The Hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance? Aenne Post, University of Amsterdam.
Chapter VIII: Attitudes
The hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance?
Hippo-human conflicts in Lake Victoria area, Kenya
In this chapter attitudes towards hippos are discussed. First of all, any value attached to hippos is
regarded (both for the present and past). Apparently, hippos have a particular meaning in Luo-society.
Therefore traditional beliefs associated with hippos are taken into consideration. Such beliefs may still
influence the present attitude of the local population. Whether or not people attach value to hippos also
determines their opinion about conservation. Then possibilities to conserve hippos are discussed, such
as the idea of a hippo farm. Many respondents regard this option as a possible means to solve hipporelated conflicts. Conflict resolution touches upon the issue of benefits coming from wildlife. As such,
it stresses the importance of local participation in wildlife conservation issues.
VIII.1 Do local people consider hippos to be of value?
Benefits associated with hippos
Only 25 respondents (17.4% of the sample) regarded the presence of hippos in the sub-location as
beneficial. They gave one or more reasons why they thought so. Hippo meat was mentioned eight
times, fish abundance in or nearby hippo sites six times, and thirteen times hippos were said to attract
tourists. Especially respondents in Suba District, which accommodates Ruma NP, mainly depicted
tourists as visitors of National Parks. However, few respondents considered the arrival of tourists as
beneficial to local people. They saw the government as the principal beneficiary and rarely linked
tourism-related activities to local employment. R138 said for instance: “Entrance fees paid by tourists
go directly to the government”. Four people said they enjoyed seeing the animals. “Hippos are quite
Thesis Environmental Geography
Aenne W.C.H.M. Post, University of Amsterdam
entertaining, I also want my children to learn about them” (R120). Another respondent agreed: “Hippos
are part of our environment. I like to observe them, especially when I have nothing else to do” (R71).
A response to the presence of hippos
Respondents were asked whether or not the presence of hippos was tolerated in their sub-location. This
Prof. A.J. Dietz (mentor)
Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences
Department of Geography & Planning
University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
question provoked laughter and sometimes a little disbelief. Most people said that the presence of
hippos could not be accepted because these fearsome animals caused a lot of damage to the property of
residents. They were truly afraid of hippos because these animals were capable of killing people. Only
eight respondents (5.6% of the sample) acknowledged hippo tolerance; one respondent said that he
Prof. M.A. Mohamed Salih
Department of Politics of Development
Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, The Netherlands
could not answer this question, as he had only been in the sub-location for one year.
One of the questions respondents were asked related to the presence of hippos on their land.
‘What would you do if you found a hippo in your shamba?” To some respondents this question was
Dr. J.B. Okeyo-Owuor (field supervisor)
School of Environmental Studies
Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya
hypothetical, while others described a previous experience. Table VIII.1 shows that 88.2% of the
people in the sample frame would either run away or try to chase the hippo away, by using means like
flashlights, torches, or stones. R94 for example used a string in which he had put stones. Another man
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The Hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance? Aenne Post, University of Amsterdam.
The Hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance? Aenne Post, University of Amsterdam.
said that the sound of a string being swung round would make the hippos disappear (R56). People also
hippos” (R71), and another added: “If hippos disappeared, we would loose the opportunity to attract
made noise by beating tins or drums. They did so to make the hippo aware of human presence, as was
tourists and develop our area” (R111).
said by R43, or to draw the attention of other people who could assist in scaring the hippos off (R58).
Five respondents enjoyed seeing hippos around. One of them added that it was possible to
One man said that he tried to fool the hippo by smoking a cigarette. “The smell of the cigarette makes
avoid the destruction caused by hippos: “Fishermen could go further into the lake, and farmers could
the hippo think of the smell of guns, so it will run away” (R56). Respondents in Suba seemed to be
use fences to protect their gardens. God should bring back the papyrus on which hippos used to feed
most courageous: 63.9% of them said they would chase the hippo away. This might be attributed to the
before they turned to crops” (R71). Another man had a unique explanation for his positive attitude:
male dominance in the district sample.
“There are some lazy people around here who do not want to work. Instead they try to steal other
Six people said they would spear a hippo if they had to. One man unsuccessfully attempted to
people’s vegetables at night. But they are afraid to go to the shambas because hippos are around. They
do so. “The skin was too thick, the beast managed to escape” (R88). Three people would first watch the
fear hippos” (R122). Only one respondent linked hippos to fish: “I am a fisherman. I benefit out of the
hippos closely in order to locate the male hippo. As R93 said: “When I see a group of hippos in front of
presence of hippos because where hippos pass, there is a lot of fish” (R97).
me, I will try to identify the male hippo. If the male is behind me, I am in danger. If I tried to attack the
females in front of me, the male hippo would come from behind and kill me”. R39 added: “If I do not
see the male hippo, I will hide and try to escape. The male hippo keeps an eye on people. If I attacked
Items of value
Respondents were asked if they attached value to hippos, either at present or in the past, and if so, what
items they considered to be of value. With regard to the present situation, 99 respondents (68.8% of the
the female hippos, it would attack me right away”.
sample) did not attribute any value to hippos. Of them, 54 respondents did not mention items at all.
Table VIII.1: A respondent’s action when a hippo invades the shamba (N=144)
Type of action: ↓
Kisumu *
Rachuonyo *
Suba *
There were a number of vegetarians among these people who said hippos had no meaning at all. R80
Siaya *
Total frequency *
Spear the hippo
Contact authority
Run away
Chase the hippo away
Other
1
3
13
19
-
2.8
8.3
36.1
52.8
0
2
2
17
14
1
5.6
5.6
47.2
38.9
2.8
3
8
23
2
8.3
0
22.2
63.9
5.6
3
21
12
-
0
8.3
58.3
33.3
0
Total:
36
100.0
36
100.0
36
100.0
36
100.0
6
8
59
68
3
144
4.2
5.6
41.0
47.2
2.1
100.0
* Figures in italics are column percentages
A possible response to the disappearance of hippos
Respondents were not only asked how they felt about the presence of hippos in their sub-location but
also how they would feel if all hippos moved out of their area. The majority (75.7% of the sample) said
they would not mind if all hippos disappeared. They mostly referred to hippos as destructive animals,
by saying things like “I would be glad if they went, so that I can cultivate my land peacefully” (R64), “I
will no longer be afraid when I go fishing” (R56), and a simple “Hallelujah” (R49). Four respondents
were indecisive and 31 people (21.5% of the sample) did not want hippos to disappear.
‘Hippo advocates’ were present in every district. They mostly came from Siaya and Rachuonyo
(respectively 10 and 9 people), and least from Kisumu (5 people). Respondents gave multiple reasons
for their interest in hippos. Thirteen respondents made statements equal to: “The hippo is a creation of
God, it is bad to destroy it. The animals were meant to be there”. Ten people said that it was significant
for children to know hippos. As R140 put it aptly: “I want my children to know what a true hippo looks
like, instead of showing them only pictures of hippos”.
Six people regarded the hippos as a source of foreign exchange to the government because they
attracted tourists. One of them said: “Tourists come to see wild animals. In Lake Victoria we only have
172
stated the following: “As I do not eat meat and I do not drink milk1, hippos are useless”.
However, 45 people did mention items, thereby indicating a kind of attachment. If it were not
for the negative sentiments that prevailed, these items would have been regarded as ‘objects of value’.
Several respondents argued that, even though they highly appreciated hippos’ skin and meat, their total
judgement had to be negative because hippos were destructive animals that caused too many problems.
R132 expressed this as follows: “The meat is very nice, but I cannot like it because the hippo is too
destructive. On the side of food it is a good animal, but its behaviour turns it into a bad one”. Other
respondents reduced the value to zero, by arguing that items such as hippo meat and skin were hard to
get. Indeed, most valued items come from dead hippos. Since the hippo is protected by law, the chance
of obtaining its meat or other body parts is relatively small. According to R134, the possession of hippo
skin was even illegal: “If you are found with a hippo skin you will be prosecuted”.
