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CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL FOUNDATION
2.1 History of Jewelry
The word jewelry means personal ornaments that are worn as an adornment
that can enhance the beauty or the status of someone who wears it. The word jewelry
itself was adopted from the Latin word jocale, which means "plaything," and the
word jewel, during the 13th century was translated into English from the Old French
word "jouel (dictionary.com, 2013). Jewelry can symbolize affection, wealth,
loyalty, piety, grief, status, power, and it can even signify more complex emotion.
Those functions has not change much since the discovery of jewelry; therefore this
fact makes it possible for jewelry to be a timeless piece and a target for constant
development and refinement (historofjewelry.net, 2013). The used of jewelry in its
most basic form was known as early as the beginning of the mankind, along with
knowledge of clothes and tools of the first mankind.
It is believed that jewelry started out as a functional item used to fasten
articles of clothing together, and was later adapted for use as an object for purely
aesthetic decoration, spiritual and religious symbol, protection from the dangers of
life or as a mark of status or rank (vam.ac.uk, 2013). During that time, jewels were
produced from any kind of materials that were available, for example animal teeth,
animal skins, feathers, bones, stones, plants, shells, wood, and semi precious natural
made materials such as obsidian. In the late 1800s, British archaeologist Archibald
Campbell Carlyle said of primitive man "the first spiritual want of a barbarous man
is decoration"(F. Rogers, A. Beard, 1940). Therefore, mankind’s desire to admire the
beauty in life is almost a constant reminder that differentiate us from the animal
kingdom, just like a saying from Claudia Lady Bird Johnson “Art is the window to
man’s soul. Without it, he would never been able to see beyond his immediate world;
nor could the world see the man within.”(womenhistory.com, 2013) Moreover, the
making of a more advance jewelry began with the ancestors of Homo Sapiens. Over
40,000 years ago as the early Homo Sapiens began to migrate from the cradle of
civilization in central Africa to the Middle East, the Indus Valley, and to the
continent of Europe. As these early humans traveled the land they collected objects
of curiosity, turning them into jewelry, which would tell the story of their journey
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(allaboutgemstones.com, 2013).
By 8000 B.C., as the ancient world discovers how to work metals, this event
played an important stage in the development of the art of jewelry, which enabled
craftsmen and artisans to start taming metals and precious gems into works of art that
influenced entire cultures and many modern jewelry styles (vam.ac.uk, 2013).
To know more about the origin and the function of jewelry this is a brief
history of jewelry and explanation of how it has evolved from the early years of
mankind up until today :
1. The Ancient World
Before early human were able to shape metal or carve stone they adorned
their bodies using simple beads made from seeds, berries and shells. By 30.000 BC
huntsmen in different regions of Europe were wearing pendants made form the bones
and teeth of animal, possibly intended as a good luck charm for successful hunting as
well as for decoration. The most common artifacts found as the evidence of the early
settlements was beads. As technical abilities developed, jewelry variation increased.
The next breakthrough in jewelry came when people learned to work with metals.
Prized for its rarity, beauty, malleability, untarnishing gleam, and its ability to
withstand fire, was the reasoning why gold was the principal metal used for jewelry
in the ancient world. It was found in Egypt, Nubia, Arabia, and Anatolia, and further
west in the Balkans, Spain and Ireland. Most early gold jewelry was made from thin
sheets, hammered out between layers of leather or papyrus. The Sumerian
civilization of the southern Mesopotamia has left some of the earliest examples of
gold jewelry, from c. 2500 BC, buried in the royal tombs at Ur. The extravagant
funerary customs of the court meant the entombment of servants, guards, and
musicians along with the deceased, and large quantities of jewelry were uncovered.
The most magnificent pieces were found in the tomb of Queen Pu-abi, who
was dressed in a robe encrusted with beads and fastened at the shoulder with three
gold pins. She wore necklaces, a belt and a garter all made of carved stone beads,
large crescent-shaped earrings, and a ring on each finger. By her side was found a
complex headdress made form strings of tubular beads, gold and lapis lazuri discs
and garlands of gold leaves, with a lattice of gold ribbons surmounted by a tall crest
of three stylized gold flowers. Amongst her sixty-three attendants the women wore
headbands of gold leaves, earrings, chokers, necklaces, bracelets, and rings, while
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the man wore earrings, necklaces, armlets, bracelets, and pectoral ornaments.
Figure 2.1 Reconstructed Sumerian headgear necklaces found in the tomb of Puabi,
displayed on the British Museum. Retrieved from
http://jaspersgems.blogspot.com/2013/10/jewelry-through-ages-ancient-sumer.html
The discovery of the tomb of the boy king Tutankhamun in the Valley of the
Kings in Egypt reveals that at the time of his death around 1327 BC Egyptian
jewelry was at its height. With its strong colors and highly developed symbolism it
was the culmination of a tradition of jewelry making. Jewelry played a very
important part at all levels of Egyptian life, adding color to the simple white linen
costumes. It was also extremely important in rituals surrounding death, and this
funerary aspect is the reason why so much has been preserved. Egypt and the land to
its south were major sources of gold in the ancient world, so the royal mummies
could be provided for magnificently. The dead were splendidly adorned, usually in
pieces that they had worn while alive (although others of thinner gold were made
specifically for funerary use), and their coffins were both covered and lined with
gold. Even the poor were buried with simple necklaces.
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Figure 2.2 One of twenty six pectoral ornaments or pendant found in the tomb of
Tutankhamun. Retrieved from http://www.greenandbenz.com/1606/a-journey-intojewellery/
The Romans were influenced and adopted the jewelry style of the Etruscans
and Hellenistic Greece. The Etruscans had settled in northern Italy by the late 8th
century BC and later defeated by the Romans in the 3rd century BC. They mastered
the difficult technique of granulation, which they used to create textured surface
patterning on their gold work. Hellenistic is the period of ancient Greek and
Mediterranean history between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the
emergence of the Roman Empires. One of the most distinctive features of Hellenistic
jewelry is its polychromy, using specially cut panels of colored stones or glass and
enamel. Garnets were frequently used, and even emeralds, amethysts and pearls
towards the end of the period. Gem engraving reached increased levels of
sophistication.
