CONTENTS
© by IAAF
27:4; 1, 2012
}
}
}
}
}
}
Coaching
Overview by Helmut Digel National Success and Efficiency in Athletics at the 2012
Olympic Games in London by Jasper Truyens and Veerle De Bosscher
2012 Olympic Performance Assessment –
A European Perspective by Frank Dick
7
11
25
Muscle Damage and Fatigue in the Marathon 45
by Juan Del Coso, Juan José Salinero, Javier Abián-Vicen,
Cristina González-Millán, Sergio Garde, Pablo Vega and
Benito Pérez-González
How Fast Can a Human Run? 57
by Jeremy Richmond
}
The 2012 Olympic Global Coaches House Report
67
}
Effective Debrief Matters
by Frank Dick
79
}
Selected and Annotated Bibliography 91
}
Book Review 121
}
Website Review
}
Technology Report
131
}
Abstracts
137
}
Index
157
}
Preview
167
Volume Twenty-seven, issue number 4; December 2012
12
Development
Documentation
4
3
London Olympic Review
Special Topic
Applied Research
Editorial 125
New Studies in Athletics, printed by Druckerei H. Heenemann GmbH & Co. KG Berlin, Germany
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
1
NEW STUDIES IN ATHLETICS
The International Association of Athletics
Federations’ technical quarterly for:
Applied Research
Coaching
Development
Documentation
International Scientific Advisory Board
Prof. Helmut Digel (GER)
Prof. Tim Noakes (RSA)
Esa Peltola (AUS)
Prof. Eduardo De Rose (BRA)
Prof. Maijiu Tian (CHN)
Editor in Chief
Abdel Malek El Hebil
Consultant Editors
Helmut Digel
Bill Glad
Harald Müller
Documentation Editor
Jürgen Schiffer
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Tel.: +49 30. 75 30 3 -0
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Subscriptions
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The annual subscription rate is US$ 60 per volume (shipping included).
A few copies of back issues are available on
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Views expressed in articles published in this magazine are those of the authors and not necessarily those of NSA or the IAAF.
2
New Studies in Athletics · 4.2012
EDITORIAL
A New Page
© by IAAF
27:4; 3, 2012
ith the coming of the New Year 2013,
it was my great honour to take over
the position of NSA Editor in Chief as
an important responsibility in my new job as
Director of the IAAF Development and Member
Relations Department. I want to start by thanking my predecessor, Elio Locatelli, for his work
and many contributions to our sport and wish
him all the best in his future endeavours. Elio
has handed over an NSA that is rich in history
and in the esteem in which it is held by its readers and by the athletics community around the
world.
W
I, myself, am not completely new to NSA,
having worked with Elio at the IAAF since 2004
and been a member of the Executive Editorial Board from 2003 to 2005. I recognise that
NSA is an institution and a key element of what
makes the IAAF’s Development Programme a
leader among those of international sports organisations. I am committed to building on the
legacy I have inherited.
Fortunately, there could hardly be a better
time to take on this task. Not only is NSA in
good shape, the IAAF and our sport are also
both in good health and enjoying the benefits
of the wonderful Olympic Games in London.
We have many great stars, positive public recognition throughout the world and a satisfactory commercial position.
The focus of this issue is on debriefing
from those Games. Among the contributors
are Consultant Editor Helmut Digel and Frank
Dick, a member of the IAAF Coaches Commission. Thank you them and to everyone else
who provided the materials published here.
The articles provide a unique analysis of
how the nations performed and, in my view,
are a strong basis for drawing lessons that the
IAAF’s Member Federations can put into practice when preparing their athletes for future
World Championships in Athletics, Olympic
Games and other major events.
You may be interested to learn that we on
the NSA team will also be conducting a debriefing of our own in the coming months. Our
aim will be to chart how we can best serve our
readers and the sport of athletics in the coming months and years. While there will surely
be some changes and new features emerging
from this process, I can promise that NSA’s
core values will remain the same and our high
standards will be improved.
Readers will be informed and see the results as we progress. In the meantime, your
comments on features you would like to see
or on any aspect of NSA are always welcome.
Abdel Malek El Hebil
Editor in Chief
[email protected]
New Studies in Athletics · 4.2012
3
4
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
London Olympic Review
contents
g
Overview by Helmut Digel
x
x
x
x
x
g
National Success and Efficiency in
Athletics at the 2012 Olympic Games
in London
by Jasper Truyens and Veerle De Bosscher
g
2012 Olympic Performance Assessment
– A European Perspective by Frank Dick
x
x
OVERVIEW
London 2012 –
“Everyone’s Games”
VIEWPOINT
© by IAAF
27:4; 7-9, 2012
by Helmut Digel
(Translated from the original German by Jürgen Schiffer)
AUTHOR
Helmut Digel is a Professor for Sport Science and Sport Sociology. He is an IAAF
Council member, Chairman of the IAAF
Marketing and Promotion Commission, a
member of the IAAF Development Commission and a Consultant Editor for New
Studies in Athletics. He also holds various
leadership positions in both sport and sport
science in Germany.
ondon twenty-twelve – under this now
iconic phrase, a summer-long festival
of sport and more has become something special in the history of mankind. First,
there were the extraordinary achievements of
the athletes at the Olympic and Paralympic
Games. From the view of the performance
density in the various competitions, this edition of the Games was probably of the highest quality the world has ever seen. Then there
was the setting. Nearly all the sport venues
satisfied the highest demands. The work of the
referees and judges was equal to the importance of the event itself. The infrastructure and
transport system of the city functioned almost
flawlessly.
L
However, what was probably the most special thing of all was the British public, the real
hosts. Almost all the competitions were sold
out and the enthusiastic audiences were not
only interested and knowledgeable, they were
also tolerant, disciplined and fair. Day after
day, they celebrated the achievements of the
athletes, but more and more, not least during
the Paralympic Games, they just celebrated. A
city and, thanks to the media, a whole country,
were reborn in red, white and blue. The Union
Jack became the flag, clothing, neon sign and
tattoo of a whole nation.
From the point of view of the mass media,
the 19 days of the Olympic Games and the 12
days of the Paralympic Games were the biggest sporting event of all time. Never before
have people stayed such a long period in a
single large city on the occasion of a sports
event. This statement draws attention to the
extraordinary achievements of the Games organising committee, LOCOG, an aspect that
started long before the competitions began
and will continue far beyond, but might only be
understood by a few experts.
The international community learned next to
nothing of this, and it would be good for politicians and the general public to now take note.
The pre-history of the Games was characterised by negative mass media coverage. As always, disaster scenarios were conceived and
disseminated. People complained about inadequate security conditions, transport chaos
was predicted, a cost explosion was reported,
and it was assumed that the organisers had
overreached themselves. Perhaps one can be
surprised that the same media agencies and
journalists later did not want to know anything
about their previous reporting and that during
New Studies in Athletics · no. 3.2012
7
London 2012 – “Everyone’s Games”
the Games they quite naturally focused to the
chorus of applause. This is not only deplorable
but against the interests of the media because
there would have been so much to report
about in the time before, in the accompanying
events and in the time after the Games.
For example, one of the highlights of the efforts to bring the Games to the people was the
Olympic torch relay. Almost 57 million Britons
were present when 8,000 torchbearers carried
the Olympic flame across the UK for 70 days,
but this and all the associated stories were
woefully under-reported.
Then there was the London 2012 Festival,
the finale of an unprecedented cultural Olympiad, which took place with almost no international attention. Over a period of twelve weeks,
music, art, literature and theatre presentations
were given and celebrated throughout the UK.
More than 25,000 internationally recognised
artists from all the 204 nations participating in
the Games appeared. Almost all the events at
which entrance fees were required were sold
out and 10 million people attended other presentations free of charge.
These included the children's week of the
“Society Of London’s Theatres”, the Kurt
Hentschläger exhibition, which attracted more
than 10,000 visitors, and the “Pleasure Garden” at Wilton’s Music Hall. The exhibition of
David Hockney at the Royal Academy of Arts
was one of the best-attended events in the
history of the Academy and 240,000 visitors
attended the National Portrait Gallery’s exhibition of Lucian Freud. Shakespeare’s Globe
Theatre sold over 85,000 tickets and the “Pina
Bausch Retrospective” at “Sadler’s Wells” also
sold out. In addition, there were 8,000 Cultural Olympiad workshops in which more than
155,000 people participated.
Finally, there was what the people themselves did. Under the “Inspired By” mark, 2,713
projects conceived by members of the public
and attracting a huge turnout of participants
were carried out to promote the dissemination
8
of Olympic ideals. This idea was not the least
of the decisive reasons for the IOC awarding
the Games to London. There were projects
focused on education, sustainability and volunteering as well as the projects related to
sport, which numbered 1,172. In one of these,
about 100,000 children from 12,000 schools
took part in what was known as the “School
Games”.
Turning back to the Olympics themselves
and using some selected data, the special
sporting quality of London 2012 can also be
described: in 19 days, practically 46 World
Championships were held, competitions in the
26 Olympic summer sports were organised at
34 different venues, 302 gold medals were won
at the Olympics and 503 at the Paralympics.
The 10,490 Olympic athletes, 5,770 officials from 204 Olympic committees, and
4,200 Paralympic athletes with their 2,700 officials from 174 different Paralympic Committees were, of course, the real players in these
Games. However, the 4,100 technical officials,
especially those who carried out the 5,000 antidoping tests, also deserve special recognition.
In addition, 21,000 journalists from newspapers, radio and television, including their
technical staff, brought these Olympics to the
entire world while 6,500 journalists, radio and
television representatives did the same for the
Paralympic Games.
Also of note were the more than 70,000 volunteers who contributed to the success of the
Games. Not least, they were the ones who ensured the transport of spectators, athletes, officials, journalists and sponsors. Overall, nearly
200,000 people worked full-time during these
Games in favour of this extraordinary sporting
event. Six thousand of these were employed
with the Organising Committee, and 100,000
were contracted on a short-term basis.
46,000 workers created the Olympic village and the park, and more than 10,000 local officials organised additional events like
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
London 2012 – “Everyone’s Games”
the “Big Night,” hosted the “Super Saturday,”
and “The Last Night of The Games”. Not least,
2,000 British companies benefitted from these
Games by making contracts with the organising committee that resulted in a turnover of 7.8
billion pounds.
From the point of view of athletics, our sport
could hardly have imagined a better showcase.
In the IAAF centenary year, our competitions
and athletes provided the highest of the sporting high points. Throughout the week that athletics held centre stage, the energy in the air
was remarkable. Every day the 80,000-seat
Olympic Stadium was completely full – for both
the evening’s finals and the morning sessions.
This unique achievement and the worldwide
television viewing numbers underline the position of athletics with the public and its central
importance to the Olympic movement.
The facts and figures about London 2012
could be continued. Making a complete record
would be a never-ending task. However, the
essence of the story is the sense of the unique
achievement that was provided by a host nation.
Against the backdrop of the previous Olympic Games in China, this achievement is even
more impressive. London did not try to live
up to or be guided by the exceptional Beijing
Games. It is completely justifiable that a nation
of 55 million should not wish to be compared
with a nation of 1.4 billion. Instead, the organisers chose their own unique and creative way,
with the emphasis being on the representation
of Britain’s identity and international hospitality, as well as its particular sporting expertise,
which the country of origin of modern sport
unmistakably has. The opening and closing
ceremonies demonstrated this impressively as
did the excellent management of all at contests
and the performances of the British team,
which surpassed all expectations.
In the end, the organisers’ aim was achieved.
From the very beginning, London 2012 was
supposed to be Everyone’s Games and, without any doubt, it was. The sports world, and
particularly athletics, should be forever thankful.
Please send all correspondence to:
Helmut Digel
[email protected]
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
9
10
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
STUDY
National Success and
Efficiency in Athletics at the
2012 Olympic Games in London
© by IAAF
27:4; 11-23 2012
by Jasper Truyens and Veerle De Bosscher
ABSTRACT
AUTHORS
The athletics competitions at the 2012
Olympic Games in London saw many new
standards set. These were not just individual achievements (there were eight Olympic
records, four world records and 23 world
leading marks), there were also new levels
for the competitive success of countries. As
a new planning and preparation cycle for
the Games is beginning, it is time for sport
policy makers to consider all available data
and draw lessons for the future. In London,
some countries excelled beyond expectations while others fell short. This article
describes the current balance of national
power in athletics through detailed statistical interpretation of the results. First,
different measures of absolute success
that expand the significance of the traditional medal table ranking are discussed.
This broader perspective provides more
explanatory value about the relative positions of countries. Second, the evolution of
the current market structure of success is
described. Third, specific measures describing a country’s performance efficiency in
athletics are used to shed light on the relationship between success and a nation’s
available resources. The authors find that
even though London 2012 saw a record
number of countries participating in athletics, there was only a modest internationalisation of success.
Jasper Truyens is a PhD candidate in the Department of Sport Policy and Management
at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium.
His doctoral thesis is about the competitive
advantage of countries in athletics.
Veerle De Bosscher is Professor in the department of Sports Policy and Management (faculty of Physical Education) at the
Vrije Universiteit Brussel. She is coordinating an international network of research
cooperation in high performance sport
called SPLISS: Sports Policy Factors Leading to International Sporting Success.
‘The Olympic Games are competitions between
athletes in individual or team events and not between countries’ (Olympic Charter, Rule 6).
Introduction
lthough the Olympic Charter minimises
the role of nations in international competitions, the number of participating
countries at the Olympic Games and world
championships is increasing1,2. The internationalisation of sport and sporting success can be
described as a consequence of a growing interest of governments to intervene in the elite sport
policy process1,3. In the athletics competitions
A
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
11
National Success and Efficiency in Athletics at the 2012 Olympic Games in London
of the 2012 Olympic Games in London, the 201
countries that sent athletes represented a new
record for national participation.
The purpose of this article is to evaluate
performances at London 2012 as the latest
indicator of the national balance of power in
athletics. Even though the IAAF provides a
clear overview of success through the official
medal and placing table rankings, the interpretation of success is not as straight-forward as
might be expected4. Using different measures,
a profound analysis can be made and a view
of each country’s competitive position in the
‘market’ can be obtained. Moreover, the evolution of the market as such can be examined
and we can address the question "has success become more or less scarce for a particular country or group of countries?"
In the following, specific attention will be
paid to three different perspectives of athletics success. First, the athletics performances
at London 2012 will be evaluated. Specific
measures of countries’ absolute success will
be presented and discussed in order to understand the ambiguous value of a single
all-embracing tool, such as the medal table,
for evaluating sporting success. Second, the
‘market structure’ of the international competition in athletics will be analysed. Did athletics
as a sport became more competitive at London 2012? How many countries are participating in the battle for success? Finally, specific
figures indicating the efficiency countries at
London 2012 will be discussed.
Team USA Restores Order
There are multiple means to interpret the
success of countries at major competitions
such as the IAAF World Championships in Athletics and the Olympic Games4. For example,
objective results such as the number of medals or top-eight places provide a first impression. Looking at the number of gold medals,
total medals and top-eight places at London
2012, we see that the United States outperformed the other countries in these league
12
tables. Entering at least one athlete in each
event, the USA was able to collect nine gold
medals (19% of those available) and 29 medals (9 gold, 13 silver, 7 bronze) in total (21% of
those available) as well as 56 top-eight places
in 18 different events.
It was the USA’s best athletics result ever at
the Olympics, even though it has dominated
the competition since the 1992 Games in Barcelona (the first after the breakup of the Soviet
Union). Only Russia has been able to dent the
overall hegemony: at the 2008 Olympics in Beijing it had more top-eight placed athletes. The
USA’s performance in London only narrowly
failed to achieve USA Track and Field’s ‘Project
30’ target of 30 medals. This target had been
set in a task force report, written shortly after
the 2008 Olympics in Beijing (where the USA
won 23 medals), which recommended specific programmatic changes to maximise Team
USA’s performance at the IAAF World Championships in Athletics and Olympic Games.
Before London, Russia had set its sights
on a top three performance and 25 gold medals in all sports. However, it ended up (only)
fourth (24 gold, 26 silver and 32 bronze medals). In athletics, Russia was ranked second on
the medal table (eight gold, five silver and five
bronze). This performance improved the number of gold medals, equalled the total number
of medals, but fell short of the number of topeight places achieved in Beijing.
As Olympic hosts, Great Britain and Northern Ireland came third in the overall medal
ranking with the country’s best performance
for more than 100 years. With 65 medals (29
gold, 17 silver and 19 bronze) in 17 sports, it
was far more successful than in Beijing 2008
(47 medals in 12 sports). In athletics, Team GB
achieved its best Olympic performance in a
generation, winning six medals, of which four
were gold, and placing fourth on the athletics
medal table. On what is now known as ‘Super
Saturday’, British athletes Mo Farah (10,000m),
Jessica Ennis (heptathlon) and Greg Rutherford (long jump) won gold medals in the space
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
National Success and Efficiency in Athletics at the 2012 Olympic Games in London
Figure 1: Total and gold medal change between the athletics competitions at the Beijing 2008 and London
2012 Olympic Games
of an hour. Despite the success, head coach
Charles Van Commennee, who had set a target of eight medals with one of them gold, decided to resign shortly after the Games.
Jamaica (3rd, 12 medals), Ethiopia (5th, 7
medals) and Kenya (6th, 11 medals) obtained
their medal hauls based on their specialisations in the sprint and long distance running
events. Their success in athletics represented
their countries’ overall Olympic success.
medal table, while in London it was eighth.
Overall, Australia won only half as many gold
medals as it did in Beijing - and no individual
gold medals in the swimming pool for the first
time since 1976.
France won its first gold medal in athletics
since the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta. With one
gold (pole vault) and one silver medal (steeplechase), the French team shares the ninth position with the Dominican Republic.
Ups and Downs
Germany made a major step forward in relation to previous Olympics. Both in terms of the
number of medals and top-eight places, was
more successful in London than in Athens 2004
and Beijing 2008 put together and with one
gold, four silver and three bronze medals it was
seventh in the athletics medal table.
Figure 1 identifies how the top-level countries
improved their performance in relation to Beijing
2008. The two dimensions of the figure represent changes in the number of medals (X-axis)
and the number of gold medals (Y-axis).
Australia returned to its performance level
of the 2000 Olympics in Sydney with one gold
and two silver medals in athletics. In 2000
however, the country was ranked 13th in the
All countries on the top right quadrant of
this figure improved their performance both in
number of gold and total medals. In number
of medals, we see that the USA and Germany
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
13
National Success and Efficiency in Athletics at the 2012 Olympic Games in London
Market Share Evaluations
made the biggest gains. Germany improved
by one gold medal (as indicated on the Y-axis)
and seven medals in total (as indicated on the
X-axis). Great Britain improved its performance
by three gold medals and two medals in total. Jamaica improved its number of medals,
but had two fewer golds compared to Beijing
2008. Ethiopia equalled its number of medals
in Beijing, but traded in a gold for a bronze.
Australia, which is positioned on the X-axis,
lost one bronze medal, but remained eighth in
the medal table.
Using the number of medals and top-eight
places as represented in Table 1 as measures,
great differences in success can be identified,
even at the top of the medal tally. For example
the USA won 15 times as many medals as
France. Additionally, the top five ranked countries - USA, Russia, Jamaica, Great Britain and
Kenya - won more than 50% of all the available
medals. If success was purely defined by winning medals in international competition, we
could say that is concentrated among a small
number of countries. The number of top-eight
places can be interpreted in the same way: the
first seven countries on the medal table achieved
more than 50% of all top-eight places.
Countries in the bottom left quadrant underperformed in relation to Beijing 2008, both
quantitatively and qualitatively. Cuba and Belarus, positioned sixth and seventh on the Beijing
medal table, took three medals and one gold
versus five medals and one gold. Even though
Kenya is still positioned sixth, it experienced a
major decrease in success following a decline
of four gold medals and three medals in total.
Another way to evaluate performance is to
look at the market share of a country or group
of countries. By converting medals into points
(gold = 3, silver = 2, bronze =1), a more differentiated evaluation can be made referring to
the medals’ different value or importance and
Table 1: Overview of national success in athletics at London 2012
Rank Nation
14
Gold
medals
Total
medals
Cumulative
percentage
Top 8
places
Cumulative
percentage
1
The United States
9
29
20.57%
56
14.89%
2
Russia
8
18
33.33%
34
23.94%
3
Jamaica
4
12
41.84%
20
29.26%
4
Great Britain & N.I.
4
6
46.10%
19
34.31%
5
Ethiopia
3
7
51.06%
18
39.10%
6
Kenya
2
11
58.87%
21
44.68%
7
Germany
1
8
64.54%
21
50.27%
8
Australia
1
3
66.67%
6
51.86%
9=
France
1
2
68.09%
11
54.79%
9=
Dominican Republic
1
2
69.50%
2
55.32%
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
National Success and Efficiency in Athletics at the 2012 Olympic Games in London
the ‘total amount’ of success4,5. Dividing the
medal points won by a given country by the
total number available at a particular event, it is
possible to compute the market share. France,
for example, had a market share in London of
1.77%, based on the five points for its gold and
silver medals. The medal market share (Table
2) enables an evaluation of countries’ medal
performances as a proportion of the medals
available.
formance. Points are awarded to the top-eight
performances (8-7-6-5-4-3-2-1), rather than
only medals. If we divide the number of placing
table points of a country by the total number
of points available in athletics, another market
share can be calculated. A top-eight place
evaluation enables a broader interpretation of
success that includes 70 countries instead of
the 41 countries in the medal table ranking.
In Table 2, countries are ranked according
to the top-eight placing scores. Improvers in
relation to the medal table ranking (as indicated in the first column) are Kenya (from 6th
to 3rd place), Germany (from 8th to 5th place),
China (from 13th to 8th place), Ukraine (from
24th to 9th place) and Canada (from 33rd to
15th) In the opposite direction, France falls to
10th place, Great Britain to 7th, Australia to
13th and the Dominican Republic to 21st.
From this perspective, the overall performance of Kenya could be said to be of a higher
value than that of Ethiopia, even though the latter was able to collect more gold medals. If we
rank countries according to their market share
in athletics, Kenya would be fourth and Germany sixth.
However, a medal-based market share evaluation is a narrow interpretation of success in
athletics, as we exclude almost 80% of all participating countries. The placing table enables
a comparable method to evaluate national per-
Table 3 shows change in performances by
comparing the London 2012 top-eight place
market share results with the corresponding
Table 2: Medal success and medal market share in athletics for the top countries at the Olympic Games London 2012 (according to top-eight placing table ranking)
Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Market
share %
Placing table
points
1
The United States
9
13
7
21.28
304
2
Russia
8
5
5
13.83
179
6
Kenya
2
4
5
6.71
112
3
Jamaica
4
4
4
8.51
107
7
Germany
1
4
3
4.96
95
5
Ethiopia
3
1
3
4.96
90
4
Great Britain & N.I.
4
1
1
5.32
85
13
China
1
0
5
2.84
73
24
Ukraine
0
1
2
1.42
47
=9
France
1
1
0
1.77
39
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
15
National Success and Efficiency in Athletics at the 2012 Olympic Games in London
statistics from Athens 2004 and Beijing 2008.
The first 10 countries on the list are the countries with the largest increases and the last 10
on the list had major decreases. A one percentage increase/decrease equals a change of 16
top-eight placing table points or a performance
improvement/deterioration of two gold medals
or four fifth places or any other combination
representing 16 top-eight placing table points.
With a top-eight placing market share of
17.97% in London (303 points out of 1,692
points in total), the United States improved its
leading position (+5.73%). Some of the major
competitors an the London 2012 top-eight placing table experienced a market share decrease
in relation to Beijing 2008: Kenya (-1.36%), Russia (-1.24%) and Jamaica (-0.86%). However,
both Jamaica and Kenya are still above their
Table 3: Major performance changes in athletics for countries since the 2004 Olympic Games
(based on the top-eight placing market share)
Rank
16
Nation
Top 8 market share %
Athens Beijing London
Δ Top 8 market share %
Athens - Beijing London
London
14.13
12.23
17.97
3.84
5.73
Germany
2.66
2.72
5.61
2.96
2.90
China
1.87
2.30
4.31
2.44
2.01
11
Trinidad & Tobago
0.12
1.06
2.07
1.95
1.00
21
Dominican Republic
0.48
0.00
0.89
0.40
0.89
7
Great Britain & N.I.
4.17
4.20
5.02
0.86
0.83
6
Ethiopia
4.35
4.49
5.32
0.97
0.83
25
Botswana
0.06
0.06
0.71
0.65
0.65
23
The Netherlands
0.72
0.18
0.77
0.04
0.59
34
Grenada
0.30
0.00
0.47
0.17
0.47
27
Brazil
0.79
1.24
0.65
-0.13
-0.59
41
Norway
0.48
1.12
0.41
-0.07
-0.71
4
Jamaica
4.71
7.15
6.32
1.61
-0.83
-
Romania
1.93
1.00
0.00
-1.93
-1.00
25
Spain
2.29
1.83
0.71
-1.59
-1.12
2
Russia
11.59
11.82
10.58
-1.02
-1.24
3
Kenya
4.05
7.98
6.62
2.57
-1.36
16
Poland
2.84
2.66
1.24
-1.60
-1.42
14
Cuba
3.14
3.61
1.48
-1.66
-2.13
41
Belarus
3.56
3.07
0.18
-3.39
-2.90
1
The United States
5
8
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
National Success and Efficiency in Athletics at the 2012 Olympic Games in London
Athens 2004 levels. Germany (+2.90%) and
China (+2.01%) are other major improvers. Germany more than doubled its market share from
2.72% in Beijing to 5.61% in London. As the
host of the previous Games, China was able
to continue the performance improvement it
made in the preceding Olympiad.
Contrary to the top-eight placing market
share evaluation, neither the medal table nor
the placing table showed a performance decrease by Russia or Jamaica; Jamaica even
gained one place on the medal table. Other
countries like Poland (-1.42%), Cuba (-2.13%)
and Belarus (-2.90%) lost more than half of their
top-eight place market share. Both Cuba and
Belarus fell out of the top 10 in the medal table.
A major conclusion based on the results
of the measures outlined above (medal table
ranking, total medals, placing table points and
market share) is that various measures of performance can give conflicting results. As we
compare the Beijing 2008 performances of
four countries with their performances at London 2012 (as represented in Table 4), we find
some interesting anomalies.
Olympic host Great Britain performed better
than at Beijing 2008 for all measures. Jamaica
however, improved in the medal ranking and
number of medals, but decreased in the quality of medals. Also, its overall top-eight place
performance was worse in comparison (as we
see in Table 3): in Beijing it had 24 top-eight
level performances, in London it had 20 topeight places. Even though Australia was able
to maintain its position in the medal table, its
performance level decreased both in terms of
number of medals and quality of performance.
Russia was able to improve its number of gold
medals (and thereby its market share) and it
maintained its position in the medal ranking.
Based on a smaller number of fourth to eighth
places, its number of top-eight placing points
decreased.
A Superpower Competition?
Regardless of the measure used to evaluate
performance, the balance of power between
countries is influenced by the performance increase or decrease of participating countries.
For example, the United States increased its
top-eight place market share by almost 6% while
other countries had performance decreases.
Given that since the 1988 Games in Seoul the
number of countries participating in the athletics
competitions has increased and in London this
internationalisation reached a new record level,
questions can be raised regarding the dynamics
of the competition between countries. Therefore, the following paragraphs will describe the
market structure in athletics with specific regard
to the distribution of success.
Table 4: Performance anomalies between different measures of countries’ athletics success; a comparison
between Beijing 2008 and London 2012
Medal rank
Total medals
Points
Medal market
share %
Great Britain & N.I.
better
better
better
better
Jamaica
better
better
worse
worse
Australia
same
worse
worse
worse
Russia
same
same
worse
better
Country
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
17
National Success and Efficiency in Athletics at the 2012 Olympic Games in London
While the number of medal winning countries
has varied between 40 and 45 in the latest five
editions of the Games, the number of countries
unable to win a medal is increasing (from 126 in
1988 to 160 in 2012), (as indicated in Figure 2).
It could be stated that although the overall
number of participating countries increased, the
number of realistic competitors for medal success remained at the same level. Additionally,
the largest growth is witnessed in the number of
participating athletes (+38%) and the number
of disciplines, which increased from 41 to 47
events (+15%) between 1988 and 2012.
If we use the top-eight place market share
ranking (as presented in Table 3) to compare
the level of success of the leader in the rankings to the country ranked 10th over time, we
see that the performance level of the 10th has
decreased over the last four editions of the
Games (from 3.55% in Sydney 2000 to 2.30%
in London 2012). The market share of the ranking leader (i.e. the USA through all the latest
Olympics) varies between 9.11% in 2000 and
17.97% in 2012. These trend lines are represented in Figure 3. What we see is that it is
possible for a nation to win fewer medals and
top-eight places yet still be ranked among the
top 10 countries. This trend raises questions
about the market share of top-level countries.
Given the constant level of the medal winning
countries through the latest five editions of
the Games and the performance decrease of
number 10 in the list, we could assume that
the very top countries have consolidated their
successes and become even more dominant.
A concentration ratio (CR4) represents the
market share of the best four performing countries. The higher their market share, the more
they dominate the success in the competition6.
As represented in Figure 3, the CR4 increases
from 30.30% in 2000 to 41.49% in 2012. In
other words, more than 41% of all top-eight
placing table point for athletics in London were
won by either the United States, Russia, Kenya
or Jamaica. If we evaluate dominance according to the medal table market share, we see
that these leaders won 50.35% of all the medal
Figure 2: The evolution of the number of medal winning and non-medal winning countries in athletics at the
Olympic Games s (1988-2012)
18
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
National Success and Efficiency in Athletics at the 2012 Olympic Games in London
points in London. The conclusion is that even
though participation was at a record level, the
concentration ratio shown here indicates only a
rather modest internationalisation of success.
of this century, have lost more than 12% of
their overall market share, while North American countries (+7%) and Asian countries (+4%)
have improved their market position.
If we look at the market leaders over this
period, we see that while Germany and Great
Britain were ranked among the top performers
in 2000, Jamaica and Kenya took their positions in 2008 and 2012. Thus, in addition to
the increasing competitiveness of the very top
countries, the composition of this group has
changed over time. We could say that that the
market is now dominated by a varying group of
‘superpowers’; while European countries have,
over time, lost positions three and four on the
medal table and at the same time African and
North American countries have fought their
way up the table.
Comparing National Efficiency
Although the methods to evaluate absolute
success in athletics discussed above show
some contradictions, in most Olympic competitions the bigger and traditionally successful
countries (United States, Russia, Kenya, Jamaica, ...) do well and can be expected to be
near the top of most rankings. However, there
are countries that did relatively more with less.
They outperformed other countries in London
if we take into account the number of athletes,
the number of disciplines they participated in or
their smaller population base.
If we compare continents’ top-eight placing
market share since 2000 (Table 5), we see that
also here Europe faces a decreasing performance trend. European countries, which had a
dominant position in athletics at the beginning
If we refer to the number of athletes and the
number of disciplines participated in, we refer to sources of success that are presumed
to be the output of good sport policy. On the
other hand, the population base represents a
Figure 3: The evolution of the top-eight place market share of the top country, the 10th country and the top four
countries (CR4) between 2000 and 2012
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
19
National Success and Efficiency in Athletics at the 2012 Olympic Games in London
Table 5: Top eight market share % of continents for athletics at the Olympic Games between 2000 and 2012
Continent
2000
2004
2008
2012
Europe
52.20
49.70
44.21
39.24
North America
25.00
26.03
27.90
32.45
South America
1.55
1.33
2.13
1.48
19.12
15.34
17.79
17.14
Oceania
3.55
2.23
3.19
2.42
Asia
3.29
5.19
4.61
7.15
Africa
country-based characteristic that cannot be
changed or influenced by sport policy.
Table 6 provides an overview of different efficiency measures whereby success is related
to figures representing the number of athletes,
disciplines and the general population base in
2011. For each country, both the number of
participated and successful disciplines was
calculated. A successful discipline was defined
as one where are a medal was won. The nations are ranked according to their disciplines’
success ratio, as will be explained below. Rank
(in column one) refers to the top-eight placing
table ranking.
Besides the number of medals, the number of athletes who participated and number
of disciplines a country participated in can
provide a first indication of success. After all,
athletes have to meet the international qualification standards and a country can only be
represented by maximum three athletes per
discipline. According to this criterion, the USA
dominates these ranking with a representative
in all disciplines (i.e. 47 disciplines in total) and
124 athletes in total. Russia (105 athletes - 42
disciplines), Ukraine (78 athletes - 39 disciplines), Germany (77 athletes - 33 disciplines)
and Great Britain (77 athletes - 42 disciplines)
also have a large number of participants in a
variety of disciplines.
20
Based on these figures, an efficiency figure
can be calculated for each national team (i.e.
athletes/medal). For example, Kenya and Ethiopia were successful with small representations
of athletes. They needed on average only 4.09
athletes and 4.71 athletes respectively to win a
medal. Only Jamaica (3.92 athletes) and Botswana (3.00 athletes) were more efficient. With
a team of three athletes, Botswana took one silver medal and had the highest team efficiency.
Australia (17.33 athletes) and France (26.50 athletes) were the least efficient top-level countries.
If we look at the fourth variable in this table,
the USA was successful in the greatest number
of athletics disciplines (22). Russia gained 18
different medals in 15 disciplines (most of them
for women), Jamaica won 12 medals in seven
sprint disciplines. However, rather than these
figures as such, the success ratio is the interesting efficiency measure. This figure represents the efficiency of countries’ participation in
specific disciplines. In accordance to the measures of absolute success, the USA was the
most efficient according to this figure. In 47%
of all the disciplines it participated in, it was able
to win a medal. Thereby, it has the highest efficiency figure among all participating countries.
Successful countries like Ethiopia and Kenya that were represented by small numbers of
participating athletes also have a high efficiency.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
National Success and Efficiency in Athletics at the 2012 Olympic Games in London
Table 6: Overview of different efficiency measures of countries’ performance in athletics at London 2012
Disciplines
Rank
Nation
1
The United States
6
Athletes
Athletes/medal
Participated
With medal
success
Success
ratio
124
4.28
47
22
0.47
Ethiopia
33
4.71
13
6
0.46
3
Kenya
45
4.09
17
7
0.41
2
Russia
104
5.78
42
15
0.36
25
Botswana
3
3.00
3
1
0.33
3
Jamaica
47
3.92
22
7
0.32
21
Dominican Republic
11
5.50
7
2
0.29
11
Trinidad & Tobago
26
6.50
15
4
0.27
41
Guatemala
6
6.00
4
1
0.25
8
China
54
9.00
28
6
0.21
They won medals in 46% and 41% respectively
of the disciplines which they participated. According to this measure, top ranked countries
in the medal table like Russia (36%) and Jamaica (32%) can also be found among most
efficient countries, Great Britain and Ukraine,
which participated in a large number of disciplines with a high number of athletes, have
rather moderate levels of efficiency (18%, 14%
and 8% respectively). Australia and France
needed a high number of athletes per medal
and therefore have a low efficiency rate; Australia was successful in 10% of the participated
disciplines, France only in 7%.
Various empirical studies show that population and wealth are the most important socioeconomic determinants of sporting success7,8.
These two variables explain over 50% of total medals or medal points9. For this reason,
success has also been expressed in terms of
medals per head of population or in terms of
per capita GDP, as a measurement for wealth.
The most efficient countries for athletics in
relation to the population base are shown in
Table 7. For each country, we calculated a ratio
of the total medal points and national population in 2011.
Grenada was identified as the most efficient
in relation to its population size (one medal
point for approximately each 35,000 inhabitants). Jamaica claimed one medal point for
each 113,000 inhabitants, the Bahamas for
each 115,000. Besides these countries, only
Trinidad & Tobago is able to deliver a medal
point for less than 500,000 inhabitants.
As can be seen, most countries in this list
do not hold a high position in the overall placing table. Only Jamaica (4th) and Trinidad & Tobago (11th) had a high level of absolute success
in athletics. Additionally, the countries on the
list were not able to collect more than three
medal points, with the exception of Jamaica.
All countries in this list have a population base
smaller than five million inhabitants. At the other extreme, countries like Italy (1 point per 60.7
million), Japan (1 point per 127.8 million) and
China (1 point per 1,344,1 million) were found
inefficient performers in athletics in relation to
their population size.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
21
National Success and Efficiency in Athletics at the 2012 Olympic Games in London
Table 7: Countries efficiency in athletics London 2012 (based on medal points and 2011 population base)
Rank
Nation
Medal points
Population/medal points
34
Grenada
3
34,963
4
Jamaica
24
112,888
18
Bahamas
3
115,725
11
Trinidad & Tobago
6
224,392
25
Botswana
2
1,015,369
30
Slovenia
2
1,026,000
30
Bahrain
1
1,323,535
47
Estonia
1
1,340,000
34
New Zealand
3
1,468,400
34
Croatia
3
1,469,000
Population Data: The World Bank, 2013.
Conclusion
At London 2012, the overall dominance of
athletics by the United States was extended.
Based on the medal tally and the medal market share, the USA was the market leader with
21.28% of the overall medal market share. Ever
since Barcelona 1992, the USA has dominated
the both the medal table and the top-eight
placing table ranking. A performance increase
of two gold medals and six medals in total
compared to Beijing 2008 strengthened its
leadership. No other country was able to improve its performance as much as the Americans did. Moreover, their success was not
limited to specific disciplines as they collected
medals in 22 different disciplines. Additionally,
the USA was identified as the most efficient
country the discipline-success ratio; in 47% of
all disciplines a USA athlete participated in, it
was able to win a medal.
22
It seems the USA is pulling away from many
of its major competitors, as Russia, Jamaica
and Kenya all experienced decreases in the
measures of medals won and top-eight place
market share since Beijing 2008. Although
Kenya is still ranked 3rd in the placing table,
it faced a loss of four gold medals and three
medals in total. Belarus and Cuba also suffered losses in both the quality of medals and
their overall top-eight placing performance.
While the two were ranked 7th and 8th respectively on the Beijing 2008 placing table, they fell
to positions 41 and 14 respectively in London.
On the other hand, Germany and Great
Britain achieved major performance improvements in relation to previous Olympics. While
Germany drastically increased its overall topeight position performance, Great Britain was
able to improve the quality of its medal tally. As
a result, Team GB is ranked fourth in the medal
table, but only seventh based on their medal
and top-eight place market shares. Germany
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
National Success and Efficiency in Athletics at the 2012 Olympic Games in London
more than doubled its top-eight place market share in comparison to the Beijing 2008
and Athens 2004. Even though these European powers improved in London, Europe as
a whole has experienced a major performance
decrease since the 2000 Olympics in Sydney:
its top-eight place market share fell from 52%
to 39% in London while North American countries improved their market position to 32%.