Even when a hippo is legally killed, its meat will not necessarily be distributed among the local
people. “When a hippo was killed in the past, the local killer was given a part of the carcass. Today the
game people take almost everything, except for a small share of the meat, which they leave behind for
the local people. So there is no value” (R13). When a hippo is killed, local people may fight over the
meat. This ferocious behaviour made some respondents label hippo’s flesh as negative, even though
they said to like it. “People fight over the meat and one can only get a very small portion”, said R16.
Sometimes respondents expressed a very negative attitude towards hippos. R50 for instance
said that the animals had no value whatsoever: “Hippos are only causing our deaths”, while R47 called
a hippo “an animal that brings badness”. Crop damage brought about by hippos was often mentioned as
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The Hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance? Aenne Post, University of Amsterdam.
The Hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance? Aenne Post, University of Amsterdam.
the rationale for the apparent dislike of hippos. Given the fact that a positive value of these mammals
people went to a funeral. An item like foreign exchange was occasionally mentioned, for example by
has been recognised by few respondents only, it can be stated that the image of highly destructive
R101, who said that tourists came to view the hippos. One man in Suba stressed the interdependency of
hippos seemed to prevail in the area of research.
fish and hippos: “Hippo areas are full of fish” (R97). The two aforementioned items were included in
Forty-five respondents considered the hippo to be of value. The items they picked are shown in
the category ‘hippo related activities’. Besides hippo fat, bones, and bile, the category ‘other’ also
table VIII.2. The meat and skin of hippos were most appreciated. Apart from ivory, few other hippo
consisted of the ‘private parts’ of a hippo. R70 witnessed that the latter parts had been cut off, although
parts were selected. These items were covered in the category ‘other’, which contained fat, bones and
he could not recall why this was done.
bile (used in traditional medicine). Hippo related activities consisted of tourists visiting the area, the
joy in observing hippos and the ubiquitous presence of fish in the vicinity of hippos, all of which were
Traditional medicine
said to be beneficial to local people. Hippos seemed to be most valued in Suba and Siaya, and least in
The use of hippo parts in traditional medicine was hardly mentioned during the interviews. When
Rachuonyo and Kisumu. When compared to the figures on damage that were shown in the previous
respondents were asked about it, only 36 replies contained vague references to a number of diseases
chapter, the prevalent sentiments of respondents in Kisumu and Siaya could relate to the rate of loss in
that could be cured by utilising ‘hippo items’. The most common reply was: “Witchcraft people know
both districts. This rate was highest in Suba and Kisumu, and lowest in Siaya and Rachuonyo. This
about this, not me” (R73). According to 27 people hippo dung was used in traditional medicine. While
does not clarify why strong negative sentiments prevailed among respondents in Rachuonyo and Suba.
13 people did not know what diseases could be cured, the others mostly referred to measles albeit with
different ‘operating instructions’. In the opinion of R129 the faeces had to be divided first. “You have
Table VIII.2: Value of hippos (items) at present per district (N=45)
to add one litre of water per cubic centimetre of faeces, then let the child drink a bit, and use the rest
Item: ↓
Kisumu *
Meat
Skin
Ivory
Hippo related ‘activities’
Other
9
6
2
-
100.0
66.7
22.2
0
0
7
1
2
-
100.0
14.3
0
28.6
0
13
8
4
1
92.9
57.1
0
28.6
7.1
15
11
1
1
100.0
73.3
6.7
0
6.7
44
26
3
6
2
97.8
57.8
6.7
13.3
4.4
17
188.9
10
142.9
26
185.7
28
186.7
81
180.0
Total:
No. of respondents
Rachuonyo *
9
Suba *
7
Siaya *
14
Total frequency *
15
45
* This is the number of respondents citing a particular reason as a percentage of the 45 respondents who think that hippos have a positive
value at present. The total percentage exceeds 100 because respondents have mentioned more than one item of value.
for washing its body. The other part is burnt because the child has to inhale the smoke. This has to be
done once or twice and is regarded as very effective”. R136 said he applied the faeces in a different
way. “After the faeces is burnt and crushed it is rubbed in the spots. This has to be done daily for a
period of one week”. Sometimes respondents distinguished between hippo faeces and vomit: the latter
was said to be deposited ashore, while the former was spread around in the water.
Many parts of the hippo body were mentioned, such as its fat, bile, bones, tail, skin, teeth and
With regard to the value of hippos in the past, respondents’ opinions turned out to be more positive
private parts. It was hardly known for what kind of medication these parts could be used. A couple of
though. Sixty-seven people (46.5% of the sample) attached a positive value to hippos (see table VIII.4).
times reference was made to an upset stomach, constipation, wounds, and cracks on people’s feet. Four
In the opinion of the other respondents hippos were not considered to be of value. Forty people did not
respondents argued that people who were ‘possessed’ or haunted by devils could be set free if they
mention any items. The others indicated items that would have been of value if the damage and fear
used the faeces, bones or private parts of a hippo. The smell of burnt bones for instance would drive the
caused by hippos had not been taken into consideration.
spirits away (R85). Getting rid of devils comes close to the field of traditional beliefs.
Table VIII.3: Value of hippos (items) in the past per district (N=67)
Item: ↓
Kisumu *
Rachuonyo *
Suba *
Siaya *
Total frequency *
Meat
Skin
Ivory
Hippo related ‘activities’
Other
13
13
4
-
86.7
86.7
26.7
0
0
10
6
6
1
2
71.4
42.9
42.9
7.1
14.3
16
12
1
3
1
100.0
75.0
6.3
18.8
6.3
21
17
3
1
95.5
77.3
13.6
0
4.5
Total:
30
200.1
25
178.6
33
206.4
42
190.9
No. of respondents
15
14
16
22
60
48
14
4
4
89.6
71.6
20.9
6.0
6.0
130
194.1
67
* This is the number of respondents citing a particular reason as a percentage of the 67 respondents who think that hippos had a positive
value in the past. The total percentage exceeds 100 because respondents have mentioned more than one item of value.
VIII.2 Traditional beliefs
Respondents were asked about traditional beliefs associated with hippos, any clans having a particular
interest in the animal, and the practice of naming people after hippos. Such beliefs had to concern the
area of research. Due to the age distribution of the respondents, a large number of ‘hippo stories’ could
be expected. Indeed, belief in ‘magic’ prevailed in Lake Victoria area. However, many respondents
adopted a remarkable secretive attitude when they referred to beliefs, particularly when they spoke
about wizards who could tame hippos. Their names were seldom revealed, only few respondents did
Most respondents attributed value to the hippo for its meat and skin, particularly in Siaya. Ivory seemed
mention names. In the opinion of R90, the mysteriousness that surrounded such beliefs descended from
to be more valued in the past than at present. Hippo teeth were used as ornaments, for example when
the great-grandfathers. Yet many people argued that the identity of wizards still had to be kept a secret.
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The Hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance? Aenne Post, University of Amsterdam.
The Hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance? Aenne Post, University of Amsterdam.