During Bronze Age (1800 – 600 BC) new skills and styles of self-adornment
arise as the goldsmith’s craft flourished. Although there were some distinct regional
styles, basic forms common to widely different localities emerged during this period.
In Ireland, two types of ornaments were made during the Early Bronze Age: large
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discs decorated with a central cross, which were sewn onto garments, and crescentshaped neck-rings or lunulae (literally little moons). In Central Europe a style of
jewelry where both form and pattern were created from conjoined spirals of bronze
or gold wire was established during the Middle Bronze Age: fine example have been
discovered in Hungary and Germany. Bulky pieces like neck-rings and arm-rings
were made in the same manner using thicker gauge metal. During the final centuries
of the Bronze Age Ireland enjoyed a major cultural revival. In this later period, the
typical pieces are dress fasteners with conical terminals: gorgets or ribbed crescentshaped collars with circular bosses; and biconical ornaments of gold wire known as
lock rings which it is thought were worn in the hair.
During the Iron Age, Europe was dominated by the Celts. Two
archaeological sites have given their names to the basic chronology and principal
styles of decoration: Hallstatt in Upper Austria represents the simple configurations
of triangles, arcs and dots of the 6th and 5th centuries BC; and La Tène on the shore of
Lake Neuchâtel in Switzerland covers the mid 5th century BC until the Roman
conquest. La Tène forms are more complex and, following Celtic activity in northern
Italy, influenced by Greek Art. The most universal Celtic ornament was the brooch,
which also served as a garment fastener. Typically these are ached or bow-shaped
with a prominent spring across one end, and a foot and catch plate at the other, which
curves, back towards the bow (Phillips, 1996, pp. 7-32).
2. Byzantium and Early Europe
The Byzantine Empire had originated with the founding of Constantinople on
the site of the Greek city of Byzantium in AD 330 as the capital of the Eastern half of
the Roman Empire, but it survived after the crumbling of Roman power in the West,
long right through the Middle Ages until 1453. The Byzantine world was
hierarchical and strictly regulated, and as jewelry conveyed status, there were
attempts to restrict its availability through sumptuary laws. Every man and woman
had the right to wear a gold ring, but the wider use of gold and precious stones
tended to be restricted to the court and the Church. The Codex of Justinian, compiled
in 529, ruled that pearls, emeralds and sapphires should be reserved for the
emperor’s use.
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Figure 2.3 The mosaic portrait of the Empress Theodora at San Vitale, Ravenna.
Shows the magnificence of Byzantine court jewelry in the 540s. Retrieved from
http://www.classicalmosaics.com/images/theo.jpg
Byzantine designers drew on their inherited Classical past, on Christianity
which had been officially recognized under Constantine I, and on the oriental
influences that came from their proximity to Asia. The decorative techniques used by
Byzantine jewelers during the early period were largely adopted. Repetitive motifs
were embossed on soft gold sheer using a die, while chasing with hand tools was
used for more individual work. Another survival was the Roman love of colored
stones, which were to remain characteristic of Byzantine jewelry. Color was also
added to jewelry with enamels, cloisonné enamel being one of the finest and most
distinctive features of Byzantine jewelry. The symbolism of Christianity pervades
much Byzantine jewelry, and pendant crosses (some of which also served as
reliquaries) were among the earliest and most popular pieces. During this period
jewelry served a functional as well as a decorative purpose, and the most commonly
found types are brooches, clasps and ornate buckles, which were used to fasten
garments before buttons came into use (Phillips, 1996, pp. 33–52).
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3. The Middle Ages
In medieval Europe, jewelry continued to be worn by both men and women,
and smaller versions of adult types, with colored glass rather than gemstones, were
made for children. Although some might be purely decorative, many pieces like
cloak fasteners and girdles were functional, and a large proportion had an explicit
religious or heraldic significance.
Medieval styles divide into three chronological phases. During the early
Middle Ages, from 800 to the 13th century, the principal influence was the Byzantine
court. Towards the end of the 13th century the Gothic style came to be reflected in
jewelry. It remained fundamental to design throughout the rest of the medieval
period, but from about 1375 a refining and softening of the forms and an increased
emphasis on natural ornament are evident. The final phase remained current until at
least the second half of the 15th century, when the influence of Renaissance began to
spread from Italy to the rest of Europe, bringing with it new styles of jewelry.
During this period, gold remained the most prestigious metal. The most
valued stones were sapphires, emeralds, rubies and red spinels, which were known as
balas rubies. In the Middle Age, gemstones were not chosen simply for its color or
rarity, but also for its healing and spiritual power that the society believe it has. For
example, the sapphire grand many blessings on the wearer: protection from physical
injury and from fraud, freedom from fear or envy, the power to release prisoners, it
promoted peace and reconciliation, cooled the body and healed ulcers, eyes and
headaches, cured stammers and ensured chastity.
Not all the stones used in medieval jewelry were genuine. For sometimes,
imitations were used legitimately in minor pieces, in children’s jewelry for instance,
and also to decorate the funerary robes to royalty (Phillips, 1996, pp. 53-74).
4. The Renaissance to 1630
The Renaissance was a time of extraordinary splendor, and with new sources
of gemstones, more jewelries was worn than ever before. Surviving pieces, most
commonly rings and pendants, show the high levels of craftsmanship and the
intricacy of deign that were achieved during this period, but it is through
contemporary portraits that the full magnificence of court jewelry can be best
appreciated. They illustrate the lavish quantities worn by both men and women, and
the precise, naturalistic style of painting during this period means that it is depicted
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in minute detail.