REFERENCES
Although there are more nations than ever
participating in the athletics competition, the
dominance of the top-level countries has increased over the last four Olympic editions.
Both the medal and top-eight place market
shares of the four best countries have increased. The medal concentration ratio (CR4)
increased from 31% in 2000 up to 50% in London and the top-eight place market share for
the first four countries rose from 30% in 2000
up to 41%. The higher their proportion of success, the less success there is available for all
the other countries. As market leader, the USA
even achieved the highest proportion increase
on the top-eight place market share ranking.
4 SHIBLI, S.; DE BOSSCHER, V.; VAN BOTTENBURG, M.
& WESTERBEEK, H. (2013) Measuring performance and
success in elite sport. In Managing High Performance Sport
(Red. SOTIRIADOU P. DE BOSSCHER V). Routledge: 30-44.
In contrast, 80% of all participating countries were unable to achieve any medal performance. This proportion is the highest since
the fall of the Berlin Wall. Even though more
nations are able to participate in the athletics
competition, a smaller proportion of countries realistically compete for medal success.
Between 2000 and 2012, the proportion of
top-eight performance level countries varied
between 28% and 34%. With 20% of all participating countries winning any medal and 34%
taking any top-eight place, we could say there
was a rather moderate internationalisation of
success in athletics at London 2012.
1 DE BOSSCHER, V. (2007). Sports Policy Factors Leading to International Sporting Success. Published doctoral
thesis; VUBPRESS.
2 GREEN, M. & HOULIHAN, B. (2005). Elite sport development. Policy learning and political priorities. Routledge. 2005.
3 HOULIHAN, B. (2009) Mechanisms of international influence on domestic elite sport policy. International Journal of
Sport Policy 1(1): 51-69.
5 DE BOSSCHER, V.; HEYNDELS, B.; DE KNOP, P. & SHIBLI, S. The Paradox of Measuring Success of Nations in Elite
Sport. Belgio 2008 ; 2 : 1-18.
6 De BOSSCHER, V.; DU BOIS, C. & HEYNDELS, B. (2012).
Internationalization. competitiveness and performance in
athletics (1984–2006). Sport in Society 15(1): 88-102.
7 BERNARD, A. & BUSSE M. (2004). Who wins the Olympic Games? Economic resources and medal totals. Review
of Economics and Statistics 86(1): 413-417.
8 JOHNSON, K. N. & ALI, A. (2002). A tale of two seasons:
participation and medal counts at the summer and winter
Olympic Games Wellesley College.
9 DE BOSSCHER, V.; DE KNOP, P.; VAN BOTTENBURG, M.
& SHIBLI, S. (2006). A Conceptual Framework for Analysing
Sports Policy Factors Leading to International Sporting Success. European Sport Management Quarterly 6(2): 185-215.
Please send all correspondence to:
Jasper Truyens
e-mail: [email protected]
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
23
National Success and Efficiency in Athletics at the 2012 Olympic Games in London
24
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
Study
2012 Olympic Performance
Assessment – A European
Perspective
© by IAAF
27:4; 25-40, 2012
by Frank Dick
ABSTRACT
AUTHOR
Planning based on effective debriefing
and the practical lessons learned from
experiences is the key to sustainable success in any endeavour. As the pinnacle of
the competitive challenge for any athlete, the Olympic Games are both an end
in themselves and the focus of planning
for delivering performance and results
objectives. Debriefing after the Games
or other major championships and then
planning for the next edition are a primary responsibility of national athletics federations and their personnel, particularly
the Chief Coach or Performance Director.
This article, adapted from a report prepared for European Athletics, provides a
documented context for debriefing after
the 2012 Olympic Games by bringing together technical and statistical analyses
of the athletics events that took place
in London. Written by an experienced
former head coach, it includes a unique
analysis of performance delivery “on the
day” that can be used as an indicator of
the effectiveness of high-performance
policies, coaching and support at the
national level. A key finding is that European teams generally did not deliver
as effectively as the teams from the USA
and Jamaica. The report concludes with
ten initial recommendations for federation policy makers, performance directors and elite coaches to consider.
Frank Dick OBE is a motivational speaker and writer. He is the president of the
European Athletics Coaches Association and a member of the IAAF Coaches
Commission. From 1979 to 1994 he was
the British Athletics Federation’s Director of Coaching.
Introduction
or the high-performance end of athletics and other Olympic sports, the
basic time frame for strategic planning
is the four-year Olympic cycle. As the pinnacle
of the competitive challenge for any athlete, the
Games are both an end in themselves and the
focus of planning for delivering performance
and results objectives. They are also the basis
for measuring the effectiveness of the plans and
the preparation work that follows. Moreover, this
preparation and the athlete’s performance at the
Games represent critical learning experiences
and, as such, are fundamental resources for designing the next four-year strategic plan.
F
To maximise the value of the experience it
is necessary to debrief and evaluate after the
Games. These tasks are a primary responsibility of the national athletics federations and
their personnel, particularly the Chief Coach
or Performance Director. In this process, consideration must be given to the role delivery of
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
25
2012 Olympic Performance Assessment – A European Perspective
the athlete, coach, performance scientific and
medical professionals, managers, policy makers and all others who may have influenced the
final result. With the findings from the process
we are equipped to plan for and work towards
better results in the future.
Each Olympic Games is, then, a dress rehearsal for the next, and the last step to the
podium in London 2012 was the first step to
the podium in Rio 2016.
To afford the London 2012 debrief process
a documented context and thereby assist federations with their work, this article provides
relevant data on the results and performances
in the Games together with observations that
are mainly focused on the athletes from Europe.
It starts with a brief technical evaluation of the
competitions and then provides a statistical
analysis organised under the following headings:
• Medals
• Finalists
•
•
Age Distribution
Performance Delivery
Note that the statistical data on performances from both London 2012 and earlier Games
are subject to changes due to disqualifications
resulting from possible disciplinary actions in the
future.
This article concludes with ten initial recommendations for federation policy makers, performance directors and elite coaches in Europe
and the rest of the world to consider.
Technical Evaluation
To add a dimension of understanding to the
raw results, the IAAF Member Services Department Director and experienced head coach
Elio Locatelli has provided the following brief
evaluations of the competitions and rated each
event on a scale of 1 to 10.
Women’s Sprint Events
100m: One of the best ever finals; average time of the eight finalists = 10.87 sec
Evaluation 10
200m: A good competition and a great run by Felix (21.88 sec)
Evaluation 9
400m: Four athletes below 50 sec but this is an event in stagnation
Evaluation 7
4x100m: The best relay ever; a terrific world record by the USA team
Evaluation 10
4x400: A poor competition; only the USA team did well with 3:16:87
Evaluation 6
Women’s Endurance Events
800m: Best race of the year with seven finalists below 2:00
Evaluation 8
1500m: Poor race
Evaluation 5
5000m/10000m: Both tactical races confirming the domination of athletes
from ETH and KEN Evaluation 6
3000m steeplechase: Lacklustre race in an event that needs some rule changes
(the length of the water jump relative to the height of the barrier is wrong)
Evaluation 6
Marathon: Good race; Olympic record and 10 athletes below 2:26:00
Evaluation 8
20km Walk: Youngest ever Olympic female walks gold with WR 1:25:02;
first five under 1:26:30
Evaluation 10
Women’s Hurdles Events
100m: Best race of the year; Olympic record, three athletes under 12.50 sec,
seven inside 12.70 sec!
Evaluation 10
400m: Only the first five ran well (below 54.00 sec); event in stagnation
Evaluation 7
26
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
2012 Olympic Performance Assessment – A European Perspective
Women’s Jumping Events
High Jump: Good competition with the winner at 2.05m and the first four over 2.00m
Evaluation 8
Pole Vault: A poor competition; nothing new except a weak Isinbayeva (4.70m)
Evaluation 5
Long Jump: Generally weak but certainly better than Beijing; great jumps for Reese
and Sokolova (both over 7.00m)
Evaluation 7
Triple Jump: Nobody over 15.00m; this event is in regression
Evaluation 5
Women’s Throwing Events
Shot Put: Good competition (eight over 19.00m) but ruined by a doping case
Evaluation 7
Hammer Throw: Good competition; Olympic record and eight over 74.00m
Evaluation 8
Discus Throw: Good competition; great throw by Perkovic (69.11m) and nine over
63.00m
Evaluation 8
Javelin Throw: Only Spotakova did well (69.55m); event in stagnation
Evaluation 6
Heptathlon
Evaluation 9
Best event in depth; 14 athletes over 6,300 points
Women’s Events - Conclusions
Overall, the global trend in performance is
positive but there are some events in stagnation and a real issue with the triple jump. The
endurance events could use some new faces,
especially Europeans, at the top.
It is also becoming increasingly the case
that many athletes seem ill prepared for the
championship situation, as opposed to oneoff races, and they lack racing competencies
having been paced in world circuit races.
Men’s Sprint Events
100m: The best ever final; average time of the first seven athletes = 9.824 sec
Evaluation 10
200m: Five athletes below 20 sec with the first four all recording season’s bests
Evaluation 9
400m: Average time for the finalists = 44.725 sec; four finalists under 23 years old
Evaluation 8
4 x 100m: The best ever final; a world record and seven teams below 38.50
Evaluation 10
4 x 400m: A poor competition
Evaluation 6
Men’s Endurance Events
800m: The best ever final; average time of finalists = 1.42.65;
three finalists under 20 years old
Evaluation 10
1500m: Disappointing race; the best athletes were injured or not in good condition
Evaluation 5
5000/10,000m: Races not of particularly high quality;
one athlete, Farah, dominated passive fields
Evaluation 6
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
27
2012 Olympic Performance Assessment – A European Perspective
3000 Steeplechase: Low quality race; best athletes in poor condition
Evaluation 6
Marathon: Poor race; best athletes did not participate
Evaluation 6
20km Walk: Youngest ever and first Chinese walks gold with new OR 1:18:46,
6 inside 1:20 and 13 inside 1:21
Evaluation 10
50km Walk: New Olympic record of 3:35:59; 7 inside 3:40, 25 inside 3:50
and 40 inside 4:00
Evaluation 10
Men’s Hurdles Events
110m: Dominated by Merritt (who later set a WR 12.80 sec)
Evaluation 7
400m: Event in stagnation; the winner was 35 years old
Evaluation 6
Men’s Jumping Events
High Jump: Good competition with the winner at 2.38m; the other two medallists
were both 21 years old
Evaluation 7
Pole Vault: The medallists were good; the European champs in June seemed to help
Evaluation 8
Long Jump: Very poor competition; average result of the finalists = 8.10m
Evaluation 4
Triple Jump: Good competition; the first four were all okay;
three of first four under 23 years old
Evaluation 7
Men’s Throwing Events
Shot Put: One of the best recent Olympic finals
Evaluation 7
Hammer Throw: Good competition but average age of the finalists was 33 years old
Evaluation 7
Discus: One of the best Olympic finals; seven athletes over 65m
Evaluation 8
Javelin Throw: Generally a poor competition except for the winner, Walcott,
who is still a junior athlete
Evaluation 6
Decathlon
Thanks to Eaton and the two other medallists, the competition was of high quality
Men’s Events - Conclusions
age of the first 10 on the 2012 world list with
the 8.34m of 2002 and the 8.44m of 1992!
Overall, the top-level global performance
trend seems to be stable. If anything, too
many top athletes were injured: Powell (JAM),
Lashawn Merritt (USA), Robles (CUB) and
Asbel Kiprop (KEN). All the walks were of
outstanding quality in depth. But alarm bells
should be ringing for the long jump and the endurance events.
In the long jump the global situation beyond
the lacklustre results in London can be described as a crisis: compare the 8.30m aver28
Evaluation 8
In the track endurance races the best athletes, excluding Farah, did not seem to be
in good form in London (for example Bekele
(ETH)) or they are past their prime (for example
Lagat (USA) who is now 38 years-old). Here,
as with the women, we see a possible negative of effect of the one-day meetings circuit as
many male runners with good performances
coming into the Games did not do well when
asked to run twice or three times in few days.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
2012 Olympic Performance Assessment – A European Perspective
Medals
The medal table for the 47 athletics events
at London 2012 is given in Table 1. Forty-one
countries took home medals, the USA leading
the way with nine golds and a total of 29 medals.
Although the number of countries taking part in
the athletics competition increased to a record
201, the number of countries winning medals
stayed at the average of the last three Games.
From the European perspective, six countries
ranked in the top 10 places, led by Russia, which
was second overall. Great Britain and Germany
had relatively strong showings but a notable
absence from the table was Spain. The overall
trend for the number and percentage of European medals compared to the rest of the world
remained down, as it has been since 1988, the
first of the recent Games not affected by boycotts (Table 2). It can be added that previously
presented data shows the same 25-year trend
of fewer and fewer medals for Europe in the biennial IAAF World Championships in Athletics1.
On the one hand, this trend could be said
to reflect the globalisation of athletics and the
effectiveness of the IAAF Development Programme helping to put countries outside of
Europe in the position to win more medals at
the world level. On the other hand, it has to be
acknowledged that Europe has lost some of
its top-level competitiveness across a range of
events, mainly on the track: in London, European men took no medals in the sprints and relays, the hurdles, the 800m or the 1500m while
European women had none in the 100m, 200m,
4x100m or 100m hurdles. To underline depth of
concern in this matter, it is clear that in several
events it is not the world that is moving ahead of
Europe, it is Europe that is falling away from the
world (see box).
Losing Ground
It is tempting to say that Europe’s inability to win medals or produce top performances in certain events
is because the rest of the world has moved ahead in terms of performance level. However, in some
events the performance level of Europeans has actually declined compared to 20 or 30 years ago and
the reality is more of Europe falling behind.
The table below illustrates the negative trend in one event, the men’s 5000m.
Year
Number of Athletes
13:40 or Faster
Best European Junior
Performance
1984
92
13:41.17
1994
53
13:51.16
2004
42
13:54.29
2012
39
14:03.65
As it is highly unlikely that modern Europeans have less physical performance potential than their
parent’s generation, we can only conclude that other factors are at work: social, training techniques,
athlete support systems, competition structure, etc.
There are many questions that must be asked. Are today’s athletes as well coached as those in the
past? Is there a motivation issue? Has the fitness-mass participation running boom helped or hindered
talent identification and development in the endurance events?
Now more than ever it is important to identify the factors contributing to the decline so that actions can
be taken to address those over which the sport has some control.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
29
2012 Olympic Performance Assessment – A European Perspective
Table 1: London 2012 athletics medal table
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9=
9=
9=
9=
13
14
15
16=
16=
16=
16=
16=
16=
16=
16=
24
25
26=
26=
26=
26=
26=
26=
26=
33=
33=
33=
33=
33=
33=
33=
33=
33=
Country
United States
Russia
Jamaica
Great Britain & N.I.
Ethiopia
Kenya
Germany
Australia
Dominican Republic
France
Poland
Turkey
PR of China
Trinidad & Tobago
Czech Republic
Algeria
Bahamas
Croatia
Grenada
Hungary
Kazakhstan
New Zealand
Uganda
Ukraine
Cuba
Botswana
Colombia
Guatemala
Islamic Republic of Iran
South Africa
Slovenia
Tunisia
Bahrain
Canada
Estonia
Finland
Italy
Japan
Morocco
Puerto Rico
Qatar
USA
RUS
JAM
GBR
ETH
KEN
GER
AUS
DOM
FRA
POL
TUR
PRC
TRI
CZE
ALG
BAH
CRO
GRN
HUN
KAZ
NZL
UGA
UKR
CUB
BOT
COL
GUA
IRN
RSA
SLO
TUN
BAH
CAN
EST
FIN
ITA
JAP
MOR
PUR
QAT
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total
9
8
4
4
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
13
5
4
1
1
4
4
2
1
1
1
1
7
5
4
1
3
5
3
0
0
0
0
0
5
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
29
18
12
6
7
11
8
3
2
2
2
2
6
4
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Table 2: European medals in athletics at the Olympic Games 1988-2012
1988 Seoul
1992 Barcelona
1996 Atlanta
2000 Sydney
2004 Athens
2008 Beijing
2012 London
Events
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
Men
Medals
40
25
27
24
29
24
19
%
54.8
33.8
37.5
33.3
40.3
33.3
25.7
Events
18
19
20
22
22
23
23
*includes two at 3= in in the women’s HJ
30
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
Women
Medals
40
28
30
39
38
32
30
%
74.1
49.1
50.0
58.2*
57.6
46.4
43.5
2012 Olympic Performance Assessment – A European Perspective
Finalists
We get a deeper picture of national performances in the athletics events in London by
analysing the distribution of finalists (top 8). Table 3 (see page 32/33) shows that 70 countries
had one or more athletes who placed in the top
eight of their events and that the USA led with
a total of 303 points, a significant rebound from
its 2008 performance (see Table 4). Of interest here are China and Ukraine, 13th and 24th
respectively in the medal table but both among
the top 10 point scorers, China equalling its
combined total from 2004 and 2008.
Table 4: Comparison of top countries ranked by
placing points in London 2012 over the last three
Olympic Games
Rank
2004
2008
2012
1
USA
233.5
207
303
2
RUS
192
200
171
3
KEN
67
136
112
4
JAM
78
120
107
5
GER
45
43.5
95
6
ETH
72
76
90
7
GBR
69.5
72
85
Russia’s 177 points led Europe and was
second overall, but its score was down from
the previous two Games. Four other European
countries were among the top ten point scorers and a total of 28 European countries made
the list. Germany’s score was up significantly
from the previous Games while the downward
trend for Italy and Spain is clear.
8
CHN
31
39
70
9
UKR
47.5
50
47
10
FRA
23.5
37
39
11
TRI
2
18
35
12
CZE
25
23
30
13
AUS
34
40
27
14
CUB
52
61
25
Age Distribution
15
CAN
9.5
23
22
16
POL
47
43
21
17
TUR
7
16
20
18=
BAH
29
22
19
18=
BEL
6
9
19
20=
RSA
24
14
15
Figures 1a and 1b show the age distribution
of the London 2012 men’s medallists and finalists, respectively, and Figures 2a and 2b (see
page 35) show the same for the London 2012
women’s medallists and finalists, respectively.
We can see that 69% of the men’s medallists
were between 21 and 28 years old and 64%
of the men’s finalists were in the same peak
age range. For the women the peak age range
for was a little older, 25 to 29 years, with 64%
of medallists and 52% of finalists in the range.
There has been a shift in the peak age range
in the last 20 years and a clear difference between men and women has emerged since the
1992 Games in Barcelona (Table 5, see page
35). There is also a trend towards more medallists and finalists being outside the peak range.
However, from a high-performance point of
view, the athlete development pathway should
still focus on maximising athlete performance
and competitive excellence in the peak age
range years.
Selected others
21=
ITA
27
20
15
26=
ESP
36.5
31.5
12
In London, the average age of Europe’s
men’s medallists was notably higher than that
for all medallists, 28.36 years versus 25.73
years, and Europe’s men’s finalists were, on
average, older than the average for all finalists.
European women’s medallists were about the
same average age of all medallists while the
average age for European finalists was slightly
lower than the average for all finalists (Table 6,
see page 35).
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
31
32
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18=
18=
20
21=
21=
21=
24=
24=
26=
26=
28
29=
29=
31=
31=
31=
Rank
USA
RUS
KEN
JAM
GER
ETH
GBR
CHN
UKR
FRA
TRI
CZE
AUS
CUB
CAN
POL
TUR
BAH
BEL
RSA
DOM
BLR
ITA
JAP
NED
BOT
ESP
MOR
FIN
BRA
SLO
BRN
LIT
72
64
16
32
8
24
32
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
9
8
2
4
1
3
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
7
7
7
7
1
1
1
1
14
7
2
1
7
7
7
7
1
1
1
1
91
28
28
28
28
7
7
pts
13
4
4
4
4
1
1
pl
pl
pts
2nd
1st
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
7
6
5
4
3
3
1
4
2
pl
3rd
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
18
6
42
36
30
24
18
18
6
24
12
pts
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
9
2
4
2
1
3
3
4
4
1
pl
4th
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
45
10
20
10
5
15
15
20
20
5
pts
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
7
6
3
1
5
4
3
2
1
pl
5th
4
4
4
4
4
4
8
4
4
4
8
28
24
12
4
20
16
12
8
4
pts
1
1
1
3
2
2
1
5
2
2
6
4
1
1
4
3
2
2
pl
6th
3
3
3
9
6
6
3
15
6
6
18
12
3
3
12
9
6
6
pts
4
4
4
2
2
4
4
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
4
2
2
2
6
2
2
2
4
2
2
4
2
1
2
1
2
1
4
pts
2
pl
7th
2
1
1
2
3
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
1
2
2
1
3
pl
8th
2
1
1
2
3
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
1
2
2
1
3
pts
303
177
112
107
95
90
85
70
47
39
35
30
27
25
22
21
20
19
19
17
15
15
15
13
13
12
12
11
10
10
9
9
9
Points
Total
2012 Olympic Performance Assessment – A European Perspective
Table 3: London 2012 athletics placing table ranked by total points (1st = 8 points, 2nd = 7 points, etc.)
31=
35=
35=
35=
35=
35=
35=
41=
41=
41=
41=
41=
41=
47=
47=
47=
50=
50=
52
52=
52=
55=
55=
55=
58
58=
60=
60=
60=
60=
60=
60=
60=
60=
60=
69=
69=
NIG
ALG
CRO
GRN
HUN
KAZ
UGA
COL
GUA
IRN
NZL
TUN
NOR
EST
PUR
QAT
LAT
SWE
IRL
CIV
ERI
BAR
MEX
GRE
ARG
IND
BUR
ECU
POR
SRB
SUD
UZB
VEN
ZIM
SLO
AUT
MDA
1
1
1
1
1
1
8
8
8
8
8
8
1
1
1
1
1
7
7
7
7
7
1
1
1
6
6
6
1
1
1
1
5
5
5
5
1
1
4
4
3
3
1
3
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
4
2
2
2
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
9
8
8
8
8
8
8
7
7
7
7
7
7
6
6
6
6
6
5
5
5
4
4
4
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
2012 Olympic Performance Assessment – A European Perspective
33
2012 Olympic Performance Assessment – A European Perspective
Figure 1a: Distribution of 2012 men’s Olympic athletics medallists by age
Figure 1b: Distribution of 2012 men’s Olympic athletics finalists by age
Figure 2a: Distribution of 2012 women’s Olympic athletics medallists by age
Figure 2b: Distribution of 2012 women’s Olympic athletics finalists by age
34
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
2012 Olympic Performance Assessment – A European Perspective
Figure 3a: Distribution of 2012 men’s Olympic athletics finalists and medallists by age
Figure 3a: Distribution of 2012 women’s Olympic athletics finalists and medallists by age
Table 5: Comparison of Peak Age Range for athletics finalists and medallist in the 1992 Olympic Games and
the 2012 Olympic Games
Men Women
1992 Barcelona
23–30 years68.2%
70.3%
63.2%
57.9%
All Finalists
24–31 years
67.1%
European Finalists74.7%
All Medallists79.7%
European Medallists83.3%
2012 London
21–28 years
64.7%
64.0%
69.1%
47.4%
All Finalists
25–29 years
52.1%
European Finalists49.4%
All Medallists64.0%
European Medallists63.3%
Table 6: Average age for athletics finalists and medallists in the 2012 Olympic Games
MenWomen
26.60 years
27.79
25.73 28.36
All Finalists
27.54 years
European Finalists26.16
All Medallists27.24
European Medallists27.10
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
35
2012 Olympic Performance Assessment – A European Perspective
Performance Delivery
Recommendations
The measure of effective high-performance
athlete preparation is that the athlete achieves
the result/performance objective at the major
competition for the season. For the Olympics,
this means challenging for a medal or target final
position. Whatever the result, the athlete’s performance should be his/her season’s best. The
focus of the athlete, his/her coach and the rest
of the support team must be to ensure that the
required performance is delivered on the day,
not before and not after.
The regularity with which a country’s athletes
succeed at this task is an important indicator of
how effectively the various elements of its highperformance system are functioning. If the effectiveness percentage is not acceptable, the
federation needs to examine the role delivery of
the personnel mentioned above (athlete, coach,
performance scientific and medical professionals, etc.) as well as any other relevant elements
such as team selection policy, national competition programme, talent identification system,
coach education arrangements, etc.
In Table 7 (see page 38) “delivering on the day”
is defined as medals or season’s bests (some of
the latter may also be personal bests, national
records, etc.) in the course of the Games, taking
into account every intervention by the country’s
athletes. The data presented is for a selection
of European countries, plus USA as world leaders, Jamaica as a benchmark of excellence and
China as a rapidly emerging nation.
A harder line might be taken where athletes
who achieved a season’s best in a preliminary
round but did not medal or get a new seasons
on their final appearance, are considered to
have not delivered on the day (Table 8, page 39).
The data in the two tables shows that in general Europe fell short compared with the figures
recorded by USA and Jamaica, i.e. what we
know to be possible. Interestingly, the effectiveness percentage for women was generally
higher than for men.
36
1. Planning based on effective debriefing and
the practical lessons learned is the key
to sustainable success in any endeavour.
Federation policy makers, performance
directors/head coaches and elite coaches
should obtain the London 2012 performance delivery effectiveness data for their
teams and then identify the factors that
can be improved in the coming four-year
Olympic cycle and the longer-term. An article entitled “Effective Debrief Matters” has
been produced to assist with this process.
The IAAF and Area associations could play
valuable facilitating roles in this area.
2. Effective performance leadership and
coaching at the high-performance end of
the sport requires:
• Personnel with competence in coach
development and management for high
potential and performance athletes.
• A high potential and performance athlete development pathway from junior
to peak performance years.
• Management of structures and programmes consistent with meeting performance requirements for success international arena.
Federations should review their policies, appointments, structures and other arrangements to ensure these requirements are met.
The IAAF and Area associations could play
valuable facilitating roles in this area.
3. There is confusion in practice over the relationship between the roles of “Performance directors/managers/specialists” etc
on the one hand and coaches on the other.
The situation should be reviewed and an
agreed terminology and role-definition
should be set out for athletics. It is also
recommended that just as there is a code
of ethics for coaches, there should be one
for performance directors, etc. The IAAF
and Area associations could play valuable
facilitating roles in this area.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
2012 Olympic Performance Assessment – A European Perspective
4. Development in the Youth/Junior years is
an important foundation for success at senior level. Without a strong programme for
these age groups, the senior programme
is compromised. The Head Coach for Juniors/Youth should now be considered
a high priority appointment for all federations. The IAAF Academy has recognised
the importance of this position by creating
a dedicated course.
5. The three to four post junior years are a
critical period where athletes, through
the experience of progressive competition, learn to compete at the highest level
and what it takes to deliver performance
“on the day” (Figures 3a and 3b). With the
peak age range of top performers at the
Olympics and world championships tending to become younger, this issue takes
on even greater importance. Coaches and
policy makers should review their concept
of the athlete development pathway for
high-performance athletes and adjust their
approaches to athlete preparation and the
competition structure accordingly. The
IAAF and Area associations could play important facilitating roles in this area.
6. Continuously improving an athletes’ performances is, of course, a big achievement
for coaches, but the crucial focus of highperformance athletics is to produce a top
performance under the pressure of the
Olympic Games or world championships.
We must better prepare coaches to assist
athletes with this exacting task. Education
and support programmes should be reviewed to ensure they equip coaches for
the harder edge of coaching that relates to
the realities of “delivering on the day”. This
is more the art than the science of coaching and as such is more informal or learned
from experience than formal or taught
through education.
7. The general performance development in
the long jump for both men and women
has been slow this century. High jump re-
cords also remain unchallenged. Research
into the basis for improvement in the jumping events should be commissioned and
programmes following the recommendations should be implemented.
8. Track endurance athletes must be better
prepared for tournament-style races and
the cut and thrust of the Olympic or world
championships arenas. Coaches of these
events should ensure that their athletes
have opportunities to learn how to handle
themselves in, and take control of, races
that are not one-off paced events.
9. There is a clear trend of European athletes taking ever-smaller shares of Olympic and world championship medals in
the track events. This could have negative
commercial consequences for the athletics in Europe and the sport worldwide. A
Europe-wide strategy to raise standards
in the sprints and hurdles events should
be designed and delivered as a top priority. A similar strategy for endurance events
should follow. It may be in the interest of
the sport as a whole that such projects are
at least partially supported by the IAAF.
10. Top-level European athletes develop, compete and prepare for major events in a
context that includes both national and international (European) aspects. As athletes
in the rest of the world improve both their
performance level and ability to deliver in
major events, Europeans will need to individualise priorities and interests and think
collectively about their systems, particularly the shared elements such as the European competition structure, and exchange
best practice ideas on athlete preparation.
Are the current arrangements and diffusion
of expertise the best possible? Are there
any ways we can work together so that
everyone benefits? As soon as possible,
European Athletics should convene a highperformance conference or symposium
for performance directors, head coaches,
personal coaches of elite athletes and oth-
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
37
2012 Olympic Performance Assessment – A European Perspective
Table 7: Delivering on the Day – Medals or season best performances achieved at London 2012 for selected
countries
European
Country
Athlete
Interventions
Medals
Won
Season’s
Bests
Total
Effectiveness
Russia
M 37
W 55
2
16
8
6
10
22
27.0%
40.0%
Great Britain & NI
M 38
W 35
4
2
4
9
8
11
21.1%
31.4%
Germany
M 27
W 31
4
4
1
6
5
10
18.5%
28.6%
France
M 28
W 12
2
0
4
6
6
6
21.4%
50.0%
Poland
M 25
W 16
1
1
1
3
2
4
8.0%
25.0%
Ukraine
M 30
W 42
1
2
2
6
3
8
10.0%
19.0%
Italy
M 13
W 15
1
0
1
4
2
4
15.4%
26.7%
Finland
M 13
W 5
1
0
2
0
3
0
23.1%
0%
Spain
M 27
W 19
0
0
3
7
3
7
11.1%
36.8%
Sweden
M 3
W 6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0%
0%
USA
M 59
W 60
15
14
10
17
25
31
42.4%
51.7%
Jamaica
M 19
W 17
7
5
2
4
9
9
47.4%
52.9%
China
M 24
W 30
3
2
3
1
6
3
25.0%
10.0%
Others
38
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
2012 Olympic Performance Assessment – A European Perspective
Table 8: Delivering on the Day Extreme – Effectiveness rating based on medals or season season best performances achieved only in the athlete’s final appearance at London 2012 for selected countries
European
Country
Athlete Interventions
Medals
Won
Season’s
Bests
Total
Effectiveness
Russia
M 37
W 55
2
16
7
6
9
22
24.3%
40.0%
UK
M 38
W 35
4
2
3
4
7
6
18.4%
17.1%
Germany
M 27
W 31
4
4
1
6
5
10
18.5%
28.6%
France
M 28
W 12
2
0
4
6
6
6
21.4%
50.0%
Poland
M 25
W 16
1
1
1
3
2
4
8.0%
25.0%
Ukraine
M 30
W 42
1
2
2
6
3
8
10.0%
19.0%
Italy
M 13
W 15
1
0
1
3
2
3
15.4%
20.0%
Finland
M 13
W 5
1
0
1
0
2
0
15.4%
0%
Spain
M 27
W 19
0
0
3
7
3
7
11.1%
36.8%
M 3
W 6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0%
0%
USA
M 59
W 60
15
14
6
12
21
26
35.6%
43.3%
Jamaica
M 19
W 17
7
5
2
2
9
7
47.4%
41.2%
China
M 24
W 30
3
2
3
1
6
3
25.0%
10.0%
Sweden
Others
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
39
2012 Olympic Performance Assessment – A European Perspective
ers concerned to discuss these matters. It
should also consider other measures that
will facilitate a collective approach on an
on-going basis.
REFERENCES
1. BARRA, L. (2007). European distance running and television ratings: A problem for world athletics. New Studies in
Athletics, 22 (3) 13-22.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to the following for their assistance with the preparation of this paper:
• Elio Locatelli for generously providing the
technical analysis of the competitions at
London 2012,
• Peter Matthews and Mirko Jalava for generously providing the statistics that are the
basis of this study,
• Bill Glad for his assistance with editing and
professional overview,
• European Athletics Council member Frank
Hensel for encouraging and supporting this
work and for providing specific analysis.
Please send all correspondence to:
Frank Dick
[email protected]
40
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
2012 Olympic Performance Assessment – A European Perspective
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
41
42
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
Applied Research
contents
g
Muscle Damage and Fatigue
in the Marathon
by Juan Del Coso, Juan José Salinero,
Javier Abián-Vicen, Cristina González-Millán,
Sergio Garde, Pablo Vega and Benito PérezGonzález
x
x
x
x
x
g
How Fast Can a Human Run?
by Jeremy Richmond
x
x
Study
Muscle Damage and
Fatigue in the Marathon
© by IAAF
27:4; 45-55, 2012
by Juan Del Coso, Juan José Salinero, Javier Abián-Vicen,
Cristina González-Millán, Sergio Garde, Pablo Vega and
Benito Pérez-González.
ABSTRACT
AUTHORS
Is muscle fatigue in the marathon related
to body mass change (dehydration) and/or
muscle damage produced by the continuous foot strikes over the 42.2km distance?
For this study, adapted from a paper originally published in Applied Physiology Nutrition and Metabolism Journal, amateur
runners (114 men and 24 women) were
tested before a marathon for leg muscle
power output, their body weight was recorded and a urine sample was obtained.
Within three minutes of completing the
race, run in 28ºC and 46% relative humidity, the subjects repeated the leg power
test and then their body weight and urine
samples were collected again. The authors
found that mean body mass reduction was
2.2±1.2%. The body mass change shows
high inter-individual variability, but only
7% of the runners studied lost more than
4%. No myoglobin (a protein indicating muscle fibre damage) was detected in
the pre-race urine specimens while postrace urinary myoglobin concentration
increased to 3.5±9.5 µg·mL-1 (P<0.05).
Mean leg muscle power reduction after the
race was 16±10%. Muscle power change
significantly correlated with post-race
urine myoglobin concentration (r=-0.55;
P<0.001) but not with body mass change
(r=-0.08; P=0.35). The correlation between myoglobinuria and muscle power
change suggest that muscle fatigue is associated with muscle tissue breakdown.
Juan Del Coso, PhD, is asenior lecturer (Exercise physiology) at Camilo José Cela University, Madrid, Spain.
Juan José Salinero, PhD, is senior lecturer
(Statistics in sports) at Camilo José Cela
University, Madrid, Spain.
Javier Abián-Vicen, PhD, is an associate
professor (Biomechanics) at Camilo José
Cela University, Madrid, Spain.
Cristina González-Millán, PhD, is senior
lecturer (Sports training) at Camilo José
Cela University, Madrid, Spain.
Sergio Garde, MSc, is an associate professor (Athletics) at Camilo José Cela University, Madrid, Spain.
Pablo Vega, MSc, is an associate professor
at Universidad Europea de Madrid, Spain.
Benito Pérez-González, PhD, is the Director of the Sport Science Institute at Camilo
José Cela University, Madrid, Spain.
New Studies in Athletics · 4.2012
45
Muscle Damage and Fatigue in the Marathon
Introduction
he ingestion of water and/or sports
drinks during prolonged running
has been found to be an effective
method to maintain cardiac output, regulate
temperature (MONTAIN & COYLE, 1992) and
preserve muscle performance (COSO et al.,
2008). However, the recommendable amount
of liquids while running is still under debate
(Cheuvront et al. 2007). International experts have provided guidance on appropriate
fluid replacement during exercise based on
experimental evidence (Sawka et al., 2007;
Rodriguez et al., 2009). Assuming proper
pre-exercise hydration status, drinking during running should prevent body mass loss
above 2%, avoid excessive body water deficit
and reduce the risk of exertional heat illnesses (CASA,1999).
T
A different point of view has been proposed by NOAKES (2007a, 2007b); who indicates that during evolution, human beings
developed biological adaptations (multiplication of eccrine sweat glands, reduced body
hair, a thirst mechanism based on serum osmolality, etc.) to enhance the capacity of running long distances in the heat. According to
this author, runners should drink only when
they are thirsty because this strategy would
be effective in avoiding excessive dehydration but also to prevent overdrinking and
hyponatremia. It is common that individuals
dehydrate by more than 2% when using the
thirst stimulus to replace fluid during exercise
(PASSE et al., 2007). Although the deleterious effects of dehydration >2% on endurance performance has been well established
in laboratory studies (SAWKA et al., 2007)
elite marathon runners dehydrated by more
than 2% during real competitions, including
even the winners of the most important races
(BEIS et al., 2012).
The muscle breakdown derived from prolonged running could be a key factor affecting performance during endurance running
events (RAMA et al., 1994). MEYER-BETZ
46
(1910) first described a post-exertion syndrome
that included severe muscle pain, weakness
and brown urine. Currently, this syndrome is
known as exertional rhabdomyolysis and is
defined as muscle fibre damage derived from
strenuous exercise, producing the release of
muscle proteins (mainly myoglobin) into the
blood stream. Exertional rhabdomyolysis is
accompanied by severe damage in the muscle
fibres, the sarcolemma, T-tubules and myofibrils, thus negatively affecting the capacity of
the muscle to generate force (CLARKSON &
SAYERS, 1999). Several studies have reported
a decline in the ability to generate force after muscle fibre damage, mainly in eccentric
muscle actions (BROWN et al., 1996; KIRBY
et al., 2011). Running involves both concentric
and eccentric muscle actions of lower intensity
than the ones found in experimental investigations (FRIDEN et al., 1983; BROWN et al.,
1996; CLARKSON et al., 2006). It has been
reported that elite marathon runners lose 22%
of their maximal force production in the knee
extensors and power during a countermovement jump decreases by 13% (PETERSEN et
al., 2007). However, there is no information to
assess whether the reduction in muscle force
and power following a marathon is related to
muscle damage or dehydration, especially in
heat conditions.
The purpose of this study was to determine
the body mass change and urinary myoglobin
concentration in recreational runners after a
marathon run in a warm environment. A second objective was to determine whether runners with high levels of body mass loss and/
or myoglobinuria presented greater losses of
muscle power following the marathon.