R97 put the mystery into words: “If you reveal the name of a wizard, he might kill you. During daytime
Wizards were also called ‘nightrunners’; they were said to run with a hippo ‘like a matatu’ (R107,
wizards are social. However, during nightly hours they have special powers which they have acquired
R72). Several respondents stated that wizards used herbs to tame hippos and thus knew how to call
through inheritance or training”. Even though some people said that these beliefs had been abandoned
them. Some people claimed they had actually seen wizards who were accompanied by hippos. R88 for
by the present generation, many people still seemed to adhere to such ideas. “It is a belief, it is not
instance witnessed such a thing. “When I was in my farm at night, I heard a loud whistle of a man. I
genuine information you can use in a court of law. Yet rumours are abundant”, said R97.
saw the hippos when they were almost out of the water. They ran towards the man and went away with
him. They did not return”. According to R123 wizards used to go to huge fig trees in order to call their
Eighty-nine respondents (61.8% of the sample) knew about beliefs associated with hippos. The others
hippos: “The moment the wizard starts whistling there, hippos come out of the water”. R90 said he
were unaware of any traditional beliefs or said that there were none. Hippo-related stories were mostly
heard a whistle while he was fishing at night. “I had a flashlight, and tried to find out where the sound
told by respondents in Suba and Rachuonyo, viz. by 27 and 26 people. In Siaya 21 inhabitants talked
came from. I saw about six hippos that went into the water. Then I saw a guy in front of me, but he ran
about beliefs associated with hippos. Such discussions were least recorded in Kisumu District, where
away and disappeared. It was almost morning. Later that day, this guy came to my home and asked me
only 15 respondents said they remembered old hippo stories. Respondents in Suba who did not hold on
if I had seen him that morning. I have never told his name to anyone, therefore the guy is still friendly
to traditional beliefs predominantly came from Rusinga and Gembe West. In Kisumu, such beliefs were
to me”. When he was fishing, R6 heard a man calling a hippo: “Then the hippo came out of the water,
discussed most in Bwanda Location. The types of beliefs mentioned are shown in table VIII.4.
and the man mounted the hippo”. A woman also said she had seen a man sitting on a hippo. “The game
people, who came to look for the hippo, found the fellow on top of the hippo. He was pleading ‘please
Table VIII.4: The kind of traditional beliefs associated with hippos (N=89)
do not kill it’, so the game people left. The next day the guy brought them a sign of gratitude” (R129).
Belief: ↓
Kisumu *
Rachuonyo *
Wizards run with hippos
Women shouldn’t see H
Wizards milk hippos
Haunted
Other
Cruel animals
Avoidance
8
4
1
2
2
-
53.3
26.7
6.7
13.3
13.3
0
0
14
12
1
3
1
2
-
53.8
46.2
3.8
11.5
3.8
7.7
0
20
13
10
1
1
2
2
74.1
48.1
37.0
3.7
3.7
7.4
7.4
14
2
1
3
5
2
1
66.7
9.5
4.8
14.3
23.8
9.5
4.8
113.3
33
126.8
49
181.4
28
133.4
Total:
17
No. of respondents
15
26
Suba *
27
Siaya *
Total frequency *
56
31
13
9
9
6
3
62.9
34.8
14.6
10.1
10.1
6.7
3.4
127
21
142.6
89
* This is the number of respondents citing a particular reason as a percentage of the 89 respondents who discussed traditional beliefs
associated with hippos. The total percentage exceeds 100 because respondents have mentioned more than one type of belief.
Thirteen respondents talked about the milking of hippos. One of them argued that this issue
was even discussed in a public meeting. He said: “Someone sells hippo milk at our beach. If we find
out who does this, he will be taken to court. We fear a man who milks hippos, he should not be part of
our community. We know it is hippo milk because we have a way to detect this, by means of lemons”
(R97). According to R98 hippo milk was a good alternative to cow milk. “During the drought, cows
were dying. There was not enough milk. One guy had plenty of milk: he was milking hippos”. R119
tried to explain the milking of hippos: “A long time ago hippos were cows. They all lived in the lake.
Stories about wizard and hippos were told throughout the research area, but mostly in Suba. The next
Some animals came out of the water (cows), yet others (hippos) remained behind. Cows can be milked,
story was recorded in Rachuonyo: “People have seen a guy mounting a hippo. He owns it and even
and so can hippos. If you look closely at a bull, you will see that it resembles a hippo”.
milks it. In case you quarrel with him, he can use his ‘remote control’ to hurt you. His hippo goes either
to your shamba or after you in person. Everybody fears this guy. When two fishermen had been killed
Nearly 35% of the respondents referred to stories that related women to hippos. As the saying goes,
by a hippo the game people came. This wizard was listening to their conversation. He warned the hippo
women were not supposed to see a dead hippo, because the anatomy of a hippo resembled a woman’s
that went into hiding. Immediately after the game people had left the hippo showed up again” (R58).
shape. Women were not allowed to see the tail of a hippo either, as they most probably would burst
The ‘guiding’ of hippos’ was mentioned predominantly by respondents in Suba. The following
into laughter upon seeing the short tail of the huge hippo. In both cases, seeing a hippo could affect a
statements were recorded there: “When you quarrel with the owner of a hippo, he can send the animal
woman’s pregnancy. She would either get a baby with a short tail (R77) or the baby would be stillborn.
to your shamba in order to destroy your crops”, and “These wizards tame hippos. A killed hippo in
Pregnant women should not eat hippo meat: “She will abort her child if she eats it” (R33).
Kaswanga had bits on his ears. A wizard must have decorated it” (R74). R105 claimed that he could
Nine respondents have mentioned ‘haunting’. It is believed that people who have killed a hippo
distinguish tame hippos from wild ones because of their marks: “They have a cut in their ear, an
will be haunted in their dreams, unless they have been cleansed afterwards. According to R61 cleansing
‘earring-mark’ on their nose, and a white mark of paint on their head”. According to R111, tame hippos
could be done in different ways. “A man can be given specific herbs to safeguard him against bad
were fed by their owners. “They feed them on porridge”, he said. A young man argued that the meat of
dreams, or he has to climb on the dead hippo and drink some of the water that pours down from the
tame hippos was not edible though. “If you eat it, you will have severe stomach problems” (R124).
spear that killed the hippo in order to chase the devil away”.
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The Hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance? Aenne Post, University of Amsterdam.
Hippos were regularly depicted as clever animals. R132 said that they were specifically clever when in
water: “The hippo watches you while you do not even see it. If you pass a hippo, it will definitely try to
hit your boat”. According to R134 they were also clever when ashore: “Hippos hide during daytime and
invade shambas at night. A hippo that eats your crops one night will not return the following night for
it knows that you will be watching the shamba then”.
The Hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance? Aenne Post, University of Amsterdam.
Table VIII.5: Clans with a particular interest in hippos, per district (N=144)
Item: ↓
Kisumu *
Rachuonyo *
Suba *
Siaya *
Total frequency *
Yes
No
I don’t know
32
4
-
88.9
11.1
0
9
22
5
25.0
61.1
13.9
7
20
9
19.4
55.6
25.0
7
17
12
19.4
47.2
33.3
Total:
36
100.0
36
100.0
36
100.0
36
100.0
55
63
26
144
38.2
43.8
18.0
100.0
* Figures in italics are column percentages
Instructions on ‘how to avoid hippos’ were passed on from one generation to the next. R79
The story about the girl that turned into a hippo related to different clans in several areas. Respondents
mentioned a few, such as: “When you are chased by a hippo you should walk in a straight line: if you
in Suba and Siaya told similar stories about another clan, viz. the ‘Kamrere’ people. Religious groups
zigzag the hippo will catch you. Climbing on a termite hills can save you as well: the hippo has short
which did not eat meat were often referred to. Respondents in Rachuonyo for instance mentioned the
legs and does not climb uphill”. Hippos were also said to hate dogs. “If you meet a hippo and you have
SDA-people (Seventh Day Adventists). They also talked about the Kakrao, a clan that was also
a dog, the hippo will definitely attack for it does not want the dog around. If you flee, the dog will
mentioned by people in Suba. However, this clan was said to originate from Migori District.
follow you, and so will the hippo. If the dog goes in another direction, the hippo will go after the dog”
(R79). Three respondents knew how to provoke a hippo. They referred to a song people used to learn in
The practice of naming new-born children after hippos
school. “You climb on a termite hill and start singing: Orawo, orawo, guok loyi ginyodo -hippo, hippo,
According to Luo tradition, a person is given a name for a reason. Names do refer to certain events.
the dog has defeated you in giving birth-, kinyolo achiel, to guok nyolo aboro -if you give birth to one,
This tradition is still being practised. With regard to ‘naming after hippos’ 106 respondents (73.6% of
the dog will have eight- (R114).
the sample) said they knew people who were named after hippos. All respondents in Kisumu did so, yet
Some stories were quite funny, like the next one that was told by R16. A rabbit tried to settle a
their counterparts in Siaya turned out to be least familiar with this practice (only 11 people knew
dispute between a hippo and an elephant. He said to them: “I can pull you up to the lake”. They both
villagers that were named after hippos). Many respondents in Rachuonyo and Suba knew people whose
asked: “But you are so small. How can you do that?” Then the rabbit tied one side of the rope to the leg
name related to hippos (respectively 32 and 27 people). In Dohluo, the language of the Luo tribe, rawo
of the hippo that was standing in the water, and the other side of the rope to the leg of the elephant that
means hippo. Examples of common names were: Rawo Kotieno, Rawo Odhiambo, Rawo Kadomenico
was standing ashore. The elephant pulled the hippo onto the land, so he won. The rabbit was happy. He
and Rawo Komolo. Forty-one respondents knew people in their sub-location with such names, but had
said to the hippo: “You’re useless. Didn’t I tell you?” Other respondents told stories similar to this one.
no idea why they were named like that. Names were incidentally used as nicknames, for instance when
people were very courageous or very fat.