Rubies were highly prized during the Renaissance, particularly the deep red
variety from Burma. Emeralds and sapphires were also much used, and pearls
remained one of the most costly and desirable gems. The production of imitation
gems and pearls flourished with increased sophistication. As in the medieval period,
colored stones were achieved with glass foils, and slivers of genuine gemstone made
into doublets. Imitation diamonds were cut from rock crystal or glass. The medieval
faith in the magical and medical qualities of particular materials had diminished but
not disappeared completely, and narwhal (“unicorn”) horn was still prized as a
detector of poisons.
Figure 2.4 The Ermine Potrait of Queen Elizabeth I. She wears the Three Brothers
pendant oh her bodice. Retrieved from
http://madamepickwickartblog.com/2011/03/spenser-and-the-poetry-of-opposites/
The concept of “Crown Jewels”, as distinct from the personal jewelry of a
royal family, originated in the Renaissance. Pendants were one of the favorite types
of Renaissance jewel. They were usually worn on long gold chains, but could also be
attached to a lady’s bodice or sleeve. Although some pendants were obviously made
to match a necklace or elaborate chain, they were usually individual jewels, and
added variety and even humor to the more formal parures (jewelry set) (Phillips,
1991, pp. 75-96).
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5. Baroque to Revolution
The early 17th century witnessed the waning of Spanish influence over
European court life, and the emergence of the French as the leaders of style. By the
1630s heavily embroidered and jeweled farthingales had been exchanged for flowing
gowns with puffed sleeves and low necklines, and hair was arranged less severely in
soft shoulder-length ringlets. This new look is familiar to us from the paintings of
Ruben and Van Dyck.
Quantities of pearls were worn with these new, softer styles, and indeed for a
short time they appear to have supplanted other materials almost completely. Botany
became a favorite source of inspiration, especially when coupled with new
techniques in enamel. The growth of prosperous middle class during the 17th century,
particularly in powerful trading nations like Holland, extended the wearing of
diamond jewelry to the bourgeoisie. The pearls that feature constantly in portraits of
the 1630s were most fashionable when worn in profusion. Atypical arrangement
would include a short necklace, large drops for the ears and a string of pearls for the
hair. As earlier centuries, false pearls were used as a more affordable means of
achieving a luxuriant effect. The Bow was one of the most popular motifs in Baroque
jewelry, probably developing out of the ribbons, which were tied at the top of jewel
as a means to securing it.
Figure 2.5 Necklace of enameled gold bow found in French in 1660s.
Retrieved from http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O73161/necklace-unknown/
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The Rococo style originated in Paris in the 1730s and influenced the
decorative arts throughout Europe. Its asymmetry can be seen in the jeweled flowers
and feathers, and the leave inspired design, which remained prevalent until the
1780s, but abstract Rococo pieces are much more rare. Non-precious materials such
as paste and cut steel reached very high levels of design and craftsmanship, and were
even worn at court. In paste jewelry the glass stones are cut and polished like
diamonds and then mounted individually in foiled closed-back silver settings. Semi
precious stones were much used for pieces worn during the day.
Mourning rings conformed to standard types in 18th century Britain: during
the second quarter, a discreet band, often divided into five or six curling scrolls, was
common-decorated with black enamel for those who were married and white for the
unmarried, and inscribed in gold letters with the name, age, and date of death
(Phillips, 1996, pp. 97-122).
6. Empire, Historicism and Eclecticism
The making and wearing of jewelry in France was interrupted dramatically
by the Revolution in 1789, before re-emerging with the magnificent Neo-Classical
creations of the First Empire. Despite this hiatus, the French managed to retain their
role as the leaders of high fashion, and such was their influence that even during the
long period of hostilities between 1793 and 1815 Parisian styles were acidly
followed in London.
At the outbreak of the Revolution, jewelry suffered a dramatic switch of
fortune, where it was once a dominant symbol of the monarchy and court. Its
possession indicated aristocratic status, and during the terror, even a pair of fancy
shoe buckles might be enough to sent their owner to death sentence. Those who
supported or hoped to appease the revolutionaries gave their jewelry to the cause,
while others hid their jewels or took them as financial security when they ran away.
Meanwhile in Paris the only acceptable jewelries were historical or memorable,
unrefined pieces, which some were made from stone or metal fragments of the
Bastille. Most common were simple iron rings inscribed with patriotic phrases
celebrating it’s storming, or stamped with portrait busts of heroes.
With the proclamation of the Empire in the 1804 the Parisian luxury trades
revived, especially the jewelers. Napoleon and Josephine had the state jewels
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surviving from the former kings of France re-set in the Neo-Classical style, by that
claiming a link with the empires of Greece and Rome, and emphasizing their
imperial status. They also reintroduce the wearing of luxurious ornaments at courts.
Josephine was to become a great leader of fashion and a major patron of the jewelry
houses.
Changes in costume, from stiff patterned brocades to fine plain-colored
fabrics falling close to the body, called for elegant restrained hues, and provided an
ideal background for colored stones. Although elaborate, designs of the period are
not lively but have a cool, controlled air, with garlands of laurel leaves and bands of
Greek key pattern arranged with geometric precision and balance. Patterns were
taken from antique architectural detailing, as ancient jewelry was at this date largely
unknown. Matching sets of parures were typical and a set of parures might include a
necklace, a pair of bracelets, pendant earrings, a belt clasp and up to four hair
ornaments. Parures might be entirely made of diamonds, but more characteristic are
those made of large single colored gemstones, each one framed by a border of
smaller diamonds. Parures set with Italian micro-mosaic plaques remained
fashionable throughout Europe until the mid-1870s.