METHODS
Participants
The data presented in this study correspond to 138 marathon finishers. Their main
morphological characteristics and training status before the race are summarised in Table
1. All of the participants had previously com-
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
Muscle Damage and Fatigue in the Marathon
Table 1: Morphological characteristics, training status and race time of the study participants (Data are mean
± SD for 138 healthy marathon runners completing the Madrid Marathon.)
n
Age
(yr)
Weight
(kg)
Height
(cm)
Body fat
(%)
Training
status*
Race time
(min)
138
39 ± 8
72 ± 11
173 ± 8
13 ± 5
2.2 ± 0.7
229 ± 38
Training status: 1 = from 0 to 35km a week; 2 = from 36 to 70km a week; 3 = from 70 to 105km a week;
4 = more than 105km a week, according to Smith et al. (2004).
pleted a marathon race. Participants were fully
informed of any risks and discomforts associated with the experiments before giving their
informed written consent to participate in the
investigation. Before participation, volunteers
completed a short questionnaire on training
status and medical history. Potential participants with a history of muscle disorder, cardiac
or kidney disease or those taking medication
were excluded.
Experimental procedures
One to three days before the race, the participants underwent a physical examination
to ensure that they were in good health. Their
body fat composition was calculated using
bioimpedance (BC-418, Tanita, Japan; (MOON
et al., 2009)). Following this, they performed a
five-minute warm-up consisting of dynamic exercises and submaximal jumps and they were
thoroughly familiarised with the jump test. Each
subject then performed two countermovement
vertical jumps for maximal height on a force
platform (Quattrojump, Kistler, Switzerland).
For this measurement, participants began stationary in an upright position with their weight
evenly distributed over both feet. The subjects
placed their hands around their waists in order to remove the influence of the arms on the
jump. On command, they flexed their knees
~90º and jumped as high as possible while
maintaining their arms on their waist and then
landed with both feet. After 1 min. of rest, the
countermovement jump was repeated.
After the vertical jumps, a sterile container
was provided to the runners and verbal instructions were given to collect a specimen from the
first morning void the day of the race. Thirty
minutes before the start of the race, participants arrived at the start line after their habitual
warm-up. Participants brought the urine specimen and wore the same clothing to be worn
during the marathon. Pre-race body mass was
measured with a ± 50g scale (Radwag, Poland). Then, the participants went to the start
line to complete the race with no instructions
about pace or drinking.
The 42,195m of the race were completed
with a mean dry temperature of 28 ± 1ºC and
46 ± 3 % relative humidity (range from 21 to
30ºC, temperature readings at 30-minute intervals from 0 to 5 hours after the race start).
Within 3 minutes of completing the race, participants went to a finish area and performed
two countermovement vertical jumps as previously described. Post-race body mass was recorded with the same scale and same clothes
used for the pre-race measurement. Although
post-race body mass measurement included
the sweat trapped in the clothing this represents an error lower than 10% for the calculation of true hydration status (CHEUVRONT et
al., 2002). Participants were instructed to avoid
drinking until they were weighed and an experimenter was at the finish line to assure compliance. After that, subjects were provided with
fluid (water and sports drinks) to hydrate and
promote urine production. Thirty to 60 min-
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
47
Muscle Damage and Fatigue in the Marathon
utes after the race, a representative sample
of the post-race void was collected in a sterile
container and participants left the post-race
setting area. Participants were contacted via
email in the following days to report any major
medical problem.
The urine sample obtained in the morning
of the marathon and the urine sample obtained
60 minutes after the race were immediately
analysed (within 2 hours) for specific gravity
(Usg), pH, protein, glucose, ketones and bilirubin concentrations and the presence of leukocytes and erythrocytes by using reactive strips
(Combur Test, Roche, Switzerland), as previously described (ABIAN-VICEN et al., 2012).
For these measurements, the strip was dipped
in the urine sample and the excess was wiped
off with a clean and absorbent paper. Then,
the test strip was placed on the tray of a photometer (Urisys 1100, Roche Switzerland) and
the aforementioned variables were measured
after 1 minute of incubation. A representative
portion (5 mL) of the urine sample was frozen
at –80ºC. Urine myoglobin concentration was
determined by using immunoluminiscence at
a later date.
Statistical analysis
Initially, we tested the normality of each
variable with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test.
Changes in the variables from pre- to postrace were analysed with Student’s t-test for
paired samples. To simplify the presentation
of body mass change data, the subjects were
grouped by using 1% intervals. Similarly, they
were grouped by their change in leg muscle
power by using 10% intervals. Urine variables
were also presented by the frequency of subjects that presented a determined value. We
used Pearson’s correlation to assess the association between two variables. The significance level was set at P < 0.05. The results are
presented in Table 2 as mean ± SD.
RESULTS
Body mass change
During the race, most subjects reduced their
pre-race body mass (from 71.9 ± 10.8 to 70.3
± 10.7 kg; P < 0.05) but the individual responses were very heterogeneous (Figure 1). Mean
body mass loss after the race was 2.2 ± 1.2%,
Table 2: Urine responses before and after a marathon race (Data are mean ± SD for 138 healthy runners
completing a marathon in the heat. The table includes the frequency for several categories in the urine specific
gravity (Usg), haematuria, leukocyturia, proteinuria, ketonuria and bilirubinuria).
48
Pre
Post
Usg
1.017 ± 0.005
1.017 ± 0.005
0.6
pH
5.9 ± 0.9
5.8 ± 1.1
0.2
Haematites
0.4 ± 0.6
23.2 ± 61.0
< 0.05
Leukocytes
0.0 ± 0.0
7.8 ± 46
< 0.05
Proteins
6.1 ± 6.0
42.6 ± 80.1
< 0.05
Ketones
0.0 ± 0.0
3.0 ± 6.4
< 0.05
Bilirubin
0.1 ± 0.3
0.4 ± 0.6
< 0.05
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
P value
Muscle Damage and Fatigue in the Marathon
Figure 1: Body mass change after a marathon in a warm environment (Data are frequencies for 138 amateur
marathon runners.)
Figure 2: Pre-to-post marathon changes in leg muscle power during a countermovement jump (Data are frequencies for 138 amateur marathon runners.)
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
49
Muscle Damage and Fatigue in the Marathon
with 55 runners (40% of the total) reducing their
body mass by less than 2%. Only 10 subjects
(7.2% of the sample) reduced their body mass
by more than 4% with one of them peaking at
6.2% of body mass loss. On the contrary, three
runners increased their pre-race body mass
with a maximal gain of 1.3% (overhydration).
Race time and leg muscle power change
Mean race time was 229 ± 38 minutes
(range from 151 to 301 min) with 96 subjects
finishing the race under 240 minutes. Before
the race, mean power output during the concentric phase of the jump was 22.5 ± 4.9 W·kg-1
and jump height was 24.0 ± 5.8 cm. After the
race, jump power output (18.9 ± 5.6 W·kg-1; P <
0.05) and jump height (19.2 ± 6.3 cm; P < 0.05)
were significantly reduced by 16 ± 10% and 20
± 10%, respectively. However, similarly to body
mass change, the individual responses were
very heterogeneous (Figure 2). A total of 109
subjects (79% of the sample) reduced their
muscle power by less than 30%. Still, 24 sub-
jects reduced their leg muscle power by over
30% (maximal reduction was 62%) while four
subjects slightly increased leg muscle power
(maximal increase was 6%).
Urine analysis
The morning before the race, 122 subjects
had first-morning Usg below 1.020. Only 16
(12% of the sample) exceeded 1.020 with no
individuals above 1.025. Usg did not change
from pre to post race (Table 2). However, the
race produced a significantly higher presence
of erythrocytes and leukocytes in the urine and
increased the mean concentration of proteins,
ketones and bilirubin (Table 2; P < 0.05). No
myoglobin was detected in the pre-race urine
specimens, but post-race urinary myoglobin
concentration increased to 3.5 ± 9.5 µg·mL-1.
A total of 120 subjects presented urinary myoglobin concentrations lower than 1µg·mL-1 after the race. Only 12 (9%) had urinary myoglobin levels higher than 10 µg·mL-1 while peak
concentration was 52.3 µg·mL-1.
Figure 3: Body mass loss (A) and urinary myoglobin concentration after a marathon in a warm environment (B) according to the changes in leg muscle power (Data are mean ± SD for 138 amateur runners
grouped by their muscle power loss after the marathon.)
50
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
Muscle Damage and Fatigue in the Marathon
Correlations
Figure 3 depicts the mean body mass
change experienced by the runners according
to their change in leg muscle power production.
There was no significant correlation between
the body mass change during the race and
the change in leg muscle power production (r
= -0.08; P = 0.35). On the contrary, we found
a significant correlation between the change in
leg muscle power production and the myoglobin concentration found in the post-exercise
urine samples (r = -0.55; P = 0.01). In this case,
those runners with high losses in muscle power
output were also the participants with higher
myoglobin content in urine. The hydration status and urinary myoglobin concentration were
not correlated (r = -0.06; P = 0.48). Finally, race
time was not correlated with the change in leg
muscle power production (r = 0.01; P = 0.90)
or post-race myoglobinuria (r = 0.06; P = 0.48).
DISCUSSION
The aim of this study was to investigate the
body mass change and the muscle damage
attained by recreational runners following a
marathon race in a warm environment. A second objective was to determine whether runners with high levels of body mass loss and/
or muscle damage presented greater losses
of muscle power following the marathon competition. For these purposes, we recruited a
heterogeneous group of 138 recreational runners, all with previous experience in the marathon, and measured pre- and post-race body
mass and muscle power, and obtained urine
samples.
The main findings of this study were that in
amateur runners (a) mean body mass loss after the marathon race was 2.2 ± 1.2% with 10
participants (7.2% of the sample) reduced their
mass by more than 4%. Only three runners
slightly increased their pre-race body mass
(Figure 1); (b) the marathon reduced the capacity to generate power during a countermovement jump by 16 ± 10%. Interestingly, those
runners with higher levels of muscle power
loss were the ones with higher levels of urinary
myoglobin, a marker of muscle breakdown
(Figure 3); (c) the marathon in a warm environment caused several urinary abnormalities
(Table 2), most of them related to reduced flux
to the kidneys.
Current guidelines for fluid ingestion during running indicate that the goal of drinking
during exercise is to prevent excessive (> 2%)
body mass loss (SAWKA et al., 2007). This recommendation is research based since current
evidence indicates that adequate fluid ingestion during exercise enhances athletic performance, prevents a fall in plasma volume, cardiac output and skin blood flow, lowers rectal
temperature and the perception of effort and
prevents heat illnesses, especially in endurance events staged outdoors (SAWKA et al.,
2007). These guidelines have substantially
helped marathon runners to be well aware of
the importance of drinking during exercise,
particularly in hot environments.
However, marathoners do not always conform to the guidelines for fluid replacement. For
example, PASSE et al. (2007) tested 18 runners
with ad libitum access to sports drinks during
a 10 mile (16km) run. Runners replaced 31% of
the sweat loss and reduced their body mass by
1.9% during the run, suggesting that runners
voluntarily dehydrated. BEIS et al. (2012) measured body mass changes in nine marathon
winners and one second placer and found a
mean body mass loss of 8.8%. In the present
study, participants had free access to water
and sports drinks during the race at 5km intervals, but we carefully refrained from advising
them about fluid ingestion to avoid interfering
with their normal practice. Interestingly, 40% of
the subjects reduced their body mass by less
than 2%, according to current fluid ingestion
guidelines. Nevertheless, fifty percent of the
subjects reduced their body mass between 2
and 4% while only 7.2% dehydrated excessively
(body mass reduction higher than 4%). Hence,
during this marathon race in a warm environment most runners have a slightly higher body
fluid deficit than is scientifically recommended.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
51
Muscle Damage and Fatigue in the Marathon
According to GANDEVIA (2001), muscle fatigue is an exercise-induced reduction in the
maximal capacity to produce voluntary muscle
force. When testing the isolated effects of moderate levels of dehydration (2-3%), most studies have found that it did not affect maximal
muscle force (GREIWE et al., 1998; JUDELSON
et al., 2007) or power production (HOFFMAN
et al., 1995; WATSOM et al., 2005; JUDELSON
Maet al., 2007). In controlled laboratory studies
including prolonged exercise in the heat, dehydration has been shown to be accompanied
by body temperature increases (GONZALEZALONSO et al., 2008). The combination of dehydration and hyperthermia reduced running
performance in the heat (CASA et al., 2010) and
the production of muscle force (COSO et al.,
2008), likely due to a failure in the central nervous system to drive the motoneurons (COSO
et al., 2011). PETERSEN et al. (2007) found in
eight elite marathon runners a 22% reduction
in the capacity of the knee extensor muscles to
produce force mainly related to central mechanisms. However, these authors did not relate
the reduction of muscle performance with dehydration or hyperthermia.
Most marathon runners in the present investigation reduced their maximal production
of power during a jump, indicating that leg
muscle was fatigued after the marathon (Figure 2). In addition, they significantly reduced
their body mass by 2.2 ± 1.2%. Although
we did not measure body core temperature,
which represents a limitation of this investigation, we consider that the subjects were
hyperthermic during the post-race measurements since high post-race rectal temperatures (> 38 ºC) are consistently documented in
marathon runners (CHEUVRONT & HAYMES,
2001). Nevertheless, there was no correlation
between the change in body mass attained
during the race and the change in leg muscle
power production (r = -0.08; P = 0.35), at least
in the levels found in this study. Thus, it seems
that the hydration status was not the primary
factor that determined muscle fatigue in the
marathon runners. Nevertheless, these data
do not question the importance of rehydrating
52
during marathon races to avoid cardiovascular
drift, hyperthermia and exercise-heat illnesses.
In addition to central factors, muscle fatigue
may arise from peripheral changes at the level
of the muscle. It has been reported that strenuous exercise can damage the muscle fibres
(FRIDEM et al., 1983) producing the release
of muscle proteins (mainly myoglobin) into the
blood stream. Symptoms of exertional muscle
damage are force loss, muscle soreness, pain
and swelling which generally develop several
hours after exercise, with peaks between 24 and
48 hours post exercise (CLARKSON & HUBAL,
2002). SCHIFF et al. (1978) investigated the myoglobin concentration of 44 runners completing a
99km ultra-distance race. They found that only
six runners (13% of the sample) presented considerable levels of myoglobin in urine (a marker
of muscle damage) after the race. However, they
did not study if these six runners were the most
fatigued after the marathon. Similarly, we have
found a urinary myoglobin content higher than
10 µg·mL-1 in 9% of our sample. In addition, we
have found that those runners with higher levels of power loss after the race were the ones
with higher levels of urinary myoglobin (Figure
3). Interestingly, the runner with the highest fall
in muscle power production (62%) was the one
with the highest value of urinary myoglobin content (52.3 µg·mL-1). Thus, the drop in muscle performance during a marathon might be related to
muscle fibre damage.
The presence of red blood cells in the
urine (haematuria) is a clinical problem that
indicates altered function of the kidney. However, haematuria is one of the most commonly
found urine abnormalities after sports activity (ABARBANEL et al, 1990). MCINNIS et al.
(1998) investigated the effects of different exercise protocols on post-exercise haematuria.
They found weight-bearing exercise activities
(running vs cycling) increased post-exercise
haematuria and that exercise intensity was an
increasing factor. Others authors have found
that haematuria is present in 20 to 50% of
marathon finishers (REID et al., 1987; GUR et
al., 1994). In accordance with previous data,
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
Muscle Damage and Fatigue in the Marathon
we found that erythrocytes concentration increased from pre-race traces (0.4 ± 0.6 U·µL-1)
to 23.2 ± 61.0 U·µL-1 after the marathon. In addition, the prevalence of haematuria increased
from 1 to 34% after the race, with 6% of cases
above 250 U·µL-1. These data suggest the necessity of obtaining an exercise history when
haematuria is found in a patient.
In summary, the body mass change attained by amateur marathon runners in a warm
environment was uneven. Most runners rehydrated according to fluid ingestion guidelines
although there were 7.2% of subjects that reduced their pre-race body mass above 4%. To
judge by our data, over-hydration was present
in only 2% of the runners but body mass increases were close to 1% in all of them. The
reduced capacity to generate power during a
countermovement jump was correlated with
the urine myoglobin concentration after the
race, suggesting that muscle fatigue following
the marathon is in some way associated with
muscle fiber damage.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank the subjects for
their invaluable contribution to the study. In addition, we are very grateful to the Elipse Iniciativas (the Organisation of the Madrid Marathon)
for their contribution to the study.
Please send all correspondence to:
Juan Del Coso
[email protected]
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
53
Muscle Damage and Fatigue in the Marathon
17. Gonzalez-Alonso, J.; Crandall, C. G. et al.
(2008). "The cardiovascular challenge of exercising in the
heat." J Physiol 586(1): 45-53.
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of hydration on physiological function and performance
during trail running in the heat." J Athl Train 45(2): 147-156.
22. Kirby, T. J.; Triplett, N. T.et al. (2011). "Effect of
leucine supplementation on indices of muscle damage following drop jumps and resistance exercise." Amino Acids
42(5): 1987-1996.
7. Clarkson, P. M. & HUBAL, M. J. (2002). "Exerciseinduced muscle damage in humans." Am J Phys Med Rehabil 81(11 Suppl): S52-69.
23. McInnis, M. D.; Newhouse, I. J. et al. (1998). "The
effect of exercise intensity on hematuria in healthy male
runners." Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 79(1): 99-105.
8. Clarkson, P. M.; Kearns, A. K. et al. (2006). "Serum creatine kinase levels and renal function measures in
exertional muscle damage." Med Sci Sports Exerc 38(4):
623-627.
24. Meyer-Betz, F. (1910). "Beobachtugen an einem
eigenartigen mit muskellahmungen verbundenen fall von
hamoglobinurie." Dtsc Arch Klin Med 101(1): 85-127.
9. CLARKSON, P. M. &. SAYERS, S. P (1999). "Etiology
of exercise-induced muscle damage." Can J Appl Physiol
24(3): 234-248.
10. COSO, J. D.; Estevez, E. et al. (2008). "Anaerobic
performance when rehydrating with water or commercially
available sports drinks during prolonged exercise in the
heat." Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 33(2): 290-298.
25. Montain, S. J. & Coyle, E. F. (1992). "Influence of
graded dehydration on hyperthermia and cardiovascular
drift during exercise." J Appl Physiol 73(4): 1340-1350.
26. MOON, J. R.; Smith, A. E. et al. (2009). "Total body
water changes after an exercise intervention tracked using
bioimpedance spectroscopy: a deuterium oxide comparison." Clin Nutr 28(5): 516-525.
11. Coso, J. D.; Hamouti, N. et al. (2011). "Reproducibility of two electrical stimulation techniques to assess
neuromuscular fatigue." Eur J Sport Sci 11(2): 95-103.
27. NOAKES, T. D. (2007). "Drinking guidelines for exercise: what evidence is there that athletes should drink "as
much as tolerable", "to replace the weight lost during exercise" or "ad libitum"?" J Sports Sci 25(7): 781-796.
12. Cheuvront, S. N. & Haymes, E. M (2001). "Thermoregulation and marathon running: biological and environmental influences." Sports Med 31(10): 743-762.
28. NOAKES, T. D. (2007). "Hydration in the marathon :
using thirst to gauge safe fluid replacement." Sports Med
37(4-5): 463-466.
13. CHEUVRONT, S. N.; HAYMES, E. M. et al. (2002).
"Comparison of sweat loss estimates for women during
prolonged high-intensity running." Med Sci Sports Exerc
34(8): 1344-1350.
29. PASSE, D.; HORN M. et al. (2007). "Voluntary dehydration in runners despite favorable conditions for fluid intake." Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 17(3): 284-295.
14. Cheuvront, S. N.; Montain, S. J. et al. (2007).
"Fluid replacement and performance during the marathon."
Sports Med 37(4-5): 353-357.
30. Petersen, K.; Hansen, C. B. et al. (2007). "Muscle
mechanical characteristics in fatigue and recovery from a
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15. Friden, J.; Sjostrom, M. et al. (1983). "Myofibrillar
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31. RAMA, R.; IBANEZ, J. et al. (1994). "Hematological,
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32. Reid, R. I.; Hosking, D. H. et al. (1987). "Haematuria
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36. SMITH, J. E.; GARBUTT, G. et al. (2004). "Effects of
prolonged strenuous exercise (marathon running) on biochemical and haematological markers used in the investigation of patients in the emergency department." Br J
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37. Watson, G.; Judelson, D. A. et al. (2005). "Influence of diuretic-induced dehydration on competitive sprint
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1168-1174.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
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New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
Study
How fast can a human run?
© by IAAF
27:4; 57-62, 2012
by Jeremy Richmond
ABSTRACT
AUTHORS
As sprinters challenge each other to win
major championships and run faster we are
naturally curious if there is a limit to how
far the 100m world record can fall. Predictions about how fast humans can run
have been made in the past using mathematical curve fitting based on previous
record-breaking performances, metabolic
factors and thermodynamic principles and,
particularly in the case of the 100m, information about phosphagen energy stores.
In this study, the author presents a projection of the limits of human performance
in the 100m based on known physiological measurements and recorded observations, many of which are recent findings.
It is assumed that ground contact time
limits maximum running velocity and that
force production times are similar between
sprinters running under 10 sec today and in
recent years. From the evidence available it
seems plausible that humans could reach
a velocity of 12.75 m/sec compared to the
12.34 m/sec achieved by Usain Bolt (JAM)
in his 9.58 sec world record race. Assuming similar velocity relationships across all
phases of the race and the same start reaction time recorded for Bolt, it is suggested
that the human limit for the 100m may be
close to 9.27 sec.
Jeremy Richmond is an exercise physiologist and personal trainer in Australia and
the founder of the Australian Institute of
Speed and Agility. He holds a Bachelors degree in Applied Science-Physics and a Masters degree in Exercise and Sports Science.
Introduction
t is universally agreed that the fastest
human ever is Usain Bolt (JAM), the
100m world record holder with a time
of 9.58 sec. In establishing that mark in the final
of the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics, Bolt broke his own record of a 9.69 sec,
set a year earlier at the Olympic Games, and
was challenged by Tyson Gay (USA) who ran
9.71 sec to became the second fastest ever.
Gay later ran 9.69 sec himself, a mark that was
subsequently matched by Bolt’s countryman
Yohan Blake.
I
It is reported that Bolt reached a maximal
velocity of 12.34 m/sec at about the 68m point
of the record race and that Gay achieved a
maximal velocity of 12.20 m/sec1 Although it is
not necessarily the case, it is not unreasonable
to suggest that both Gay and Blake could have
reached 12.20 m/sec or faster when running
their 9.69 sec races.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
57
How fast can a human run?
As sprinters challenge each other to win
major championships and run faster we are
naturally curious as to whether there is a limit
on how much the world record will fall eventually. Of course, predictions as to how fast
humans can run have been made in the past.
The methods used include mathematical curve
fitting based on previous record-breaking performances2,3, metabolic factors and thermodynamic principles4,5,6 and, particularly in the
case of the 100m, information about phosphagen energy stores7.
This study differs from previous papers in
that we have based a prediction of human running speed limits in the 100m on known physiological measurements and recorded observations, many of which have come to light since
the publication of the studies mentioned above.
Recent discussions of human running
speed limitations have focused on two aspects:
vertical force production8 and the ground contact time needed to apply large mass specific
forces9. It seems, however that vertical force
production might not be the limiting factor for
fast running. Data from one study shows that
vertical force production remains the same
above velocities greater than approximately
7 m/sec, although, it must be acknowledged
that the study observed endurance runners10.
However, the finding is supported by data from
a study of sprinters and other athletes, some
of whom could reach velocities greater than 10
m/sec, that showed that there is no relationship between maximum vertical force and running velocity11 (see Figure 1).
Turning to ground contact time, many studies
show it to be limited to around 80 milliseconds12,13
although other researchers have recorded results down to 70 ms within the limitation of their
measurement criteria14. If ground contact time
is indeed the limiting factor for human running
velocity, it would be of interest to ascertain the
relationship between the known limits and the
running velocity of sprinters so as to provide an
estimate of human running capacity.
Figure 1: The relationship between maximal vertical force and running velocity (adapted from BEZODIS 10)
58
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
How fast can a human run?
Method
For the present study data was gathered
from various earlier studies of sprinters15,16,17
and tabulated in Table 1.
Using software (Microsoft Office Professional Edition 2003) the strength of the relationship between ground contact time and running
velocity was calculated. From this relationship
an equation was formulated from the gradient
and intercept. The results are highlighted in
Figure 2.
Table 1: data used to determine a relationship between ground contact time and velocity
Studies
MERO & KOMI 15
Ground contact
101 ms at 9.59 m/sec
COH16
RICHMOND17
178 ms at 4.88 m/sec
124.5 ms at 8.71 m/sec
times and
179 ms at 5.25 m/sec
95.5 ms at 10.47 m/sec
velocities
129 ms at 6.33 m/sec
86.0 ms at 11.14 m/sec
130 ms at 6.98 m/sec
83.75 ms at 11.50 m/sec
129 ms at 7.63 m/sec
81.5 ms at 11.67 m/sec
130 ms at 7.76 m/sec
81.0 ms at 11.80 m/sec
117 ms at 8.42 m/sec
111 ms at 8.29 m/sec
98 ms at 9.38 m/sec
105 ms at 9.12 m/sec
104 ms at 9.95 m/sec
Figure 2: The relationship between ground contact time and running velocity of sprinters (data from MERO &
KOMI15, COH16, RICHMOND17)
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
59
How fast can a human run?
Interpretation of Correlation Coefficients
0.0 to 0.2
very weak, negligible
0.2 to 0.4
weak, low
0.4 to 0.7
moderate
0.7 to 0.9 strong, high, marked
0.9 to 1.0
very strong, very high
(Courtesy of: Rowntree, Derek. Statistics without tears
(2000), Penguin Books.)
Discussion
This relationship between ground contact
time and running velocity can be described
as very strong (see Box) and from the ensuing equation of the line of best fit, y = -11.3x +
213.83, we can estimate the running velocity
at various ground contact times. The relationship that describes how the velocity changes
relative to ground contact time is a reasonable
estimate; empirical studies report ground contact times for former Olympic Champion and
100m world record holder Donovan Bailey
(CAN) of 80 ms13 with maximal running velocities of 12.03 m/sec18, which fits in well with the
relationship described here (Figure 2).
Using the equation for the line of best fit,
we can see that if the observed 70 ms contact
time14 were replicable by sprinters it would produce a running velocity of 12.75 m/sec. Compare this to Bolt’s 12.34 m/sec maximal velocity in his world record race.
In fact, a ground contact time of 70 ms14
is physiologically possible. Scientists have
measured human fast-twitch fibres with single
twitches of 55-88 ms20, although the probability of a single twitch producing sufficient forces for sprinting is not likely. However, others
have measured quadriceps contraction time
to be as low as 71 ms in marathon runners19
and it would seem plausible that sprint trained
atletes could produce contraction times equal
to, if not shorter than, such a figure.
60
Whether a method can be devised produce
sufficient force in such short muscle contraction times is worthy of investigation21. However,
sprinters demonstrate a significant pre-activation of muscle prior to foot strike22,23 of 50 to
70% of maximum contact levels24, which may
circumvent the ground contact time limitations
and allows for more scope to reach quicker
ground contact times than are being produced
by today’s sprinters.
Can we predict the 100m time from
maximal speed of 12.75 m/s?
Bolt’s top velocity of 12.34 m/sec in the
world record race was 1.1% faster that that
achieved by Gay in the same race. We will take
a conservative view that there is a consistent
differential equal to the ratio of maximal velocity (Table 3) that exists throughout the race as
compared to the measured average differential
of 1.27% determined from interval times (see
Table 2). The assumption of a consistent velocity relationship across the entire race has been
previously demonstrated whereby faster 100m
runners showed consistent speed advantages
even from the first few steps25.
Conclusion
Given the relationship between ground contact time and running velocity and a ground
contact time limited to 70 ms, which is the lowest figure recorded, we predict a human running velocity limit of 12.75 m/sec or 45.9 kph.
From this speed limit we estimate that with the
same reaction time as Usain Bolt during the
world record performance of 9.58 seconds,
the human limit for 100m under the same conditions would be 9.27 sec.
If scientists and coaches can develop a
training method to further shorten muscle contraction time and produce sufficient force for
fast running then it seems plausible that human beings could run even faster.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
How fast can a human run?
Table 2: interval times and differential for 100m performances at the World Athletics Championship in Berlin
2009 (modified from GRAUBNER & NIXDORF 1)
Usain Bolt1
Tyson Gay1
Differential
10m
1.88
1.91
1.6%
20m
2.88
2.88
1.74%
30m
3.78
3.84
1.59%
40m
4.64
4.70
1.29%
50m
5.47
5.54
1.28%
60m
6.29
6.36
1.11%
70m
7.10
7.19
1.27%
80m
7.92
8.02
1.26%
90m
8.74
8.86
1.37%
100m
9.58
9.71
1.36%
Average
1.27%
Table 3: Hypothetical limit times are calculated from the ratio of top speeds
Usain Bolt (Berlin 2009) 1
Hypothetical Human Limit
10m
1.88
1.82
20m
2.88
2.79
30m
3.78
3.66
40m
4.64
4.49
50m
5.47
5.29
60m
6.29
6.09
70m
7.10
6.87
80m
7.92
7.67
90m
8.74
8.46
100m
9.58
9.27
Please send all correspondence to:
Jeremy Richmond
[email protected]
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
61
How fast can a human run?
REFERENCES
13. KIVI, D. (1999). Sprint kinematics of the world’s fastest
human. XVII ISB Congress.
1. GRAUBNER, R, & NIXDORF, E. (2011) Biomechanical
analysis of the sprint and hurdle events at the 2009 IAAF
World Championships in Athletics. New Studies in Athletics
26(1/2): 19-53.
14. KUNZ, H. & KAUFMANN, D.A. (1981), Biomechanical
analysis of sprinting: decathletes versus champions. British
Journal of Sports Medicine 15(3): 177- 181.
2. RUMBALL, W.M, & COLEMAN, C. E. (1970). Analysis
of running and the prediction of ultimate performance. Nature 228: 184-185.
3. RYDER, W.H.; CARR, H.J, & HERGET, P. (1976). Future
performance in foot racing. Scientific American 234: 109-119.
4. MORTON, H.R. (1986). A three component model of human bioenergetics. Journal of Maths and Biology 24: 451-466.
5. PERONNET, F. & THIBAULT, G. (1989). Mathematical analysis of running performance and world running records. Journal of Applied Physiology 67: 453-465.
6. WARD-SMITH, A. J. (1985), A mathematical theory
of running, based on the first law of thermodynamics, and
its application to the performance of world-class athletes.
Journal of Biomechanics 18: 337-349.
7. SUMMERS, R.L. (1997). Physiology and biophysics of
the 100-m sprint. News in Physiological Sciences 12: 131-136.
8. WEYAND, P.G.; STERNLIGHT, D.B.; BELLEZZI, M.J. &
WRIGHT, S. (2000). Faster top running speeds are achieved
with greater ground forces not more rapid leg movements.
Journal of Applied Physiology 89: 1991-1999.
9. WEYAND, P.G.; SANDELL, R.F.; PRIME, D.N.L. &
BUNDLE, M.W. (2010). The biological limits to running
speed are imposed from the ground up. Journal of Applied
Physiology 108: 950-961.
10. NUMMELA, A.; KERANEN, T. & MIKKELSSON, L.O.
(2007). Factors related to top running speed and economy.
International Journal of Sports Medicine 28(8): 655-662.
11. BEZODIS, I.; SALO, A. & KERWIN, D. (2007). Joint kinetics in maximum velocity sprint running. XXV ISBS Symposium 2007; 59-62.
12. BRUGGEMANN, G.-P. & GLAD, B. (Eds) (1990). Scientific Research Project at the games of the XXXIV Olympiad- Seoul 1988: Final Report. Monaco: International Athletic Foundation.
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15. MERO, A. & KOMI, P.V. (1994). EMG, force, and power
analysis of sprint-specific strength exercises. Journal of
Applied Biomechanics 10: 1-13.
16. COH, M.; TOMAZIN, K. & STUHEC, S. (2006). The biomechanical model of the sprint start and block acceleration.
Facta Universitatis - Series: Physical Education and Sport
4(2): 103 -114.
17. RICHMOND, J. (2011). Modellng a sub-10 second
sprint using Newton’s equations of motion. New Studies in
Athletics 26(1/2): 69-77.
18. ROWBOTTOM, M. (2008). The big question: as the
100m world record falls again, how much faster can humans run? The Independent 03 June 2008.
19. PLACE, N.; LEPERS, R.; DELEY, G, & MILLET. G.Y.
(2004). Time course of neuromuscular alterations during
a prolonged running exercise. Medicine and Science in
Sports and Exercise 36(8): 1347-1356.
20. EBERSTEIN, A. & GOODGOLD, J. (1968). Slow and
fast twitch fibers in human skeletal muscle. American Journal of Physiology 215(3): 535-41.
21. RICHMOND J. (2011). In search of the 70 kph human:
challenging the limits of human muscle contraction time.
Hypothesis 9(1): 1-10.
22. DIETZ, V.; SCHMIDTBLEICHER, D. & NOTH, J. (1979).
Neuronal mechanisms of human locomotion. Journal of
Neurophysiology 42(5): 1212- 1222.
23. KYROLAINEN, H.; KOMI, P.V. & BELLI, A. (1999).
Changes in muscle activity patterns and kinetics with increasing running speed. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 13(4): 400-6.
24. MERO, A,; KOMI, P.V, & GREGOR, R.J. (1992). Biomechanics of sprint running. A review. Sports Medicine 13
(6): 376-392.
25. MERO, A.; LUHTANEN, P. & KOMI, P. V. (1983). A biomechanical study of the sprint start. Scandinavian Journal
of Sports Science 5(1): 20-28.
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New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
Coaching
contents
g
The 2012 Olympic Global Coaches House
London. England
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
REPORT
The 2012 Olympic
Global Coaches House
© by IAAF
27:4; 67-74, 2012
London, England
Prelude
he science of coaching is taught; the art
of coaching can only be learned… and
the learning is through life experience.
The problem is:
T
“Experience is a hard teacher, because she
gives the test first and the lesson afterwards.”
(Vernon Law)
In this world of accelerating change for those
in coaching and in performance, the challenge
is less about what is taught in formal education
than in making informal development through
experience more “user friendly” and facilitating
continuous professional development.
Introduction
In September 2011, the ICCE - International
Council for Coaching Excellence (formerly the
International Council for Coaches Education)
agreed an initiative that represented a significant step in addressing this challenge. The
initiative was branded as the Global Coaches
House (GCH).
Ostensibly, the intention was to establish
a base for coaches of all sports attending
the 2012 Olympic Games in London to meet.
However, in being invited by the ICCE President, John Bales, and the European Coaching
Council (ECC) President, Pat Duffy, to direct
the project, it was clear that there was a great
opportunity to build on the experience of IAAF
World Class Coaches Club (WCCC) and the
IAAF Vice President Sergey Bubka at the Opening
Ceremony of the 2012 Olympic Global Coaches
House
very successful Berlin 2009 WCCC served as
a starting model to build something that hopefully would be groundbreaking in several ways.
John Bales agreed with Dr Lim Kok Wing,
Founder and President of Limkokwing University in Piccadilly, London, that the GHC would
have access to the university’s iconic building
during the Games and Ian Smyth of Leeds
New Studies in Athletics · 4.2012
67
The 2012 Olympic Global Coaches House
Metropolitan University (LMU) secured access
to space in the Olympic Athletes’ House at
another location (the 6th floor of the building of
the law firm Eversheds) for the GCH during the
Paralympic Games.
Objectives
Primary:
To provide and facilitate opportunity for
coaches to network and to grow personal networks.
Funding was originally to be by sponsorship
but ultimately it was obtained through LMU as
part of a government-supported project. LMU
are partners with the ICCE on the GCH Board.
To afford opportunity for coaches to learn
and to share learning as part of the Olympic
experience.
With the facilities and funding secured, a
management group was created for operational delivery.
Secondary:
To create the foundation for building an international community of coaches.
On 27 July 2012 IAAF Vice President Sergey
Bubka officially opened the GCH at Limkokwing
University. In his remarks at the ceremony he
pointed out the value of coaches to athletes,
sport and the wider community and stressed
the importance of coaches sharing their expertise and knowledge.
To create a start up knowledge resource
through recorded materials for practising
coaches.
In all, 400 coaches participated in activities
at the GCH at Limkokwing University during
the Olympic Games and a further 15 coaches
took part in activities at Eversheds during the
Paralympic Games.
In light of the experience, it would be decided after the Games whether or not to continue
growing the concept and whether to do so
by leadership or facilitation through the GCH
brand.
The purpose of this report is to provide a
brief overview of the organisation and contents
of the activities. This information is presented
under the following headings:
• Concept
• Programme Design
• Programme Delivery
Programme Design
Concept
The Aim and Objectives grew from the basic framework defined by the ICCE initiative
and expansion of WCCC.
Aim
To establish a meeting place for coaches
during the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games.
68
To inaugurate a continuing product and service offering for coaches at Olympic Games
and other major international sport events.
It was agreed early that the GCH programme
would have two parts: Part 1 open to all bona
fide coaches and free of charge and Part 2
a number of dedicated sub-programmes for
which there could be a cost.
Moreover, it was agreed to create the following services:
• A main presentation room with full audiovisual support
• Auxiliary presentation rooms with full individual support
• Meeting rooms
• A viewing gallery with six TV screens for
watching the Games
• A cafeteria area – also with TV screen
• Dartfish suites for analysis (sponsored by
Dartfish)
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
The 2012 Olympic Global Coaches House
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
IT room for participants to access emails etc
Exhibition area
(sponsored by Human Kinetics)
Storage facilities
VIP room for speakers and visitors
Regeneration/quiet room for rest and reflection
Registration/security check zone
Casual seating through areas
Capacity to record all presentations as a
permanent resource
Because there was substantial diversity in
the potential participating population in the
shape of different sports, national cultures and
levels of coaching expertise, the programme
was designed to have broad appeal and to
explore the advantage of diverse mindsets as
enrichment to learning.
The Open Programme
•
“Hot Topics” Breakfasts (08:00 – 08:45):
Each morning over coffee and croissants
an issue in sport was discussed.
•
“Workout Lunches” (13:00 – 14:00):
Coaching/performance related topics
were presented by international experts.
•
“Supper Interviews” (19:30 – 20:30):
Coaches were interviewed on everything
from philosophy to practice.
Dedicated Programmes
•
“Games Ready” (08:45 – 10:15): This programme of 12 inputs (2 each morning for
6 days 30th Jul – 4th Aug and 6th Aug –
11th Aug) was designed for coaches who
were not with their Olympic teams in London, but will probably be so in Rio and in
other major international championships.
The objective was to prepare coaches for
such roles.