Clans with a particular interest in hippos
Most respondents (55 people) said that the naming was done according to the events of the day
Respondents were asked whether they knew any clans or communities in their area that had a particular
a child was born. For example, when a hippo was killed on that day, the new-born child had to be
interest in hippos. Fifty-five people mentioned the name of a clan (see table VIII.5). Nearly 90% of the
named after the animal. Some respondents believed that this practice was obligatory: if it was not done,
respondents in Kisumu talked about a clan called ‘Kamkono’. Respondents were under the impression
something would happen to the child. One respondent told a story about his brother: “My father had
that members of this clan did not eat hippo meat because a hippo was said to be their daughter.
killed a hippo. Then my mother got pregnant. She fell ill before she gave birth. My father went to the
Different stories were attributed to the ‘hippo daughter’. To mention a few: “A lady had been
witch doctors who told him that he had to name the baby after a hippo. He agreed. My mother fully
given some strong herbs by witch doctors. She went to the lake and became a hippo” (R5). “It was one
recovered and give birth to a healthy son” (R78). Another respondent, whose father used to kill hippos,
of God’s miracles” (R10). “When girls were drawing water from the lake, one of them turned into a
told a similar story: “My father used to see hippos in his dreams, as if he was haunted by them. He was
hippo and disappeared. Her name was Obudi, the name of a fish species” (R6, R7, R9). “This Obudi
told in a dream that he had to name his son, who was about to be born, after a hippo. So he did. But
was married to a guy she did not like. She ran away. The husband came after her and tried to force her
now my brother is dreaming of hippos. Therefore he will not pass on the name to his children” (R91).
to go back with him. Then she went to the lake. She turned into a hippo and disappeared” (R29). “Two
The experience of ‘hippo dreams’ seemed to be common among people who had killed hippos. Even
girls went to fetch water. They met an old woman, who asked them for water to drink. The girls just
pregnant women within their lineage could have such dreams.
laughed and refused to give it to her. The woman got annoyed and told them that they could not treat
her like that. One girl turned into a hippo, the other one into a baboon” (R33).
178
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The Hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance? Aenne Post, University of Amsterdam.
The Hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance? Aenne Post, University of Amsterdam.
VIII.3 Conservation
of hippo induced damage was relatively high. Relatively few losses were recorded in Siaya, where 50%
Several questions related to conservation. Respondents were asked if they thought it was necessary to
of the respondents said they favoured a farm because they liked to see hippos in the vicinity.
conserve the hippo in their area or within Kenya and who should bear the responsibility for that. They
2
Fourteen people pointed at development of the area. R97 for example said that development
also gave their opinion on the feasibility of a so-called hippo farm in their sub-location. In such a farm
projects would be implemented in the region, while R71 mentioned that a farm would attract tourists:
hippo numbers would be controlled and benefits would be given to the local people.
“Hotels will be built, local people can guide tourists around, roads will be improved and hippo meat
will be distributed”. R133 suggested a bay with papyrus along Mageta Island where hippos could stay:
Is there a need to conserve hippos according to respondents?
“If they are kept there it will be easier for the game people to control them. Local people could assist
According to 121 respondents (84.0% of the sample) hippos should be conserved within Kenya; 21
them in that job”. Two respondents favoured a farm because it would protect hippos from human
people said there was no need to do so, and 2 respondents could not make up their minds. Respondents’
interference. A man in Kisumu said: “A hippo farm will prevent the killing of hippos, whose number is
opinions were almost equally distributed over the districts, except for Rachuonyo. In this district, 23
decreasing” (R25). Another man in Suba said that, since hippos could only survive in the lake, they had
people were in favour of hippo conservation, while 12 people said there was no need to do so.
to be conserved there. “Hippos need protection. If people continue to kill hippos there will be no
Most respondents (121, or 95.2% of the sample) wanted the government or the KWS to bear
the responsibility for the conservation of hippos in Kenya. Four people were indecisive about the
hippos left in the near future” (R97). Few respondents had pronounced ideas about the construction of
a hippo farm though. In all districts, the attitude to leave decisions to the government prevailed.
responsible agency. Few other options were mentioned. Only two respondents argued that local people
A couple of respondents in Kisumu referred to ‘Hippo Point’, a site located near the city of
should bear a partial responsibility for hippo conservation. One of them said: “It is good to conserve
Kisumu. This place, which is mentioned in different travel guides, attracts foreign visitors. Although it
hippos for the posterity. If local people are involved they will become aware of the need for
is not a hippo farm, it is a place where hippos could easily be spotted. Respondents in Siaya made no
conservation. Benefits should go to the entire community” (R17). The other stressed the significance of
reference to any hippo farm in the district, although there seemed3 to be a hippo farm in Uyoma.
education by saying: “Only the educated public should be responsible, not the Ministry of Tourism &
Wildlife, because they do not stay where hippos are. The public should be educated by the Wildlife
Department. They should teach local people about the importance of hippos. Hippos attract tourists and
there is a lot of fish in hippo areas” (R101). Only one person would like NGOs to claim responsibility.
Feasibility of a hippo farm
The issue of a hippo farm provoked totally opposite reactions of respondents. Some of them thought
the idea was foolish, while others thought of it as the ultimate solution to the hippo problem. Sixtyseven respondents (46.5% of the sample) said to be in favour of such a farm, and they considered it to
be feasible in their area. In Suba, 18 respondents had positive feelings about a possible farm. Such
feelings also applied to 22 respondents in Siaya. In Kisumu 16 people welcomed the idea, 18 rejected
it. Eleven respondents were in favour of such a farm in Rachuonyo, where 23 people were against it.
Negative responses were least recorded in Suba and Siaya, for 11 and 8 people respectively. Thirteen
people in Suba and Siaya could not make up their minds, neither could 4 people in Rachuonyo and
Kisumu. In total, 60 people (41.7% of the sample) argued they repudiated any hippo farm construction.
Table VIII.6: Reasons why a hippo farm is feasible in the sub-location (N=67)
Reason : ↓
Kisumu *
Rachuonyo *
Suba *
Siaya *
Total frequency *
No destruction
See hippos around
Protection of hippos
Development of the area
Easier to control by KWS
No killings of people
Total:
15
4
1
1
1
1
23
93.8
25.0
6.3
6.3
6.3
6.3
100.0
7
8
5
20
63.6
72.7
0
45.5
0
0
100.0
10
8
1
4
2
1
26
55.6
44.4
5.6
22.2
11.1
5.6
100.0
6
18
4
3
31
27.3
81.8
0
18.2
16.7
0
100.0
38
38
2
14
6
2
100
56.7
56.7
3.0
20.9
9.0
3.0
100.0
No. of respondents
16
144.0
11
181.8
18
144.5
22
144.0
67
149.3
* This is the number of respondents citing a particular reason as a percentage of the respondents who think that it is feasible to have a
hippo farm in the sub-location. The total percentage exceeds 100 because respondents have given more than one reason.
Respondents were also asked if they could suggest a suitable site for a hippo farm. Of all advocates of
such a farm, 33 people indicated a possible site. The others did not mention a suitable area. Eleven
people referred to the way a possible hippo farm had to be fenced. Their answers related to the distance
between the fence and the water, or the location near a breeding site or a small island in the lake.