Figure 2.6 Princess Pauline Borghese wears a parure of engraved gems. Retrieved
from http://www.gogmsite.net/_Media/1807-pauline-borghese-by-2.jpeg
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The etiquette surrounding death became more complex in following century,
with strict periods of mourning observed following the loss. By the 1860s a widow
was expected to dress in black for a year and a day after her husband’s death,
wearing minimal matt black ornaments, usually of unpolished jet. Gradually she was
allowed more elaborate mourning jewelry, then diamonds and pearls, and finally
colored stones. Jet, a black fossilized wood, was the ideal material for mourning
jewelry. It was easily carved into elaborate designs, could be given a matt or polished
finish, and was so light that large pieces could be worn comfortably.
During this period, traditional materials were affected by the discovery of
new sources of supply and advance in technology. The mid-19th century was a time
of great scientific and mechanical advances. By the 1840s the unhealthy process of
mercury gilding, which involved heating a mixture of mercury and gold until the
mercury evaporated, had been superseded by electro-gilding. Crucial to the
development of mass-produced jewelry was the application of steam power to
stamping machines that punches out both the basic shape and the surface detailing of
a piece in one rapid action.
In Britain, copyright laws were introduced in 1842, which offered
manufacturers protection for new patterns or technical processes that could have
been copied by rival firms. Although never compulsory, the system was much used
by firms specializing in inexpensive jewelry, and it now identifies precisely the
maker and the date of design of many otherwise anonymous pieces. Up to the mid19th century, virtually all Western jewelry had been designed and made in Europe.
Now new areas of the world were adding their own contribution, especially America
and Australia (Phillips, 1996, pp. 123-154)
7. The Belle Époque: Diamonds, Art Nouveau and the Arts and Crafts
Jewelry from around 1900 can be divided into three main strands. At the
highest level of privilege and wealth, particularly in the courts of Europe, lavish
quantities of formal diamond jewelry continued to be worn. In style it had moved
gradually away from revived Renaissance motifs to lighter forms inspired by the
fashion of Louis XVI and the First Empire. Secondly in more artistic or progressive
circles in Europe the freer forms of Art Nouveau were being explored using colored
stones and enamels. Thirdly, in Britain there was a revival of traditional crafts ad a
reaction against mechanizations. Rejecting conventional attitudes to materials and
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technical training, designers of the Arts and Crafts movement produced work that
was characterized by the use of semi-precious stones and enamels and a hand-made
look. Throughout Europe jewelers took different elements from each strand to create
over-lapping national styles. Many chose semi-precious and non-precious materials
for their color and texture in preference to more valuable materials. The Paris
Exhibition of 1900 was at the center of this intensely colorful and elegant period, and
the styles championed there continued with little change until the outbreak of the
First World War in 1914.
Fine jewelry was almost entirely white, based on a lavish use of diamonds
and pearls. Settings were made in white gold, and then increasingly in platinum,
either of which gave a sympathetic white settings of greater strength than had been
possible with silver. The broad choker, which fitted closely around the neck like a
dog collar was at its most fashionable around the turn of the century. Pearls were
immensely fashionable, and remained extremely costly. Very good imitations were
available, but of more lasting significance were the attempt by Kokichi Mikimoto of
Japan to produce culture pearls form the 1890s.
Figure 2.7 Mrs. Jay Gould wife of an American Millionaire in the corseted
fashion and formal “white” jewelry which is typical in the 1900s. Retrieved from
http://memory.loc.gov/service/pnp/cph/3b30000/3b35000/3b35800/3b35841r.jpg
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A new group of customers, wealthy industrialist and financiers, greatly
stimulated the jewelry trade both in Europe and America at a time when many of the
aristocrat families of Europe found their inherited wealth to be decreasing. They
amassed both historic and new pieces. Many of the wealthiest Americans chose to
buy their jewelry in Paris; otherwise Tiffany & Co, in New York were the most
international and prestigious of the American firms. Their great contribution to ring
design was the “Tiffany Settings”, developed in 1886 for diamond solitaires. In this
the gem is supposed about the band of the ring by a circle of elongated claws; more
light is able to pass through the stone, so it sparkles much more brightly. It remains
the standard setting used throughout much of the world today.
The Art Nouveau movement has left jewelry of breathtaking subtle and
delicacy. Named after Siegfried Bing’s avant-garde Paris shop “ La Maison de l’Art
Nouveau”, its vocal point was the Paris Exhibition on the 1900. Its influence was felt
throughout Europe and America, where the decorative arts were transformed by
extravagant swirling lines and graciously rounded forms. Sensuality was a dominant
force, and image from nature were endowed with a romantic dreaminess.
Figure 2.8 René Lalique’s wasps pin made of gold, enamel, opal and diamond. He
was the greatest jeweler in Art Nouveau era. Retrieved from
http://www.lalique.com/media/Univers/Jewelry/Rene_Lalique_joaillier_avant_verrie
r/Verrier_slideshow5.jpg
The Arts and Crafts movement was dedicated not only to reform in design,
but also to the dignity of the individual craftsman as expounded by William Morris
and John Ruskin in reaction to mechanization and mass-production. It encompassed
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a variety of individual styles, but distinctive characteristics include hand-beaten
metal surfaces, soft-colored cabochon stones, enamel work and a preference for
decorative themes from a romanticized pre-industrial past (Phillips, 1996, pp. 155174).
8. From Art Deco to the 1950s
The linear forms characteristic of the Art Deco style began to emerge in
jewelry as early as 1910, but it was in the years between the First and Second World
Wars that the style was at its height. The end of the First World War in 1918 had
allowed a return to extravagance among the wealthy, but the mood of society had
changed, and now stylized and geometric motifs emerged. High-value faceted
gemstones returned in profusion as a major element of jewelry, and together with the
vibrant color contrast of semi-precious materials like turquoise and coral created
exotic effects far removed from the subtly shaded enamels of the preceding decades.