•
“Technology Day” 13:00 – 18:00 (1st Aug):
This session examined technology, science and medicine as influences in the
coach’s decision making and operational
effectiveness.
•
“Swimming Debrief” 10:30 – 17:00 (5th
Aug): At the conclusion of the swimming
competition this session examined trends
and changes in technique, training and
talent progression as a foundation for national debriefings.
•
“Rugby Day” 10:30 – 17:00 (6th Aug): This
workshop focused on current trends and
influences in the game and on the “Sevens” competition that will be added to the
Olympic programme in Rio.
•
“Winning Women” 13:00 – 19:00 (7th Aug):
This very comprehensive session addressed the specifics of coaching female
athletes and of developing female coaches.
Related to this, there was within the management team language capacity in addition
to English, to cover German, French, Spanish,
Italian and Chinese.
Because the scheduling of Olympic competition programmes was from early morning to
late evening, the GCH programming required
the distribution throughout the day of items
that would appeal to a variety of interests at
times convenient to participants.
While it was clear that the open and dedicated programmes demanded a range of
carefully selected high quality inputs, it was
important to avoid creating a sense of a formal
conference. Rather, the mood was to be one
of a festival, where those participating could
“pick and mix” in choosing what they wished
to be part of.
Therefore, in terms of programme design
and for all involved in its delivery, the guiding
principle was to ensure a quality personal experience for each participant. “Quality” in this
context relates both to value and to enjoyment.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
69
The 2012 Olympic Global Coaches House
•
•
“Games Debrief” 10:30 – 13:00 (13th Aug):
This workshop examined the overall debrief process as a key component in designing a 2012-2016 strategy.
Games Ready (Leader: Frank Dick)
•
Coaching Effectiveness – Bill Sweetenham. Quantitative and qualitative measure
of coaching effectiveness and efficiency
“After Hours” 18:00 – 19:00 (31st July,
1st, 2nd, 8th, and 9th Aug): There were two
parts to this activity – supper interviews
and specific extra inputs. These were
supplementary inputs from experts in the
field of relating sports coaching principles
to the world of business.
•
Decisions, Decisions – Frank Dick. The
process of decision making from the Big
Stuff (e.g. culture change) to those made
“in a blink”.
•
Learning Faster than the Opposition –
Sue Smith. Training to learn faster, to
review intuitively, to be more effective in
reflective practice.
•
Preparation for the Team – Jenny Gray (at
the Paralympic GCH, Frank Dick). Management of a Games team is about eliminating those things that detract from or
interfere with athlete performance.
•
The Coach Development Process – Kim
Cardile. Self managed learning is as important for the coach as for the athlete.
A self-assessment coach development
instrument was proposed.
•
Preparation of the Team – Frank Dick
(Paralympic GCH Stan Madiri, Frank Dick).
Bringing structure to athlete development
and performance plans based on performance/structure design and delivery.
Snakes and Ladders -- Craig Handford
(Paralympic GCH Craig Handford). Understanding and managing those things
that help or hinder performance.
Additional Activities
In addition to the formal programme, the
GCH became a venue for various launches,
meetings and workshops. These included:
• Coachnet meeting
• A technical debrief of the Olympic race
walking competitions
• Technical seminar delivered by Canoe
Kayak of Canada technical seminar
• Launch of the International Sports
Coaches Framework
• Performance Summit Group examined
the relationship between coaching and
performance related practitioners in
sports High Performance Programs; and
the basics of advancing human potential.
Programme Delivery
•
The appointed senior management staff
from LMU, headed by General Event Manager
Karen Mockett, led a team of staff and students from LMU and LKW to cover each day
from 07:30 – 23:00. Steve Lum, Vice President
LKW Corporate, was liaison lead for LKW.
Co-coordinators were appointed to run each
of the three streams of the open programme
and the dedicated programmes. Sergio LaraVercial provided valued support in technical
programme coordination.
Listed below are the topics, presenters and
key points of the delivered sessions.
70
•
Managing Personal Well-Being and Lifestyle – Dean Benton (Paralympic GCH
Malcolm Brown). Coaches must be as
thorough in managing their own stressful
life as helping the athletes manage theirs.
•
In-Games Leading, Managing, Coaching
– Elio Locatelli (Paralympic GCH: Raylene
Bates). A guide to providing high quality
professional service to athletes and staff
in the high pressure world of the Games.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
The 2012 Olympic Global Coaches House
•
Double Vision – Eddie Jones (Paralympic
GCH: Frankie Thanapal). The chief coach
must deliver in today’s arenas while preparing for tomorrow’s. The goal is an excellence dynasty.
•
•
•
The Entourage Context – Penny Werthner (week 1); Frank Dick (week 2). Behind
every high performance athlete there is
a great team from parents and partners
through to performance science and
medicine support experts. The coach
must lead this team.
Coaching and Performance in Partnership – Vern Gambetta, Danny Meuken,
Dean Benton. The last 20 years have
seen growth of Performance Direction
and in the sports sciences as a parallel
influence with Coaching in the development of athletes and teams. What is the
nature of this partnership?
•
Coaching Philosophy Shaping Policy and
Practice – Vern Gambetta (Week 1 GCH)
and Jim Crake/Russell Smelley (Week 2).
Coaches must keep vision and values
front and centre in delivering their craft
and do so on the foundation of a strong
coaching philosophy.
Getting There in One Piece – Kevin Lidlow. 25% of high performance athletes
experience breakdown through stress related injury or illness. Careful preparation
management to protect athletes and ability to make sound judgment calls under
pressure may reduce that statistic.
•
Anti-Doping in Sport – Lea Claret. WADA’s story in the fight for fair sport is a big
success story. Most importantly, WADA’s
work has changed attitudes and behaviours to make fair sport everyone’s personal responsibility.
•
Towards a Performance and Coaching
Profession – Miguel Crespo. It is time
for coaches to have a properly regulated
profession. To achieve this there must be
clarity in how all, from the purely voluntary
to the full time professional, fit within the
concept of an overarching professional
body recognized in law. Coaches themselves have a key role in taking this forward.
•
Physical Competency Profiles – Kelvin
Giles. If athletes do not have a sound
basic balanced level of physical competence, all techniques learned will demand
compensatory movement. An assessment instrument and exercise prescription system are proposed.
•
Bio Neural Changes as the Key to Opening the Door of Human Potential – Vin
Walsh. Our most untapped resource is
the brain. There is breakthrough in understanding how to leverage its advantage.
Workout Lunches (Leader: Frank Dick)
•
What is Coaching Effectiveness and Expertise? – Cliff Mallet, Jean Cote. Interactive session to establish perception of
coaching expertise and effective coaching.
•
Global Coaching Framework and Network
Build – Pat Duffy. Explanation of the framework within which coach education and
development can effectively be delivered
and can serve as a guide to coach education and certification program design.
•
Winning from the Beginning – Bill Sweetenham. Talent selection and development
strategy which in principle is transferable
across all sports in pursuit of realising potential.
•
Joining up the Learning Dots of Coaching –
Terry Crawford, Sue Smith, Kim Cardile. As
communication means and methods have
been transformed, so also has teaching
and learning. Systems, strategies, styles
and skills must be constantly reviewed to
leverage the advantage of such change.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
71
The 2012 Olympic Global Coaches House
•
Coaching Paralympians – Peter Erikkson.
All coaching focuses on building on ability.
Coaching Paralympians is simply coaching specific levels of ability. Technical
components may differ but no more than
long jump versus triple jump. The art of
applying the sciences remains the issue.
•
The Business of Coaching – Frank Dick.
The world of sport at all levels has a commercial dimension. Coaches must learn
how to “take care of business” from continuous professional development to contract and appropriate compensation.
•
Rugby Day (Leader: Ian Smyth)
•
Creating an Effective Attack System – Eddie Jones. Detailed assimilation of physiological, skill and tactical implications in
addressing challenge of high pressure,
high performance rugby.
•
Assembling and Managing a Performance
team – Dean Benton. Performance and
coaching teams work together to create
high performance on the field. The process is player-centred, coach-led, performance-team supported. Getting the
performance team input right in delivering
role excellence is critical.
•
Creating the Best Learning Environment
– Gregor Townsend. If teaching is more
about textbooks, learning is about experience. The right learning environment
must ensure experience is turned to advantage for players and for coaching staff.
•
The “I” Generation – A modern tale on a
basic approach – Damian McGrath. Rugby is about the genius learning to play with
the team first, then the team learning to
play with the genius – not the other way
around. We are the product of our generation, but the fact remains – the strength
of the wolf is the pack; the strength of the
pack is the wolf.
Technology and Coaching Day (Leader:
Sergio Lara-Bercial)
•
Decision Making, Technology and the
Coach – Scott Drawer. The accelerating
rate of change in technology and in the
sports sciences represents an information tsunami for coaches. It is critical to
have a synthesis resource to translate the
information so that coaches can make
right judgment calls. (also a workout
lunches session)
•
Performance Analysis the Dartfish Way –
Victor Bergonzoli. Biomechanical analysis
has been demystified by the excellence
and simplicity of the Dartfish system.
•
Performance Analysis on the Ground:
The Gaelic Football Experience – Robert
Carroll. Excellent practical example of design and delivery in the process of data
gathering, analysis and synthesis to give
coaches the information they need in a
form they can use.
•
72
Professional Judgment in Coaching:
What Role for Technology? – Andy Abraham. An examination of decision making
models, how they are used in coaching
and the role technology can play in facilitating this process.
Social Media, Sport and Coaching: What
Next? – Lewis Howes. Social media has
not only changed how we communicate
but how we think, learn and make decisions. Building on strategies based on
LinkedIn, it is proposed that coaches’
performance related staff consider an
integrated social media program within
their sport’s social media strategy.
Winning Women Day (Leader: Pauline Harrison)
•
Changing Perceptions – Marion Lay.
Identifying the need for more recognition
in women’s coaching.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
The 2012 Olympic Global Coaches House
•
Our Purpose, My Responsibility – Judy
Murray, Kate Howey. Exploring the vision
and values of coaching elite women and
explaining what the coach is trying to believe and how.
•
The Athlete Entourage – Darlene Harrison. Explaining how to put the right performance and support team around the
athlete to maximise realising potential in
pursuit of competitive achievement.
•
My Pathway, My Expectations – Claire
Prideaux, Kim Crane, Carlota Castrejana. The athlete’s 360° view on what
they need from a coach to be successful
explained by former Olympians who now
hold leadership positions in sport.
•
Building the Foundation – Kelvin Giles.
Explaining the importance of building
the physical competencies platform from
which top performances emerge. Developing understanding of coaching young
female athletes.
•
The Coach I Need to Be – Stan Madiri,
Mark Lane. Exploring the intricacies and
nuances of coaching female athletes in
high performance sport.
•
Design Thinking for the Next Competitive
Advantage – Kim Cardile. An opportunity to
experience Design Thinking and learn how
this can be implemented in a given sport.
•
Understanding What Women Want from
Sport and coaching – Annabel Kehoe,
Leanne Norman. Presentation and research on what women want from their
sport participation and those who lead it.
•
All I Can Become—Caroline McHugh.
Understanding we each are far more than
the labels we have and that in doing all we
can do to being all we can become is our
goal in realising our potential.
Olympic champion Jessica Ennis (GBR) and her coach Tony Minichello answered questions during an After
Hours programme.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
73
The 2012 Olympic Global Coaches House
After Hours Programme (Leaders: Sergio
Lara-Bercial & Pauline Harrison)
Bill Sweetenham, Vern Gambetta and Eddie Jones were among visiting coaches who
were interviewed on topics from coaching philosophy to learning through life experience. In
three great evenings, GCH enjoyed a very real
privilege in interviews with Jessica Ennis and
coaches Tony Minichello and Nick Hill; Sharon
Hannan, coach to 100m hurdles gold medallist Sally Pearson; and Malcolm Brown, coach
to the gold and bronze medallists in Triathlon,
Alistair and Jonny Brownlee. The specific extra
inputs were by Pat Duffy, Sue Smith, Kim Cardile, Vern Gambetta, and Frank Dick.
General management of process was excellently handled by Karen Mockett, while Steven
Lum did an immense job in LKW management
team contribution and leadership. Thanks also
to Pauline Harrison for coordinating a great
Winning Women Day.
To all presenters, my admiration and thanks
for going beyond their input function to add to
the quality of experience we worked to provide.
And of course, thanks to all the coaches
participating at LKW and Eversheds. They
have launched our international coaching
community.
Acknowledgements
To LKW and Eversheds, most sincere
thanks for their generosity in making available
two wonderful venues.
Across the Olympic and Paralympic GCH
programmes, from preparation and planning
to operational delivery it was a privilege to lead
a team of just over 70 persons who were responsible for coaches enjoying the GCH 2012
experience.
Last, but certainly not least, special thanks
to LMU for creating the economic platform for
GCH to happen; and to Dartfish and Human
Kinetics for their sponsorships.
All did a fantastic job and I wish to put on
record my thanks and congratulations for all.
I wish to thank in particular, key people involved in the overall process.
Naturally I am grateful for the opportunity afforded me to direct the endeavour by John Bales,
Laszlo Petrovic, Pat Duffy and ICCE Council.
Next Sergio Lara-Bercial was a truly outstanding “ram rod” for me in my work, supported by Ian Smyth.
74
Reported by Frank Dick
Frank Dick OBE was the GCH Director. He is
a motivational speaker and writer. He is the
president of the European Athletics Coaches
Association and a member of the IAAF Coaches Commission. From 1979 to 1994 he was
the British Athletics Federation’s Director of
Coaching.
He can be contacted at
[email protected]
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
The 2012 Olympic Global Coaches House
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
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New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
Development
contents
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Effective Debrief Matters
by Frank Dick
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ESSAY
Effective Debrief Matters
© by IAAF
27:4; 79-86, 2012
by Frank Dick
ABSTRACT
AUTHOR
In the context of an Olympic Games or major sports campaign, excellence is achieving or surpassing the intended performance
“on the day.” At best, this may mean a gold
medal or a championship. At least, it must
mean the best performance of the season.
The debrief after the event focuses on why
excellence was or was not achieved. It is
the key to the review process and dictates
the quality of lessons learned and consequently the changes to what is done and
how it is done - redefining and taking ownership of excellence, designing the plan and
then delivering objectives through effective action. For high-performance athletics
programmes, the debriefing and the fouryear review and planning process should
take place soon after the Olympic Games.
The cheers that marked the athletes’ last
step on to the podium in London 2012 also
marked the first step towards the podium
in Rio 2016. The author, an experienced
athletics head coach, provides a framework
for debriefing and planning throughout the
preparation cycle. Included are key questions for the short-, medium- and longterm reviews that can be used as guides for
the process.
Frank Dick OBE is a motivational speaker
and writer. He is the president of the European Athletics Coaches Association and a
member of the IAAF Coaches Commission.
From 1979 to 1994 he was the British Athletics Federation’s Director of Coaching.
Introduction
here is a cycle of progress in the never-ending story that is the pursuit of
excellence in sport. It applies to the
individual, the team, the club or the nation. We
Own - Plan - Execute – Review, then Align vision and values in order to own the next cycle
– and start again.
T
In the context of an Olympic Games or major sports campaign, excellence is achieving or
surpassing the intended performance “on the
day.” At best, this may mean a gold medal or a
championship. At least, it must mean the best
performance of the season.
The debriefing after the Games or campaign is a part of the cyclical review process.
It focuses on why excellence was or was not
achieved as the basis for learning those lessons necessary to execute excellence next
time. The quality of the debriefing dictates the
quality of lessons learned and consequently
the changes to what we do and how we do it in
New Studies in Athletics · 4.2012
79
Effective Debrief Matters
redefining and taking ownership of excellence,
designing the plan and delivering objectives
through effective action.
In business, what is learned through the
debriefing and review process is not only relevant to overall strategy and the development
and preparation of people, it has an impact on
what and how marketing is planned and executed. Input into the discussion of what has
been learned comes from everyone involved
in, or associated with, the enterprise. It is the
same in sport.
As the preparation work takes place, careful
monitoring and continuous checks are critical
reviews in their own right with reference to training units and microcycles, through mesocycles,
annual cycles and the four-year cycles. This process can be broken down into three elements:
short-term reviews, medium-term reviews and
long-term reviews. Each builds on each so that
the four-year cycle of an Olympiad or, for example, the World Cup in such sports as football
and rugby, is in fact a cumulative review.
It is essential, then that the overall review
process, starting with the debriefing, is intelligently planned for and meticulously executed.
Each review, from training unit to post-competition to four-year cycle, must not be considered an afterthought that is compromised by
understandably inaccurate recall or cosmetic
make-believe. The machinery must be put in
place in advance. In other words, we must be
prepared for learning and be prepared to learn.
Short-Term Reviews
The debriefing, or short-term review, covers the daily, weekly and microcycle reviews
compiled from reading the competition or
game during play, or programmes as athlete,
team member or coach. These are the basic
building blocks of the entire review process.
They make up the essential mosaic of learning through experience that is the backdrop
80
to future continuous excellence. They also ensure that what is working now is turned to even
greater advantage and what is not working is
swiftly corrected.
The broad areas covered in a debriefing reflect the immediate performance priorities. The
intelligence obtained must be readily translated into action that produces better performance in very tight timescales. The detail is,
naturally, very specific, but the following is a
simple, easily adapted and relatively quick to
execute process for team or individual sports.
Team Debrief
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Were we on target in terms of result?
What helped performance?
What did not help performance?
What can we use to our advantage from
2 and 3?
What worked this time and can we build
on that?
What did not work this time and can we
correct that or eliminate it?
What will we do differently and better?
What different things will we do?
What will we stop doing?
Next, over four- to six-week training cycles
there is focus on the individual. This again is
readily adapted to meet the specifics of a given
role.
Individual Debrief
1. What is the performance target?
2. What tasks are required to achieve the
performance?
3. What actions are carried out to complete
the task?
4. What is the current performance?
5. If it exceeds the target, recognise, appreciate and improve farther.
6. If it is below target, diagnose problems
and correct.
7. What is the revised performance target?
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
Effective Debrief Matters
Medium-Term Reviews
The medium-term reviews in sport are from
intra-season through to annual. They variously
apply to a launching pad for the next mesocycle or macrocyle; realignment with the annual
plan, the four-year or longer term strategy; to
help shape a preview for “this time next year/
season”; and possibly more so than shorter
and longer term reviews, to create opportunity
to celebrate achievement, to support endeavour or to challenge underperformance.
They build on the cumulative short-term reviews. The larger slice of time provides a bigger
picture of programme progress and its components relative to the macrocycle objectives,
annual goals and Olympic/four-year cycle; improvements against our own previous performance at this time of the year or in general; of
where we are compared with opposition at this
point; etc. Importantly they do so in a timescale
that affords opportunity to make adjustments,
corrections and improvements to get back on
track where that is needed, and quickly.
Because delivering better personal performance is the critical focus for all in the endeavour, whether athlete, player, coach, manager
or other role, each person should be reviewed
as follows:
1. What are the performance components
relative to the person’s role? (Key Performance Determinants – KPD’s).
2. What are the agreed standards for those
components relative to the person’s performance target?
3. What are the delivered/present standards
in these components relative to the person’s current performance?
4. When these match or are better than those
agreed, recognize, appreciate and improve.
5. What are the revised performance component standards?
There is value in exchanging randomly, but
at least twice per year, a “Performance Alignment Check” (see Figure 1). This is where the
athlete/player, and anyone on the performance
team, can contact the coach (as the leader of
the team) to carry out the following procedure:
1. The team member self assesses their own
current performance and performance
progress relative to the goals/objectives
agreed at the annual performance review.
2. The coach also assesses the team member.
3. They exchange their completed assessments.
4. When there is agreement on things being
on track or ahead of schedule, then that
is appreciated and progress continues.
5. When there is disagreement or where
there is agreement on problems, a meeting is called. Problems are discussed and
addressed, and a plan agreed on how to
get things back on course.
This review should also be carried out within national performance structure, lead by the
Chief Coach/Performance Director (see Figure
next page).
Long-Term Reviews
Long-term reviews are major reviews of the
four-year Olympic or World Cup cycles. They
are comprehensive and in-depth examination
of the campaign outcome and the four years
leading into it. They build on the cumulative
short- and medium-term reviews.
It is beyond the scope of this article to elaborate in detail at every level of each review. So
what is set out here are the broad areas that
that should be embraced by a four-year debrief. It is for those conducting the review to
drill down to relevant detail.
That said, it is essential that the review is
seen in the context that the outcome of performance and result in the Olympic arena or
those other major international arenas that are
the focus of multi-year campaigns, represents
a consequence of what has caused them. By
that, I mean that performance and result are
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
81
Effective Debrief Matters
Figure 1
CONFIDENTIAL
TEAM:
PERFORMANCE ALIGNMENT CHECK
Informal Performance Review
Period of Review: ___________________
Overall role performance rating
(10 max – 1 min)
Name _____________________________
Role: ____________________________
Prepared by: ________________________
Date: ____________________________
Significant changes influencing role during the
period under review
Effect on performing role
Prioritised objectives set at commencement
of year under review
Evaluation of objective
achievement
Rating Notes
Prioritised agreed main tasks to meet
objectives
Main task performance
analysis
Rating Notes
Strengths/Developments
Suggested action required for improvement
82
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
Effective Debrief Matters
about more than the immediate influences we
readily identify as relevant. There are factors
from political decisions at government level
to where the performance and coaching programme fits with a federation’s overall strategy.
All of these have shaped and are shaped by
attitudes, behaviours and culture.
A responsible approach must go beyond
analysis of performance and results. Again,
these are consequences of what has been
done and how it has been done 1) over four
years, 2) over the final year (because the first
three have been debriefed annually), 3) over
the final preparation period, and (4) through the
competition itself. These four periods should
constitute a framework within which the following are reviewed.
In planning to design and deliver the review
process, then, it is important to address this
bigger picture. So, for example:
Government
•
Manage partnerships from national to
local government, athletes entourage,
school/club and press/media
So it would be entirely appropriate to suggest that all who are part of the bigger picture
are involved in the debrief process.
The essential review headings in sport are:
•
Results – intended and actual.
•
Performance under pressure of athletes
and teams.
•
Professional competence of all staff –
coaching, management, administration
and performance support.
•
Effectiveness of athlete and team staff in
preparation planning.
•
Effectiveness of overall campaign strategy/current year plan/applied game plan.
•
Leverage of high performance intelligence and resources, e.g. systems and
technology.
Quality of chief coach decision-making
and judgment calls.
•
Sport Policy in relation to Health and
Education Policy (school sport; participation and performance etc
•
•
Economics ring-fencing for sport to
address immediate and long term
objectives
•
All party commitment to agreed sports
development and performance strategies
The priority in addressing these points will
depend on timescales involved. All points are
relevant for review in preparation for a oneto four-year strategy. However, in my opinion
there are six fundamental points in this.
Federations
Robust strategy for the sport to include:
•
Developing people for roles and
responsibilities
•
Increasing participation; attracting and retaining athletes, coaches, club officials etc
•
Improving performance – whatever the
roles and responsibilities, but particularly
the performance/coaching program
•
Ensuring provision from governance to
competitions
•
Energising promotion to keep the sport
attractive to all from athletes to sponsors
1. Extrapolated numbers for winning results, performance and components of
future performance.
2. Perceived successful technical training
and tactical trends.
3. Effectiveness in preparation and in the
arena.
4. Strengths and vulnerabilities.
5. What could be done differently and what
different things can be done to perform
better and gain competitive advantage
next time.
6. Identify the people who will grow a winning dynasty.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
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Effective Debrief Matters
Figure 2
As an Aide Memoire:
EVALUATE
•
The Outcome
Aspiration v actual
•
The People
Who? What? How ? When ? Where ?
Technical and behavioural
•
The Plan
What worked?
What did not work?
What was adequate but can be improved?
What should be changed?
•
The Decision Maker/Coach
What bits of the decision making process were positive and can be learned from to improve?
What mistakes occurred and can be learned from to avoid repetition?
How can decision making skills be improved?
•
The Intelligence
Was all relevant intelligence available and accessed?
Was it made available in a usable form?
Was it of value in the decision and to the outcome?
1) Individual athlete/player:
• Techniques(s)
•
Training and physical competencies
•
Tactics and reading of competitive environment
•
Attitude/behaviour in competition, preparation, lifestyle
•
Performance
2) Team: (where appropriate, eg, team sports)
•
Techniques
•
Training
•
Tactics and reading of competitive environment
•
Cohesion and interdependence
•
Performance
3) Coach/es: *
•
Technical competencies/knowledge
•
Coaching competencies
•
Synthesis of information
•
Leadership/management skills
•
Decision making
•
CPD
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New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
Effective Debrief Matters
4)
•
•
•
•
•
Science/Medicine support: #
Technical competencies/knowledge
Professional effectiveness
Process harmony and cohesion
Performance influence
CPD
5)
•
•
•
•
•
Manager:
Technical competencies/knowledge
Leadership
Teamship
Big picture
CPD
6)
•
•
•
•
•
Support Team (general):
Technical competencies/knowledge
Complementary function
Supplementary function
Partnership/teamship
CPD
7)
•
•
•
•
•
Critical Partner/s
Technical competencies/knowledge
Partnership/facilitation
Complementary function
Supplementary function
CPD
* Separate for personal coach/es; national discipline coach; coaching director/head coach.
# Separate for high performance director; individual specialists.
Notes:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The review is 360 ° so, for example, athletes and coaches feed in to review of manager, coaching director etc.
The reviews (continuous throughout the year and four-year cycle) and debrief are all part of an agreed comprehensive program.
The process throughout is about learning rather than judgment.
A cumulative resource should be established on a dedicated website to post both good and bad practice as part of that learning.
Clearly each sport will interpret the above in terms of its own specifics.
Drill as deep as is necessary.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
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Effective Debrief Matters
In terms of timescale, in the case of athletics
this should be completed with listed observation and recommendation by mid-October after the Olympic Games and a strategy document should be completed by mid-December
at latest (i.e.: debrief and report completion
within 10 weeks of a Games/Campaign; strategy completion within 16 weeks).
The cheers that marked the athletes’ last
step on to the podium in London 2012 also
marked the first step towards the podium in
Rio 2016.
There is, then, an urgency to add to the importance of the debrief.
Please send all correspondence to:
The clock is running.
Frank Dick
[email protected]
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Documentation
contents
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Selected and Annotated Bibliography
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Book review
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Website Review
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Technology Report
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Abstracts
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Index
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Preview
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SELECTED AND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
No. 96:
Olympic and
Championship Athletics
© by IAAF
27:4; 91-119, 2012
by Jürgen Schiffer
Introduction
t first sight, this issue’s bibliography
might seem a fairly heterogeneous
corpus of literature. Included are articles about biomechanical as well as, for example, historical, sociological and psychological
aspects of athletics. Nevertheless, these diverse publications are held together by the fact
that all of them focus on the Olympic Games or
other major international events, such as World
Championships.
A
2. Biomechanical and technical analyses
of the jumps:
• the high jump at the 1991 IAAF World
Championships in Tokyo (Brüggemann,
& Loch, 1992), and the 2007 IAAF World
Championships in Osaka (Ae, et al.,
2008);
• the triple and long jump at the 2009 IAAF
World Championships in Berlin (Crotty,
2011);
• the pole vault at the 2005 IAAF World
Championships in Helsinki (Schade, &
Brüggemann, 2006).
This bibliography, first of its kind published
in NSA, includes 86 articles and books published between 1982 and 2013. The publications included can be categorised into the
following main groups:
3. Biomechanical and technical analyses
of the sprint, hurdles, and jump events at
the 1997 IAAF World Championships in Athens
(Müller, & Hommel, 1997).
1. Biomechanical and technical analyses
of the sprints, relays, and hurdles:
• the 100 metres at the 1987 IAAF World
Championships in Rome (men’s final)
(Arivananthan, 1988), and the 1991 IAAF
World Championships in Tokyo (men) (Ae,
Ito, & Suzuki, 1992);
• the sprint events at the 1999 IAAF World
Championships in Seville (Ferro, et al.,
2001);
• the relay events at the 2004 Olympics
in Athens (Mallett, 2005), and the 2009
IAAF World Championships in Berlin (U.S.
4x100m) (Grady, 2010);
• the women’s 100m hurdles at the 1984
Olympic Games in Los Angeles (Mann, &
Herman, 1985).
4. Biomechanical and technical analyses
of the throws:
• the javelin throw at the 1999 IAAF
World Championships in Seville (Campos, Brizuela, & Ramón, 2004), the
2005 IAAF World Championships in
Helsinki (Murakami, et al., 2006), and
the 2009 IAAF World Championships
in Berlin (Lehmann, 2010);
• the discus at the 2009 IAAF World
Championships in Berlin (Badura,
2010);
• the shot put at the 2007 IAAF World
Championships in Osaka (men) (Ohyama Byun, et al., 2008), and the 2009
IAAF World Championships in Berlin
(Schaa, 2010);
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•
the hammer throw at the 1996 World
Junior Championships in Sydney
(Shankleton, 1998), the in 1999 IAAF
World Championships in Seville (women) (Barclay, 2000), and the 2009 IAAF
World Championships in Berlin (Isele, &
Nixdorf, 2010).
5. A general analysis of the 3rd IAAF World
Championships in Athletics, Tokyo, 1991, is
provided by Schubert, 1992.
6. Medical analyses of athletes are provided
by Carter, 1982 (all articles included in the
“Montreal Olympic Games Project”), 1984 (all
articles included in the book “Kinanthropometry of Olympic Athletes”); Housh, et al., 1984
(anthropometric and body build variables of
junior Olympic male athletes); Thorland, et
al., 1982 (body composition and somatotype
characteristics of junior Olympic athletes); and
Webb, Millan, & Stolz, 1979 (gynecological aspects of American female athletes competing
at the Montreal Olympic Games).
7. Historical, sociological, and economical aspects are dealt with by Barra, 2010 (the
history of the IAAF World Championships in
Athletics); Digel, 2009 (spectators in Olympic
sport); and McCullagh, 2010 (the predicament
of track and field in increasing audience awareness and sponsorship opportunities).
8. Psychological aspects are discussed by
Jowett and Spray, 2013 (implicit ability beliefs
in elite track and field athletes); Ungerleider
and Golding, 1991 (mental practice among
Olympic athletes); Vernacchia, et al., 2000
(psychosocial characteristics of Olympic track
and field athletes); and Vernacchia, Henschen,
and Lidor, 2005 (the sport psychology services for the 2000 USA Olympic track and field
team).
9. Analyses and prognoses of Olympic and
Word Championships performance development are the topic of the articles by Heazlewood, 2006 (the use of mathematical models
for elite performance prediction at the Olympic
92
Games); Jiang, et al., 2007 (gray models for
the prediction of track and field results); Kang,
1992 and 1993 (analysis of best performances
in the field events at the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd World
Championships in Athletics); King and Black,
1984 (analysis of Olympic and World Records);
Kovar, Tilinger, and Bilek, 2000 (development
and performance trends in Olympic track and
field); Landry, 1987 (the results at the 2nd World
Championships in Athletics in Rome, 1987, as
compared with the results at the World Championships in Helsinki, 1983, and Athens, 1986);
Metcalfe, 2000 (the advances in athletics over
the past 50 years from the point of view of the
Olympic Games in Sydney, 2000); Quercetani,
2001 (analysis of trends in major international
athletics from the point of view of the World
Championships in Athletics in Edmonton,
2001); Raine, 1978 (an examination of men’s
and women’s Olympic performances since
1960); Stefani, 1989 and 1994 (trends and
predictions of Olympic winning performances,
1952-1992, as well as from Barcelona to Atlanta); Tilinger, Kovar and Suchy, 2005 (prognosis
of male performances in athletics at the 2008
Olympic Games in Beijing).
10. Various problems and aspects of international Youth and Junior Championships
are covered in the roundtable discussion by
Chimier, et al., 2000, as well as in the articles by
Bakarinov, et al., 2006 (age-group competition
in the throwing events); Digel, 2008 (the risk
of the Youth Olympic Games); Downes, 2003
(reflections on the 3rd IAAF World Youth Championships in Athletics in Sherbrooke, 2003);
Grund and Ritzdorf, 2006 (the performance
development of the finalists at the IAAF World
Youth Championships in Bydgoszcz, Poland,
1999); Hollings, 2006, and Hollings and Hume,
2010 (who hold that world junior success is a
prerequisite for world senior success); Scholz,
2006 (who focuses on the throwing events at
the 2002 World Junior Championships in Kinston, Jamaica, and also arrives at the conclusion that success in the World Junior Championships is becoming an increasingly important
prerequisite for success at the elite senior level); Swedin, 2003 (who describes the “Young
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Athletes Against Doping in Sports” programme
launched at the 3rd IAAF World Youth Championships in Sherbrooke, 2003).
Bibliography
11. The role of women athletes at international championships is dealt with by
McNab, 1991, who asks whether the Olympic
programme for women is a right or a privilege;
Pfister, 1996, who describes the struggle of
women for participation in the Olympics beginning with the first Olympic Women’s Games
in Paris in 1922, and Pieroth, 1996, who deals
with the women athletes taking part in the
1932 Olympics in Los Angeles.
New Studies in Athletics, Monaco, 7, (1992), 1, pp.
47-52
The 3rd World Championships in Athletics, Tokyo, 1991, was the setting for many fantastic
races, but without a doubt the best of these was
the men’s 100 metres final. On a perfect evening
Carl Lewis (USA) and Leroy Burrell (USA) both
broke the World Record of 9.90 seconds, recording 9.86 and 9.88 seconds respectively. Dennis
Mitchell (USA) took the bronze medal with 9.91
seconds to become the third fastest man in history and the next three finishers all broke 10.00
seconds, setting 2 area and 3 national records
in the process. The IAAF/IAF Biomechanics
Project Team was able to record all the rounds
of the men’s 100 metres, including the final, and
has been working on an analysis of the resultant
videotapes. The authors have obtained a large
number of data and made many observations as
a result of this analysis. The authors have looked
at a number of race patterns including changes in
speed, stride length and stride frequency. Further
information will be included in the team’s final report. The purpose of this following short article is
to present some of the data obtained and preliminary findings. In it we have concentrated somewhat on the final, and in particular on the athletes
who took first and second place as their data are
of particular interest. Table 1 gives the full results
of the men’s 100 metre final.
This bibliography, which, of course, does
not claim to be complete, has been compiled
by using
• SPOLIT, the sports literature database
of the Federal Institute of Sport Science
(BISp) in Cologne, Germany (www.bispdatenbanken.de, free access), and
• SPORTdiscus, the database of the Sport
Research and Information Centre in Ottawa, Canada (www.sirc.ca, no free access).
In addition, some of the articles come from
the private library of the author.
Readers interested in obtaining one or more
articles from this bibliography are invited to
contact the author.
Please send all correspondence to:
Dr. Jürgen Schiffer,
[email protected].
Ae, M.; Ito, A.; Suzuki, M.
The men’s 100 metres
Ae, M.; Nagahara, R.; Ohshima, Y.; Koyama,
H.; Takamoto, M.; Shibayama, K.
Biomechanical analysis of the top three
male high jumpers at the 2007 World Championships in Athletics
New Studies in Athletics, Aachen, 23, (2008), 2, pp.
45-52
The men’s high jump at the 2007 IAAF World
Championships in Athletics in Osaka was notable
for both the high level of results, the first three
all cleared 2.35m, and an interesting contrast in
jumping techniques. As a part of a larger study of
the event, the authors produced this interim report an the kinematic analysis of the best jumps
of the medallists. They cover 1) the motions in the
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final part of the approach and the takeoff phase,
2) performance description using partial heights
of the CM, 3) takeoff time, 4) body-lean angle and
5) knee joint angle. Their examination of winner
Donald Thomas’s technique, variously described
as unusual-looking and like a shot in basketball,
produces the surprising conclusion that, in fact,
it is highly effective an account of his double-arm
swing, almost vertical body at the takeoff, and the
highly raised thigh of the swing leg at take-off.
Alford, J.
Athletics – the main Olympic sport
Track and Field Quarterly Review, Ann Arbor, 37,
(1987), 1, pp. 30-33
The author gives an overview of the top trackand-field performances at the Olympic Games
and underlines the prominent role of track and
field athletics within the Olympic programme. He
draws attention to the initiatives of the IAAF (e.g.,
its Development Programme) which are are intended to establish and extend the importance of
track-and-field athletics for the future even more.
Arivananthan, C.
An analysis of the men’s 100 meters final
2nd World Championships, Rome 1987
Athletic Asia, Patiala, 17, (1988), 2, pp. 48-54
The author analyses the development of the
100m World Record from 1912 until 1987. Furthermore, he reports on a biomechanical analysis of the first four sprinters of the men’s 100m
final in Rome 1987. The focus of the comparative
analysis is on the reaction times, the intermediate
times (10-meter sections), as well as the number,
frequencies and lengths of the strides.
Badura, M.
Biomechanical analysis of the discus at the
2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics
New Studies in Athletics, Berlin, 25, (2010), 3+4, pp.
23-35
The techniques of the top eight placers in the
men’s and women’s discus throw at the 2009
World Championships in Athletics were studied by
a team of researchers from the Institute for Applied
Training Science in Leipzig, Germany, with the aim
of obtaining the latest data and insights into the
technical condition of the world’s current best
throwers. The throws in both the preliminary round
and finals were recorded with video cameras set
94
up in the seating area of the stadium. The release
parameters (release velocity, angle of release, etc.),
spatial and temporal characteristics of the throwing movement and other data were obtained from
a three-dimensional photogrammetric analysis of
the best throws for which suitable recordings were
available. To give guidance for coaches and athletes preparing for future high-level competitions,
the mean values and standard deviations were
derived and compared with other parameters.
Parameters describing the throwing technique
were averaged for two groups of finalists in the
two competitions and compared to those that explained the differences in the placings.
Bakarinov, Y.; Korjus, T.; Poppe, D.; Salzer, P.;
Scholz, W.
Age-group competition in the throwing events
New Studies in Athletics, Aachen, 21, (2006), 2, pp.
85-91
In line with “the Special Topic” Pathway to Elite
Athletics, articles in this issue of NSA have
looked at both the IAAF World Youth Championships and the IAAF World Junior Championships.
The latter article (Masatoshi Murakami, Satoru
Tanabe, Masaki Ishikawa, Juha Isolehto, Paavo
V. Komi, Akira Ito, Biomechanical analysis of the
javelin at the 2005 IAAF World Championships in
Athletics, New Studies in Athletics, 2006/2, pp.
67-80) focused on the throwing events and made
a point of the importance of junior competition
to the long-term development of elite throwers.