Twenty respondents mentioned the name of a suitable site: six of them came from Suba, the others
from Siaya District. In Suba for instance the following ideas were brought forward. “A farm could be
set up near Oyugi, which is a wide place with pastures. The shambas are located behind the road. In
order to erect a fence or wall in the water, special cement should be used. The KWS has to put an
“When hippos are kept in one area we have the opportunity to see the animals without fear for life or
property” was a commonly heard argument among the 67 advocates of a hippo farm (see table VIII.6).
office there and check the fence on a daily basis. The farm should be looked after just like national
parks are looked after” (R93). According to R97, the bay bordering Kaugege would be a suitable place.
The absence of destruction was mostly mentioned by respondents in Kisumu, the district where the rate
180
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The Hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance? Aenne Post, University of Amsterdam.
The Hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance? Aenne Post, University of Amsterdam.
“Local people would not have access to the lake. Their farms should be located behind a large stretch
peacefully”. Some of them also mentioned that hippos would no longer disturb fishermen.
of papyrus and (artificial) fodder, strongly protected by metal rods and barbed wire”. R98 suggested the
Nevertheless, the absence of disturbance of fishermen was mentioned as well. Many people assumed
bay near Sigali. “This is the place where hippos are staying. Only the lower parts of the land have to be
that the farm would generate employment opportunities and lead to infrastructural improvements. R138
fenced, hippos do not mount the hill. It requires negotiation with 8 people who own land down there”.
for instance said: “The government will use the entrance fees paid by tourists to provide funds to the
Ukula was mentioned twice as a suitable site, for instance by R101. “Hippos identify this place as their
local community for the construction of roads and hospitals”. R120 foresaw new employment for local
habitat because the water is shallow and the place is a bit bushy, so they can hide there.
people, for instance in the farm or the hotels that would be built for tourists. R68 stressed the
Sanda and Lake Sare were most referred to in Siaya. Sanda was considered to be a suitable site
involvement of the local community: “We provide the land, for which we have to be compensated by
due to its shallow water and ‘quiet nature’. In the opinion of R127 there were hardly any people near
the government. We could be employed as security-guards, who check the fence and keep an eye on the
Sanda: “One of the bays could be used for a hippo farm, as the surrounding land is not suitable for the
number of hippos. Because of the tourists that arrive, trade will flourish and roads will be improved.
cultivation of crops” (R127). The suitability of Lake Sare was attributed to several aspects. “It is their
We should receive a share of the entrance fees in order to develop our area”. Another respondent who
breeding site and food is available”, said R129. “There is a lot of papyrus too”, R140 added. He
would grant a large stretch of land to the farm, said: “local people will be compensated to buy better
particularly referred to a zone of 60 m that borders Lake Sare on the side of Usenge when he said: “As
lands, for this land hardly allows for the cultivation of crops” (R127).
farming is not practised in this zone, local people will not complain when a hippo farm is set up there”.
According to R138, Lake Sare is a perfect site. “The size is good, and when visitors come they can see
Table VIII.8: Reasons given why a hippo farm is considered to be beneficial (N=67)
Benefit : ↓
hippos in every direction, which is in their best interest”.
What type of benefits could be expected from a hippo farm and who would benefit? Of all respondents
who favoured a farm, 86.6% considered the local people to be one of the beneficiaries. As is shown in
table VIII.7 all ‘farm advocates’ in Siaya and Rachuonyo thought so. The government was depicted as
a huge beneficiary too. Eleven respondents specifically referred to the KWS. As R10 said: “The game
Financial revenue
Availability of meat
Improvement of ec. activ.
Employment opportunity
Changes in infrastructure
Transfer of hippos
Other
Total:
No. of respondents
Kisumu *
10
4
9
1
3
27
62.5
25.0
56.3
6.3
0
18.8
0
168.9
16
Rachuonyo *
9
5
4
7
1
26
81.8
45.5
36.4
63.6
9.1
0
0
236.4
11
Suba *
17
2
5
6
4
1
35
94.4
11.1
27.8
33.3
22.2
5.6
0
194.4
18
Siaya *
17
16
6
10
5
3
1
58
77.3
72.7
27.3
45.5
22.7
13.6
4.5
263.6
22
Total frequency *
53
27
24
24
10
7
1
146
79.1
40.3
35.8
35.8
14.9
10.4
1.5
217.8
67
* This is the number of respondents indicating particular benefits as a percentage of the respondents who think that it is feasible to have
a hippo farm in the sub-location. The total percentage exceeds 100 because respondents have given more than one reason.
people deal with hippos. They fence an area and charge tourists who come to view hippos”. When the
government is combined with the KWS, they could be labelled as the institution that benefits the most.
The benefits that accrued to them were merely financial in nature: they were predominantly based on
entrance fees and incidentally on the transfer or export of hippos. Few people indicated a governmental
involvement in the selling of hippo parts. R134 e.g. said: “The government would benefit because they
sell the meat, sink and teeth of hippos”.
Beneficiary : ↓
Local people
Government
KWS / game people
Total:
No. of respondents
11
10
4
25
68.8
62.5
25.0
156.3
16
Rachuonyo *
11
8
1
20
100.0
72.7
9.1
181.8
11
Suba *
male territorial fights. In Kisumu, 12 respondents said that the collection of hippos would be lead to
severe problems for hippos are migratory species. Fights among male hippos in particular were
destroy the fence easily. Local people have put traps with strong wires but hippos just take the wire up
14
13
4
31
77.8
72.2
22.2
172.2
18
Siaya *
22
18
2
42
100.0
81.8
9.1
190.9
22
Total frequency *
58
49
11
118
86.6
73.1
16.4
176.1
67
* This is the number of respondents indicating a particular beneficiary as a percentage of the respondents who think that it is feasible to have
a hippo farm in the sub-location. The total percentage exceeds 100 because respondents have given more than one reason.
In what way would local people benefit from a hippo farm? As table VIII.8 shows, 27 people regard the
acquisition of meat as a major asset. Twenty-four respondents expected an improvement of economic
activities, especially so in the field of agriculture. “Crops will flourish and we will be able to farm
182
VIII.9). In 44 cases their repudiation was based on the occurrence of hippos in scattered groups, and
considered to be a major problem among respondents in Rachuonyo. As R45 said: “A male hippo will
Table VIII.7: Possible beneficiaries of a hippo farm in the vicinity (N=67)
Kisumu *
When people repudiated the idea of a farm, they did so for reasons that widely diverged (see table
to the water”. R54 did not like the farm either: “Fencing against hippos is useless. Hippos destroy any
fence, especially when they fight. The game people will take their time to come and repair it. In the
meantime hippos may escape and ruin our crops”. The apparent dislike of the idea of a hippo farm in
Rachuonyo could possibly be attributed to the incident with a hippo near Dohoo in 1995, during which
two fishermen were killed. Many respondents talked about this incident, as they were quite dissatisfied
with the way the KWS responded to this situation.
The loss of land was also used as an argument against the construction of a hippo farm, mostly
so by respondents in Rachuonyo and Suba. “If the land down at the lake is fenced, where will people
put their crops? People will suffer if the land is given to hippos”, said a female respondent in
183
The Hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance? Aenne Post, University of Amsterdam.
The Hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance? Aenne Post, University of Amsterdam.