Many influences contributed to Art Deco, including the geometry and
abstraction of the Cubist painters and the linear forms of the Vienna Secession. The
basic jewelry forms developed from pre-war models which had already shown how
best to complement the straighter, looser, and now shorter fashions. The emphasis
remained on elegant vertical lines: necklaces hung low, often with an elaborate
jeweled pendant, while long earrings accompanied the new short hairstyles.
Sleeveless dresses and the shedding of evening gloves encouraged the wearing of
bracelets, especially gem-encrusted geometric link types which were remain in
fashion until the outbreak of the Second World War.
Figure 2.9 A multi gem, gold and silver ring by Jean Deprès, one of famous Art
Deco jeweler. Retrieved from http://www.fd-inspired.com
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Lalique designed high quality mass-produced glass jewelry during the 1920s.
Much of the naturalistic imagery Lalique had used in his Art Nouveau jewelry
reappeared in this later work, but alongside were abstract Art Deco forms. A much
starker and flatter geometric style of jewelry, dominated by the forms of technology
and engineering, was the main alternative to colorful exotic pieces. Surface
decoration was minimal, and the functionalism of the design was reinforced by the
use of forms resembling machine parts.
Accessories became an essential part of women’s jewelry, particularly
decorated frames for evening bags, cigarette holders and powder compacts. Smoking
and the wearing of cosmetics had only recently become acceptable in polite society,
and the slight element of daring they retained ensured that both became fashionable.
The geometric style of Art Deco was well suited to such functional items, and sleek
boxes and vanity cases were made in enameled or lacquered gold, sometimes with
decorative panels of carved hard stones and outline drawn in rows of tiny brilliantcut diamonds. Less costly version favored such unusual materials as shagreen (the
granular skin of the ray or shark which was polished and stained) and the coquille
d’eouf (a mosaic of crushed egg shell).
Between 1939 and 1945 the Second World War brought a large part of the
jewelry industry in Europe to a break. The American jewelry industry had been far
less affected than its European counterparts by the war, and encouraged by a very
wealthy clients had evolved with increased stylistic independence. Most of the
significant jewelry made in Europe and America from the 1920s to the 1950s had
used precious metals and fine gemstones, and had required the most exacting levels
of craftsmanship. Towards the end of the period, however, some notable alternative
or artistic designers emerged (Phillips, 1996, 175-194)
9. Since 1960
Jewelry has undergone a dramatic change since 1960. During the time the
major international houses have continued to work in precious materials following
styles evolved from those of preceding decades, innovation has come in the main
from individual artist-craftsmen trained at art school. Often approaching their work
more as a means of self-expressions than as a commercial venture, they have
challenged the notion of what jewelry is, thought the use of new materials or through
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radically different forms A lot of new ideas have developed over a short period of
time, some revolutionary in almost every respect, others in new styles but more
clearly evolved from established traditions. Much of this work is still too recent for a
definitive view to be possible on which new direction will have the most lasting
importance.
The new generation emerging in the 1960s and 1970s questions the nature of
jewelry and its role in society, and as in other art forms, accepted conventions were
pushed aside. Many of the most talented graduates rejected what they considered to
be status labeled jewelry, bound by sexual stereotypes or contaminated by
exploitation, in favor of the equality delivered by non-conventional materials. The
boundaries where jewelry approaches sculpture, clothing or even performance art
were explored, and it became a medium for artistic experiment rather than simple
adornment.
A wide range of new materials has been introduced to the jewelers. For
example, the creative use of plastic by exploring its properties its own sake rather
than in imitation of other more valuable materials. Paper, one of the most short lived
materials, was used in the mid-1960s in Britain by Wendy Ramshaw and David
Watkinds for a range of colorful jewelry called “Something Special” which was sold
flat and assembled by the purchaser. In the late 1970s and early 1980s many jewelers
looked towards textile fibers and fabrics as non-precious materials, which could
create softer forms than metal or plastic. The use of discarded things is a natural
extensions of the search for alternative materials, and as a form of recycling reflects
current ecological concerns. The use of human body has been explored too.
Examples from the 1980s include an earring cast from the lower half of an ear which
slots perfectly over a real ear and a signet ding decorated with a real thumbprint.
Body piercing in its various forms, long established in some parts of the worlds, also
influenced jewelers’ work.
Many artist-jewelers working since 1960 have preferred to express their ideas
in traditional materials, developing different approaches and techniques for precious
metals, often with less emphasis on faceted gemstones. There have also been
influences from painting and sculpture, and Modernist ideas developed from the
Bauhaus have continued to provide inspiration (Phillips, 1996, pp. 195-217)
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2.2 History of Indonesian Jewelry
Ever since the pre historic time, human had known and worn jewelry. The
relics from this era shows the human instinct to adorn oneself grow and developed
along with the progress of the civilizations. In the history of jewelry in Indonesia,
jewelries are not only worn as an adornment because the function can grow and
develop due to the circumstance. For example in the book of Sumanasantaka (around
the 12th century) it was mentioned that the prizes (bracelets, necklaces, rings) had
been reserved for people who fully comprehend the skill leveled in the arts of music,
dance, and satra (history-en.blogspot.com, 2012). Moreover, back in the early
civilization jewelry serve its function to be more than just an adornments, jewelry
have its supernatural function that can gain power and charisma of the wearer. In
addition, jewelry can also differentiate the status of the wearer, for example it
distinguished commoner with the royals or with the warlord. Traditional Indonesian
jewelry had symbolic meaning behind its design, which usually used to pass on some
supernatural message related to the custom, faith and believes of the society in each
region.