To broaden the perspective on the issues in this
area, five very experienced coaches specialising
in the throwing events, including the author of the
report Wolfram Scholz, were asked to present
their views on the junior throwing scene and particularly the World Junior Championships. Their
answers, edited for length and clarity have been
brought together for this Round Table.
Balmer, N.J.; Nevill, A.M.; Williams, A.M.
Modelling home advantage in the Summer
Olympic Games
Journal of Sports Sciences, London, 21, (2003), 6,
pp. 469-478
Home advantage in team games is well proven
and the influence of the crowd upon officials’ decisions has been identified as a plausible cause.
The aim of this study was to assess the significance of home advantage for five event groups
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
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selected from the Summer Olympic Games between 1896 and 1996, and put home advantage
in team games in context with other sports. The
five event groups were athletics and weightlifting
(predominantly objectively judged), boxing and
gymnastics (predominantly subjectively judged)
and team games (involving subjective decisions).
The proportion of points won was analysed as
a binomial response variable using generalized
linear interactive modelling. Preliminary exploration of the data highlighted the need to control
for the proportion of competitors entered and
to split the analysis pre- and post-war. Highly
significant home advantage was found in event
groups that were either subjectively judged or rely
on subjective decisions. In contrast, little or no
home advantage (and even away advantage) was
observed for the two objectively judged groups.
Officiating system was vital to both the existence
and extent of home advantage. Our findings suggest that crowd noise has a greater influence
upon officials’ decisions than players’ performances, as events with greater officiating input
enjoyed significantly greater home advantage.
Barclay, L.
A brief analysis of the women’s hammer
throw in Seville
Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide, 38, (2000), 1,
pp. 37-39
The author presents in a nutshell his observations
on the techniques employed by female hammer
throwers in Seville and tables discrepancies in
personal and seasons best performances with
the championships results.
Barra, L.
An insider’s history of the IAAF World
Championships in Athletics
New Studies in Athletics, Berlin, 25, (2010), 3+4, pp.
117-123
The importance of the creation of IAAF Athletics World Championships to modern athletics
cannot be overstated. The championships, first
staged in Helsinki in 1983, have transformed international athletics and set it on the path to the
sport – good or bad – that we know today. Helsinki and the 11 editions that have followed have
increased the public profile of the sport around the
world, made the IAAF a wealthy organisation and
been the foundation for all the IAAF’s events and
development activities, as well as those of the six
Area Associations, over the last 28 years. What
has happened at the championships themselves
– the competition results, the great stories of the
athletes, the organisational aspects – has been
well documented in the media and in publications
by the various organising committees, the IAAF
and others. But there is more than that to it. As
the General Secretary of FIDAL (the Italian athletics
federation) during the time leading up to Helsinki,
the organiser of the second edition of the championships in Rome, 1987, and an advisor to the IAAF
President throughout that same period, the author
was in a privileged position to observe many of
the personalities and discussions that took place
behind the scenes and eventually gave Rome the
event and all that is around it. With the centenary
of the IAAF approaching in 2012 it might be a good
occasion to share some of the interesting but little
known story of the event and its Impact on the organisation. The author believes that a look at this
key chapter in athletics’ history can be valuable
because big anniversary celebrations are often
closely followed by strategy and programme initiatives and it is important that these are planned
with an understanding of the context of where the
sport has come from and just how it got to where
it is today. Although the future of the IAAF World
Championships and athletics will surely be different from the past, it is valuable if one can learn
from what has happened so that perhaps one can
focus on what is important and avoid repeating
unnecessary mistakes.
Bidder, T.
Greek myths and legends
Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide, 43, (2005), 1,
pp. 4-7
The author analyses the performances of the
Australian track and field athletes at the 2004
Olympic Games in Athens (place 15) in relation
to the other teams. As far as the improvement
of this placing in the future is concerned, he arrives at the following hypothetical conclusions:
1. Whilst the IAAF entry standards are set at the
current levels, they should only act as a guide to
team selections, not the major consideration. 2. If
Australian team members are aiming at a top 16
placing as a minimum, then the Selection Policy
should reflect what is required to achieve this,
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
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No. 96: Olympic and Championship Athletics
rather than what is required to gain entry to the
meet, and coaches should prepare their athletes
accordingly. 3. After attaining the ‘A’ qualification,
repeatability and reliability at a slightly sub-maximal level would seem to be the minimum requirement to achieve a top 16 finishing position. A high
degree of repeatability and consistency higher
than the ‘B’ standard would seem reasonably
evident in the field events. 4. Caution is advised
in adopting a philosophy of selecting ‘A’ qualified
athletes only, as it will lead to much smaller Australian Team sizes at this age level. AA would then
have to ensure that developing athletes obtain international experience elsewhere. 5. The positive
motivational effect of participation in an Olympic
Games for athletes should not be foregone at the
expense of an Olympic result. The greater good
of the sport must be a consideration. This carrot must be used sparingly and seen as the prize
that it truly is. 6. However, selecting A’s with quality back up performances would be appropriate
for a World Championships as they occur more
often within the 4-yearly cycle, and can interfere
with the long-term planning/preparation of athletes and coaches who are aiming to win Olympic
places. 7. This participation/achievement balance should be proportional to the relative strategic importance of the championships, and the
bearing that the results have for the sport. This
would mean smaller teams at World Championships but larger for the Commonwealth Games,
with the Olympic Games as the ultimate aim.
Australia should also reconsider the efficacy of
spreading a limited talent base across the wide
spectrum of the sport, especially considering that
the hardest events to do well at internationally are
those where the most athletes are encouraged
to participate. lt is somewhat ironic also that in
these events Australia also has the most qualified
and accredited coaches. To be successful at the
highest level, coaches/athletes and leaders of the
sport need to think more strategically about how
to go about developing the Australian athletes,
coaches and the sport in its wider context over
the next four years towards Beijing 2008.
Borms, J.; Hebbelinck, M.
Review of studies on Olympic athletes
In: J. E. L. Carter (Ed.), Physical structure of Olympic athletes. Part II: Kinanthropometry of Olympic athletes (pp.
7-27). Basel: Karger, 1984 (Medicine and Sport, Vol. 18)
96
Studies on Olympic athletes have been reviewed
beginning with the pioneering works of Knoll in
St. Moritz 1928 and Buytendijk in Amsterdam
1928, until the latest study, MOGAP. Over the
years, an increase in the number of subjects has
been noted as well as an increase in the number of nations the athletes came from, the events
they were representing, the variables that were
studied. Mostly, if not solely, anthropometric
measurements have been taken. The body form
of Olympic Winter Games athletes was already
described in 1928; the somatotype was studied
on the London 1948 athletes and the somatotype
description and analysis continued to enjoy much
interest from the investigators. The lack of much
cardiovascular data is striking but not surprising
since athletes are, generally speaking, not very
eager to be measured on site, even if the methods applied in the investigations are non-invasive.
Therefore the few physiological results on athletes participating at the Olympic Games are of
importance. The lack of data on Winter Olympics
is another striking fact. The exceptions are Knoll’s
work at the St. Moritz Winter Games in 1928, and
limited data from the Sapporo Games in 1972.
On the other hand, the quality of the investigations, the team preparation before and during the
actual project emphasize the seriousness of purpose with which researchers undertook ‘Olympic
projects’ in recent years. Parallel with the studies
on Olympic athletes actually measured during the
Games, other excellent studies have been reported in the literature. The fact that the athletes in
these studies were not, strictly speaking, Olympic participants (although many may have been)
should in no way deter the interested researcher
from consulting some of these works, e.g. Eiben,
Maas, Mendez de Perez. One of the critical questions for the studies on Olympic athletes is that of
the representativeness of the samples. As a matter of fact, none of the groups of subjects were
based an random sampling techniques and very
often small numbers of subjects were used for
computing descriptive statistics. This explains
partially why no attempt was made to produce
tables summarizing the most important anthropometric variables over the Olympics. Different
measuring techniques were used at different occasions (Martin and Saller, Tanner, IBP, MOGAP)
which made comparisons rather difficult if not
impossible.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
No. 96: Olympic and Championship Athletics
Bouchard, C.; Malina, R. M.
Genetics and Olympic athletes: a discussion of methods and issues
In: J. E. L. Carter (Ed.), Physical structure of Olympic
athletes. Part II: Kinanthropometry of Olympic athletes (pp. 28-38). Basel: Karger, 1984 (Medicine and
Sport, Vol. 18)
The Olympic athlete is genetically endowed for
the characters associated with the requirement of
his/her sport and has been exposed to a favourable milieu. This chapter considers the problems
of studying the genetics of Olympic athletes and
athletic performance in general. Subsequently,
the discussion focuses an the genetics of Olympic athletes from the point of view of familial concentration, single genetic locus allelic variation,
genetic variance in complex multi-factorial biological traits related to performance, and genotype dependency of the sensitivity to training.
Little hard evidence is available at this stage for
the practical use of the coach or the sport scientist. However, research strongly suggests that
genetic variation may be associated with the elite
athlete in two ways. First, because of a favourable
genotype, the Olympic athlete in a given sport is
among the small number of individuals who can
reach the level of a superior performance. Second, the Olympic athlete has also inherited a genotype associated with a high response to the relevant training regimen. Thus, it seems quite likely
that Olympic athletes are individuals with superior
genotype prior to training and with respect to the
specific requirements of a given Sport and are
also highly sensitive to training. Nothing is known,
however, about the genetic variants and the genetic mechanisms involved.
the men’s event with a Championship Record of
2.38m; Javier Sotomayor (CUB) and Hollis Conway (USA) both cleared a height of 2.36m to take
the silver and bronze medals respectively. The
purpose of this project was to study the different
individual strategies of organizing performancedetermining factors as well as the individual patterns of segmental contribution to the entire body
motion in the High Jump.
Campos, J.; Brizuela, G.; Ramón, V.
Three-dimensional kinematic analysis
of elite javelin throwers at the 1999 IAAF
World Championships in Athletics
New Studies in Athletics, Aachen, 19, (2004), 2, pp.
47-57
A biomechanical analysis of the javelin throw at the
1999 IAAF World Athletics Championships in Seville was carried out by the University of Valencia
(Department of Physical Education and Sports).
This paper presents the results of a study of the
male finalists. The methodology used is based on
3D video photogrammetry at 50Hz. The results
show the characteristics of the throwers’ individual
mode) at the event, which for practical purposes
can be compared with the performance of the
same throwers in other competitions. Detailed information on the kinematic parameters is provided. The most significant differences between the
patterns used by the throwers are located in the
kinematic chain in the preparatory and final delivery phases, in the instant of javelin release and the
vertical and horizontal velocity combinations of the
javelin at delivery.
Brüggemann, G.-P.; Loch, M.
The high jump
Carter, J. E. L. (Ed.)
Physical structure of Olympic athletes. Part
I: The Montreal Olympic Games Anthropological Project
New Studies in Athletics, Monaco, 7, (1992), 1, pp.
67-72
The biomechanical analysis of the High Jump for
both men and women at the 3rd World Championships in Athletics, Tokyo, 1991, focused on the
eight finalists in each event. The women’s competition was dominated by Heike Henkel (GER),
who demonstrated both superior disposition and
talent in winning the event with a National Record
of 2.05m. Yelena Yelesina (URS) took the silver
medal with 1.98m, and Inga Babakova (URS) the
bronze with 1.96m. Charles Austin (USA) won
Basel: Karger, 1982, 182 pp., (Medicine and Sport,
Vol. 16)
The invited contributions to this book provide detailed analysis of the physical characteristics of
457 athletes at the Montreal Olympics in 1976.
Analysis is based on a broad range of measurements, including anthropometric dimensions, somatotype photographs, hand-wrist radiographs
in young athletes, and menarche questionnaires
for females. The volume also marks the first presentation of data on the physical characteristics
of female rowers, and male fencers, field hockey
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
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No. 96: Olympic and Championship Athletics
players and judo competitors. Descriptive and
comparative statistics, figures, and raw data are
provided. Following an outline of the organization
of the Montreal Olympic Games Anthropological
Project, and analysis of family size and birth order
of athletes, the book describes and compares
the absolute size of athletes on a large number
of variables by sport and event. Subsequent
chapters report on methods and findings covering such topics as absolute body size, somatotype, proportionality, and body composition.
The maturity status of young male and female
athletes is also evaluated. The final contribution
presents the first work exploring factor structure
of absolute size measures for male and female
athletes. Sports physicians, coaches, trainers
and physical education professionals should find
the volume particularly useful in describing and
comparing the prototypes of Olympic athletes in
various sports as well as providing information regarding the relationships between structure and
function in athletic performance.
Carter, J. E. L. (Ed.)
Physical structure of Olympic athletes. Part
II: Kinanthropometry of Olympic athletes
Basel: Karger, 1984, 245 pp., (Medicine and Sport,
Vol. 18)
This volume uses the methods of kinanthropometry to provide an integrated study of the physique and performance of Olympic athletes. For
the first time, all accumulated data, derived from
measurements of athletes at Olympic Games from
1928 to 1976, have been collected, reviewed, and
analyzed in a single work. Basic orientation is provided in the opening chapters, which discuss the
potential and limitations of kinanthropometry and
summarize findings from all major studies of Olympic athletes. Background information is also offered on the effects of genetic variation an physical
structure and performance and on the importance
of sociological and cultural influences in the history
of the Olympic Garnes and the profile of Olympic
athletes. The remaining chapters, which constitute the largest section of the book, report the
results of kinanthropometric analyses applied to a
large number of variables. Chapters examine age
and overall body size, somatotypes, proportional
size, skinfolds and body composition of athletes
from various Olympics. Extensive description and
analysis of anthropometric dimensions are made
98
with respect to gender, sport or event, and raceethnicity. Other chapters analyze the growth and
maturity status of young Olympic athletes, report
the results of comparative factor analyses of variables for athletes at the Mexico City and Montreal
Games, and examine changes in Olympic and
world records in track and field and swimming.
The extensive material presented in the volume
is submitted to further analysis in the concluding
chapter, which attempts to establish major conclusions and outline directions for further study.
Unprecedented in the thoroughness and extent of
its coverage, the book does much to set forth conceptual clarity in a field characterized by the difficulties of comparing data from different studies.
Representing the first attempt to synthesize such
widely divergent data, the book offers a unique
reference for exercise scientists, human biologists,
coaches, and athletes interested in understanding
relationships between human structure and physical performance.
Carter, J. E. L.
Age and body size of Olympic athletes
In: J. E. L. Carter (Ed.), Physical structure of Olympic
athletes. Part II: Kinanthropometry of Olympic athletes (pp. 53-79). Basel: Karger, 1984 (Medicine and
Sport, Vol. 18)
Age and body size (height and weight) were examined for athletes at 6 summer and 2 winter Olympic
Games from 1928 to 1976. Means were tabulated
for all sports and both sexes from populations and
samples. Sports were grouped for comparison
into ball game, aquatic, individual and weight-class
sports, as well as track and field. Comparisons of
lengths, breadths and girths were made for some
sports. Differences were observed within and between many sports or events in terms of age and
size, as well as by country, gender, race-ethnicity,
teams and style. There were no major differences
between some sports or events within sports,
partly because of wide variation in age and size
of competitors. There were large increases in size
between the 1928 and recent Olympics in many
sports, but fewer and smaller increases between
1960 or 1964 and 1976. Sexual dimorphic patterns in height and weight of athletes are consistent with those found in non-athletes and therefore
are essentially biological, but variations in absolute
values by event are probably biomechanical and
physiological.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
No. 96: Olympic and Championship Athletics
Carter, J. E. L.
Body compositon of Montreal Olympic athletes
In: J. E. L. Carter (Ed.), Physical structure of Olympic
athletes. Part I: The Montreal Olympic Games Anthropological Project (pp. 107-116). Basel: Karger,
1982 (Medicine and Sport, Vol. 16)
Aspects of body composition of the Montreal
Olympic athletes were investigated by means
of skinfold profiles, sums of skinfolds, estimated percent fat from skinfolds, and fractional
masses. The skinfold profiles for both sexes
were similar in shape but differed in magnitude
among sports. The female profiles were different
in shape compared to the males. Females had
larger skinfolds than males at all sites, but the differences were greater at limb sites than at trunk
sites. Differences on sums of skinfolds and estimated percent fat were found among both male
and female sports groups. The lowest means
were in male and female gymnasts and distance
runners, and the highest means in fencers and
hockey players for males, and canoeists, rowers
and swimmers for females. Students had larger
skinfolds than athletes even though the students
were relatively lean compared to other comparable samples. In terms of fractional masses, many
within and between sex comparisons revealed
similar proportional total body masses, but
males had relatively lower adipose tissue mass,
and higher bone, muscle, and residual masses,
compared to females.
Carter, J. E. L.
Somatotypes of Olympic athletes from
1948 to 1976
In: J. E. L. Carter (Ed.), Physical structure of Olympic
athletes. Part II: Kinanthropometry of Olympic athletes (pp. 80-109). Basel: Karger, 1984 (Medicine
and Sport, Vol. 18)
Somatotypes of 1757 male and 289 female Olympic athletes competing in 23 sports at 4 Olympic
Games were described and analyzed. Olympic
athletes of both genders had somatotypes which
represented only a limited number of those found
in the general population. Athletes were less endomorphic and more mesomorphic than reference groups of young adults. Somatotype sexual
dimorphism in athletes was similar to that of reference groups and persisted to a similar extent regardless of sport of event. There was little overlap
between somatotype distributions of male and
female athletes. The average somatotype for male
athletes was 2-5-2.5, and for female athletes it
was 3-4-3. No consistent pattem of somatotypes
of medallists in a sport or event compared to those
of others in the same sport or event was observed.
Different somatotypes are needed as one of the
prerequisites for success some sports or events,
but in some others the same somatotypes are
found. The male sports in which mean somatotypes are most different from the 2-5-2.5 average
are weight lifting, wrestling, judo, gymnastics, basketball, fencing, field hockey, and water polo. The
female sports in which mean somatotype are most
different from the 3-4-3 average are canoeing and
gymnastics. Within most sports there are few or no
differences by event, style, or race-ethnicity. However, there are differences within sport: (1) across
Olympics in female canoeing, gymnastics, track
sprinting-hurdling, and in male swimming; (2) by
team or geographic origin in male and female rowing, and male field hockey; (3) by race-ethnicity in
female gymnastics and male field hockey; and (4)
by event in male and female swimming and track
and field, in male cycling, boxing, judo, weight lifting and wrestling.
Carter, J. E. L.; Aubry, S. P.; Sleet, D. A.
Somatotypes of Montreal Olympic athletes
In: J. E. L. Carter (Ed.), Physical structure of Olympic
athletes. Part I: The Montreal Olympic Games Anthropological Project (pp. 53-80). Basel: Karger,
1982 (Medicine and Sport, Vol. 16)
Heath-Carter anthropometric somatotypes were
calculated and comparisons were made within
and among sports, between sexes, and between
Canadian university students and Olympic athletes. When the male and female athletes were
compared, males were found to be less endomorphic, more mesomorphic, and less ectomorphic
than females. Males were represented in dominant mesomorphic categories twice as often as
females. The mean somatotype for male athletes
was 2.1-5.2-2.6, while for females it was 2.8-3.83.1. Both male and female athletes were more
mesomorphic and less endomorphic than the students. No difference was found on ectomorphy.
Examination of sexual dimorphism in terms of somatotype means showed no greater differences
between male and female athletes than between
male and female students. For male athletes, the
scatter of somatotypes about their mean within
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sports appeared greatest in field hockey and
smallest in judo, gymnastics, weight lifting, and
wrestling. In addition, there was less variation in
somatotype among male boxers and judo competitors than among fencers and track and field
athletes. When boxers, judo players, weight lifters, and wrestlers were compared, weight lifters
were more endomorphic than boxers and judo
competitors, and more mesomorphic but less
ectomorphic than boxers, judo competitors, and
wrestlers. Boxers were less endomorphic and mesomorphic, but more ectomorphic than judo competitors, wrestlers or weight lifters. As body weight
class increased in these sports, the athletes exhibited a tendency towards more mesomorphy and
endomorphy, but less ectomorphy. Judo competitors, wrestlers and weight lifters were more mesomorphic than athletes in other sports. In addition,
large differences on endomorphy and mesomorphy were found between groups of male gymnasts, fencers, field hockey players, cyclists, rowers, swimmers and canoeists, with the gymnasts
and canoeists showing the lowest endomorphy
while field hockey players and fencers exhibited
the highest endomorphy. Gymnasts and canoeists were higher on mesomorphy than fencers,
field hockey players, cyclists, fencers and rowers.
The majority of female athletes were balanced mesomorphs or central somatotypes with 60% of the
gymnasts classified as mesomorph-ectomorphs.
Canoeists and gymnasts showed the smallest
scatter of somatotypes about their means, while
rowers, swimmers, and track and field athletes
showed the greatest scatter. Gymnasts and track
and field athletes had less endomorphy than canoeists, rowers and swimmers. Only rowers and
track and field athletes were different on ectomorphy with the rowers lower. Within sport comparisons showed lower mesomorphy and higher ectomorphy in male road cyclists than in sprint and
pursuit cyclists. In general, there were no differences within male or female rowers with respect to
geographic origin, style, or event, except that West
German males were more endomorphic than their
USA counterparts. Male backstroke swimmers
were more ectomorphic than freestyle, breaststroke or butterfly-medley swimmers, but there
were no differences among female swimmers by
stroke. Track and field athletes of both sexes were
generally low in endomorphy (except for throwers)
100
but showed greater variation on mesomorphy and
ectomorphy. Throwers, decathletes, and pentathletes exhibited more mesomorphy and less
ectomorphy than jumpers and throwers. In field
hockey there were somatotype differences between teams from New Zealand, Argentina, and
combined Kenya-Malaysia. In addition the White
players were more mesomorphic and less ectomorphic than Indian-Pakistani players. Study of
the somatotypes of Montreal Olympic athletes has
revealed : (1) differences between athletes and
students; (2) differences between male and female
athletes which are similar to the differences in students; (3) different somatotypes are associated
with success in some sports; while in other sports
there are similar somatotypes; (4) a narrow range
of somatotypes in some sports and events and a
wide range in others. These results tend to confirm
and amplify those from the Mexico City Olympics,
as well as adding new information regarding the
somatotypes of Olympic athletes. The importance
of having or attaining the appropriate somatotype
as a prerequisite for Olympic competition in most
sports is reinforced.
Carter, J. E. L.; Ross, W. D.; Aubry, S. P.; Hebbelinck, M.; Borms, J.
Anthropometry of Montreal Olympic athletes
In: J. E. L. Carter (Ed.), Physical structure of Olympic
athletes. Part I: The Montreal Olympic Games Anthropological Project (pp. 25-52). Basel: Karger,
1982 (Medicine and Sport, Vol. 16)
Comparisons on body size were made between
athletes at Montreal, athletes at Mexico City, and
Canadian students. In terms of percentiles male
and female athletes at Montreal were larger than
those at Mexico City on 15 variables including
lengths, breadths, girths and skinfolds, but were
smaller in shoulder breadth. The male and female
students tended to be smaller than the Montreal
athletes on most variables. The male athletes were
older than the students, but had narrower hips
and smaller skinfolds, whereas the female athletes were lighter and had smaller skinfolds than
the students. Analyses among male athletes in
weight-classified sports revealed that wrestlers
and judo competitors did not differ on any variables. There were no differences among the four
sports on height, lengths, breadths, or skinfolds.
Weight lifters were older than the other sportsmen.
There were some differences on girths among the
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four sports with boxers generally smaller than
the weight lifters. When comparisons were made
among the other male sports, swimmers were
found to be the youngest. Rowers were heavier
and taller, and had greater sitting height, leg
length, shoulder and hip breadth, and forearm and
thigh girths than most other sportsmen. Gymnasts
were lighter and shorter, and had shorter arms and
legs, smaller hip breadth, thigh and calf girths than
other athletes. Swimmers, canoeists, hockey players, fencers, and cyclists were intermediate on
most variables, with few differences among themselves. There were some differences within male
sports. Road cyclists had wider hips than track
cyclists, and the Whites were considerably taller
and heavier than the Blacks plus Orientals. In field
hockey the main differences were in weight, where
the Argentinians as well as the Whites were heavier than the Indian-Pakistanis. Rowers in single and
two-man shells were older and had wider hips
than those in the larger shells. Swimmers were
generally similar among strokes, except that butterfly swimmers had larger thigh girths than backstrokers. Among track and field jumpers, distance
runners and sprinters, the jumpers were heavier
and had larger thigh and calf girths than distance
or sprint runners, as well as longer legs than
sprinters. Distance runners had the smallest upper
arm and forearm girths, wider hips than sprinters
and smaller skinfolds than jumpers. Comparisons
among the female athletes by sport showed that
the biggest differences were between the rowers
and gymnasts. Rowers were taller and heavier,
had longer legs, wider hips, and larger forearm
girths than gymnasts, swimmers, and track and
field athletes. Gymnasts were ranked lowest on all
size variables and were lighter, shorter, and had
less sitting height than other sportswomen. Rowers and canoeists were similar on 9 of the 12 size
variables. When comparisons were made within
sports the swimmers were similar when compared
by stroke, except that the breaststrokers were
older and taller than butterfly swimmers. The rowers did not differ by events, geographic region, or
style of rowing, but the 4 woman crews were older
than those in other events. Among track and field
athletes, jumpers had longer legs than distance
runners, and sprinters plus hurdlers. In addition,
the jumpers were taller, and had longer arms and
legs than some of the other groups. Between-sex
differences were inferred from means of weight,
height, 3 lengths, 2 breadths, and 2 girths in five
sports. The sexual dimorphism of the Canadian
students was similar to that of the majority of the
sport groups, but some of the sport groups had
different patterns compared to each other and
the students. The largest absolute differences on
most variables were seen in rowers and canoeists,
and the smallest in gymnasts and distance runners. Males are larger than females on all variables
except hip breadth, on which they are similar, and
thigh girth on which students, canoeists, sprinters
and distance runners and gymnasts are similar or
smaller. In gymnastics the differences are greatest on arm compared to leg length, sitting height
compared to leg length, and arm girth compared
to thigh girth; in sprinters the differences are greatest on leg length compared to sitting height, and
arm compared to thigh girth; in distance runners
the greatest differences are on height compared
to weight, and in jumpers the greatest differences
are on leg length compared to sitting height, and
on hip compared to shoulder breadth.
Carter, J. E. L.; Yuhasz, M. S.
Skinfolds and body composition of Olympic
athletes
In: J. E. L. Carter (Ed.), Physical structure of Olympic
athletes. Part II: Kinanthropometry of Olympic athletes (pp. 144-182). Basel: Karger, 1984 (Medicine
and Sport, Vol. 18)
In order to estimate levels of fatness in Olympic athletes, skinfold data an 1690 male and 308 female
athletes were assembled and analyzed. Data were
available from 4 Olympics for males and 3 for females. Comparisons were made by gender, sport,
event, Olympics and reference groups, through
use of 6 skinfolds, sums of 4 and of 6 skinfolds,
and skinfold patterns. The results are summarized
as follows: (a) Skinfolds of athletes in most sports
are smaller than in comparable reference groups.
(b) Sexual dimorphism in skinfolds, in terms of both
level and pattern, is consistent within sport. (c) Female athletes have thicker skinfolds and different
patterns than males. Mean skinfold patterns of 4
or 6 sites are consistent in pattern for the game
gender, but there are differences in level according to sport. (d) The lowest skinfolds for female
athletes are found in gymnasts, middle distance
runners and jumpers, with the highest skinfolds
found in shot-discus throwers, swimmers, row-
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ers, and canoers. (e) The lowest skinfolds for male
athletes are found in gymnasts, runners, hurdlers,
walkers, pole vaulters, and in some athletes in the
lighter weights of weight-class sports. (f) The highest skinfolds are found in shot-discus-hammer
throwers, water polo players, fencers, and athletes weighing over 100 kg in weight-class sports.
(g) In general, there are few differences between
events in most sports, the exceptions being track
and field and the weight-class sports. (h) In male
athletes there is no evidence of change in skinfolds
for those in track and field, weight lifting or wrestling from 1960 to 1976. (i) The consistency of skinfold levels and patterns by sport are suggested
as models associated with optimal performance
for athletes in these sports. (j) Skinfolds are suggested as useful for monitoring athletes in training,
and 6 skinfolds are recommended as the minimal
number. (k) When taken by a trained anthropometrist, the sum of skinfolds is probably as accurate
an indicator of levels of fatness in Olympic athletes
as other procedures presently used. (l) When adiposity is low in athletes, fat-free weight is probably
of greater functional significance than fat weight.
Chimier, J.; Giovanelli, S.; Levy, L.; Li Yun Fong,
N.; Obajimi, R.; Severe, J.; Shuyong, F.; Stander, R.; Zelichenok, V.
Roundtable No. 36: 1st World Youth Championships in Athletics
New Studies in Athletics, Aachen, 15, (2000), 1, pp.
61-67
From July 16 to 18, 1999 the IAAF staged its 1st
World Youth Championships in Athletics (WYCA)
at Bydgoszcz, Poland. A new event in the international competition calendar, it provoked much
discussion among officials, coaches, athletes
and scientists. The basic competition regulations
were: 1) Three day competition; 2) a limited programme; 3) two athletes maximum per event and
per country; 4) no entry standard; 5) maximum
two events (of which one race above 400m) plus
one relay per athlete. The relative success of this
inaugural event, as well as other opinions on the
championships from federations, coaches and
athletes, is discussed in this Roundtable.
Crawford, S. A. G. M.
Olympic Games, 1896-1984. The march of
technology – evolution of scientific sport
Olympic Review, Lausanne, (1982), 181, pp. 666-670
102
On the basis of some examples, the author describes the effects that innovations in the areas
of training science, sports medicine, biochemistry, sports facilities and equipment have on the
Olympic Games.
Crotty, J.
Berlin 2009: IAAF world class coaches report
Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide, 49, (2011), 2,
pp. 27-29
The author analyses the technical aspects of the
men’s and women’s Triple and Long Jump from
the Berlin World Championships in 2009. He also
reflects on the results and trends from this competition.
DeFrantz, A. L.
The Olympic Games: our birthright to sports
In: G. L. Cohen (ed.), Women in sport: issues and
controversies. Newbury Park et al.: Sage, 1993, pp.
185-192
Supported by false or falsely interpreted reporting, sport officials still succeed in hindering women from taking part in Olympic sports. Because of
the adherence to prejudices, the fact that the difference between the women’s world records and
those of the men has become steadily smaller is
also hardly noticed. Since sport is a birthright,
women must also have free access to all positions in all areas of sports.
Dick, F.
Preparation for a major championship
Track and Field Quarterly Review, Ann Arbor, 37,
(1987), 1, pp. 33-37
Using the example of the long-term and mediumterm preparation of the British track-and-field athletes for the 1988 Olympic Games in Seoul, the
author shows which factors should be considered
in this context. Apart from general questions, the
focus is on problems of training preparation and
the framework conditions.
Digel, H.
Spectators in Olympic sport
New Studies in Athletics, Aachen, 24, (2009), 2, pp.
67-69
Without spectators, modern top-level sport is
inconceivable. However, despite their significance, they are a phenomenon about which little
is known. The author attended competitions of
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
No. 96: Olympic and Championship Athletics
more than half the sports at the 2008 Olympic
Games in Beijing. Drawing on this experience, he
finds that spectators in the various sports are by
no means uniform. Rather, they display a wide
variety of features. Some of these define a type
of spectator seen across many sports, such as
those who attend voluntarily, VIPs and invited
guests, and students and military who are forced
to fill seats and given equipment to make noise.
Mentioning some negative trends that can be
observed in modern spectators, he concludes
that further research would be worthwhile. Sport
organisers, including international federations
and the International Olympic Committee, have
a responsibility and an interest in this area. They
must first better understand spectator attitudes
and behaviour and then develop them in a way
that benefits their sports and society as a whole.
Digel, H.
The risk of the Youth Olympic Games
New Studies in Athletics, Aachen, 23, (2008), 3, pp.
53-58
The decision to create a Youth Olympic Games,
with the first edition to be held in Singapore in
2010, creates opportunities for the International
Olympic Committee (IOC) and the international
sport federations to promote positive values in
a sustainable way. However, the organisation
and staging of the Games entails serious risks
of creating unintended and undesirable side effects that could threaten the success of the event
or even lead to the self-destruction the current
sports system. Among those examined are 1) the
practical implications of trying to .integrate value
educational activities with high-performance
sport competition, 2) the exacerbation of negative trends in international sport such as doping
and over-commercialisation, 3) the difficulties
of designing the competition programme of the
Games and limiting the number of participants,
4) issues related to the mass media and hosting cities, and 5) the long-term effects an the
senior Olympic Games and international sports.
Accepting that the Games will take place, the
author recommends that the organisers find creative concepts to address the issues raised and
that research be conducted so that lessons for
preparation of future editions can be learned.
Downes, S.
The Sherbrooke experience. Reflections on
the 3rd IAAF World Youth Championships in
Athletics
New Studies in Athletics, Aachen, 18, (2003), 3, pp.
7-12
The author, a long time international athletics
correspondent, attended the 3rd IAAF World
Youth Championships in Athletics in Sherbrooke, Canada, 2003. There he met and spoke
with some of the event’s organisers, participating athletes and their coaches. Whilst probing
the appropriateness of the nature and format of
the championships, a question he leaves open,
he experiences the special atmosphere created by the event. He is particularly impressed
with the “This is Athletics” clinic organised on
the days immediately prior to the championships and the valuable interaction between alltime athletics greats, such as Edwin Moses and
Jackie Joyner-Kersee, and the young athletes
taking part in the event.
Ferro, A.; Rivera, A.; Pagola, I.; Ferreruela, M.;
Marin, A.; Rocandio, V.
Biomechanical analysis of the 7th World
Championships in Athletics Seville 1999
New Studies in Athletics, Aachen, 16, (2001), 1+2,
pp. 25-60
The authors present the findings of a biomechanical research project carried out at the 7th
World Championships in Athletics in Seville,
1999. This project was focused on the sprint
events only. The objectives of this project have
been: to analyse the performance in the 100 m
to 400 m sprints, to produce reference values for
training programming and obtain a methodology
based on two dimensional video systems ready
for the kinematic analysis of competition. In the
following the results of the men’s and women’s
sprint finals are illustrated and interpreted.
Grady, D.
Looking back at the U.S. 4x1 disasters in
Berlin
Track Coach, Mountain View, (2010), 190, pp. 60576061
IAAF Rule 170, section 14, states the following:
In all Relay Races, the baton shall be passed
within the take-over zone. The passing of the baton commences when it is first touched by the
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receiving athlete and is completed the moment
it is in the hand of only the receiving athlete. In
relation to the take-over zone it is only the position of the baton which is decisive, and not the
position of the bodies of the athletes. Passing
of the baton outside the take-over zone shall
result in disqualification. After the 2008 Beijing
Olympics USA Track & Field’s Project 30 Task
Force wrote that, “the United States has made
relay running a 400-meter enigma, wrapped in
a conundrum and shrouded in mystery.” British
officials at the recent World Championships in
Berlin filed a protest against the American men’s
4x100 relay which resulted in a disqualification
for an exchange violation. A review of the third
U.S. exchange from Shawn Crawford to Darvis
Patton, running in lane 7 next to the Brits in lane
6, showed Darvis’s hand touching the baton before he was in the exchange (take-over) zone.
The U.S. women’s 4x1, needing no outside assistance, managed to knock their team out of
the competition the following day. Against this
background, the author discusses the mistakes
made by the U.S. Relay Teams in the exchange
and an improvement of the exchange technique
is urgently recommended.
Grund, M.; Ritzdorf, W.
From talent to elite athlete: a study of the
performance development of the finalists at
the 1999 IAAF World Youth Championships
New Studies in Athletics, Aachen, 21, (2006), 2, pp.
43-55
The introduction of the IAAF World Youth Championships (WYC) was preceded by debate about
the dangers that young athletes would be led to
specialise too early and that highly specific training would be applied, leading to early stagnation
in performance and/or injury induced drop-outs.
The aim of this study was to provide empirical
data to inform both sides of the discussion and
elevate it from an exchange of unsupported statements. A detailed analysis was made of the performance development of the finalists (n = 266)
at the first WYC, which took place in 1999. lt was
found, among other things, that 90% of the group
studied continued to improve in the subsequent
years and 88% mode the world top 100 in their
best disciplines. The authors concluded that as
21% of the group qualified for the IAAF World
Championships in Athletics and/or the Olympic
104
Games between 2000 and 2004, there is no basis on this point for rejecting international Youth
Championships as a valuable element of the
world competition calendar.
Gupta, R. K.
Comparison of performance of Indian male
athletes in Asian Games with the winning
performance of Olympic and Commonwealth Games in certain jumping events
In: L. S. Sidhu et al. (eds.), Trends in sports sciences:
Conference of the Indian Association of Sports Scientists and Physical Educationists, 3, Patiala, 1988,
pp. 29-37
The author compares the competition performances of the Indian long and triple jumpers at
the Asian Games with those at the Commonwealth and Olympic Games during the period
from 1954 to 1986. During this period, there was
a significant improvement performances in these
competitions. There was a continuous performance improvement in the long jump until 1970.
In 1974, there was a strong increase in performance through the 8.07 m jump of T. C. Yohonnan. From then on, the performances decreased
again. In the triple jump, too, there was a steady
increase of the performance curve between 1951
and 1986. The performance developments of the
long and triple jumpers in the competitions mentioned are not comparable, since India was not
represented in the long jump at the Asian Games
in 1986.
Heazlewood, T.
Prediction versus reality: the use of mathematical models to predict elite performance in swimming and athletics at the
Olympic Games
Journal of sports science and medicine, Bursa, 5,
(2006), 4, pp. 541-547, URL: http://www.jssm.org/
vol5/n4/10/v5n4-10text.php
A number of studies have attempted to predict
future Olympic performances in athletics and
swimming based on trends displayed in previous
Olympic Games. Some have utilised linear models to plot and predict change, whereas others
have utilised multiple curve estimation methods
based on inverse, sigmoidal, quadratic, cubic,
compound, logistic, growth and exponential
functions. The non-linear models displayed closer fits to the actual data and were used to predict
performance changes 10’s, 100’s and 1000’s of
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years into the future. Some models predicted that
in some events male and female times and distances would crossover and females would eventually display superior performance to males.
Predictions using mathematical models based on
pre-1996 athletics and pre-1998 swimming performances were evaluated based on how closely
they predicted sprints and jumps, and freestyle
swimming performances for both male and females at the 2000 and 2004 Olympic Games.