Rachuonyo (R46). Her male counterpart in Suba agreed: “We will lose the fertile land bordering the
needed the space that was intended for hippos, because “they got their food there: sweet potatoes and
water, for the government claims it is their land which they can designate as hippo area” (R108). A
arrow roots” (R46). According to several respondents the lack of (fertile) land forced them to cultivate
man in Siaya added: “In this area land is being reclaimed during the dry season. This land can be used
near the shore. R105 e.g. said: “The upper lands are not very fertile. Down at the lake I can grow fruit
from June/July up to March; it is flooded during the rainy season. Therefore a farm with a fence is
trees, sugarcane and bananas”. R74 said that the scarcity of land forced him to grow crops along the
impossible. We do not want to lose our land” (R114). These respondents all referred to the relatively
shore. Others cultivated there out of convenience. “The short distance between the lake and my shamba
fertile stretch of land bordering the water, on which a governmental rule is in force.
facilitates the watering of the crops” (R60), particularly during times of drought (R71). “At times of
drought sweet potatoes could be cultivated along the lake. Moreover, people relied on the availability
Table VIII.9: Reasons why a hippo farm is not feasible in the sub-location (N=60)
Reason : ↓
Aquatic environment
Scattered presence
Fights/destruction
Land loss
Death of hippos
Aversion to hippos nearby
Total:
No. of respondents
Kisumu *
3
12
5
1
21
16.7
66.7
27.8
5.6
0
0
116.8
18
Rachuonyo *
7
10
5
3
25
0
30.4
43.5
21.7
13.0
0
108.6
23
Suba *
3
1
4
1
3
12
0
27.3
9.1
36.4
9.1
27.3
109.2
11
Siaya *
1
3
3
2
9
12.5
37.5
37.5
25.0
0
0
112.5
8
Total frequency *
4
25
19
12
4
3
67
6.7
41.7
31.7
20.0
6.7
5.0
111.8
60
* This is the number of respondents citing a particular reason as a percentage of the respondents who think that it is not feasible to have a
hippo farm in the sub-location. The total percentage exceeds 100 because respondents have given more than one reason.
Knowledge of the buffer zone
Respondents were asked after the meaning of the buffer zone (which was introduced in chapter IV).
of papyrus in order to make mats which they could either sell or use themselves” (R141).
Even though the rule was rarely enforced, many respondents said they repudiated it. These
negative feelings were mostly attributed to the idea that hippos were protected on the land that was
needed the most. R128 expressed this as follows: “hippos are protected within the 100 m zone. They
can be killed only when they go beyond the zone”. This zone might influence the number of reports on
crop losses caused by hippos, as many respondents suggested that reporting of a loss that took place
within the zone is useless. As R10 and R74 said: “It is useless to report any damage in the 30 m zone”.
“The game people will not come in case you report damage, for cultivating in this zone means that you
disturb the hippo. You do so at your own risk” (R9).
There seemed to be a lot of confusion over its size, as respondents referred to 30m, 100m or 100 yards.
Twenty-two people had never heard of such a zone. The remaining respondents (84.7% of the
sample) attached different meanings to it. Most of them argued that cultivation in this area was not
allowed, the space had to be left vacant in order to give animals -hippos in particular- the opportunity
to graze there; this was mentioned by respectively 18 and 71 people. Eighteen people said it concerned
government land that allowed for ‘public movement’; seven people argued that utilisation of this zone
was restricted to fishermen for it could serve as a fish landing beach. R127 referred to law applied in
fisheries: “The zone of 100 m is ‘no mans land’, everyone can move freely there. This land cannot be
bought”. Four respondents in Siaya even mentioned that the land could be used exclusively by the
employees of the LBDA, for the purpose of draining Lake Sare (R143) or the cultivation of their own
crops along the shoreline (R122). Only four respondents said that cultivation was not allowed out of
VIII.4 Conflict resolution
Many people in the lake region have developed a negative attitude towards hippos. They have
identified the hippo as a nuisance and a threat to human life. If hippos are to have a secure future
within the research area, there has to be an option of hippo-human cohabitation. Consequently, conflict
situations either have to be avoided or minimised. Respondents were invited to come up with solutions.
Several officials were asked what could be done in order to resolve hippo-human conflicts. If not
mentioned otherwise, these people expressed their personal views. Employees4 of the KWS brought
forward a number of ideas. Opinions of government officials or employees of research institutes were
also included. Information about the cropping potential of hippos is briefly introduced, in order to give
a notion of the possibilities in this field of study.
environmental considerations, e.g. in order to prevent soil erosion.
Even though many respondents said they were aware that cultivation was not allowed, there
were also respondents who argued that the land was registered in their name. As R114 said: “The land
that is officially mine goes up to the water”. R131 agreed: “registration includes the land that borders
the water”. Knowledge of the zone does not necessarily imply that using it is illegal. R91 said he got
permission from the chief to plant sweet potatoes there. Most respondents stated that the stretch of land
was needed for crop cultivation. “Arrow roots have to be planted near the water. We simply need the
food and cannot stick to this rule”, said R51. Another respondent from Rachuonyo added that people
Conflict resolution according to respondents
Before the hippo farm was discussed, respondents were asked to tell what kind of solution to hippohuman conflicts they considered appropriate. Many respondents had not idea what could be done, as
can be seen in table VIII.10. Six people replied ‘it was up to the government’. Sixteen people suggested
a proper fencing of shambas. However, they requested financial assistance from the government in
order to buy good fencing materials like cedar poles and barbed wire. R94 thought about a joint
request: “The local community should try to form a group in order to ask the government for support. If
the government cannot give us strong poles and barbed wire, we should look for donors”.
184
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The Hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance? Aenne Post, University of Amsterdam.
The Hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance? Aenne Post, University of Amsterdam.
Table VIII.10: Ideas about possible solutions to hippo-human conflicts according to respondents (N=144)
Idea/suggestion : ↓
Kisumu *
Rachuonyo *
Fencing of hippos
Reduce hippo numbers
Fencing of shambas
Transfer of hippos
Improve KWS
Government decides
Other
Communal action
Hippo farm
No ideas
2
2
2
30
5.6
0
0
0
0
5.6
5.6
0
0
83.3
6
8
5
1
1
2
1
2
10
16.7
22.2
13.9
2.8
2.8
5.6
2.8
0
5.6
27.8
Total:
36
100.0
36
100.0
Suba *
9
3
9
5
1
3
2
4
36
Siaya *
25.0
8.3
25.0
13.9
2.8
0
0
8.3
5.6
11.1
100.0
8
6
2
3
6
2
1
1
7
36
Total frequency *
22.2
16.7
5.6
8.3
16.7
5.6
2.8
2.8
0
19.4
100.0
25
17
16
9
8
6
4
4
4
51
144
17.4
11.8
11.1
6.3
5.6
4.2
2.8
2.8
2.8
35.4
100.0
* Figures in italics are column percentages
The performance of the KWS was a ‘thorn in the flesh’ of eight respondents. Five people wanted the
rangers to have an office in the immediate vicinity, the others questioned the decisiveness of the
organisation. R120 e.g. said: “The game people should be more active. Whenever they are informed of
hippo problems, we want them to act immediately and come to the scene right away”. R133 indicated
the time rangers took to report: “It takes them a week to report to the scene! It gives us the feeling that
they do not do a good job”. Respondents in Siaya in particular thought it would be best if the rangers
guarded every beach in the district. As R137 put it: “The government should restore the game people in
the Lake Basin. When matters have to be taken to the office in Siaya time is wasted, the hippos will
disappear. There has to be a game warden near every beach. It is his duty to survey the area and scare
Collective action was mainly mentioned on Rusinga, due to the presence of joint horticultural gardens
hippos; it is the duty of local people to inform him about the whereabouts of hippos”. A permanent
of women groups. According to R83 this would provide the only possibility to cultivate vegetables: “I
base of the KWS-rangers in Usigu Division was requested several times.
do not have money to fence properly. If I planted sweet potatoes down at the lake, I could not go
The category ‘other’ consisted of people who wanted to reintroduce the compensation for crop
fishing at night. Through fishing I get money directly, while it will take some time before I get income
losses. R31 made such a request, because “he had to borrow money every time hippos had destroyed
out of the sweet potatoes. This is a gap I cannot bridge”. R77 favoured communal gardens as well. In
his crops’. Two respondents from Kisumu thought of trenches as the solution. R29 regarded trenches as
his opinion the government had the duty to provide the community with fencing materials: “The
highly effective means, provided that people would collaborate in the digging. A prior request for
government benefits out of hippos. Therefore we do not kill the animals. We cultivate along the shore
support made to the KWS was turned down, the community was told to arrange the digging herself.
in order to make money. If the government supports us, hippos will no longer be able to destroy our
“That was a problem, as the people who did not have land near the lake did not bother at all” (R29).
crops anymore”. R135 suggested a change of plots and irrigation. He said: “In this area the plots away
from the lake are difficult to use because of a lack of rain. Therefore the government should give us
Views on conflict resolution of KWS employees
other plots and provide irrigation too”.