In the pre-classic period (500 BC - 500 AD) and Proto Classic (200-700 AD),
copper ornaments, glass, and stone beads and gold funeral mask and gloves found in
eastern Java, supposedly from a century 2 AD and the similar ancient ornament types
were also found in the Southeast Asian region. A lot of jewelry in this pre-classical
period seems to have an influence from Hindu and Buddhist theme ornaments.
Strong Hindu and Buddhist cultural influence can be seen in the relief of the temples
that shows the traditional costume and jewelry that was worn by the people in that
time with the story background of their daily life. The statues of the Gods and
Goddesses showed a high quality of wide variety of jewelry at that time. Bracelets,
anklets necklaces, headpiece or crown was made from precious materials such as
gold and gemstones.
The shapes of Indonesian jewelry are varied based on the geographical and
ethnical diversity in the country. Based on the motif, these shapes are differentiated
into two categories, geometrical motif and representational motif. These are the
shapes that were found in traditional Indonesian jewelry or fashion.
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1. Geometrical Motifs
Simple geometrical motifs or ornaments are already found in the late stone
period. Geometrical ornament is often the outcome of technical factors. For instance,
this shape can be the result of plating and weaving. There is a wide variety of
geometrical ornament, there are :
-
Tumpal is the shape of isosceles triangle, usually found in textile or
batik art.
-
Double Spiral is the shape of the letter S which came to Indonesia
with the bronze culture
-
Meander, a Swastika with the arms moving clockwise. This shape
was also found in Chinese art therefore this shape might come from
the Chinese culture influence.
-
Swastika, symbolizes the rotation of the celestial bodies, specifically
the symbol of the sun until generally became a lucky sign.
-
Hook or key design, associated with meander design this shape
looks like the hook of meander design. This motif, on account of its
rectangular form is especially appropriate for weaving and matting.
-
Kawung this shape is mainly found in textile or batik art. This motif
consists of mainly circles placed in a row so that they partly overlap
(Van Der Hoop, 1949, pp. 18-81).
2. Representational Motif
This motif represents the natural objects that are holds an important role
related to the customs and believes of the old society. These are different kinds of
representational motif or ornaments:
-
The Human Body. This motif was found as an art design as early as
the prehistoric and primitive era. In the old symbolical art of
Indonesia the human body represents two ideas: protection against
evil and the depiction of ancestors in which it can also be protective.
-
The Mask, separate body parts are also used in ornaments. The mask
serves as protection against evil.
-
The Buffalo. The ancestors of Indonesians knew the buffalo or
kerbau as a domestic animal as early as in the late stone age
(neoliticum) and they worshipped it as a sacred animal. That is why
25
up to this day the motif of the kerbau’s head is found as a symbol of
the fruitful earth and as protection from evil. The shape of its horns
can also depict the kerbau as a mount of deceased person in the
hereafter.
-
The Elephant, existed in Indonesia in pre-historic times and was
used from time immemorial as a war animal and as a mount. It may
also be depicted as a mount for deceased person.
-
The Horse, there were no horse in Indonesia in pre-historic period.
The horse was brought to Indonesia in ancient times and has since
become acclimatized. The horse often occurs in connection with the
sun.
-
The Lion, has never been indigenous to Indonesia, but in ancient
times it did live in India. That is why the lion as ornamentation
arrived here from the Hindu culture.
-
The Stag
-
The Makara, this motif came to Indonesia with the Hindu culture.
This motif is an imaginary animal having the shape of a fish and the
trunk of an elephant: it resembles the dolphin in European art.
-
The Bird, symbolizes the soul of the departed.
-
The Hornbill, the symbol of death and resurrection.
-
The Rooster, the symbol of the sun, force, courage, and fertility. In
the life economic, the rooster plays an important part in the
cockfights also in sacrificial rites.
-
The Garuda, this bird came as part of the Hindu culture as it is the
mount of Vishnu. It is also a sunbird or sun eagle.
-
The Peacock, in Indonesia is found in its wild slate, and also in this
country’s art we find this very decorative bird. Peacock ornaments
or motifs could be the result of influences from Hindu and Chinese
culture.
-
The Parrot, In Hindu-Indonesia art the parrot is the bird of Kama,
the god of love.
-
The Phoenix, a motif imported from China, so it is usually found in
regions where there is a strong Chinese influence.
-
The Snake, it is a symbol of a lower animal and came to Indonesia
26
from the Hindu culture.
-
The Lizard and The Iguana, lizard sometimes may represent the
incarnation of a deity.
-
The Shell, occurs mostly in the Hindu period, and is usually given
wings as the symbol of Vishnu.
-
Vegetable Ornament, in prehistoric times we find no vegetable
ornamentation in Indonesia, only later in the Hindu period this came
into vogue, and since then it has become almost the principal part of
Indonesian ornamentation.
-
The Tree of Life, the symbol if the highest unity, the totality,
comparable to Brahman in the Hindu religion and the Tao in the
Chinese philosophy. It is the source of all that lives, of all wealth
and welfare.
-
The Landscape, found in Hindu-Javanese temple reliefs as well as
Buddhist-Javanese temple reliefs.
-
The Mountain, the adoration of mountains was a general cult among
the Indonesians. In the Hindu religion the heavenly mountain, the
abode of the gods is known as Mount Meru.
-
Clouds, this motif originated under Chinese influence. This motif
used in the art of Cirebon in a traditional manner.
-
The Solar Wheel, is a very ancient symbol of the sun. Came to
Indonesia during the bronze period.
-
The Zodiac, was known in the Hindu period and originally gave
them their Hindu names.
-
The Flame, is a symbol of magical power.
-
The Ship, in various parts of Indonesia once finds the idea that the
soul of the deceased is transported to the hereafter in a ship. This
ship of death is often represented in the arts, not only through
objects that are used in the death ritual, but generally through
objects that are used in the death ritual.