The analyses revealed predictions were closer for
the shorter swimming events where men’s 50m
and women’s 50m and 100m actual times were
almost identical to predicted times. For both men
and women, as the swim distances increased
the accuracy of the predictive model decreased,
where predicted times were 4.5-7% faster than
actual times achieved. The real trends in some
events currently displaying performance declines
were not foreseen by the mathematical models,
which predicted consistent improvements across
all athletic and swimming events selected for in
this study.
Hollings, S.
World junior success is a prerequisite for
world senior success
Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide, 44, (2006), 1,
pp. 14-17
Contrary to widespread belief, there is a high
positive relationship between athletes to win
medals or make finals at the World Junior Championships and then go on to win medals at a Senior World Championships or Olympic Games.
The author attempts to prove the hypothesis that
success at a world senior level is dependent on
success at the junior level, and shows the implications of this for athletics in New Zealand.
Hollings, S.; Hopkins, W. G.; Hume, P. A.
Environmental and venue-related factors
affecting the performance of elite male
track athletes
European Journal of Sport Science, Abingdon, 12,
(2012), 3, pp. 201-206, URL: http://www.tandfonline.
com/doi/pdf/10.1080/17461391.2011.552640
The effects of environmental and other venuerelated factors need to be taken into account
when tracking an individual athlete’s competitive
performance. The authors report the effects of
such factors on the performances of elite male
track athletes. Performance times throughout the
athletic careers of male track athletes placed in
the top 16 of their event in at least one Olympic
Games or World Championship between 2000
and 2009 were downloaded from the athletics results database at tilastopaja.org. In the 10 running
events (100 m through 10,000 m, including hurdles and steeplechase), there were 619 athletes
with 43,999 performances, all with environmental
and venue-related information. Times for a given
event were log-transformed to estimate percent
effects in a mixed linear model with fixed effects
for the environmental and venue-related factors
and random effects for within-athlete race-to-race
variability and individual athlete performance progression. After adjustment for quadratic trends for
year of competition and each athlete’s age, the
model provided estimates of effects of standard
of competition (Olympics and World Championships vs other competitions), altitude (sea level
vs ≥ 1000 m), timing method (electronic vs stopwatch), wind speed (greater than vs less than 2
m/s), and venue (outdoors vs indoors). Uncertainty in estimates of environmental effects expressed
as 99% confidence limits was sufficiently small (at
most ±0.9%) for almost all outcomes to be clear
when interpreted in relation to smallest important
changes (0.3-0.5%). Olympics and World Championships produced substantially faster times for
events up to 400 m (0.7-0.8%) but slower times for
the 1500 m, 5000 m, and 10,000 m events (0.6%,
1.2%, and 0.2% respectively), presumably reflecting differences in preparation or pacing. Altitude
produced substantially faster times in some 100
m, 200 m, 400 m, and hurdle events (0.1-0.5%)
but substantially slower times in longer races (1.12.4%), reflecting opposing effects of altitude on air
resistance and aerobic power. Stopwatch times
were faster for sprints (0.3-0.5%) but slower for
1500 m and longer events (0.6-2.1%), possibly
because of bias in reaction time and confounding by standard of competition. A typical trailing
wind of 2 m/s conferred small benefits (0.5-0.8%)
on the three sprint events where wind speed was
recorded. Indoor events were consistently slower
(1.6-2.3%), a likely consequence of tight bends. In
conclusion, use of these environmental and venue-related effects to adjust performances of male
track athletes will make comparative assessment
of all their performances more meaningful.
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Hollings, S. C.; Hume, P. A.
Is success at the IAAF World Junior Athletics Championships a prerequisite for success at World Senior Championships or
Olympic Games?
New Studies in Athletics, Berlin, 25, (2010), 2, pp.
65-77
The debate about whether world-level success
as a junior athlete is necessary for world-level
success as a senior regularly engages coaches,
but the discussion is usually based on anecdotal
evidence. This study retrospectively tracked the
performances of elite senior athletes as they developed (Part A) and prospectively analysed the
transition of medallists at the IAAF World Junior
Championships through to their senior performances (Part B). Results from Part A showed
that of the World Championships in Athletics and
Olympic Games gold medallists who had previously competed at an IAAF World Junior Championships, 80% were finalists at the junior level.
This would support the notion that success as a
junior is prerequisite for world-level success as a
senior. However, a contrasting picture emerges
from Part 8, which shows that over a half (54%) of
junior medallists did not go on to compete at the
top global events and only 34% of junior medallist
go on to be a finalist at the global level. Following
their detailed presentation of the results, authors
discuss the implications for maximising the conversion of junior talents to senior performers and
reducing attrition and then make suggestions for
further research.
Housh, T. J.; Thorland, W. E.; Johnson, G. O.;
Tharp, G. D.; Cisar, C. J.
Anthropometric and body build variables as
discriminators of event participation in elite
adolescent male track and field athletes
Journal of Sports Sciences, London, 2, (1984), 1, pp.
3-11
The purpose of this study was to determine the
extent to which anthropometric and body build
measures discriminated between elite adolescent male athletes competing in different track
and field events. One hundred and six nationallevel Junior Olympic male athletes volunteered
as subjects. The sample included 26 middle distance runners, 24 sprinters/hurdlers, 39 jumpers
and 17 throwers. The body build variables measured included fat-free body weight/height, the
106
sum of 6 skinfolds, the sum of 12 diameters, the
sum of 11 circumferences, biacromial diameter/
bi-iliac diameter and the bidimensional somatotype rating components X (ectomorphic rating
– endomorphic rating) and Y [twice the mesomorphic rating – (endomorphic plus ectomorphic
rating)]. Multiple discriminant analysis revealed
three significant discriminant functions (DF1, DF2,
DF3). Validation of the discriminant functions revealed an overall value of 76.8 percent of subjects correctly classified. Based on these results
it was apparent that anthropometric and body
build variables discriminated between adolescent male track and field competitors in different
events. However, the variables most responsible
for these between-event differences were dependent upon which events were being compared.
Isele, R.; Nixdorf, E.
Biomechanical analysis of the hammer
throw at the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics
New Studies in Athletics, Berlin, 25, (2010), 3+4, pp.
37-60
The techniques of the top eight placers in the
men’s and women’s hammer throw at the 2009
World Championships in Athletics were studied
to obtain the latest data and insight into the technical condition of the world’s current best throwers. Video recordings of the best attempt of each
thrower were analysed using a three-dimensional
kinematographic measurement method. If this
was not possible due to recording problems –
usually judges, photographers or others on the
infield obstructing the view – the thrower’s second best attempt was analysed. A 14-segment
body model with 20 body surface landmarks and
landmark for the hammer head, used in previous
studies of the event, was the basis for analysis.
Using this model, the release parameters (release
velocity, angle of release, etc), spatial characteristics of the throwing movement and other data
derived could be quantified. To give guidance for
coaches and athletes preparing for future highlevel competitions, the mean values of the group,
the extent of distribution, as well as the standard
deviation and range of variation of selected parameters were derived and compared with other
parameters. In addition, the correlations between
different parameters were quantified by calculation of correlation coefficients.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
No. 96: Olympic and Championship Athletics
Jiang, Y.; Li, J.; Bao, H.; Wang, J.; Hua, F.
Gray models for the prediction of results in
track and field events
International journal of sports science and engineering, Liverpool, 1, (2007), 3, pp. 177-182, URL: http://
www.worldacademicunion.com/journal/SSCI/SSCIvol01no03paper04.pdf
Considering the result record of a sport event regarding years as a time serial, it can be described
by a model of time-serial including certain model
and uncertain model. In this paper, we present
the gray model GM as differential equation for
track and field events based on gray system theory. Based on historical record data of Olympic
Games, parameters of the equation are solved by
using the method of least squares. The validation
is down. And the comparison with other methods
shows that the gray model it is accepted. It can
be used to predict result of track and field events
of 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, etc.
Jowett, N.; Spray, C. M.
British Olympic hopefuls: the antecedents
and consequences of implicit ability beliefs
in elite track and field athletes
Psychology of Sport and Exercise, Amsterdam, 14,
(2013), 2, pp. 145-153
Objectives: This study provided an in-depth examination of the implicit ability beliefs held by
elite British track and field athletes, including the
antecedents and consequences of these beliefs.
Design and Methods: A qualitative design was
employed involving semi-structured interviews
with 4 Olympic hopefuls in the sport of track and
field athletics. Thematic analysis was utilised to
interpret the results of the study, involving a combination of inductive and deductive approaches.
Results: The core components of ability beliefs included beliefs that ability is stable, ability is malleable, and that it is possible to build on natural ability. A variety of personal, social and environmental
antecedents appeared to influence the athletes’
ability beliefs. The consequences of implicit beliefs
encompassed three major themes, which were
achievement motivation, setbacks and attributions
for success and failure. Conclusions: The results
from the analysis indicated that the athletes’ implicit beliefs were very specific, as their beliefs
about ability appeared to underpin sport-specific
performance. The belief that ability was malleable
was universal amongst the athletes and this may
be related to their age, experience, high perceived
ability and the high level at which they compete.
However, the athletes believed that although natural ability is useful, talent is only a small part of the
equation as learning, improving and working hard
are all necessary for success at the highest level.
Kang, H. S.
Best performance analysis of track events,
men and women, at I and III World Championships in Athletics
NIS Scientific Journal, Patiala, 15, (1992), 3, pp. 110-115
The author analyses the best results of the running
and jumping events of the men and women at the
1st (Helsinki, 1983) and 3rd World Championships
in Athletics (Tokyo, 1991) to determine the extent
of the performance development. Result: The
male gold medallists exhibit a more pronounced
improvement in performance than the female gold
medallists (men: improvement in 10 of 13 events;
women: improvement in only 3 of 11 events). The
percentage difference between the male and the
female gold medal winners has only reduced in the
marathon and 400m hurdles. The mean percentage improvement in each discipline is greater in
the male gold medallists than in the female.
Kang, H. S.
Best performance analysis of field events at
the I, II III World Championships in Athletics
Indian Journal of Sport Science and Physical Education, Patiala, 5, (1993), 1, pp. 40-46
Keeping in mind the importance of athletic, World
Championship in Athletics was introduced in
1983 on the pattern of Olympic Games. The first,
second and third World Championships in Athletics were held in 1983, 1987 and 1991, respectively. The best performances in the men’s and
women’s field events at the championships were
analysed to know the degree of improvement
or deterioration in the various field events. The
results show that men and women gold medal
winners have shown more improvement and less
deterioration in jumps as compared to throws.
The women gold medal winners dominated the
men winners in discus throw. The percentage differences in throws are less than that in the jumps.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
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King, H. A.; Black, D. G.
Analysis of Olympic and World Records in
Track and Field and Swimming: past, present, and future
In: J. E. L. Carter (Ed.), Physical structure of Olympic
athletes. Part II: Kinanthropometry of Olympic athletes (pp. 212-230). Basel: Karger, 1984 (Medicine
and Sport, Vol. 18)
Interest in athletic records is essentially a 20th
century phenomenon. Many persons have engaged in the analysis of world record patterns
– within an event over time, or between events
– means of graphical and mathematical analysis. Four major purposes seem to have underlain
these attempts: the provision of succinct summary description; the desire to compare different
records for different events and to predict new
records; the search for physiological explanation of comparative performance in different
events; and the search for socio-cultural explanations of record patterns. This chapter reviews
the methodologies and specific intent of past
studies typifying each of these purposes, then
makes a descriptive analysis of salient features
of the present record pattern. Features examined
include the extent and frequency of record improvement as well as the relative record performance of males and females.
King, H. A.; Carter, J. E. L.
Exploratory factor analysis of anthropometric
measurements of Montreal Olympic athletes
In: J. E. L. Carter (Ed.), Physical structure of Olympic
athletes. Part I: The Montreal Olympic Games Anthropological Project (pp. 128-137). Basel: Karger,
1982 (Medicine and Sport, Vol. 16)
An exploratory factor analysis was conducted on
23 anthropometric variables measured on 309
male and 148 female athletes who competed in
the 1976 Montreal Olympics. A three-factor orthogonal structure was found to describe both
groups, with only small differences being found
between them. The need for new approaches in
applying factor analysis methods was discussed.
King, R. A.; Carter, J. E. L.
Comparative factor analysis of anthropometric variables for athletes at the Mexico
City and Montreal Olympic Games
In: J. E. L. Carter (Ed.), Physical structure of Olympic
athletes. Part II: Kinanthropometry of Olympic athletes (pp. 202-211). Basel: Karger, 1984 (Medicine
and Sport, Vol. 18)
108
Comparative factor analyses have been made of
the intercorrelations between 15 anthropometric variables taken on male and female athletes
at both the Mexico City and Montreal Olympic Games. Results pointed to the stability of
an orthogonal three factor solution (“fatness”,
“lengths”, and “bulk” factors) as a simple descriptor of physique structure for these athletes.
Kovar, Karel; Tilinger, Pavel; Bilek, Lubos
The development and performance trends
in Olympic track and field
Acta Universitatis Carolinae / Kinanthropologica,
Prague, 36, (2000), 2, pp. 27-34
The Olympic Games are multi-sport and multicultural event, which takes place on a regular
basis at different locations. Because the Olympic
Games represent the highest level of competition,
particularly in track and field, they have become
the largest international sport event for competitors as well as spectators. For the past few years,
the authors have analyzed the performance trends
in sport as a basis for prediction of future development. They believe that the prediction of future
performances is a very important tool for management and leadership in the area of sport training
and competition. Methods: Olympic Track and
Field events were analyzed from 1972 to 2000 in
performance trends, relationship between politics
and sport, development of organizational structures, rules development, trends in sport training,
development of technique, development of equipment and material support for Track and Field. The
research methods included statistical analysis of
performances at Olympic Games, analysis of literature, interviews and questionnaires administered
to athletes and coaches. Results: The long-term
research in the Olympic track and field makes it
possible to predict the level of performances,
which may be expected in future years. Common
characteristics for all disciplines: 1. sharp increments in performance before 1988 was somewhat
affected by the Olympic boycott in 1980 and 1984;
2. minimal or no increments in performance during the nineties; 3. each discipline has its own star
who contributed to a substantial advancement
of performance (Griffith, Lewis, Johnson, African
middle and long distance runners etc.) Discussion/conclusions: The results of the study suggest
that sport will continue to play a very important
role in publicity and promotion of overall develop-
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
No. 96: Olympic and Championship Athletics
ment of many countries. The performance levels
will continue to grow because of the development
of new knowledge, which contributes to a higher
quality of practice, improvement of technique, and
above all, because of improved material support
for athletics. The coaches and athletes believe that
the trend toward increase frequency of competition among the top world athletes will continue
because of its attractiveness for sponsors and
media.
Landry, D.
Roma 87: The IInd World Championships in
Athletics provide a basis for comparison
New Studies in Athletics, Monaco, 2, (1987), 3, pp.
28-47
This report examines the Rome Championships with a view to comparing performances
and results with the ones achieved in Helsinki in
1983 and in Athens in 1986. lt is not meant as a
complete technical analysis but it does touch on
some of the technical highlights of each event.
Landry, F.
Increasing monopolization of the success
in the Olympic Games
Track and Field Quarterly Review, Ann Arbor, 37,
(1987), 1, pp. 17-25
For Pierre de Coubertin, The equality of chances
of the participants in the Olympic Games was an
important part of the Olympic Idea. Whereas at the
first four modern Olympic Games the medals had
been divided among 80 of the participating states,
this number successively reduced during the subsequent Games until it reached 34 in Los Angeles
1984. On the basis of statistic data material, the
author proves that this trend to the monopolisation
of success at the Olympic Games also applies to
athletics, especially women’s athletics.
Lehmann, F.
Biomechanical analysis of the javelin throw
at the 2009 IAAF World Championships in
Athletics
New Studies in Athletics, Berlin, 25, (2010), 3+4, pp.
61-77
The techniques of the finalists in the men’s and
women’s javelin throw at the 2009 World Championships in Athletics were studied by a team of
researchers from the Institute for Applied Training Science in Leipzig, Germany with the aim of
obtaining the latest data and insight into the technical condition of the world’s current best throwers. The throws in both the preliminary round and
finals were recorded with video cameras set up in
the seating area of the stadium. The release parameters (release velocity, angle of release, etc)
were obtained for all the throws. Spatial and temporal characteristics of the throwing movement
and other data were obtained from a three-dimensional photogrammetric analysis of the best
throws for which suitable recordings were available. To give guidance for coaches and athletes
preparing for future high-level competitions, the
mean values and standard deviations were derived and compared with other parameters. Parameters describing the throwing technique were
averaged for two groups of the finalists in the two
competitions and compared to find those that
explained the differences in the final placement.
Malina, R. M.; Bouchard, C.; Shoup, R. F.;
Demirjian, A.; Larivière, G.
Growth and maturity status of Montreal
Olympic athletes less than 18 years of age
In: J. E. L. Carter (Ed.), Physical structure of Olympic
athletes. Part I: The Montreal Olympic Games Anthropological Project (pp. 117-127). Basel: Karger,
1982 (Medicine and Sport, Vol. 16)
Selected anthropometric dimensions, skeletal
maturity and the age at menarche were described in a sample of athletes 12.9-18.0 years of
age participating at the Montreal Olympic Games
in 1976. Sport-specific comparisons are made for
male (n = 11) and female (n = 25) swimmers, and
female gymnasts (n = 11) and track athletes (n =
7). Compared to British reference data, female
swimmers are especially taller with narrower hips,
while males are especially heavier with broader
shoulders. Both male and female swimmers also
have thinner skinfold thicknesses. Female gymnasts are similar in stature to the reference data,
but taller with thin skinfolds. Skeletal maturity is
generally advanced compared to chronological
age in swimmers of both sexes; it is delayed in
female gymnasts. Data are inadequate for track
athletes. The timing of menarche in swimmers
approximates the reference population, but is delayed in gymnasts and track athletes.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
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No. 96: Olympic and Championship Athletics
Malina, R. M.; Bouchard, C.; Shoup, R. F.;
Larivière, G.
Age, family size and birth order in Montreal
Olympic athletes
In: J. E. L. Carter (Ed.), Physical structure of Olympic
athletes. Part I: The Montreal Olympic Games Anthropological Project (pp. 13-24). Basel: Karger,
1982 (Medicine and Sport, Vol. 16)
Age, family size and birth order are considered
in a sample of 487 athletes participating at the
Montreal Olympic Games. Mean values for the
total sample are 22.7 years for age, 3.9 for family size, and 2.4 for birth order. Two- and threechild families occur most often in the sample,
while first- and second-born individuals occur
at approximately equal frequencies among the
athletes. There are significant differences in age,
family size and birth order among the 13 sport
categories represented in the male athletes,
while only age showed significant differences
among the five sport categories represented in
the female athletes. Analysis of sex differences
was possible in four sports: track and field, gymnastics, swimming and rowing. Females in these
sports are younger than males. Male track and
field athletes come from significantly larger families than females, while female rowers come from
larger families than males. Male and female gymnasts and swimmers do not differ significantly in
family size. None of the differences in birth order
between male and female athletes in the four
comparable sports are statistically significant.
Malina, R. M.; Little, B. B.; Bouchard, C.; Carter,
J. E. L.; Hughes, P. C. R.; Kunze, D.; Ahmed, L.
Growth status of Olympic athletes less
than 18 years of age: young athletes at the
Mexico City, Munich, and Montreal Olympic Games
In: J. E. L. Carter (Ed.), Physical structure of Olympic
athletes. Part II: Kinanthropometry of Olympic athletes (pp. 183-201). Basel: Karger, 1984 (Medicine
and Sport, Vol. 18)
Several anthropometric characteristics are compared in Olympic athletes 12.5 to 18.0 years of
age who participated in the Mexico City (1968),
Munich (1972) and Montreal (1976) Olympic
Games. There are no secular effects among the
athletes at the 3 Olympic Games, and the small
differences which appear reflect small samples
and age variation. Compared to reference data,
young male athletes are not especially taller, but
110
are heavier with relatively longer legs and broad
shoulders and less fat. Female athletes, on the
other hand, are only slightly heavier, but are taller
with relatively long legs, absolutely and relatively
broad shoulders and narrow hips, and less fat.
Given the lack of significant effects of regular
training on stature, proportions, physique and
maturation, the characteristics of young athletes
most likely reflect their genotype, with the exception of fatness which is influenced by training. The
size, proportional and body composition characteristics of young Olympic athletes are generally
consistent with those reported in older athletes
participating in the same sport and/or event.
Mallett, C.
An analysis of the relay events in Athens 2004
Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide, 43, (2005), 1,
pp. 8-11
Thirty-one countries competed in the four relay
events in Athens, of which 13 were from Europe, nine from the Americas, six from Africa,
two from Asia and one from Oceania. Five nations were invited to compete in all four events
(USA, Russia, Jamaica, Germany, & Nigeria) and
six nations were invited to compete in three relay events (Brazil, Great Britain, Poland, France,
Ukraine, & Greece). The most successful countries, on the basis of medals won, were the USA
(3 medals – 2 gold and 1 silver), followed by three
countries with two medals, namely Jamaica (1
gold & 1 bronze), Russia (2 silver), and Nigeria (2
bronze). Great Britain (1 gold), Australia (1 silver),
and France (1 bronze) also won a medal. On the
points score (1-8 points for finalists), the countries
finished as follows: 1st – 24 points: USA (4 teams
made finals), 2nd – 17 points: Great Britain (3), 3rd
– 14 points: Nigeria (3), Jamaica (2, and Russia
(2), 6th – 10 points: Australia (2), Japan (2), 8th – 8
points: Bahamas (2), Poland (2). In terms of relay
strength using the criteria of medals won, invitations to compete in more than one relay, finals
reached, several countries emerged from Athens
as dominant relay nations. In that list, there is
a mixture of countries who historically produce
outstanding individual sprint results (e. g., USA,
Russia, Jamaica, Great Britain), but also countries who do not have that same depth of talent
(e. g., Jamaica, Australia, Poland). Other interesting conclusions included, (a) the relay athletes
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
No. 96: Olympic and Championship Athletics
were on average quite young, (b) the standard
of competition across all events was high and
demonstrated good depth, (c) the rise of sprinting and subsequently relays in Asian countries
(e. g., Japan, India) as well as stronger commitment to relays by strong sprint nations such as
Nigeria was evident. The decision to qualify for
relay events in Athens was considered positive
for the event in the short and long term. Higher
levels of credibility for the event group were established due to invitations based on a performance criterion only, and subsequently a greater
commitment of many countries to develop relay
teams in preparing for Athens. The results were
manifest of that greater commitment by teams.
Sprint talent alone is insufficient to succeed in
relays at the international level. There are several
countries without the sprint talent who have consistently achieved good results in relays and did
the same in Athens, and in comparison, some
countries with an enormous depth of sprint talent
have failed to achieve expected results in Athens.
Mann, R.; Herman, J.
Kinematic analysis of Olympic hurdle performance: women’s 100 meters
International Journal of Sport Biomechanics, Champaign (Ill.), 1, (1985), 2, pp. 163-173
Selected kinematic variables in the performance
of the Gold and Silver medalists and the eighthplace finisher in the women’s 100-meter hurdles
final at the 1984 Summer Olympic Games were
investigated. The difference in place finish was
related to the performance variables body horizontal velocity (direct), vertical velocity (indirect),
and support time (indirect). The critical body kinematics variables related to success included upper and lower leg velocity during support into and
off the hurdle (direct), relative horizontal foot position (to the body) at touchdown into and off the
hurdle (indirect), and relative horizontal foot velocity (to the body) at touchdown into the hurdle.
McCullagh, K.
Beyond borders
Sport Business International, London, (May 2010),
156, pp. 42-43
The article examines the predicament of track and
field in increasing audience awareness and sponsorship opportunities. The International Amateur
Athletic Federation (IAAF) denies claims by critics
that interest in and appeal of athletics events have
declined. The organization admits that it struggled
to maintain its television rights fee income after
selling its Europe and Africa rights in 2009. Observers note a concern that the audience and market for athletics can only peak during the World
Championships or the Olympic Games.
McNab, T.
The Olympic programme for women – a
right or a privilege?
New Studies in Athletics, Monaco, 6, (1991), 3, pp.
19-24
The author details the slow and irregular development of the women’s Olympic programme from
1900 to the present day. He then discusses the
current status of the women’s triple jump, pole
vault, hammer throw and steeplechase, asserting that the catalyst for progressive change must
be the provision of goals. He concludes by suggesting a schedule for their introduction into the
international calendar, and predicting the winning
Olympic performances in these new events in
1996.
Mechikoff, R. A.; Francis, L.
Social and demographic influences on the
physique of the Olympic athlete
In: J. E. L. Carter (Ed.), Physical structure of Olympic
athletes. Part II: Kinanthropometry of Olympic athletes (pp. 39-52). Basel: Karger, 1984 (Medicine and
Sport, Vol. 18)
Historically, the Olympic Games represent a microcosm of global society and the continuing
utilization of science in order to enhance human
performance. From the early demographics of the
Ancient Games to the sophistication and global
importance of the Modern Olympiad, the Olympics
have continued to enjoy a unique status known
to no other entity. The evolution of the physical
characteristics of contemporary Olympians is influenced to a large extent by sociological factors.
Cultural determinants such as dietary habits, the
rote of men and women, and the pursuit of physical activity within a culture will determine the status
of the Olympic athlete. Government involvement
and commitment to an Olympic development program in conjunction with sophisticated scientific
research in the area of human performance will
also impact upon the growth and development
processes of the athlete.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
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Metcalfe, A.
The best Games ever
New Studies in Athletics, Aachen, 15, (2000), 2, pp. 7-12
The author takes advantage of the very recent
Olympic Games in Sydney to draw attention to the
advances in the sport of Athletics over the past
50 years since the Games were last in Australia,
most particularly the spread of the sport all over
the globe and the inclusion of women across the
complete spectrum of events. He also surveys the
presentation of the Sydney athletics programme,
draws some conclusions about strengths and
weaknesses and proposes some radical solutions
for the next few years. For example, to measure
the horizontal jumps from the point of take-off,
not the edge of the board, thus liberating an event
which otherwise seems to have achieved maturity.
Mouchbahani, R.
The Training Camp Project at the 12th IAAF
World Championships in Athletics 2009
New Studies in Athletics, Aachen, 24, (2009), 4, pp.
99-104
In the weeks prior to the 12th IAAF World Championships in Athletics, Berlin 2009TM, 168 athletes
and 72 coaches from 38 national teams taking
part in the event were welcomed to Germany for
final preparation training camps in venues around
the country. The main aims of the project, known
as the International Cooperation/Training Camps
Project, were to give the athletes the best possible
chance to perform well in the championships and
to support the participation of developing countries in international sports events. lt was the only
nation-wide activity linked to the championships
and was funded by the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the organising committee (BOC)
with support from the German athletics federation (DLV). The purpose of this report is to give a
brief overview of the project’s main aspects and to
summarise the results.
Müller, H.; Hommel, H.
Biomechanical research project at the VIth
World Championships in Athletics, Athens
1997: preliminary report
New Studies in Athletics, Aachen, 12, (1997), 2/3,
pp. 43-73
Various data of a biomechanical research project, carried out during the 6th World Championships in Athletics in Athens 1997, are given in this
112
preliminary analysis. The following events finals
(male and female) are presented: 100m, 200m,
400m; 110m and 100m hurdles; long jump, triple
jump, high jump (men only) and pole vault.
Murakami, M.; Tanabe, S.; Ishikawa, M.;
Isolehto, J.; Komi, P. V.; Ito, A.
Biomechanical analysis of the javelin at the
2005 IAAF World Championships in Athletics
New Studies in Athletics, Aachen, 21, (2006), 2, pp.
67-80
Biomechanical research on the javelin throw has
focused mainly an the release parameters. The
purpose of this study was to clarify the relationships between the distance thrown and kinematic
parameters of the throwing movement. The best
competition throws of eight male finalists at the
2005 IAAF World Championships in Athletics and
forty-nine Japanese male throwers were analysed.
The authors confirmed the importance of release
velocity and found certain characteristics of the
throwing movement that enable the finalists at
World Championships to obtain higher velocity
than other throwers. These include a higher approach velocity and keeping the fore knee angle
in the extended position during the final phase of
the throw in order to convert the approach velocity
into forward rotation of the trunk. They also found
that during the forward rotation of trunk, top throwers keep both the elbow joint angle and the adduction-abduction angle of the shoulder small, which
enables them to effectively transfer the internal rotation velocity of shoulder joint to the grip velocity.
Ohyama Byun, K.; Fujii, H.; Murakami, M.; Endo,
T.; Takesako, H.; Gomi, K.; Tauchi, K.
A biomechanical analysis of the men’s shot
at the 2007 World Championships in Athletics
New Studies in Athletics, Aachen, 23, (2008), 2, pp.
53-62
The aims of this study are to present a biomechanical overview of the performances of the finalists the men’s shot put at the 2007 IAAF World
Championships in Athletics and make comparisons of the techniques of the three medallists.
Video recordings of the best throw by each of
the top ten placed athletes were analysed. The
authors looked at the technical differences between the glide and rotation techniques and
between variations of the rotation. They focused
on the acceleration profile with reference to both
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
No. 96: Olympic and Championship Athletics
the shot itself and the athlete’s body. They also
analysed the sequence from athlete-shot system
acceleration through to the final acceleration of
the shot in the delivery. The results suggest that
shot velocity alone is not enough to explain the
process of acceleration, as whole-body momentum is gained or maintained even as there is a
marked decrease of shot velocity during the flight
and transition phases of the rotation technique.
Pfister, G.
The struggle for Olympia: the women’s
World Games and participation of women
in the Olympic Games
Journal of ICHPER – SD, Reston( Va.), 32, (1996), 4,
pp. 20-25
Coubertin, like many of his contemporaries, held
the view that the Olympic Games should be the
preservation of male athletes. Changes that the
female body and female nature would undergo,
masculinization of women, and, in general, disintegration of the gender order were major arguments put forward opposing women’s sport. In
the controversy of women’s participation in the
Olympic Games, different interests, demands,
and ideologies, as well as different alliances, were
closely interwoven. Among the first opportunities
which women had to take part in international athletic contests and, in particular, in track and field
events, were the Women’s Olympiads which took
place in 1921, 1922, and 1923 in Monte Carlo.
These first Olympic Games for women were organized by the International Sporting Club of
Monaco. Success of the first Women’s Olympiad
made it much easier to organize further international sport meetings. The first Olympic Women’s
Games (official designation of the Federation
Sportive Feminine Internationale (FSFI)) were organized by FSFI in Paris in 1922. The name, as well
as overall planning of the women’s games, including individual elements of staging like entrance of
athletes with national flags, were borrowed from
the men’s Olympic Games. The second World
Games for women took place in Goteborg (Sweden) in 1926. The number of competing nations
increased, the program was expanded, and participants were given free rooms and board. A huge
success, the second Women’s Games paved the
way for track and field to be included in the 1928
Olympic Games. Unfortunately, a heated dispute
arose after the women’s 800 meter race. The obvi-
ous exhaustion of a number of athletes (male and
female) at the end of the race provided opponents
of women competitive sport with clear evidence
that women lacked the physical stamina necessary to compete in such strenuous events. There
was no dispute about men athletes and the 800
meter race. Influences exerted by the Olympic
Games and the Women’s World Games were reciprocal. The Women’s World Games were initiated as a counterpart of the Olympic Games. The
Women’s Games and FSFI played decisive roles in
incorporating women’s track and field events into
the Olympic program.
Pieroth, D. H.
Their day in the sun: women of the 1932
Olympics
Seattle et al.; Univ. of Washington, 1996, 186 pp.
The Olympic Games in Los Angeles in 1932 were
held at a time of great economic depression. The
United States sent 37 women to these Games,
including 17 swimmers, 17 track-and-field athletes and three fencers. For the women, the participation was not a matter of course, because
in 1931 the International Olympic Committee had
seriously considered to exclude women from the
Olympic Games. Against this background, the
author describes the circumstances under which
the 1932 Olympics took place. She portrays
the American women athletes, eleven of whom
speak for themselves. The result is a comprehensive picture about that time, particularly about the
role of women in society, the cohesion of women
and their importance for the future of women’s
sports. The individual problems and experiences
illustrate the difficulties and the developments in
the various sports and the way the press deals
with the development of women’s sports.
Quercetani, R. L.
Edmonton 2001: Competition is fiercer than
ever and overall standards continue to rise
New Studies in Athletics, Aachen, 16, (2001), 3, pp.
9-12
Analysis of trends in major international athletics competitions points to a highly competitive
future in the sport. Distinguished Sports journalist, Roberto Luigi Quercetani, contends that,
while no new world records were set in either
Sydney (2000) or Edmonton (2001), high standards of performance were observed in great-
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
113
No. 96: Olympic and Championship Athletics
er depth across the board. Turnover in the top
ranks remains very high, making the exploits of
three-time (1999, 2000, 2001) champions Maurice Greene (100m), Ivan Pedroso (Long Jump)
and Stacy Dragila (Pole Vault) that much more
astounding. Both the high number of national
records set in Edmonton and the continued increase in the number of countries that have been
able to produce top finishers ensures that, as legends like Marion Jones begin to loosen their grip
on top positions, a new generation of superbly
prepared athletics champions from around the
globe awaits its turn to shine.
Raine, C. A.
An examination of men’s and women’s
Olympic performance since 1960
Athletics Coach, Birmingham, 12, (1978), 2, pp. 26-29
The author compares the performances of men
and women in Olympic track-and-field athletics
(100 m race, 400 m race, 800 m race, 1500 m
race, high jump, and long jump). The results of
this comparison show that the performance gap
has reduced and that there is a tendency to a
10% difference between male and female athletes.
Ross, W. D.; Ward, R.
Proportionality of Olympic athletes
In: J. E. L. Carter (Ed.), Physical structure of Olympic
athletes. Part II: Kinanthropometry of Olympic athletes (pp. 110-143). Basel: Karger, 1984 (Medicine
and Sport, Vol. 18)
The locomotor and performance demands which
govern the morphology of different species appear to be related to the same biomechanical constraints governing the same demands
of Olympic athletes in high-level performance.
Since the time of Galileo and Borelli, the constraints on strength per unit mass, independence
of size and running speed, and ability to jump to
a constant height regardless of size have been
theoretical appreciations for the study of sport
performance. Olympic weightlifting champions
in 13 Olympic Games were shown to perform
according to Galileo’s cube-square law. That is,
the total weight lifted as a function of their body
mass to the power two thirds. As shown in previous chapters, size is an obvious constraint. When
an athlete must perform acrobatically, as in gymnastics and diving, smallness is an advantage. In
114
sports where the emphasis is in the application
of force to an inanimate object, the rule seems
to be the bigger the better. Relative size or how
one part of the body is related to another part,
or the whole body, was studied using z-values
or departures from a unisex reference human or
Phantom. A proportional body mass (pkg) value
(which substitutes for the ponderal index), having
advantages in scaling to a stature constant and
being easily interpreted, was used to show patterns of increased linearity from sprinting to long
distance running, and for increased ponderosity
for the throwing events, combative sports and
weight lifting. Of particular note was the dramatic
increase in proportional body mass in the shot,
discus and hammer athletes from 1960 onwards,
and more recently in the javelin throwers. Data
summarized by Tanner for the Rome Olympics
was reanalysed using the Phantom stratagem
further defining trends to linearity indicated by
the pkg, i.e., increased leg length and narrowing of the hips of the 800- and 1500-m runners
and to ponderosity with short appendages and
long trunk for the weight throwers. Displays of
arm length, leg length, shoulder and hip widths
showed a systematic difference between the
White and Black athletes. As shown in this chapter, it was propitious when comparing proportionality characteristics between events and ethnic
groups to adjust samples to account for unequal
numbers in each. In most instances, the Mexico
City data base, being larger than that of Montreal
permitted adjustments for unequal numbers of
Whites and Blacks. Only a few similar analyses
incorporating Mestizo or Oriental subsamples
were possible, however, it appeared that systematic proportionality differences existed for these
ethnic groups as well as for Blacks and Whites.
Comparisons of proportionality profiles showed
that there were gross differences between sprinters and the more linear middle distance and long
distance runners and the more robust athletes in
the throwing events, weight lifting and wrestling.
The Phantom analyses showed the persistence
of ethnic patterns within events. Black athletes
tended to have proportionally longer arms, longer legs, smaller trunk length and narrower hips
than the White athletes. Jumpers tended to be
less ponderous than sprinters. Throwers characteristically had proportionally longer trunks,
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
No. 96: Olympic and Championship Athletics
shorter thighs and larger breadths and skinfolds
than sprinters whereas javelin throwers appeared
to be a mid-type. Weight lifters and wrestlers
were similar but weight lifters had proportionally
shorter arms and legs and wider shoulders. Female athletes appear to differ systematically from
male athletes in similar events in much the same
way as female and male non-athletes differ. Females are systematically smaller in shoulder and
wider in hip width when compared proportionally
to male counterparts. In both athletic and nonathletic samples the proportional girth differences of the male from the female were greater in the
upper than in the lower body. Despite selection
and training the female appears to be proportionally less robust in the upper body and even
though their torso skinfold thicknesses approach
that of trained male values, they appear to have a
proportionally greater adipose tissue deposition
an the limbs. Compared to male counterparts,
females appear to have a persistent upper-lower
body musculoskeletal dysplasia and a limb-torso
subcutaneous adiposity dysplasia.
Ross, W. D.; Ward, R.; Leahy, R. M.; Day, J. A. P.
Proportionality of Montreal athletes
In: J. E. L. Carter (Ed.), Physical structure of Olympic
athletes. Part I: The Montreal Olympic Games Anthropological Project (pp. 81-106). Basel: Karger,
1982 (Medicine and Sport, Vol. 16)
The use of ratios as a method for the appraisal of
proportionality relationships of the human body
was examined. The Phantom tactic of Ross and
Wilson, recently revised by Ross and Ward, was
proposed as an alternative technique for proportionality appraisal. The proportional characteristics of the NIOGAP sample of Olympic athletes
were examined with the aid of the phantom tactic.
Proportionality profiles were introduced as a simple way in which to view a large amount of data
and to gain an appreciation of the proportional
characteristics of the group. On the profiles one
standard error bars about the mean z value were
used as an inspectional test of significance. Normal sexual dimorphism in a non-athletically elite
group was evaluated by the use of a Canadian
tri-university sample of 152 males and 94 females
(CANREF). It was shown that the males had proportionally longer hand, forearm, tibia and foot
lengths; shorter sitting height; larger breadths except for biiliocristal (hip) breath; larger upper body
girths (wrist, forearm, arm, chest and waist) but
smaller thigh girth; smaller skinfolds at all sites,
particularly at limb sites. Systematically greater
proportional skinfold thicknesses at limb sites for
females was a persistent pattern which was noted in all male/female sample comparisons in this
study. In terms of body composition, although
males and females exhibited no significant difference in proportional body mass, the males were
found to have proportionally smaller adipose tissue mass, but were proportionally larger in each
of the other three fractionated masses (bone,
muscle and residual). In the MOGAP sample
there were some events common to males and
females with significant numbers for comparison.