(1) A conflict resolution plan
According to Kagiri, a good conflict resolution plan should depart from a protective strategy. The plan
People who favoured a hippo farm emphasised the exploitation and/or utilisation of hippos. R56 for
covers a division into zones of wildlife potential, the management of conflict cells or pressure points,
example pointed at selective shooting. He also stressed the need for education in wildlife issues and
the formation of regional PAC-units, and community mobilisation. Local capacity building requires
ways to optimise land use.
information sharing, training and education in the basics of wildlife behaviour and animal movement
Twenty-five respondents talked about ‘enclosing hippos’ by putting fences along the shore or
patterns, and options of conflict resolution open to parties concerned. Local people can learn about the
creating a hippo conservation area. R109 e.g. said: “You have to use barbed wire and poles to fence a
construction of simple community based protection barriers such as the digging of a communal trench
place near the water and a place where hippos like to go to. Hippos can enter the area through a wide
for which funds can be collected on a harambee basis. Small-scale strategic fencing is emphasised, as it
gate, they will not notice they are being caught. A big trench should be dug in order to provide water to
is easier to construct and maintain.
the animals. It should be a big area”. Most people referred to game parks, they preferred a kind of
‘hippo park’. According to R93, the KWS should put an office near the park and check the fence daily.
(2) Suggested methods of protection
Other respondents referred to game parks as well. Yet they wanted to transfer all the hippos to
According to Atumbwa, the digging of trenches in order to prevent hippos from invading shambas was
game parks elsewhere in Kenya. R82 said: “Since we are not allowed to kill them, it is better to remove
recommended by the KWS. He said: “These canals could be used for irrigation as well. The cleaning
them all”. “Elephants were transferred to parks. Can’t this be done with hippos too”? (R41). Seventeen
and maintaining of trenches is time-consuming though. In order to be effective, a trench should be at
respondents advocated a strong reduction in hippo numbers, or even a full eradication of the species in
least three feet5 wide and three feet deep, and narrow towards the bottom. This facilitates maintenance
the lake region. They claimed to be ‘fed up with the hippo menace’. As R116 put it: “The government
and increases the chance that a hippo gets stuck when falling into the trench -the animal will not be
should know that the hippo is really a menace here. The KWS should get permission to kill any hippo”.
able to move forward or backwards. When a hippo is caught in a trench, a report should be made to the
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The Hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance? Aenne Post, University of Amsterdam.
The Hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance? Aenne Post, University of Amsterdam.
KWS, after which local people can be given permission to kill the animal. Ideally the rangers should
visit the site, but such cases are rarely reported” (Atumbwa). Kagiri also mentioned trenches, which he
referred to as ‘island moat provisions’ as well. Utilisation of moats required knowledge of the soil type
in the locality. The land on the ‘upper side’ of the moat should be covered with a grass zone in order to
prevent soil erosion and the filling up of the moat (see figure VIII.1). In the same figure a stone wall is
shown. A similar wall could be a highly effective means to keep hippos out of certain areas (Kagiri).
Barbed wire is an effective yet expensive method of protection; few farmers can afford it.
Therefore Atumbwa suggested the use of locally available thorny plants: “Mauritius e.g. could make a
strong fence when intertwined. However, it grows very fast, absorbs water and leaves places very dry.
Therefore people generally do not like it”. Occasionally, expensive materials could be bought. Chira
referred to a hippo project near Gatuanyaga, where a 5 km long fence was erected in 1996. “The fence
was made out of strong chain-links. This project was carried out as a joint venture between the KWS,
Plan International and the local communities”.
(3) Education in ‘the value of hippos’
Education is an important component of the KWS policy guidelines. Partnership officers should
address local people in barazas by giving extension about the significance of hippos in the ecosystem.
Atumbwa said he had to ‘defend’ the animals: “Hippos are not bad, why don’t you give them some
space? Hippos stir up the mud, which releases nutrients into the water and fattens the fish. Without
hippos there will be no fish; without fish there will be no life for local people”. Mayende put it
differently: “After the community is properly informed, the hippo problem can be transformed into an
opportunity”. This involved projects on the utilisation or exploitation of hippos, which could be
developed on the basis of ideas brought forward by local people. “Wildlife represents an opportunity: it
is a resource which should be used in a sustainable way. Wildlife which does not pay for itself has little
chance of survival” said Kagiri.
Atumbwa stressed that a change of attitude was required: “The local community has to become
aware of the need for coexistence between hippos and people. They should learn to regard the hippo in
a positive way, instead of looking at it as an enemy or a nuisance. If the wananchi are given tangible
benefits, wildlife can become their friend”. In this respect, Atumbwa referred to a proposal that was
forwarded to the KWS Headquarters. It concerned the funding of three classrooms and a laboratory on
Ndere-Island, and the provision of bigger fishing boats. Larger boats enabled fishermen to fish further
into the interior, and thus protect the fish hatching and breeding grounds along the park”.
(4) hippo conservation methods
Contemplating the establishment of a ‘hippo conservation area’ or ‘hippo farm’ could be useful.
Nonetheless, Atumbwa foresaw several drawbacks: “When being confined to a fairly small area, the
species might degenerate in the long run due to inbreeding6. Hippos need space: they should be able to
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The Hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance? Aenne Post, University of Amsterdam.
remain in their natural habitats”. Incidentally, conservation plans focused on hippos in particular.
The Hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance? Aenne Post, University of Amsterdam.
appropriate infrastructure (first level), and NGOs like WWF, IUCN, and OSIENALA which promote
Mayende referred to a proposed hippo farm and/or orphanage7 in Uyoma, Siaya. Atumbwa referred to a
the creation of awareness through barazas, organised groups, workshops, and the Wildlife Clubs of
proposal on the transformation of Siaya’s Lake Kanyaboli into a national park that would accommodate
Kenya (second level). The creation of awareness can start right away; the infrastructural improvements
hippos and crocodiles. The majority of the local people strongly opposed the idea to introduce8 hippos
are useful instruments to make people conscious of benefits derived from conservation”.
into the lake, for they thought it would interfere with the harvesting of papyrus. “A phrase like ‘hippo
presence ensures the biodiversity within the area’ obviously meant nothing to them”.
(4) Hippo conservation areas
Munyirwa was favourably disposed towards a hippo farm. He said: “This issue needs further research.
Views on conflict resolution of other officials
Government officials or employees of research institutes9 brought forward the following ideas:
By way of experiment three or four pilot farms could be established. If these are successful, the number
of farms could be extended. The crocodile-farm in Mombasa for instance is doing very well; a similar
idea could apply to hippos”. Ochieng’ repudiated the idea of a hippo farm: “Fencing would be very
(1) Recommendations
costly. There are other priorities in Suba, such as infrastructural works to make markets more
Ochieng’ presented four guidelines which should be implemented simultaneously in order to safeguard
accessible”.