-
The Knot, already in a very ancient times it had magical and
symbolical significance, more specifically in connection with love
and marriage (Van Der Hoop, 1949, pp.92-315)
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2.3 History of Minangkabau Culture
The ethnic group of Minangkabau or also known as Minang is indigenous to
Minangkabau highland of West Sumatra, Indonesia. The first settlement of
Minangkabau was in Nagari Pariangan Padang Panjang, and started there the
Minangkabau spread to the three districs (luhak nan tigo), Tanah Datar, Agam and
Limopuluah Koto (Ng, 2010).
The origin of the name Minangkabau derived from a story of how a West
Sumatran Kingdom won the fight against Majapahit Kingdom. Instead of a real war,
both kingdoms went for a buffalo fight. The wise West Sumatran king used the
strategy to win with a hungry baby buffalo. The king ordered his people to give him
the strongest baby buffalo, and to separate it from it’s mother. They did not feed the
baby buffalo for several days, which makes it very hungry. Later, the king took two
sharp knives and attached them to the baby buffalo's horn. On the day of the fight the
Majapahit soldier released a big and wild buffalo out of his cage. Soon after, the
West Sumatran released the baby buffalo. After the release, the hungry baby buffalo
ran fast towards the big buffalo and went straight under the big buffalo’s stomach to
feed. The knives at the baby buffalo's horns cut through the big buffalo's stomach
and tore it apart, resulting the death of the big buffalo. The result of the fight inspired
the king to change the name of the kingdom into Minangkabau. The name
Minangkabau means the "victory or winning" (minang) and "water buffalo" (kabau).
That is why the buffalo because a sacred animal in West Sumatra and this can been
seen from buffalo horns shape that can be found in West Sumatran houses roofs and
also in the traditional headdress of the women of West Sumatra.
The people of Minangkabau were accustomed to matrilineal culture, which
makes properties and land inherited through the female lineage or the women in the
family. This custom might be the result of a tradition called rantau, where young
males are encourage to leave their family to seek for job, wealth, education and
experience everywhere in the world but their hometown.
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2.4. History of Minangkabau Jewelry
The most important component of the female ceremonial costume is the
headdress. Based on the style and the material being used, the headdress divided into
three different kinds, there are tanduak, telekuang and tengkuluak. Tanduak (horns)
headdresses are usually locally woven, supplementary weft cloths or batik clothes
tied in such a way that there are two bulges resembling the horn of the buffalo.
Telengkuang (veil) headdress is a white cloth, which is sewn into a tube and
embroidered at one end. The cloth is wrapped around the back of the head and the
ends are crossed at the forehead and arranged over the crown. Telengkuluak
headdress are worn in the same way as the telekuang headdress but different clothes
are used. There are two types of Telengkuluak headdress, the tengkuluak kembang
(blooming headdress) which is made from floral batik cloth, and the tengkuluak kecil
(small headdress) which is made from a small narrow plain or printed cloth. (Ng,
2010)
In Minangkabau tradition, bangles and necklaces are essential adornment in
the female ceremonial dress. There is another additional function of the traditional
jewelry, if the big bangles are not worn, it means that there has been a death in the
lineage of the woman within the last hundred days. (Ng, 2010)
Minangkabau culture is greatly influenced by the Chinese culture, brought by
the Chinese traders. We can see this influence in the design and the color of the
costumes and jewelries. This influence first come in the coast of the region then
slowly reaches the inner part of the village.
2.5 Theory of Culture
In its early stages of study in the nineteenth century, culture was thought of as
an idea or spirit that provided the foundation for characterizing a society,
understanding its advancements and distinctions from other societies (Munch,
Smelser, 1992). With an increase in differentiation in western societies, the study of
Anthropology became a leading role in understanding and defining culture. Today
culture encompasses characteristics of a people defined by, but not limited to
language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts (Zimmermann, 2012). The
biggest challenge is identifying the level of coherency within a culture. Some
29
cultures are very diversified in their beliefs and behaviors, while other cultures are
very unified, remaining fairly consistent throughout the population. Cultures are
often established within the family structure and further developed within the
education system. Because culture is learned, it sets a foundation for a group of
people to coexist in mutual understanding. As with anything that is learned, it can
also be adapted, changed and even forgotten with time. Many suggest that culture is
symbolic and that meaning is derived from those symbols. Culture sets ground rules
that influence our daily lives with our interactions, preferences and daily decisions.
In fashion, culture influences acceptable apparel, the way it fits the body, and
how much skin is exposed. Culture guides our perceptions and feelings towards
colors and shapes. Depending on the abundance of varying dyes and colors, some
colors and patterns may be fairly common in some parts of the world, and very rare
and highly sought after in other regions. As geographical borders decrease and
international trade continues to prosper, cultures become intertwined, making it that
much more relevant to uphold origins in the fashion industry.
2.6 Theory of Consumer Behavior
The “official” definition of consumer behavior is "The study of individuals,
groups, or organizations and the processes they use to select, secure, use, and dispose
of products, services, experiences, or ideas to satisfy needs and the impacts that these
processes have on the consumer and society” (Perner, 2010). This behavior helps
marketers sell their products to the right customer by understanding the customers
reaction towards certain stimuli in which resulting in the purchasing of the product
by the customer.
Marketers use PESTLE analysis (a concept in marketing principle) as a tool
to help them plan or launch a new product, project, or service. PESTLE is a
mnemonic, which consist of P for Political, E for Economic, S for Sociology, T for
Technology, L for Legal and E for Environmental. This analysis gives a bird eye’s
view of the whole environment from many different angles that one wants to check
and keep a track of while contemplating on a certain idea/plan (pestleanalysis.com,
2014)
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Figure 2.10 Consumer decision process model Retrieved from
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=17089257
The decision process of a customer is differentiated into 7 different stages.