In these sports, which were gymnastics, rowing,
sprint running, swimming and canoeing comparisons of proportionality were made between
the sexes and also with the same sex CANREF
sample. In this way proportionality patterns typical of the event, and also sex differences were examined. Three other events, cycling, field hockey
and fencing were only represented by male competitors. In these samples, comparisons were
only made to the CANREF male sample. There
was one female-only event examined, that being high jumpers. Again comparison was made
to the same-sex CANREF group. Proportional
body mass was introduced as an alternative to
various height-weight ratios or ponderal indices.
Ladder charts of proportional body mass of both
male and female gold medallists were presented.
The relationship of proportional body mass to
proportional anthropometric z values was shown
by rank correlational analysis an males from five
sports (weight lifting, judo, wrestling, field hockey
and distance running). It was shown that proportionally large mass was related to long hands
and long sitting height. Whereas low proportional
body mass was associated with long forearm,
arm, thigh and calf lengths.
Schaa, W.
Biomechanical analysis of the shot put at
the 2009 IAAF World Championships in
Athletics
New Studies in Athletics, Berlin, 25, (2010), 3+4, pp.
9-21
The techniques of the top eight placers in the
men’s and women’s shot put at the 2009 World
Championships in Athletics were studied by a
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
115
No. 96: Olympic and Championship Athletics
team of researchers from the Institute for Applied Training Science in Leipzig, Germany, with
the aim of obtaining the latest data and insight
into the technical condition of the world’s current
best throwers. The throws of the finalists were
recorded with video cameras set up in the seating area of the stadium. The release parameters
(release velocity, angle of release, etc), spatial
and temporal characteristics of the throwing
movement and other data were obtained from a
three-dimensional photogrammetric analysis. To
give guidance for coaches and athletes preparing for future high-level competitions, the mean
values and standard deviations were derived and
compared with other parameters. lt was found
that in the women’s event the differences in performance distance can be almost completely
explained by the differences in release velocity.
The technique parameters contributing to these
differences are discussed. The men’s event was
more complicated, as the angle of release and,
to a certain extent, the release height were also
important factors. Their roles and the differences
between the glide and rotational techniques are
discussed in detail.
Schade, F.; Brüggemann, G.-P.
The pole vault at the 2005 IAAF World Championships in Athletics: a preliminary report
New Studies in Athletics, Aachen, 21, (2006), 2, pp.
57-66
To improve understanding of the biomechanics of
elite pole vaulting and develop practical suggestions to support the members of the pole vault
community in their daily work, the IAAF commissioned a study of the event at the 2005 IAAF
World Championships in Athletics in Helsinki. The
project team collected data from the men’s and
women’s competitions plus the pole vault in the
decathlon. Their study included the highlight of
the three competitions – the women’s world record 5.01m set by Yelena lsinbayeva (RUS). The
team used an energy-oriented approach for their
analysis, a challenging task that involves crossing the bridge between abstract considerations
concerning the energy exchange and the actual
movement of the athlete. This preliminary report
focuses mainly an the methods applied and
gives a short outlook an the results, including approach velocity data, which will be presented in
the final report.
116
Scholz, W.
The throwing events at the IAAF World Junior Championships: a whistle stop on the
journey to elite athletics
New Studies in Athletics, Aachen, 21, (2006), 2, pp.
7-27
Since their first edition in 1986, the IAAF World
Junior Championships have been a key target
for talented young athletes. This report focuses
on the throwing events at the 2002 World Junior
Championships in Kinston, Jamaica and uses
the official competition results, results from other
events and personal papers as data sources for
building a picture of the experience. lt covers 1)
the history of the championships, 2) the role of
the championships in the career development of
young throwers, 3) performance comparisons, 4)
anthropometric data of the throwing event participants and 5) performance development in the
throwing events through the first nine editions of
the championships. Among the author’s findings
are that success in the World Junior Championships is becoming an increasingly important
prerequisite for success at the elite senior level.
The report concludes with recommendations for
coaches and future organisers of the championships.
Schubert, B.
The III World Championships in Athletics,
Tokyo, 1991: a general analysis
New Studies in Athletics, Monaco, 7, (1992), 1, pp.
7-14
Altogether 1702 athletes from 171 of the International Amateur Athletic Federation’s 183 Member
Federations participated in the III World Championships in Athletics. Tokyo, 1991. As a basis
for comparison, this was more than the 1500
athletes from 153 countries who took part in
the I World Championships in Helsinki in 1983,
but slightly fewer than the 1741 from 157 countries who went to the II World Championships in
Rome, 1987. In Tokyo, 43 events were contested;
24 for men and 19 for women. In general, the organization of the competition was faultless. The
technical events went off very smoothly, due
partly to the introduction of new technical equipment such as ‘electro-slides’ for returning the
implements in the long throwing events. For the
first time photo finish pictures and results were
projected onto the video screen immediately af-
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
No. 96: Olympic and Championship Athletics
ter the finals of all running events. Accreditation
arrangements and accommodation and catering
services in the athletes’ village were excellent.
However, from the point of view of the coaches
in particular, it was unfortunate that the results of
the biomechanical investigations were not made
available as a fast information plus video service,
as they had been in Rome and Seoul; only the
100 metres split times were provided by the press
service. This should be a matter for future attention for the IAAF. Temperatures varied between
25° Celsius and 34.2° Celsius (August 24 and August 23 respectively). Humidity was mostly high
or extremely high, and it rained and was sunny
alternately. This climate favoured athletes living in
these regions, especially in the distance running
events.
Swedin, A.
Young Athletes Against Doping in Sports:
the YAADIS programme is launched at the
IAAF Youth Championships
Stefani, R. T.
Athletics, swimming and weightlifting from
Barcelona to Atlanta
New Studies in Athletics, Aachen, 18, (2003), 3, pp.
69-70
An effective anti-doping programme in sport
should be based on four cornerstones: information, education, doping controls and research. Of
course, the most spectacular part of such a programme is usually the control element, particularly when a well-known star tests positive for a
banned substance. However, as in drug misuse in
general, prevention should always be sport’s priority number one. This is best achieved through
the provision of reliable information and education. To that effect, an international web-based
programme, targeted mainly at young sportsmen
and women, has recently been launched. The
programme, Young Athletes Against Doping In
Sports or YAADIS, is the product of a joint initiative of the College of Physical Education and
Sports at Stockholm University, the International
Association of Athletics Federations, the Union of
European Football Associations (UEFA), the European Swimming Association (Ligue Européene
de Natation or LEN) and International Doping
Tests & Management (IDTM). YAADIS was unveiled during the “This is Athletics” Clinic at the 3rd
IAAF World Youth Championships in Sherbrooke,
Canada 7-9 July 2003. Up to 600 young athletes
taking part in the championships came to listen
to the presentations about the programme and
entered the site afterwards. Through the launch,
participants learned that YAADIS has been designed to give young people an interactive and
fun way to get the facts about doping and to
strongly promote the message that "doping is
extremely dangerous and never worth it”. The
YAADIS website, www.yaadis.com, provides
visitors easy access to an e-learning course and
enormous amounts of information covering all the
key topics from the health effects of doping to updated lists of banned substances.
Olympic Review, Lausanne, (1994), 326, pp. 598-603
The author compares the percentage rates of
performance increase of the male and female
athletes from on Olympiad to the next. The first
comparative figures are from the year 1952.
Thorland, W. G.; Johnson, G. O.; Fagot, T. G.;
Tharp, G. D.; Hammer, R. W.
Body composition and somatotype characteristics of junior Olympic athletes
Shankleton, E.
The hammer throw at World Junior Championships Sydney 1996
Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide, 36 (1998), 1,
pp. 35-37
This article presents data of the hammer throws
at the World Junior Championships Sydney 1996
including, among other things, the winning performances, the averages of medal winners and
place getters, and technique comments.
Stefani, R. T.
Olympic winning performances: trends and
predictions (1952-1992): Superlative performances
Olympic Review, Lausanne, (1989), 259, pp. 211-215
Using the performance data at the Olympic
Games, the author shows that there is still an increase in performances in track-and-field athletics and in swimming. Furthermore, he deals with
the development of the performance difference
between male and female athletes.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Indianapolis (Ind.), 13, (1982), 5, pp. 332-338
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
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No. 96: Olympic and Championship Athletics
Body composition and somatotype were determined in junior Olympic competitors to evaluate
the structural characteristics concomitant to high
proficiency in various athletic activities. Underwater weighings and anthropometric determinations of somatotype were performed on 145
male and 133 female adolescent participants in
national meet competition in the sports of track
and field, gymnastics, diving, and wrestling. The
most frequent differences within either the male
or female junior Olympic samples involved the
performers in throwing events (shot put, discus,
and javelin), who were taller, heavier, fatter, and
of unique somatotype when compared to all or
most other competitors. Additional structural differences, generally of a lesser magnitude, also
existed between other groups of junior Olympians. Differences in body composition characteristics were also noted when junior Olympians
were compared with other adolescent athletes or
non-athletes.
Tilinger, P.; Kovar, K.; Suchy, J.
Prognose männlicher leichtathletischer
Leistungen für die Olympischen Spiele 2008
in Peking [Prognosis of male performances
in athletics at the 2008 Olympic Games in
Beijing]
Leistungssport, Münster, 35, (2005), 4, pp. 3, 39-43, 55
Prognoses in the area of competitive sport are
an inseparable part of training control. Based on
the results of the men in the track and field disciplines at the Olympic Games and World Championships during the period from 1972 to 2004,
the authors develop performance prognoses for
2008 using linear regression. The developmental dynamics of sprinting, jumping, running and
throwing are presented using the examples of
the high jump, 800 m and the discus throw.
Ueya, K.
The men’s throwing events
New Studies in Athletics, Monaco, 7, (1992), 1, pp.
57-65
The men’s throwing events, in contrast to most
of the other events at the III World Championships in Athletics, showed slightly reduced performance levels when compared with recent
major championships. However, despite the fact
that winning marks in the Shot Put, Hammer
118
Throw and Discus Throw were lower than those
achieved at the II World Championships in Rome
– a fact which may be attributable to the increase
in anti-doping measures taken by the IAAF – we
were privileged to witness characteristic victories
by such dominant throwers as Werner Günthör
(SUI) in the Shot Put, Yuriy Sedykh (URS) in the
Hammer Throw and Kimmo Kinnunen (FIN) in
the Javelin Throw. All the men’s throwing events
were studied by the JAAF/IAF Biomechanics
Research Project Team. This report presents
our preliminary findings for the Shot Put, Hammer and Javelin Throws, concentrating on the
first three in each event. A more detailed analysis, which will include data on all the finalists in
each event. will be given in our final report. The
report on the Javelin Throw was prepared with
Yasuo Ikegami, Sinji Sakurai, Kazuhiko Nakamura, Atushi Okamoto, Tetsusi Ikegawa, Akinobu
Wakayama and Syunichi Tazuike.
Ungerleider, S.; Golding, J. M.
Mental practice among Olympic athletes
Perceptual and Motor Skills, Missoula (Mont.), 72,
(1991), 3, pp. 1007-1017
Recent research has focused on the relation of
mental rehearsal, specifically visualization, to
enhanced performance. Some have suggested
that mental practice enhances performance
on cognitive tasks more than on motoric ones.
The present study describes two waves of survey data from elite track and field athletes before
the 1988 US Olympic trials (n = 633) and those
same athletes after the Olympic Games in Seoul
(n = 450). The focus was on several measures
of mental practice and visualization, including
internal and external perspectives and association with sociodemographic data, prior collegiate
experience, coaching influences, and Olympic
team selection. Analyses suggest that mental
practice may be associated with more successful
track and field performance for selected groups
of athletes.
Vernacchia, R. A.; McGuire, R. T.; Reardon, J.
P.; Templin, D. P.
Psychosocial characteristics of Olympic
track and field athletes
New Studies in Athletics, Aachen, 15, (2000), 3+4,
pp. 7-21; also in: International Journal of Sport Psychology, Rome, 31, (2000), 1, pp. 5-23
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
No. 96: Olympic and Championship Athletics
This study presents psychosocial characteristics
of 15 Olympic track and field athletes. Interviews
were conducted with each athlete, which explored their dreams, developmental influences,
performance and developmental obstacles,
mental preparation, salient mental and physical
qualities, and advice to young athletes. A qualitative research design which employed content
analysis methodology was used to derive general and emergent themes that categorised and
described the athletes’ responses to interview
questions. Emergent themes included: mental
skills and attitudes; developmental concerns; socio-economic factors; and spiritual/religious factors. Overall this study provided insight into the
psychosocial factors that were important in the
athletic and personal development of elite track
and field athletes. Particular attention was given
to the mental qualities and preparation necessary to become an elite track and field athlete
and to succeed at the highest competitive levels.
Vernacchia, R.; Henschen, K. P.; Lidor, R.
The road to the Olympic Games – sport
psychology services for the 2000 USA
Olympic track and field team
New Studies in Athletics, Aachen, 20, (2005), 1, pp.
51-56
Top performances in athletics depend upon solid
physical and mental preparation. For each Olympic cycle, two sport psychology consultants
are assigned to support the preparation of the
USA track and field team prior to and during the
Games. This article describes the experience of
the consultants appointed for the 2000 Games
in Sydney, where the USA’s athletes earned a
total of 20 medals. Their service included staff
and team building activities, social support, and
the development and provision of sport psychology educational materials. A list is provided
of the various distractions faced by athletes
and coaching staff before, during and after the
Games, such as stress caused by relatives and
friends, media intrusion, injuries, doping control
procedures and separation from families. Also
described are some of the strategies for dealing with these issues that were employed by the
consultants, including counseling and “sit-down”
interventions. The article concludes with an identification of factors that are keys to success in the
Olympic setting.
Webb, J. L.; Millan, D. L.; Stolz, C. J.
Gynecological survey of American female
athletes competing at the Montreal Olympic Games
The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, Turin, 19, (1979), 4, pp. 405-412
It was the purpose of the present investigation
to conduct an inquiry into the effects of physical training and competition on the menstrual
function of five groups of American female
Olympic athletes. They consisted of basketball
(n = 7), gymnastics (n = 5), track/field (n = 15),
swimming (n = 12), and rowing (n = 19). Data
were acquired during the fall of 1976, through
a questionnaire survey. Findings revealed that
the groups trained an average of 4.2±1.6 hours
per day, 6.1±0.6 days/week for 9.1±2.7 months/
year. The athletes had been training for 5.0±3.1
years, were 21.4±3.5 years of age, 171.8±7.7 cm
tall and weighed 62.9±9.3 kg. The majority (60)
of the Olympians had experienced menarche
by 13 years of age whereas 43 were beyond the
age of 17 years before they began to menstruate with any regularity. Excluding two, all athletes
competed during menses. Conversely, without
exception, all subjects trained during this time.
Fifty-nine percent of the athletes reported menstrual changes during their competitive season.
Most significant irregularities involved oligomenorrhea, amenorrha, changes in blood lost during menses and changes in the duration of the
period.
Whitby, D.
The 1987 World Championships: a technical review of the sprints and hurdles events
Athletics Coach, Birmingham, 22, (1988), 1, pp. 2123
The author analyses the starting, running, and
hurdling technique of the best male and female
sprinters and hurdlers at the World Championships in Athletics in Rome in 1987.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
119
120
New Studies in Athletics · 3.2012
BOOK REview
Running for Women –
Your complete guide
for a lifetime of running
© by IAAF
27:4; 121-123, 2012
by Jason R. Karp and Carolyn S. Smith
Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 2012, 218 pp, ISBN: 978-1-4504-0467-9, $17.95
unning for Women is the third book by
Jason R. Karp reviewed in New Studies (see NSA, 1/2010 and 1-2/2012), a
sign that Karp has established himself as one
of the most prolific and respected endurance
specialists publishing today.
R
For this book he has allied with Carolyn Smith, who serves as the Director of the
student health service and the Head Medical
Team Physician for the Department of Intercollegiate Athletics at Marquette University in
the USA. She is also the Medical Director for
the athletic training education programme, a
successful ultramarathoner, and U.S. Olympic
Marathon Trials qualifier. Together, Karp and
Smith are highly qualified to deal with the various aspects of running for women.
The first question that might come to mind in
this context is, “Why is there a need for a special running book for women?” According to
Karp and Smith, the answer is easy: Men and
women not only differ psychologically and behaviorally, but there are also many anatomical,
physiological, hormonal, and metabolic differences between males and females. Many of
these differences influence females’ response
to running, which raises the question whether
women should train differently than men.
In response to the popularity of running
among women, a great deal of scientific research has been undertaken to understand
what characteristics influence the difference
in running performance between the sexes, a
difference that averages 10.7% in favor of men
across all running distances. This research
starts with the heart. During puberty, men’s
hearts grow larger than those of women, creating a larger, more powerful pump. Men also
have more oxygen-carrying hemoglobin in
their blood, owing to their greater blood volume. Together, the larger heart and greater
blood volume create a cardiovascular system
that supplies a greater amount of oxygen to the
working muscles, giving men a higher aerobic
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
121
Running for Women – Your complete guide for a lifetime of running
capacity. As a result, men are able to sustain
a faster running pace. This cardiovascular advantage for men explains why the best female
runners don’t run as fast as the best male runners in distance races up to the marathon.
one across the menstrual cycle affect endurance performance and what implications they
have for training is a big part of what this book
is about and distinguishes it from all others on
the same subject.
In ultramarathons, however, which are run
at a slower pace, a narrowing of race performances between the sexes occurs. Cardiovascular differences become less important,
and other characteristics, such as fuel use by
the muscles and the ability to dissipate heat,
become more important. Ultramarathons may
therefore represent a unique opportunity for
women to excel; scientific research has revealed that women have a greater capacity
than men to metabolise fat and conserve their
limited store of carbohydrate (glycogen), which
may give them an advantage for very long endurance activities. It seems even possible that
elite women could beat elite men in ultramarathons. Research is revealing that women ultramarathon runners seem to have a greater
resistance to fatigue than do equally trained
men whose performances are superior up to
the marathon distance.
The book is divided into three parts. Part
I sets the conceptual framework by addressing the physiology of women, beginning with
women’s differentiating cardiorespiratory,
hormonal, metabolic, muscular, and anatomical characteristics. lt then discusses how female physiology – menstrual cycle, pregnancy,
menopause, and aging – changes the body
and affects training and performance. The
chapter headings are as follows: 1. Performance Factors and Sex Differences; 2. Menstrual Cycle, Hormones, and Performance; 3.
Pregnancy; 4. Menopause; 5. Older Runners.
And then, of course, there’s estrogen. It is,
according to Karp and Smith, the single biggest factor that differentiates runners in a race.
It is a powerful hormone, influencing many
physiological aspects, including metabolism,
glycogen storage, lung function, and bone
health. The more one learns about estrogen,
the more runner-friendly it seems. Indeed, estrogen is so important to bone health that its
deficiency, which is often caused by irregular
or absent menstruation due to a high level of
training, is the most significant risk factor for
osteoporosis in active women.
Given the widespread effects of estrogen
and the cyclic changing of a woman’s hormonal environment, it is evident that women
should train differently than men or at least alter their training to account for the hormonal
changes. So women should no longer simply
follow what men are doing. How the changes
in estrogen and its sister hormone progester122
Part II focuses on the principles and components of training and the types of workouts
that target women’s different training needs
and goals. It discusses the best times of the
menstrual cycle to do various types of workouts and proposes guidelines for how women can manipulate their training programms
around their cycles to maximise results. It also
shows how women can use sex differences
to their advantage in training and competition.
This part of the book consists of the following
chapters: 6. Components of Training; 7. Base
Building; 8. Acidosis (Lactate) Threshold Training; 9. Aerobic Power Training for VO2max; 10.
Speed and Strength Training; 11. Building Your
Training Program.
Finally, part III examines the health and wellness of female runners. It discusses the consequences of disordered eating, osteoporosis,
and menstrual irregularities (collectively known
as the female athlete triad) and includes chapters on common running injuries and nutrition.
It also recommends preventive measures to
minimise the risk of injury and disease. The
corresponding chapter headings are: 12. Female Athlete Triad; 13. Injuries and Female
Runners; 14. Performance Nutrition and Female Runners.
New Studies in Athletics · 3.2012
Running for Women – Your complete guide for a lifetime of running
The Appendix of the book is an overview of
the evolution of women’s competitive running
from ancient Greece until the present.
All this is presented by the perfect combination of two highly respected scientists and
practitioners. Their experience comes together in this comprehensive book, which is in spite
of its scientific basis very readable.
Of particular importance are the detailed
sections on running when pregnant and during menopause, as well as the chapter on a
balanced diet to maintain health and peak
performance. Quite frankly, it is vital that older
female runners note the authors’ recommendations on the prevention of bone loss and that
adequate estrogen is vital to bone health.
Perhaps for some readers the book includes
too much biological background information at
the cost of practical information in the form of
training plans. It is true that the main focus is
not so much on practical training, but it is precisely the good balance of theory and practice
that is the main asset of this book.
All things considered, Running for Women
by Jason Karp and Carolyn Smith provides
extremely valuable and insightful information
about female physiology and highly useful
guidance on the best way to train. It is truly
a must-read for both women runners and the
men who support them.
Although it is clear that a lot of the information presented in this book can be found elsewhere, not least in other books by Jason Karp,
here, everything is written with female runners
in mind. That the information is presented in
a serious and detailed manner is especially
worth mentioning, because many other books
geared towards women runners are written in
a lighthearted and sometimes even funny way.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
Reviewed by Jürgen Schiffer
Jason R. Karp and
Carolyn S. Smith
Running for Women –
Your complete guide for
a lifetime of running
Champaign, Ill.: Human
Kinetics, 2012, 218 pp,
ISBN: 978-1-4504-0467-9,
$17.95
123
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New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
WEBSITE REview
Virtual Library of Sport
Science – www.vifasport.de:
A Project Under the Control of
the Central Library of Sport Science
in Cologne/Germany
© by IAAF
27:4; 125-129, 2012
Introduction
Framework Conditions
he German Virtual Library of Sport
Science (“ViFa Sport”) is a search
portal that enables simultaneous
sport-specific literature searches in various sport-literature databases. This, in principle, is more convenient for users than doing
searches in several databases independently.
An additional advantage of such a comprehensive search is that the number of documents
found is, at least theoretically, higher than in
the case of a search in only one database.
The “ViFa Sport” project was started on
February 1, 2006. The project phase was
completed after one and a half years and the
portal was presented to the public on September 26-28, 2007. The project was financially
supported by the German Research Society
(DFG).
T
Aims of “ViFa Sport”
•
The aims of “ViFa Sport” are to:
bring together the available sport-science
databases at a single website and make
them freely accessible under a single internet address (“one-stop-shop for sportscience information”);
Figure 1: “ViFa Sport” starting page and simple search
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
125
Virtual Library of Sport Science – www.vifasport.de: A Project Under the Control of the Central Library of Sport Science
Figure 2: “ViFa Sport” contents
•
•
provide a meta-search for different sportscience databases; and
provide direct access to the media
(through links to digital fulltexts, online
ordering, electronic document delivery) if
possible.
•
•
Contents of ViFa
“ViFa Sport” includes the following databases:
• the online public access catalogue
(OPAC) of the Central Library of Sport
Science (ZBS) (includes all books, periodicals and electronic media acquired
since 1989, more than 132,000 media
altogether);
126
•
•
the OPAC of the Library of the FriedrichEbert Foundation (FES) (extract: workerssport and sport-politics literature);
the OPAC of the German Central Library
of Medicine (ZBMed);
the databanks of the Federal Institute of
Sport Science (BISp):
- SPOLIT (about 195,000 documented
books, journal articles and chapters/
articles in books) (see also separate
review in NSA 3+4/2011, pp. 169-172),
- SPOFOR (about 6,850 sport-science
reearch projects),
- SPOMEDIA (about 1,800 audivisual media),
- special information guide (annotated internet links);
the databanks of the Institute of Applied
Training Science (IAT) (see also separate
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
Virtual Library of Sport Science – www.vifasport.de: A Project Under the Control of the Central Library of Sport Science
review in NSA 3/2012, pp. 107-111):
- SPOWIS (about 120,000 literature sources
from 1927-1995, main focus: applied
training science, sport-science research
in the former GDR),
- SPONET (about 15,900 sport and sportscience websites);
- TuPL database (contents of the German
magazine “Theorie und Praxis Leistungssport”);
• the current contents service of the ZBS
(up-to-date tables of contents of more than
1,200 sport and sport-science journals);
• the data included in the “Focus on Sports
Medicine” databank;
• press reports from the German “Sportinformationsdienst” (Sport Information Service) and the German Sports University;
• internet links collected by the ZBSport;
• athlete biographies included in the Munzinger database (access only for registered
users);
• the sports films provided by the
sportwissenschaften.info website.
• sport quotations.
Searching “ViFa Sport”: Simple
Search
Doing simple searches in “ViFa Sport” is
fairly easy. After having typed a certain term,
e.g., “pole vault”, in the simple-search bar of
the starting page one gets a result page which
shows the results categorized according to
their source databases. On the top right right,
there is a table which shows the number of results found in the various databases included
in “ViFa Sport” (Figure 3).
When clicking a specific result, detailed
information is provided about the particular
document and where it can be obtained (see
Figure 4).
It is particularly interesting to note that the
SPOLIT hits shown in the result page cannot
be accessed in full. When clicking on a link a
new window comes up empty!
“ViFa Sport” includes a total of 2,073,786
sources.
Figure 3: Simple search: result list (overview)
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
127
Virtual Library of Sport Science – www.vifasport.de: A Project Under the Control of the Central Library of Sport Science
Figure 4: Simple search: result list (detailed version)
Searching “ViFa Sport”: Extended Search
In order to do an extended search, users
must click the “Erweiterte Suche” button below
the simple-search bar on the entry page. The
extended search allows users to be more specific when searching and restrict their results to
certain words from the title, authors, keywords,
publications years, or document types. When
typing, for example the term “pole vault” in the
title bar of the extended search, the result list
includes only 177 hits as compared to 1209
hits in the simple search modus (see Figure 5).
However, these 177 publications deal with the
pole vault as the main topic or at least as one
of the main topics (see Figure 6).
It is important to note, however, that English
terms cannot be used as descriptors (“Schlagwort”). That is why a search in “ViFa Sport”
will almost always lead to better search results
when using German search terms. These,
however, are not automatically linked with their
English equivalents.
Figure 5: “ViFa Sport” extended search
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New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
Virtual Library of Sport Science – www.vifasport.de: A Project Under the Control of the Central Library of Sport Science
Figure 6: Extended search: result list (overview, extract)
Summary
“ViFa Sport” is a central sport-science information portal freely accessible via the internet.
Efforts are being made to secure the sustainability of the portal. Although the idea behind
the internet portal is a very good one, the portal suffers at the moment mainly from the fact
that searches using English terminology lead
to only limited results. This could (and will certainly soon) be improved by integrating a freetext search bar in the extended-search modus
which will allow the search for English terms not
only in the document title. The automatic translation of German descriptor terms into their Eng-
lish equivalents would be an additional service
and would lead to identical search results, no
matter whether the search is done using German or English terms. This last-mentioned service is also currently being worked on. Another
disadvantage of “ViFa Sport” is that the results
found in the SPOLIT database, where, in the
case of athletics, often the most results come
from, are not really accessible. So, unfortunately, “ViFa Sport” does not live up to its promise at
the moment. It is to be hoped that the problems
mentioned will be solved in the near future.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
Reviewed by Jürgen Schiffer
129
New Studies in Athletics · 3.2012
TECHNOLOGY REPORT
New Developments
from London 2012
Introduction
t every Olympic and Paralympic Games
we see new and exciting technology
used by athletes, officials and the media. In athletics, we can look back to the first
major international use of synthetic tracks, automatic timing and electronic distance measurement as examples. At times a product that is
destined to be applied for performance reasons
commercially benefits from the exposure at the
world’s biggest sporting event.
A
But what we see on television is just the tip
of the iceberg. In the run-up to the Games and
behind the scenes other technologies are also
introduced, developed and disseminated to
better prepare athletes, and their coaches, for
top performances.
© by IAAF
27:4; 131-134, 2012
airflow over the body (see Figure 1). Based on
test data from wind tunnels, it was claimed that
the suit could reduce sprint times over a 100m
by 0.023 seconds. It is assumed that this time
gain is based on comparison with Nike’s previous race suit. Leading athletes on the US team
used the new suit in both the Olympics and
Paralympics (http://nikeinc.com/news/trackfield-nike-pro-turbospeed-uniforms-and-nikezoom-spikes).
There was also further development of
sprint spikes and other running shoes. Lightweight components, customised fit and cushioning were further tweaked to support perfor-
London 2012 was no exception. The aim of
this article is to highlight some of the technologies we saw at the Games. These have been
categorised as:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Athlete apparel
Athlete equipment (Paralympic specific)
Officiating technology
Broadcast and media technology
Athlete Apparel
The most visual and commercially driven
innovation seen in London was in the sprint
events. In what was called Project Swift, Nike
developed a low-drag, all in one race suit that
featured different zoned fabrics to manipulate
Figure 1: Zoned fabric race suit developed by Nike
for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralymic Games
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
131
New Developments from London 2012
mance across many new products by several
shoe companies including the Nike Zoom Superfly R4, the Nike Zoom Victory Elite, and the
Adidas adizero Prime SP.
Did the aerodynamic suit or new spikes
make a difference to the athletes using them? It
is really hard to say. The improved performance
margins they claim are so small that athletes
might have got a greater gain from optimising
their warm-ups, if they had not done so already.
But, thinking as an athlete, if you’ve taken
care of everything you could and the competition is going to be really close, it makes sense
to try what is available, provided it is within the
rules. If nothing else, it could give a psychological advantage - very hard to quantify – that gives
you an edge.
From the point of view of the technology
providers there was the publicity for the new
product . . . which, of course, was a major aim.
Paralympic Equipment
Some of the more significant technological
breakthroughs were seen in disability athletics and particularly in wheelchair racing. It has
become apparent that athletes in these events
have been learning from the technological developments seen in Olympic cycling and triathlon. This was demonstrated by the headwear
used by David Weir (GBR) and Marcel Hug
(SUI), which was selected on the basis of wind
tunnel testing (see Figure 2).
A good example of the use of such techniques can be seen in an online article published by the BBC (http://www.bbc.co.uk/
news/health-17625958). Much like the Nike
aerodynamic suit, the aim of the technology we
saw in London was to reduce the air resistance
so that with the same physical effort the athlete
can go faster.
Material science in metals, carbon fibre and
rapid prototyping was also been seen in the
development and use of prosthetics and wheel
chairs. Improvements in the athlete fit through
Figure 2: Aerodynamic headwear used by wheelchair athletes
132
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
New Developments from London 2012
custom fit methodologies as used by F1 racing
drivers
(https://www.press.bmwgroup.com/
pressclub/p/gb/pressDetail.html?title=sportand-science-fuse-in-development-of-revolutionary-wheelchair-seats-ahead-of-summerof-sport&outputChannelId=8&id=T0130825
EN_GB&left_menu_item=node__2202) have
begun to assist in reducing pressure sores and
optimising the athlete-machine interface.
How much difference does technology
make in the Paralympics? The debate around
the use of prosthetic blades not withstanding, it is clear that technology is now a critical
component in enabling and supporting Paralympians at the highest level (http://www.ossur.
com/?PageID=13462). In this case, the margins of gain are much easier to measure and
we can see that the athletes with newer, more
advanced equipment are far more likely to be
on the podium than those with older or more
rudimentary technology.
But did the latest kit ensure that, for example, David Weir won the four golds he did from
the 800m to marathon? I think he was in such
good form and had such good tactics, that he
might have won with any reasonable equipment. Regardless, the fact he went though the
process around using such equipment shows
his mentality to winning.
Officiating Technology
Figure 3: The starting blocks used in the track events
at the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games
time accurately to a millionth of a second. With
the new blocks a false start was triggered when
the athlete exerted pressure above the allowed
limit (indicating movement) within 100/1000ths
of a second of the gun being fired. This improved
the ability of the officials to ensure a fair start,
which is good for the competitors, the fans in the
stadium and the television audiences.
The blocks were also improved from the
sprinter’s point of view. The centre bar on the
new blocks is thinner, reduced from 80 to 50
mm, and the footrest is expanded, from 120 to
160 mm. The new configuration allows for different starting positions and is especially for
women runners.
Athletes and fans also experienced a new
starter’s gun allowing the audio start signal to
be heard over the public address system (see
Figure 4).
Omega has been the official timekeeper of
the Olympic and Paralympics Games since 1932
and they continue to innovate in their development of the measurement technology used to
discriminate start and finish times.
A number of new developments were seen
and experienced by athletes, spectators and officials. Of special interest to athletes and athletics
fans, in London, the runners’ reaction time in the
sprint events was obtained entirely by the measurement of force against the back block and
not by movement (see Figure 3). Omega also
supplied a new Quantum Timer that measured
Figure 4: Starters gun used in the track events at the
201 Olympic and Paralympic Games
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
133
New Developments from London 2012
Broadcast and Media Technology
Summary
Finally, It is worth noting the breakthroughs
in the experience for fans and spectators at
the Olympic and Paralympics Games. The infrastructure around the Olympic park saw over
six kilometres of fibre optic cables carrying ultra high-definition video – 16 times the quality
of HD television.
Technology and science continue to push
the boundaries in high performance sport for
athletes, coaches, officials, fans and spectators. The London Olympic and Paralympics
Games were no different. This article has
showcased a few of those innovations and
shown how technology is now an integral part
of the sporting experience.
London 2012 was the first Olympic and
Paralympic Games to feature and use live
3D television using 33 true 3D live cameras
to capture more than 230 hours of coverage
throughout the Games. Audiences could view
live HD coverage from their desktops; switch
between 24 simultaneous live streams; rewind
live coverage; and provide live data, statistics
and information at your fingertips.
Please note: the author has no involvement
with any of the commercial companies or
products mentioned in this report.
Reported by Scott Drawer
Scott Drawer, PhD, is Head of Research &
Innovation Unit at UK Sport in Great Britain.
He can be contacted at
[email protected]
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New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
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New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
ABSTRACTS
Resúmenes
© by IAAF
27:4; 137-154, 2012
Éxito Nacional y Eficiencia en el Atletismo en los Juegos Olímpicos de 2012 en
Londres
por Jasper Truyens y Veerle De Bosscher
Las competencias atléticas en los Juegos Olímpicos de 2012 en Londres, presenciaron el
establecimiento de nuevos estándares. No fueron solo logros individuales (se consagraron ocho
récords Olímpicos, cuatro records mundiales y 23 mejores marcas mundiales), se constituyeron
nuevos niveles para indicadores de éxito competitivos de países. Como está comenzando una
nueva planificación y ciclo de preparación para los Juegos, es momento para que los responsables de políticas deportivas consideren toda la información disponible y extraigan las enseñanzas para el futuro. En Londres, algunos países se destacaron superando las expectativas mientras que otros resultaron deficientes. Este artículo describe el balance actual del poder nacional
en atletismo a través de una detallada interpretación estadística de los resultados. En primer lugar
se tratan diferentes medidas de éxito absoluto que amplían la importancia del tradicional tablero
de medallas. Esta perspectiva más amplia proporciona mayor valor explicativo respecto de las
posiciones relativas de los países. En segundo lugar, se describe la evolución de la estructura de
éxito del mercado actual. En tercer lugar se utilizan medidas específicas que describen la eficiencia de rendimiento en atletismo de un país para echar luz en la relación entre el éxito y los recursos
disponibles de una nación. Los autores comprueban que aún cuando Londres 2012 presenció un
número récord de países participantes en atletismo, sólo hubo una modesta internacionalización
del éxito.
Evaluación del Rendimiento Olímpico 2012 – Una Perspectiva Europea
por Frank Dick
La planificación basada en informes efectivos y las lecciones prácticas aprendidas de las experiencias es la clave para el éxito sustentable en cualquier esfuerzo. Como corolario del desafío
competitivo para cualquier atleta, los Juegos Olímpicos son tanto un fin en sí mismos como el
objeto de planificación para cumplir objetivos de desempeño y resultado. Un resumen informativo
luego de los Juegos u otro Campeonato importante y luego planificar para la próxima edición son
las responsabilidades primordiales de las federaciones atléticas nacionales y su personal, fundamentalmente del Jefe de Entrenadores o Director de Rendimiento. Este artículo, adaptado de un
informe preparado para el Atletismo Europeo, brinda un contexto documentado para realizar un
informe evaluativo luego de los Juegos Olímpicos de 2012 reuniendo los análisis técnicos y estadísticos de las pruebas atléticas que tuvieron lugar en Londres. Escrito por un ex jefe de entrenadores experimentado, el mismo incluye un inmejorable análisis de desempeño “del momento”
que se puede utilizar como un indicador de efectividad de las políticas de alto rendimiento, entrenamiento y apoyo a nivel nacional. Un hallazgo clave es que los equipos europeos generalmente
no cumplieron en forma tan efectiva como los equipos de Estados Unidos y Jamaica. El informe
concluye con diez recomendaciones iniciales para consideración de los responsables de la formulación de políticas de la federación, los Directores de Rendimiento y los entrenadores de élite.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
137
Resúmenes
Daño Muscular y Fatiga en el Maratón
por Juan Del Coso, Juan José Salinero, Javier Abián-Vicen, Cristina González-Millán,
Sergio Garde, Pablo Vega y Benito Pérez-González.