people’s property against hippos. These guidelines were formulated by the Suba DDC, on the basis of
recommendations made by the DAC in 1996. Agricultural extension officers and DCs should forward
The cropping potential of hippos
the guidelines through barazas. They encompasses the following actions: (1) the digging of trenches
Hillaby quotes dr. Mann11 who investigated the hippo cropping potential in Uganda’s Queen Elizabeth
(1m in width, 2 m in depth) around the farm which are to be maintained regularly; (2) a proper fencing
NP: “it is doubtful whether there exists anywhere else in the world such a vast potential source of meat
of the farm by means of barbed wire, or live fences such as matata, which is very thorny and can be
which can be had for the taking. Herds of hippos tend to behave like domestic pigs, they do not scatter
found near Homa Bay and the boundaries of Suba District. Irrespective of their wide occurrence in the
if shot at, and the supply of meat would be regular as the animals do not migrate” (Dr. Mann in Hillaby
district, plant species like Aberia10 and Schinus molle were rarely used by farmers. Many farmers used
1962, 588). Dr. Mann found that the weight of a dressed carcass of an average-sized male hippo
Euphorbia fences, which can only stop hippos when planted in a very tight way; (3) farmers should
amounted to 68%, contrary to the average African cattle (45%) or European beef breeds (55%). The
employ a night watchman or a full-time guard on their plots. The system of guarding hippos should be
analysed hippo meat turned out to have a high protein and low fat content. The meat also made a very
internalised. For example, in parts of Gembe, Lambwe East, and on Rusinga and Mfangano Islands,
palatable dish (Hillaby 1962; Dolan jr. 1991). The harvesting potential has been formally recognised by
women groups have hired watchmen to protect their shambas from wildlife; (4) report the damage and
the Uganda Development Corporation (Hillaby 1962). Nonetheless, the decision whether or not to crop
request the KWS to scare the hippos. In case a hippo kills a person, the DC has the authority to
hippos or let them determine their own natural balance is still controversial (Sleeper 1982).
organise an immediate shooting of the hippo.
Occasionally cropping programmes were used to get a hold on ‘exploding’ hippo populations.
In parks in Zambia and South Africa, similar programmes aimed at regulating hippo herds and
(2) Hippo census and control
Munyirwa stressed the need for a hippo census in the lake region, in order to determine the carrying
capacity of the area. Farmers should be instructed how to protect their crops effectively, preferably at
prices people can afford. Mwati proposed a thorough monitoring of hippos. He said: “If hippo numbers
are beyond the carrying capacity the game people should cull some. However, there are too few game
people around, so they cannot response adequately to calls. Hippo control requires improvement”.
(3) Change of attitude
Munyirwa stated that hippos were usually perceived in a negative way: they were merely associated
with damage. In his view, eco-tourism is one of the positive aspects related to the presence of hippos.
“It involves the Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife which collaborates with the KWS in developing
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maintaining a balance between species. The hippo meat was sold to the local people. Hippos have even
been considered for farming schemes, in order to generate a commercial source of meat (Sleeper 1982,
25). Wolfsen-McColaugh regards the hippo as an excellent ‘farm animal’: “it requires no special foods,
needs little space, is resistant to many diseases and lives as long as 50 years” (1989, 50).
Since hippo movements are easy to control by means of ditches or fences with wire, hung with
rattling tins, it is possible that hippos could be managed in many areas outside national parks on a
sustained yield basis, maybe even in conjunction with livestock. If fish were kept in the hippo ponds
they could make a valuable contribution to fish farming. Hippos breed well in captivity. In spite of their
cropping potential, controlled management has not been attempted yet, mainly because of logistic
problems and the speed at which a hippo carcass deteriorates in hot weather (Kingdon 1979).
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The Hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance? Aenne Post, University of Amsterdam.
The Hippopotamus: nothing but a nuisance? Aenne Post, University of Amsterdam.
Frädrich favoured the foundation of hippo farms outside the boundaries of nature reserves. According
At the time of the research, the Partnership Department of the KWS was working on a regional conflict
to him the hippo is extremely qualified for breeding: no specific demands for food are made, little
resolution plan which involved local capacity building. Furthermore protective measures like trenches,
space is needed and its meat contains high amounts of protein (Frädrich 1975, 33). Eltringham (1993a)
barbed wire and stone walls were discussed. Through education people could be made aware of the
recommended research on the possibility of cropping hippopotamuses on a sustainable yield basis.
significance of hippos. This could trigger a change of attitude towards hippos.
VIII.5 Conclusion
Attitudes towards hippos in the lake region were at the centre of this chapter. Respondents were asked
if they attached value to hippos and whether or not the animal had a specific meaning in their area. The
presence of hippos was seldom considered beneficial. In the past, items like meat, skin and teeth were
valued. Today these items are valued to a lesser degree: they are hard to get. The animals had a
particular meaning in Luo-society: hippos were associated with traditional beliefs and clans that had a
specific interest in them. Moreover, there used to be a practice of naming new-born children after
hippos. Hippo-related beliefs prevailed in the lake region. Many people told stories about wizards who
were running with hippos. It was believed that the wizards were hiding hippos whenever the KWS-
NOTES CHAPTER VIII
rangers were around. Traditional beliefs were least mentioned in Kisumu. Yet in this district, virtually
all respondents knew about clans and people who were named after hippos.
1
She referred to traditional beliefs, in which wizards are portrayed as ‘nightrunners’ and people who milk hippos (see next
section).
2
With the aforementioned negative attitude of respondents in mind, it was to some extent assumed they
The option of hippo farms had been mentioned by several scientists like Frädrich and Eltringham (see section VIII.4).
3
would oppose hippo conservation. However, over 80% of the people in the sample were positive about
the conservation of hippos in Kenya. The involvement of local communities in conservation matters
was rarely mentioned. However, respondents occasionally emphasised education as a means to make
local people aware of the need to conserve animals.
The existence of such a farm was mentioned by the partnership officer at the KWS station in Homa Bay, Mrs. Mayende. The
aforementioned farm was also named in the correspondence present at the KWS office in Siaya.
4
All remarks made in this section refer to personal communication with employees of the KWS who expressed their views on
hippo-human conflict resolution. People interviewed were: Mr. Atumbwa, partnership officer in the Kisumu-station; Mrs.
Mayende, partnership officer in Homa Bay; Mr. Kagiri, the co-ordinator of conflict resolution at KWS headquarters in
Nairobi; Mr. Chira, scientist at KWS headquarters in Nairobi; Mr. Olengo, corporal in the Siaya-station.
Respondents were invited to express their own ideas with regard to conflict mitigation or
5
resolution. Their awaiting attitude was striking: they often expected the government to come up with
6
ideas for financial or material support in order to fence shambas properly or create a kind of park for
hippos. National parks were referred to as well: they were to accommodate the hippos that would be
transferred from the lake region. Others bluntly stated that hippo numbers had to be reduced
significantly. These remarks indicated that people were really fed up with the ‘hippo issue’. Hippo
control enacted by the KWS was judged unfavourable.
The hippo farm was regarded as an option to conserve hippos and render benefits to local
One foot is 30.48 cm
Inbreeding might lead to a relatively high rate of abortion or inferior animals. For example: the newly born Roan-antelopes in
Ruma NP are weak, and so are the Sable-antelopes in the Shimba-hills.
7
The initiator of the farm planned to set aside a piece of land and grow fodder for the hippos, which she considered to be a
major tourist attraction. The farm was also mentioned in the correspondence studied at the KWS station in Siaya.
8
The introduction of hippos was proposed because hippos fertilise the water with their dung and release nutrients on which
fish feed. At that time the lake accommodated only small, quickly perishable fish species. Hippos were not present in Lake
Kanyaboli because the tributary of River Yala was blocked for irrigation purposes (Atumbwa).
9
communities. Around 50% of the respondents regarded the farm as a feasible option. People in Suba
All remarks made in this section refer to personal communication with government officials or employees of NGOs, who
expressed their views on hippo-human conflict resolution. People interviewed were: Mr. Ochieng’, DAO in Suba District, Mr.
Mwati, DO in Mbita, Mr. Munyirwa, employee of OSIENALA.
and Siaya in particular welcomed the idea and indicated suitable sites. The government was said to gain
10
financially from tourist revenues and hippo transfers. Local people would benefit in two ways: on the
one hand their economic activities would flourish without interference from hippos, on the other hippo
Aberia is a thorny plant species. Utilisation: plant seeds and trim the ‘bush’: after 2-3 years it can reach a height of 1.50 m.
Aberia should be planted in three rows; it has to be intertwined.
11
Dr. Mann was then the director of the Animal Industry Projects Section of the Kenya Department of Veterinary Services.
meat could be obtained. The arrival of tourists would lead to increased employment opportunities and
infrastructural improvements.
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