,andcanperhapsbeenticedto
growagain,Thebacteria
thatappearto dothis includemajor
pathogens,
suchasthe bacteria
thatcausecholeraand
various
importantto
sortsof foodpoisoning,
so it isobviously
gettothebottomof thispotentialfor
resurrection.
Researchers
inthe Deparlments
of Microbiology
and
lmmunology
inthe Universities
Newcastle
of Leicesterand
inthe U K havenowdoneaverycareful
evaluation
of
SalmoneIIa enterica serovarTyphimurium,whichcancause
foodpoisoning.Apartfrom
itsbeinga realpathogen,
they
chosethissoeciesbecausethereareseveralmethodsto
detectit anditsactivities.
Somehavebeenusedforover20
years,sothereisa lotofexperience
in howtheywork.
Oneof
them,whichinvolves
injecting
thebacteriaintomice,isso
sensitive
thatit detectsbetween1 and 1Olivingbacteria,
grewthebacteriaand
Theresearchers
thenstarved
themfordaysto getcellsthat,althoughnotcapableof
reproduction,
werestillbiochemically
active.
Theyusedvery
preciseprocedures
to growandtestthebacteriasothey
could beconfidentthattheir experimentswerereproduciblel,
Whentheytriedto infectmicewiththesecells,theanimals
per{ectly
remained
healthy,and
the researchers
couldnot
f romthe
detectthebacteriaineitherthegutsor droppings
mice.Thiswasaverydefinite
thatthiswelldemonstration
knownpathogen
wasunableto causeinfections
afterit had
procedure
to convertitscellsrnto
beenthrougha particular
state.Theresearchers
hooe
anactivebutnon-culturable
thatthisexamplewillencourage
othersto testtheextentto
whichtemporarilynon-culturablebacteria
forma reservoi
r
precisefashion,
forinfectious
diseases
in a similarly
Smith, RJ., Newton, A.T., Harwood, C.R. & Barer, M.R.
(2002). Active but nonculturable cells of Salntonellaentaica serovar
Typhimurium do not infect or colonize mic e. Microbiology148,
2lr1-2126.
i*.*eii
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r.dunford
s.ferris
Gomment
Fightinginfiection- the creation of a
new UK Health Prctection Agency
SGM Professionalffi The Challenge of Infectious Disease
'
At the beginning of the 2 1st century infectious diseases
AffairsOfficer
remain a major global threat to beahb, prosperity and security' ,
Schild
Geoffrey
according to the ChiefMedical Officer's report Getting
takesa lookat
Ahead of the Curae.The World Health Organization
thenewUK
07HO) estimates that infections account {or 40 % of
government
to combat total global diseasewith, in particular, HIV/AIDS,
strategy
disease, malaria and TB responsible for rapidly growing disability
infectious
the introduction ofstandards for diagnosis and genetic
profi I i ng of micro-organisms.
The development ofnew and improvedvaccines will sit
alongside a strengthened programme of innovation and
researchin other HPA areas.
The PHLS, established in S7NTII to deal with infectious
diseaseemergencies, was the first in the world to develop
and mortality which is especially devastating in poorer
a nationalnetwork
countries. But infections continue to present a serious
has been ofgreat value in the diagnosis, surveillance
problem in developed countries, despite sophisticated
and epidemiology ofinfection. The PHLS comprises
health care provision, availability ofantibiotics and well
the Central Public Health Laboratory (CPHL) and
Communicable DiseasesSurveillance Centre (CDSC) at
managedvaccination programmes. In the UK infections
ffi Pleasenotethat
in
viewsexpressed
Commentdonot
reflect
necessarily
the
officialpolicyof
S GM C o u n c i l ,
the microbiology laboratory network is envisioned with
of microbiology
laboratories. This
are said to account for some 70,000 deaths annually and
Colindale and other spe cializedreference laboratories as
4O % of allmedical consultations.
well asa network of local microbiology laboratories. It is
Infections are unpredictable. At least 30 new human
proposed that CPHL, CDSC and several reference
pathogens have emerged in recent decades,many from
laboratories will merge into HPA. $fhile severalofthe
animal sources.Infections transmitted by food and water
locai laboratories will transfer to NHS trusts. at least one
and blood still cause concern, although safety standards
in each region will be retained within HPA. The partial
have greatly improved. Hospital-acquired infection is
disbandment of the PHLS network is causing concern
increasing rapidly, often involving antimicrobial-
and the new structure must not reduce the effectivenessof
resistant organisms. In itself, microbial resistance
surveillance, diagnosis and epidemiological investigation.
to antibiotics is a serious public health problem.
Intensive discussions between PHLS, the Department of
Vaccination is one of the great successstories ofmodern
Health and others are currently ongoing. The timescale
medicine, yet much researchis still needed to develop
for the formal establishment of HPA, by April 2003, is
new vaccines. Added to natural sourcesof infection, we
short and demanding. STill there be adequate time for
now live in fear ofthe deliberate releaseofpathogens
consultation and the complex rcorganization envisaged?
and other forms of bioterrorism.
The report mentions little in respect ofinternational
ffiTheHealthProtectionAgency
collaboration. It is critically important that the Agency
Given the above scenario, the challenge ofcombating
infectious diseaseis clearly enormous and justifies a new
develops close working relationships with \fHO
approach involving manySifferent areasofexpertise. The
and NIH in the USA. HPA will also have a major role in
UK has opted to set up the Health Protection Agency
co-ordinating national efforts to fight bioterrorism. It
(HPA) whichwill
must provide training in respect of recognition and
be responsible forprotecting the
and the
European Union, aswell asmajor bodies such as CDC
public not only against infectious disease,but also
h a n d l i n g o f b i o t e r r o r i s ma g e n t s .
radiation and chemical hazards.In my view this is a bold
The successofthe new strategy for the control ofinfection
and timely responseto the challenges which lie ahead.
is heavily dependant on the availability ofwell-trained
The HPA will be formed from four existing institutions,
the Public Health Laboratory Service (PHLS), the Centre
microbiologists in clinical and laboratory settings. UK
Academy ofMedical Sciencesreports have expressed
for Applied Microbiology and Research(CAMR), the
National Radiological Protection Board (NRPB), and
great anxiety about the shortage ofmicrobiologists in
the National Focus for Chemical Incidents (NFCI). I
ofclinical bacteriology and virology. The HPA may need
believe the proposed structure is a rational one in which
to take urgent action to attract people into this field and
general and the serious threat this presents for the firture
the individual expertise ofthe component parts will be
to ensure thatapproptiate training is available.
complementary and enable the provision of a cohesive,
The taskofthe HPAwill
integrated and multidisciplinary
often be difficult and unpredictable. The Agency will
approach.
It is also proposed that the HPA working with the
National Health Service (NHS) and local authorities
be huge. The challengeswill
require inspired management and a strong scientific basis
for its work and accessto specialized and high quality
will provide a local health protection service in relation
R&D programmes and, ofcourse, adequate funding. It
to infection and other hazards.A strengthened and
extended system of infectious diseasesurveillance will
will also need to rely on firm government and ministerial
commitment and support. \We wish it well.
integrate information on human and animal infections
# Geoffrey S ch i Id, P rofess i o na I Aff ai r s Offi ce r
and from envi ronmental monitori ng. Rational ization of
@tu$$r*lFc{*tli*$r{lp't*#*t9IODAYVOL29/NOV02