The first one is need of recognition; this stage represents the reasoning to purchase a
product. For example a customer want to buy a designer handbag to be able to show
his or her social status and to be accepted in a social cycle. The second stage is
search for information; this stage represents the research process before purchasing.
For example, the customers who want to buy a designer bag started looking for more
information about the specific bag, the material, and where to buy. The next stage is
pre-purchase evaluation of alternatives; this stage is the continuation of the research
process to reassure the customer to do a purchase of a product. For example, after
finding the right bag to buy, the customer is looking for the other designer bag as a
comparison to reassure his or her decision. The fourth stage is purchase; this is where
the customer finally buy the product. The next stage is consumption; this is where
the customer use the product. For example after buying the designer bag that he or
31
she wanted, the customer finally wears it. After consumption, there is a postconsumption evaluation; this is where the customer experiences some satisfaction or
dissatisfaction from the product. For example after using the design bag for a regular
day basis, the customer loves the product and planning to keep using it. The last
stage, divestment is where the customer wanted to get rid of the product. For
example after using it for a couple of decades, the designer bag that the customer
bought became a classic must have and customer decided to pass it to his or her
offspring.
2.7 Theory of Branding
The American Marketing Association defines a brand as a name, term, sign,
symbol, or design, or a combination of them, intended to identify the goods or
services of one seller or group of sellers and to differentiate them from those of
competitors. A brand differentiates a product from its competition. These differences
can be functional and tangible or they could be symbolic, emotional or intangible
pertaining only to what the brand represents (Kotler, Keller, 2012). Brands identify
the creator of a product and thereby holding their reputation responsible for the
products performance. Brands are established through marketing campaigns as well
as consumer’s experiences with the brand’s products. A brand offers a company
legal protection with intellectual property rights and trademarks.
Upholding a consistent level of quality creates a reliable impression with the
consumer. This creates brand loyalty, which simplifies the decision making of the
consumer. A high level of quality increases the potential for consumers to pay more
for that brand. Associating a positive reputation with a brand can be a huge
competitive advantage in the years to come.
Branding associates products with the power of that brand and differentiates
it from other competing products (Kotler, Keller, 2012). It is a firm’s responsibility
to build a brand by informing customers what the brand is and why they should care.
Providing meaning behind a brand creates an added value on products and services
known as brand equity. Brand equity can be positive when consumers have a
favorable response to the brand compared to the competition, and negative when that
brand brings about an unfavorable response. Without a consumer’s brand knowledge,
the only information guiding decision-making is price.
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Branding can take years, and can also be very costly. However, the benefits
of establishing positive brand equity can justify pricing and allow a company to
prosper with a competitive advantage. Consistency behind quality and reputation,
guided by the company values, can simplify consumer’s purchasing habits with a
long lasting relationship.
2.8 Theory of Color
Color is the one element that plays a major role in the visual department.
Colors can stimulate emotion, sub-conscious responses; we are conditioned to stop at
red lights, we know pink baby clothes are intended for a girl and blue for a boy, and
wedding gowns are white because they represent purity. This is all because us,
humans are automatically assigns a specific feeling to a specific color without the
person even being aware of it (breakawaygraphics.net, 2010). Therefore, it is crucial
to have a good understanding on the effect of the colors in a design. Colors can even
influence the customers’ buying behavior, based on a research that was conducted by
the secretariat of the Seoul International Color Expo 2004 92.6 percent respondent
put most importance on visual factors when purchasing products. Only 5.6 percent
said that the physical feel via the sense of touch was most important. Hearing and
smell each drew 0.9 percent. When asked to approximate the importance of color
when buying products, 84.7 percent of the total respondents think that color accounts
for more than half among the various factors important for choosing products
(Morton, 2010).
In this project, the writer use the color combination of gold that represent the
traditional color of Minangkabau jewelry, transparent/clear color which represent the
contemporary design twist of the collection, and brown from the recycled teakwood
material that was used that represent the natural element of the jewelry.
1. Gold
:
The color of extravagance, wealth, riches, and
excess, and shares several of the same attributes of the color yellow. Optimistic and
positive, gold adds richness and warmth to everything with which it is associated as
it illuminates and enhances other things around it. The color gold is a warm color
that can be either bright and cheerful or somber and traditional. The brighter shades
of gold catch the eye with their brilliance while the darker muted shades are deep,
33
warm and intense. The color gold is cousin to the color yellow and the color brown,
and is also associated with illumination, love, compassion, courage, passion, magic,
and wisdom.
2. Transparent/Clear/White
: Inherently positive color, is associated with purity,
virginity, innocence, light, goodness, heaven, safety, brilliance, illumination,
understanding, cleanliness, faith, beginnings, sterility, spirituality, possibility,
humility, sincerity, protection, softness, and perfection. The color of snow, white is
often used to represent coolness and simplicity. White’s association with cleanliness
and sterility is often seen in hospitals, medical centers, and laboratories to
communicate safety. The color white is also associated with low-fat foods and dairy
products.
3. Brown
: The color of earth, wood, stone, wholesomeness,
reliability, elegance, security, healing, home, grounding, foundations, stability,
warmth, and honesty, is a natural, neutral color that is typically associated with the
seasons of fall and winter. It is the color of our soil, growth, fertility, and earth, and it
is associated the concepts of “all natural” and “organic.” Brown is the color of the
Earth and is comforting and nurturing. Brown is believed to help create a wholesome
feeling, a connection with the earth, and a sense of orderliness and convention
(Bourn, 2010). Associated with the earth, wood, and stone, brown is a completely
natural color and a warm neutral. Brown can be associated with dependability and
reliability, with steadfastness, and with earthiness. It can also be considered dull. In
design, brown is commonly used as a background color. It’s also seen in wood
textures and sometimes in stone textures. It helps bring a feeling of warmth and
wholesomeness to designs. It’s sometimes used in its darkest forms as a replacement
for black, either in backgrounds or typography.