¿Está relacionada la fatiga muscular en el maratón con el cambio en la masa corporal (deshidratación) y/o el daño muscular producido por los continuos impactos de los pie en el suelo durante la distancia de 42.2km? Para este estudio, adaptado de un artículo originalmente publicado
en Applied Physiology Nutrition and Metabolism Journal, los corredores amateur (114 hombres y
24 mujeres) fueron evaluados antes un maratón en relación a la potencia muscular de sus piernas, se registró el peso corporal y se obtuvieron muestras de orina. Dentro de los tres minutos
de completada la carrera, disputada con 28ºC y 46% de humedad relativa, los sujetos repitieron
el test de potencia de piernas y luego se recolectaron datos sobre el peso corporal y se tomaron
muestras de orina nuevamente. Los autores identificaron que la reducción media de la masa corporal fue de 2.2±1.2%. Este cambio muestra una alta variabilidad interindividual, pero solamente
el 7% de los corredores estudiados perdió más del 4%. No se detectó hemoglobina muscular
(una proteína indicadora de daño en la fibra muscular) en las muestras de orina previas a la competencia mientras que la concentración de hemoglobina muscular posterior a la competencia se
incrementó a 3.5±9.5 µg·mL-1 (P<0.05). La reducción promedio de la potencia muscular de las
piernas luego de la carrera fue de 16±10%. La modificación de la potencia muscular se relaciona
significativamente con la concentración de hemoglobina muscular en orina luego de la carrera
(r=-0.55; P<0.001) pero no con modificación en la masa corporal (r=-0.08; P=0.35). La correlación
entre hemoglobina en orina y la modificación de la potencia muscular sugieren que la fatiga muscular está asociada a la descomposición del tejido muscular.
¿A qué velocidad puede correr un ser humano?
por Jeremy Richmond
Del mismo modo que los velocistas se desafían entre sí para ganar importantes campeonatos
y correr más rápido, nosotros tenemos una natural curiosidad de saber si existe un límite en el
que puede caer el récord mundial de 100m. En el pasado, se han hecho predicciones respecto
de la velocidad a la que pueden correr los seres humanos utilizando una adecuación de curva
matemática basada en marcas que constituían nuevos récords, factores metabólicos y principios
termodinámicos y, en particular en el caso de los 100m, información sobre depósitos de energía
de fosfágeno. En este estudio, el autor presenta una proyección de los límites del rendimiento humano en los 100m basados en las mediciones fisiológicas conocidas y las observaciones registradas, muchas de las cuales son hallazgos recientes. Se da por hecho que el tiempo de contacto
con el suelo limita la velocidad máxima de carrera y los tiempos de producción de fuerza son similares entre los velocistas que corren por debajo de 10 segundos hoy en día y en los últimos años.
De la evidencia disponible parece verosímil que los seres humanos puedan logran una velocidad
de 12.75 m/seg comparada con los 12.34 m/seg alcanzados por Usain Bolt (JAM) en su carrera
con récord mundial de 9.58 seg. Suponiendo similares relaciones de velocidad entre todas las
fases de la carrera y el mismo tiempo de reacción de salida registrado por Bolt, se sugiere que el
límite humano para 100m puede estar muy cerca de los 9.27 seg.
138
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
Resúmenes
Un Método Objetivo e Individualizado para Predecir Rendimientos en las Carreras
por Richard Watt
Con frecuencia estamos interesados en intentar lograr una estimación del rendimiento que
un atleta podría alcanzar en una prueba atlética. Podría ser por propósitos de entrenamiento
(es decir, como el entrenamiento es frecuentemente sobre distancias que no son habituales de
carreras, nos gustaría conocer de lo que es capaz nuestro atleta en esa distancia al 100% para
establecer objetivos realistas para los intervalos), o tal vez, estar en condiciones de comparar
una marca lograda con lo que el atleta, teóricamente, debería haber sido capaz de alcanzar, para
poder juzgar el valor del rendimiento. En este artículo, el autor proporciona un método para hacerlo, basado completamente en información objetiva del/la atleta, es decir, sin recurrir para nada
a información sobre otros atletas, o hacer conjeturas. Son necesarios dos rendimientos sobre
distancias que se encuentren dentro del rango de capacidad del atleta para obtener un cálculo
del potencial del atleta sobre cualquier otra distancia también dentro de su rango de capacidad.
La metodología resulta ser precisa dentro de escasos puntos de porcentaje considerando los
tiempos reales y pronosticados de algunos de los mejores atletas internacionales.
Importancia de un Resumen Evaluativo Efectivo
por Frank Dick
En el contexto de un Juego Olímpico o grandes campañas deportivas, la excelencia alcanza
o supera el rendimiento proyectado “del momento”. Como máximo, puede significar una medalla
de oro o el campeonato. Como mínimo, puede ser el mejor rendimiento de la temporada. El
resumen luego de la prueba se centra en el por qué del logro o no de la excelencia. Es la clave
para el proceso de revisión y determina la calidad de las lecciones aprendidas y en consecuencia los cambios sobre lo que se hace y cómo se hace – redefiniendo y tomando posesión de la
excelencia, diseñando el plan y luego alcanzando objetivos a través de acciones efectivas. Para
los programas de atletismo de alto rendimiento, los resúmenes y los procesos de revisión y planificación de cuatro años deben tener lugar en forma inmediata luego de los Juegos Olímpicos.
Los aplausos que señalaron el último paso del atleta sobre el podio en Londres 2012 también
marcaron el primer paso hacia el podio en Río 2016. El autor, un experto jefe de entrenadores
de atletismo proporciona un marco para analizar y planificar a lo largo del ciclo de preparación.
También se incluyen preguntas claves para las revisiones a corto, mediano y largo plazo que se
pueden utilizar como guías para el proceso.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
139
Résumés
Résumés
Le succès et l'efficacité des nations en athlétisme aux Jeux olympiques de
Londres 2012
par Jasper Truyens et Veerle De Bosscher
Les compétitions d'athlétisme des Jeux olympiques de Londres 2012 ont été la scène d'un grand
nombre de nouvelles performances d'anthologie. Il ne s'agissait pas uniquement de performances
individuelles (on y a enregistré huit records olympiques, quatre records du monde et 23 meilleures
performances), mais également de nouveaux indicateurs des niveaux de succès compétitif des nations. Avec le lancement d'un nouveau cycle de planification et de préparation pour les prochains
Jeux olympiques, il est vital pour les décisionnaires en charge des politiques sportives de considérer toutes les données disponibles et d'en tirer les leçons pour l'avenir. À Londres, certains pays
ont excellé, dépassant ce qu'on attendait d'eux, tandis que d'autres n'ont pas atteint les objectifs
qu'ils s'étaient fixés. Cet article décrit l'équilibre actuel des puissances nationales en athlétisme au
travers d'une interprétation statistique détaillée des résultats. En premier lieu, différentes mesures
de succès absolu, allant au-delà des classements des tableaux de médailles traditionnels, sont
examinées. Cette vue d'ensemble plus étendue permet une compréhension plus explicite des
positions relatives des différentes nations. Ensuite, l'évolution de la structure de succès dans le
marché actuel est décrite. Finalement, des mesures spécifiques décrivant l'efficacité des pays en
termes de performances en athlétisme sont employées pour mettre en lumière la relation entre
le succès et les ressources disponibles propres à chaque nation. Les auteurs déterminent que,
même si Londres 2012 a connu un nombre record de pays participant aux épreuves d'athlétisme,
l'internationalisation des niveaux de succès a été plutôt restreinte.
Évaluation des performances olympiques de 2012 – Une perspective européenne
par Frank Dick
Une planification solide, basée sur un débriefing efficace et sur les enseignements pratiques
tirés d'expériences vécues, représente la clé du succès sur le long terme, quel que soit le domaine concerné. Les Jeux olympiques - le summum absolu pour un athlète en termes de compétition - représentent à la fois un but en soi et le point central de la planification pour réussir
des performances et définir des objectifs de résultats. Le débriefing, qu'il soit post-Jeux ou au
lendemain d'autres championnats majeurs, ainsi que la planification d'un programme menant au
grand rendez-vous suivant, sont parmi les responsabilités majeures incombant aux fédérations nationales et à leur personnel, particulièrement l'entraîneur-en-chef ou le directeur de la performance.
Cet article, adapté d'un rapport préparé pour European Athletics, offre un contexte documenté
pour les débriefings menés au terme des Jeux olympiques de 2012, avec une présentation des
analyses techniques et statistiques des épreuves d'athlétisme de Londres. Rédigé par un ancien
entraîneur-en-chef expérimenté, l'article comprend une analyse unique des performances réussies
"au jour J", qui peut être utilisée comme un indicateur de l'efficacité des politiques en place, ainsi
que des niveaux de soutien et de préparation à la disposition des athlètes de l'élite nationale. Une
conclusion clé de ce rapport est que, d'un point de vue général, les équipes européennes ont été
moins efficaces, d'un point de vue de l'obtention des résultats visés, que celles des équipes de
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Résumés
Jamaïque et des États-Unis. Le rapport établit également, en guise de conclusion, une liste de dix
recommandations basiques destinées aux décisionnaires, aux directeurs de performances et aux
entraîneurs des athlètes de l'élite des fédérations nationales.
Blessures et fatigue musculaires dans les épreuves du marathon
par Juan Del Coso, Juan José Salinero, Javier Abián-Vicen, Cristina González-Millán,
Sergio Garde, Pablo Vega et Benito Pérez-González
La fatigue musculaire des marathoniens est-elle liée aux variations dans le poids du corps
(déshydratation) et/ou aux dégradations causées aux muscles par les foulées répétées 42,2km
durant? Pour cette étude, adaptée d'un article paru dans la revue Applied Physiology Nutrition and Metabolism Journal, la puissance musculaire des membres inférieurs de 138 coureurs
amateurs (114 hommes et 24 femmes) a été testée avant le départ d'un marathon, avec, en parallèle, l'enregistrement de leur poids et la collecte d'un échantillon urinaire. Moins de trois minutes après qu'ils aient franchi la ligne d'arrivée (courue dans une température de 28ºC, avec un
taux d'humidité de 46%), les coureurs sélectionnés ont à nouveau passé le test de puissance
musculaire des jambes, puis ils ont été pesés et on leur a prélevé un nouvel échantillon urinaire.
Les auteurs ont déterminé que la réduction moyenne de poids du corps était de 2,2±1,2%. Si
ce résultat indique une grande variabilité entre les individus, seuls 7% des coureurs étudiés ont
perdu plus de 4% de leur poids. Alors qu'aucune myoglobine (une protéine qui indique une dégradation des fibres musculaires) n'avait été détectée dans les échantillons urinaires collectés
avant la course, la concentration de myoglobine dans les urines après la course était passée
à 3,5±9,5 µg·mL-1 (P<0,05). La baisse moyenne de puissance musculaire après la course a été
mesurée à 16±10%. Le changement en puissance musculaire avait une corrélation significative
avec la concentration de myoglobine dans l'urine après la course (r=-0,55; P<0,001), mais pas
avec les changements de poids du corps (r=-0,08; P=0,35). La corrélation entre la concentration
de myoglobine dans les urines et les variations en puissance musculaire indiquerait que la fatigue
musculaire est associée à une dégradation du tissu musculaire.
Quelle vitesse peut atteindre l'être humain?
par Jeremy Richmond
Alors que les sprinters s'affrontent pour remporter les grandes compétitions internationales,
atteignant des vitesses de plus en plus élevées, nous sommes tout naturellement curieux de
savoir s'il est une limite au niveau que peut atteindre le record du monde du 100m. Des prévisions portant sur la vitesse que peut atteindre l'être humain ont été effectuées de par le passé
au moyen de courbes mathématiques ajustées sur la base des records enregistrés précédemment, de facteurs métaboliques et des principes thermodynamiques et, particulièrement dans le
cas du 100m, des informations connues sur le phosphagène et le stockage d'énergie dans les
muscles. Dans cette étude, l'auteur présente une projection des limites pour le 100m, sur la base
de mesures physiologiques connues et d'observations enregistrées, dont beaucoup sont des
résultats recueillis récemment. On assume que les temps de contact au sol limitent la vitesse de
course maximum, et que les temps de production de force sont similaires entre les sprinters qui
descendent sous les dix secondes d'aujourd'hui et ceux des années récentes. Considérant les
éléments actuellement établis, on considère que l'être humain pourrait atteindre une vitesse de
12,75m/seconde, sachant que lors de son record du monde de 9"58, le Jamaïcain Usain Bolt a
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Résumés
atteint 12,34m/sec. Des relations de vitesse similaires atteintes au travers de chacune des phases
de la course, couplées avec le même temps de réaction au pistolet du starter que celui de Bolt,
laissent actuellement penser que la limite en termes de temps sur le 100m pour l'être humain
pourrait être proche de 9"27.
Une méthode objective et individualisée pour prédire les performances dans
les épreuves de course
par Richard Watt
Nous nous intéressons souvent à la possibilité d'obtenir une estimation de la performance
qu'un athlète devrait atteindre lors d'une compétition d'athlétisme. Ceci peut être soit pour des
objectifs liés à l'entraînement (car, souvent, les distances accomplies à l'entraînement n'étant
pas fréquemment courues en compétition, nous aimerions pouvoir déterminer ce dont l'athlète
concerné est capable sur cette distance à 100%, afin de déterminer des objectifs réalistes pour
les séances de fractionnés), soit pour comparer une performance effectivement réussie avec celle
dont l'athlète était théoriquement capable, afin de juger de la valeur de la performance. Dans cette
étude, l'auteur livre une méthode pour remédier à cette question, méthode qui se base exclusivement sur les données objectives propres à chaque athlète, c'est-à-dire sans recours à des informations qui concernent d'autres athlètes ou à des hypothèses hasardeuses. Deux performances
sur des distances qui sont dans le rayon de compétences de l'athlète sont requises pour pouvoir
se faire une idée précise de ses capacités sur d'autres distances, également situées dans son
rayon de compétence. Lorsqu'on considère, pour certains des meilleurs athlètes internationaux,
leurs temps effectifs et les temps estimés au travers de cette méthode, il apparaît que cette méthodologie est précise à quelques points de pourcentage près.
De l'importance d'un débriefing efficace
par Frank Dick
Dans le contexte des Jeux olympiques ou d'une campagne sportive majeure, l'excellence
consiste à égaler ou surpasser la performance souhaitée au "jour J". Au mieux, ceci peut être
synonyme de médaille d'or ou d'un titre global, mais, à tout le moins, cela doit représenter la
meilleure performance de la saison. Le débriefing au terme de la compétition se focalisera sur les
raisons expliquant que le plus haut niveau d'excellence ait été atteint ou non. Il s'agit là de la clé
du processus de révision, qui établira la qualité des leçons apprises, et indiquera les éventuelles
modifications requises et la manière dont celles-ci seront appliquées. L'objectif ici étant la redéfinition et la maîtrise du processus de prise en main de la quête de l'excellence, la conception d'un
nouveau plan et la mise en place de nouveaux objectifs au travers d'une action efficace. Pour les
programmes d'athlétisme de l'élite, le débriefing, ainsi que les processus de passage en revue et
de planification, doivent prendre place peu après les Jeux olympiques. De fait, les applaudissements accompagnant l'athlète au moment où il monte sur le podium de Londres 2012 doivent
également être considérés comme ceux l'encourageant sur le chemin qui le mènera au podium
de Rio 2016. L'auteur, entraîneur-en-chef d'athlétisme possédant une grande expérience, fournit
une matrice pour le débriefing et la planification recouvrant l'intégralité du cycle de préparation. Il
y inclut les questions-clés pour les passages en revue à court, moyen et long terme qui peuvent
être utilisés en tant que guides pour le processus.
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
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Аннотация
Аннотация
Успехи и эффективность выступления национальных сборных по легкой
атлетике на Олимпийских играх 2012 года в Лондоне
Гаспер Труенс, Виири де Бошер
На Олимпийских играх 2012 года в Лондоне на соревнованиях по легкой атлетике был
показан ряд выдающихся достижений. И это не только успех отдельных спортсменов (было
установлено восемь новых Олимпийских рекордов, четыре мировых рекорда и 23 лучших
результата сезона), но и выступлениях стран, которые вышли на новый уровень. Поскольку
уже началась подготовка к очередным Олимпийским играм сейчас необходимо выявить
основные направления развития легкой атлетики, которые проявились во время этих
соревнований. В Лондоне некоторые страны вопреки ожиданиям выступили прекрасно, а
другие понесли не планируемые потери. В данной статье проводится анализ результатов,
показанных в ходе соревнований. Прежде всего, обсуждается вопрос распределения
медалей среди стран и анализируется динамика их выступлений на Олимпиадах. Далее
оценивается структура спортивного рынка. В третьих, рассматривается эффективность
выступления отдельных стран в соответствии с их экономическим и людским потенциалом.
Авторы отмечают, что, несмотря на рекордное количество стран-участниц в соревнованиях
по легкой атлетике, международное сотрудничество не проявилось достаточно ярко.
Оценка результатов Олимпийских игр 2012 года – европейские перспективы
Фрэнк Дик
Планирование, основанное на отчетах и практическом наблюдении, является одним
из факторов будущего успеха. Вершиной спортивного достижения любого спортсмена
являются Олимпийские игры, которые определяют успешность подготовки и реализацию
достигнутого состояния. Отчеты после крупнейших международных соревнований, в том
числе и после Олимпийских игр, являются основой последующего планирования, которое
осуществляют национальные федерации и их руководители. В данной статье проводится
статистический и технический анализ соревнований по легкой атлетике на Олимпийских
играх 2012 года в Лондоне в плане рассмотрения перспектив выступления европейских
атлетов. Основной вывод заключается в том, что легкоатлеты стран Европы не выступили
столь активно, как это сделали представители США и Ямайки. Отчет заканчивается
десятью рекомендациями, которые должны использовать руководители федераций и
тренеры в своей последующей работе.
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Аннотация
Мышечные травмы и утомление в марафонском беге
Хуан Дель Корсо, Хуан Хосе Салинеро, Джавер Абиан Висен,
Христиан Гонсалес – Милан, Серджио Гранде, Пабло Вега и Бенито Перес-Гонзалес
Является ли мышечное утомление в марафонском беге результатом потери веса
спортсмена, вследствие обезвоживания, или мышцы разрушаются из-за постоянных
толчков при опоре в процессе преодоления дистанции в 42.195 м? С целью изучения этого
вопроса, впервые поставленного в журнале “Applied Physiology and Metabolism Journal” ,
было проведено исследование, в котором приняли участие спортсмены - марафонцы (114
мужчин и 24 женщины). Перед бегом были проанализированы сила мышц ног, вес тела и
состав мочи. Бег проводился в условиях 28°С при влажности в 48%. Через три минуты после
финиша спортсмены были повергнуты повторному тестированию. Авторы обнаружили,
что масса тела снизилась на 2.2±1.2%. Этот показатель был существенно вариативен,
но только 7% бегунов потеряли более 4% веса тела. Не было определено наличие
миоглобина в моче (протеин, свидетельствующий о разрушении мышечных волокон) перед
стартом, но после финиша его концентрация составляла 3.5± 9.5 мг/л (p< 0.05). Сила
мышц ног уменьшилась на 16±10%. Силовые показатели мышц ног хорошо коррелируют
с концентрацией миоглобина в моче после бега ( r=-0.55; р<0.001), но не с потерей веса
спортсменов (r=-0.08; р=0.35). Корреляция между уровнем миоглобина и силой ног дает
основание полагать, что утомление мышц связано с разрушением мышечной ткани.
Как быстро может бежать человек?
Джереми Ричмонд
Спринтеры сменяют один другого на главных международных соревнованиях, побеждая
с все время лучшими результатами, и это дает основание для размышления: «Каков лимит
рекорда в беге на 100 метров»? Предсказания основывались на математическом расчете
динамики рекордов, метаболических факторах, принципов термодинамики, а также
уровня энергетических запасов. В данном исследовании автор, основываясь на ранних
данных, приводит свои расчеты. Он считает, что время контакта с поверхностью дорожки
ограничивает максимальную скорость, в то время как силовой потенциал спринтеров
остается почти без изменений. В исследовании утверждается, что спринтер может
достигнуть максимальной скорости в 12.75 м/сек (у Usian Bolt при результате 9.58 сек это
значение составляло 12.34 м/сек). При тех же параметрах старта, которые показал Usian
Bolt, рекорд в беге на 100 метров может быть 9.27 сек.
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Аннотация
Объективный метод расчета индивидуальных показателей в беговых
дисциплинах
Ричард Ватт
Попытки предсказать возможные результаты в легкоатлетических видах проводятся
достаточно часто. Такие расчеты могут подсказать какую дистанцию предпочесть
спортсмену, чтобы максимально использовать свой потенциал, или оценить уровень
достижений для сравнения различных спортсменов. В данном исследовании автор
предлагает свой метод оценки уровня достижения в беге на различные дистанции.
Сравниваются два результата, и, на основании расчета, дается достаточно точное
определение уровня достижений на других дистанциях. Автор предлагает расчет
возможных результатов некоторых спортсменов мирового класса.
Объективная оценка событий
Фрэнк Дик
Объективное рассмотрение итогов Олимпийских игр или других крупнейших
международных соревнований позволяет разрабатывать реальные планы на будущее.
Оценка достижения после завершения вида помогает определить, как были реализованы
поставленные задачи. Анализ позволит создавать оптимальные планы на будущее,
в частности, для спортсменов высокого класса после завершения Олимпийских игр,
необходимо приступить к разработке планов на следующий олимпийский цикл. Автор
предлагает свою методику разработки краткосрочных и долгосрочных планов подготовки
спортсменов.
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New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
‫صخلم‬
‫صخلم‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻧﺟﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﻭﻁﻧﻰ ﻭﺍﻟﻛﻔﺎءﺓ ﻓﻰ ﺃﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻘﻭﻯ ﻓﻰ ﺩﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻷﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻣﺑﻳﺔ ﺑﻠﻧﺩﻥ‬
‫ﺑﻘﻠﻡ ﺟﺎﺳﺑﺭ ﺗﺭﻭﻳﻧﺱ ‪ Jasper Truyens‬ﻭ ﻓﻴﺮﻝ ﺩﻱ ﺑﻮﺷﻴﺮ ‪Veerle De Bosscher‬‬
‫ﻣﻠﺧﺹ‬
‫ﺷﻬﺩﺕ ﻣﻧﺎﻓﺳﺎﺕ ﺃﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻘﻭﻯ ﻓﻰ ﺩﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻷﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻣﺑﻳﺔ ﺑﻠﻧﺩﻥ ﻣﺟﻣﻭﻋﺔ ﻣﻌﻳﺎﺭﻳﺔ ﺟﺩﻳﺩﺓ ﻣﺗﻌﺩﺩﺓ‪ .‬ﻓﻠﻡ ﻳﻛﻥ ﻫﻧﺎﻙ‬
‫ﺇﻧﺟﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻓﺭﺩﻳﺔ ﻓﻘﻁ )ﻛﺎﻥ ﻫﻧﺎﻙ ﺛﻣﺎﻧﻰ ﺃﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺃﻭﻟﻣﺑﻳﺔ ﻭﺃﺭﺑﻊ ﺃﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﻋﺎﻟﻣﻳﺔ ﻭ‪ 23‬ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻣﻳﺔ ﺭﺍﺋﺩﺓ( ﺑﻝ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻫﻧﺎﻙ‬
‫ﻣﺳﺗﻭﻳﺎﺕ ﺟﺩﻳﺩﺓ ﻟﻣﺅﺷﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻧﺟﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﺗﻧﺎﻓﺳﻰ ﻟﻠﺩﻭﻝ‪ .‬ﻓﻣﻊ ﺑﺩء ﺩﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺗﺧﻁﻳﻁ ﻭﺍﻹﻋﺩﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺟﺩﻳﺩﺓ ﻟﺩﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻷﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻣﺑﻳﺔ‬
‫ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻭﻗﺕ ﻗﺩ ﺣﺎﻥ ﻟﺻﻧﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺳﻳﺎﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺭﻳﺎﺿﻳﺔ ﻟﻳﺄﺧﺫﻭﺍ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻹﻋﺗﺑﺎﺭ ﺟﻣﻳﻊ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﻭﺍﻓﺭﺓ ﻭﻳﺭﺳﻣﻭﺍ ﺩﺭﻭﺳﺎ‬
‫ﻟﻠﻣﺳﺗﻘﺑﻝ‪ .‬ﻓﻔﻰ ﻟﻧﺩﻥ ﺗﻔﻭﻗﺕ ﺑﻌﺽ ﺍﻟﺩﻭﻝ ﻟﺗﺗﺧﻁﻰ ﺍﻟﺗﻭﻗﻌﺎﺕ ﺑﻳﻧﻣﺎ ﺃﺧﻔﻘﺕ ﺩﻭﻝ ﺃﺧﺭﻯ ﻓﻰ ﻭﻗﺕ ﻗﺻﻳﺭ‪ .‬ﻳﺻﻑ ﻫﺫﺍ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﻘﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺗﻭﺍﺯﻥ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﻟﻰ ﻟﻠﻘﻭﺓ ﺍﻟﻭﻁﻧﻳﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺃﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻘﻭﻯ ﻣﻥ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﺗﻔﺳﻳﺭ ﺍﻹﺣﺻﺎﺋﻰ ﺍﻟﻣﻔﺻﻝ ﻟﻠﻧﺗﺎﺋﺞ‪ .‬ﻓﻠﻘﺩ ﻧﺎﻗﺷﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﻘﺎﻟﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺑﺩﺍﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﻘﺎﻳﻳﺱ ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺗﻠﻔﺔ ﻟﻠﻧﺟﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﻣﻁﻠﻕ ﺍﻟﺗﻰ ﺗﻭﺳﻊ ﺃﻫﻣﻳﺔ ﻁﺎﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﻳﺩﺍﻟﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺗﻘﻠﻳﺩﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﺗﺻﻧﻳﻔﺎﺕ‪ .‬ﻓﺗﻘﺩﻡ‬
‫ﻭﺟﻬﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺭ ﺍﻟﻣﻭﺳﻌﺔ ﻫﺫﻩ ﻗﻳﻡ ﺃﻛﺛﺭ ﺗﻔﺳﻳﺭﺍ ﻟﻸﻭﺿﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﻧﺳﺑﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﺩﻭﻝ‪ .‬ﺛﺎﻧﻳﺎ‪ ،‬ﻭﺻﻑ ﻧﻣﻭ ﺑﻧﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻭﻕ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﻟﻰ ﻟﻠﻧﺟﺎﺡ‪.‬‬
‫ﺛﺎﻟﺛﺎ‪ ،‬ﺃﺳﺗﺧﺩﻣﺕ ﺍﻟﻣﻘﺎﻳﻳﺱ ﺍﻟﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺍﻟﺗﻰ ﺗﺻﻑ ﻓﺎﻋﻠﻳﺔ ﺃﺩﺍء ﺍﻟﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺃﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻘﻭﻯ ﻹﻟﻘﺎء ﺍﻟﺿﻭء ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﻳﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻧﺟﺎﺡ ﻭﺍﻟﻣﻭﺍﺭﺩ ﺍﻟﻭﻁﻧﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﺎﺣﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﻠﻘﺩ ﻭﺟﺩ ﺍﻟﻣﺅﻟﻔﻳﻥ ﺃﻧﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﺭﻏﻡ ﻣﻥ ﺃﻥ ﺩﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻷﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻣﺑﻳﺔ ﺑﻠﻧﺩﻥ ‪ 2012‬ﻗﺩ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ‬
‫ﺷﺎﻫﺩﺕ ﻋﺩﺩﺍ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻷﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﻳﺎﺳﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﺩﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﺷﺎﺭﻛﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺃﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻘﻭﻯ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻫﻧﺎﻙ ﺗﺩﻭﻳﻝ ﻣﺗﻭﺍﺿﻊ ﻟﻠﻧﺟﺎﺡ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻘﻴﻴﻢ ﺍﻷﺩﺍء ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻤﺒﻰ ﻟﻌﺎﻡ ‪ – 2012‬ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻈﻮﺭ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻰ‬
‫ﺑﻘﻠﻢ ﻓﺭﺍﻧﻙ ﺩﻳﻙ ‪Frank Dick‬‬
‫ﻣﻠﺨﺺ‬
‫ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺨﻄﻴﻂ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺋﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻹﺳﺘﺨﻼﺹ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﺎﻝ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺪﺭﻭﺱ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﻌﻠﻤﻨﺎﻫﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺨﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﻫﻰ ﻣﻔﺘﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﻨﺠﺎﺡ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﻳﻢ ﻓﻰ ﺃﻯ ﻣﺴﺎﻋﻰ‪ .‬ﺑﻮﺻﻔﻬﺎ ﺫﺭﻭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺪﻯ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﺎﻓﺴﻰ ﻷﻯ ﻣﺘﺴﺎﺑﻖ‪ ،‬ﺗﻌﺪ ﺩﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻷﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻤﺒﻴﺔ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺣﺪ ﺫﺍﺗﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺨﻄﻴﻂ ﻟﺘﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺍﻷﺩﺍء ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺟﻮﺓ‪ .‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺇﺳﺘﺨﻼﺹ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻋﻘﺐ ﺩﻭﺭﺓ‬
‫ﺍﻷﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻤﺒﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺒﻄﻮﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ ﺛﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺨﻄﻴﻂ ﻟﻠﻄﺒﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺌﻮﻟﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺏ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻮﻁﻨﻴﺔ ﻭﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻮﻅﻔﻴﻬﺎ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺭﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻟﻔﻨﻰ ﺃﻭ ﻣﺪﻳﺮ ﺍﻷﺩﺍء‪ .‬ﻓﻬﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺘﺒﺲ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺮﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ‬
‫ﺃﻋﺪﺗﻪ ﺃﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻯ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻴﺔ ﻳﻘﺪﻡ ﺳﻴﺎﻕ ﻣﺪﻋﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻮﺛﺎﺋﻖ ﻹﺳﺘﺨﻼﺹ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻋﻘﺐ ﺩﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻷﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻤﺒﻴﺔ ﻟﻌﺎﻡ‬
‫‪ 2012‬ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﻨﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻹﺣﺼﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻣﻌﺎ ﻋﻦ ﻣﺴﺎﺑﻘﺎﺕ ﺃﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﺃﺟﺮﻳﺖ ﻓﻰ ﻟﻨﺪﻥ‪ .‬ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﻥ‬
‫ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﻝ ﻛﺘﺒﺔ ﺭﺋﻴﺲ ﻣﺪﺭﺑﻴﻦ ﺳﺎﺑﻖ ﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﻳﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻼ ﻓﺮﻳﺪﺍ ﻟﺘﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺍﻷﺩﺍء "ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻡ" ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﻛﻤﺆﺷﺮ‬
‫ﻟﻔﺎﻋﻠﻴﺔ ﺳﻴﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺩﺍء ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻰ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺐ ﻭﺩﻋﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻮﻁﻨﻰ‪ .‬ﻣﻦ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻳﻖ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻰ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺆﺩﻯ‬
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‫ﺑﻨﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﻋﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﺃﺩﻯ ﺑﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻳﻖ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻰ ﻭﺍﻟﺠﺎﻣﻴﻜﻰ‪ .‬ﺃﻧﺘﻬﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺮﻳﺮ ﺑﻌﺸﺮ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﺎﺕ ﺃﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﻳﻨﺒﻐﻰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺻﻨﺎﻉ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﻭﻣﺪﻳﺮﻯ ﺍﻷﺩﺍء ﻭﻣﺪﺭﺑﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﺨﺒﺔ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺄﺧﺬﻭﻫﺎ ﻓﻰ ﺇﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭﻫﻢ‪.‬‬
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‫‪New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ‬
‫صخلم‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻠﻰ ﻭﺍﻹﺟﻬﺎﺩ ﻓﻰ ﺳﺒﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺭﺍﺛﻮﻥ‬
‫ﺑﻘﻠﻡ ﺧﻭﺍﻥ ﺩﻳﻝ ﻛﻭﺳﻭ ‪ Juan Del Coso‬ﻭ ﺧﻭﺍﻥ ﺧﻭﺳﻳﻪ ﺳﺎﻟﻳﻧﻳﺭﻭ ‪ Juan José Salinero‬ﻭ ﺧﺎﻓﻳﻳﺭ ﺃﺑﻳﻥ‪-‬‬
‫ﻓﺎﻳﺳﻥ ‪ Javier Abián-Vicen‬ﻭﻛﺭﻳﺳﺗﻳﻧﺎ ﻏﻭﻧﺯﺍﻟﻳﺱ ﻣﻳﻼﻥ ‪ Cristina González-Millán‬ﻭ ﺳﻳﺭﺟﻳﻭ ﻏﺎﺭﺩ‬
‫‪ Sergio Garde‬ﻭﺑﺎﺑﻠﻭ ﻓﻳﻐﺎ ‪ Pablo Vega‬ﻭﺑﻳﻧﻳﺗﻭ ﺑﻳﺭﻳﺯ ﻏﻭﻧﺯﺍﻟﻳﺱ ‪Benito Pérez-González.‬‬
‫ﻣﻠﺨﺺ‬
‫ﻫﻝ ﺍﻟﺗﻌﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺿﻠﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺳﺑﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻣﺎﺭﺍﺛﻭﻥ ﻣﺗﻌﻠﻕ ﺑﺗﻐﻳﺭ ﻛﺗﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺟﺳﻡ )ﺍﻟﺟﻔﺎﻑ( ﻭﺗﻠﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﺿﻼﺕ ﺃﻡ ﻛﻼﻫﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺫﻯ ﻳﺣﺩﺙ‬
‫ﻧﺗﻳﺟﺔ ﺿﺭﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﺩﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺗﻣﺭﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺩﻯ ﻣﺳﺎﻓﺔ ‪ 42.2‬ﻛﻡ؟ ﻓﻔﻰ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﻘﺗﺑﺳﺔ ﻣﻥ ﺑﺣﺙ ﻧﺷﺭ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﺻﻝ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﻣﺟﻠﺔ ﺑﺈﺳﻡ ‪ Applied Physiology Nutrition and Metabolism Journal‬ﺃﻯ ﻣﺟﻠﺔ ﻋﻠﻡ ﻭﻅﺎﺋﻑ ﺍﻷﻋﺿﺎء‬
‫ﺍﻟﺗﻁﺑﻳﻘﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻐﺫﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻷﻳﺽ ﺣﻳﺙ ﺗﻡ ﺇﺧﺗﺑﺎﺭ )‪ 114‬ﺭﺟﺎﻝ ﻭ‪ 24‬ﺳﻳﺩﺓ( ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺍﺋﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﻬﻭﺍﺓ ﻗﺑﻝ ﺳﺑﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻣﺎﺭﺍﺛﻭﻥ ﻣﻥ‬
‫ﺣﻳﺙ ﺇﻧﺗﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺿﻠﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﺭﺟﻝ ﻛﻣﺎ ﺃﺧﺫ ﻭﺯﻥ ﺍﻟﺟﺳﻡ ﻭﺗﻡ ﺍﻟﺣﺻﻭﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻳﻧﺔ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﺑﻭﻝ‪ .‬ﻭﻓﻲ ﺧﻼﻝ ‪ 3‬ﺩﻗﺎﺋﻕ ﻣﻥ‬
‫ﺇﻧﺗﻬﺎء ﺍﻟﺳﺑﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺫﻯ ﺗﺣﺕ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﻓﻲ ‪ 28‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻭﺭﻁﻭﺑﺔ ﻧﺳﺑﻳﺔ ‪ ٪46‬ﻛﺭﺭ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﺳﺎﺑﻘﻳﻥ ﻋﻳﻧﺔ ﺍﻟﺑﺣﺙ ﺇﺧﺗﺑﺎﺭ ﻁﺎﻗﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺭﺟﻝ ﻭﺑﻌﺩ ﺫﻟﻙ ﺃﺧﺫﺕ ﻭﺯﻥ ﺍﻟﺟﺳﻡ ﻭﺟﻣﻌﺕ ﻋﻳﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺑﻭﻝ ﻣﺭﺓ ﺃﺧﺭﻯ‪ .‬ﻭﻭﺟﺩ ﺍﻟﺑﺎﺣﺛﻭﻥ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻧﻘﺹ ﻓﻰ ﻣﺗﻭﺳﻁ ﻛﺗﻠﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺟﺳﻡ ﻛﺎﻥ ‪ .٪1.2 ± 2.2‬ﻳﻅﻬﺭ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﺗﻐﻳﻳﺭ ﺗﺑﺎﻳﻥ ﻋﺎﻟﻰ ﻓﻳﻣﺎ ﺑﻳﻥ ﺍﻷﻓﺭﺍﺩ ﻭﻟﻛﻥ ‪ ٪7‬ﻓﻘﻁ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﺳﺎﺑﻘﻳﻥ ﻣﻮﺿﻊ‬
‫ﺍﻝﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻗﺩ ﻓﻘﺩﻭﺍ ﺃﻛﺛﺭ ﻣﻥ ‪ .٪4‬ﻟﻡ ﻳﻛﺗﺷﻑ ﺃﻱ ﻣﻳﻭﺟﻠﻭﺑﻳﻥ )ﺃﻯ ﺍﻝﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻱﺷﻳﺭ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺿﺭﺭ ﺍﻷﻟﻳﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﺿﻠﻳﺔ(‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﻋﻳﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺑﻭﻝ ﻗﺑﻝ ﺍﻟﺳﺑﺎﻕ ﺑﻳﻧﻣﺎ ﺍﺭﺗﻔﻊ ﺗﺭﻛﻳﺯ ﺍﻟﻣﻳﻭﺟﻠﻭﺑﻳﻥ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺑﻭﻝ ﺑﻌﺩ ﺳﺑﺎﻕ ﺇﻟﻰ ‪ 9.5 ± 3.5‬ﻣﻳﻛﺭﻭﻏﺭﺍﻡ ‪ /‬ﻣﻝ‬
‫)‪ .(0.05> P‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﻣﺗﻭﺳﻁ ﺇﻧﻘﺎﺹ ﺍﻟﻘﻭﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﺿﻠﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﺭﺟﻝ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺑﻣﻌﺩﻝ ‪ .٪10 ± 16‬ﻛﺎﻥ ﻫﻧﺎﻙ ﺍﺭﺗﺑﺎﻁ ﻛﺑﻳﺭ ﺑﻳﻥ ﺗﻐﻳﺭ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻘﻭﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﺿﻠﻳﺔ ﺑﺗﺭﻛﻳﺯ ﺍﻟﻣﻳﻭﺟﻠﻭﺑﻳﻥ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺑﻭﻝ ﺑﻌﺩ ﺳﺑﺎﻕ )ﺹ = ‪ (0.001> P ،0.55 -‬ﻭﻟﻛﻥ ﻟﻳﺱ ﻣﻊ ﺗﻐﻳﻳﺭ ﻛﺗﻠﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺟﺳﻡ )ﺹ = ‪ .(0.35 = P ،0.08-‬ﻓﺗﺷﻳﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﻳﻭﻏﻠﻭﺑﻳﻧﻳﺔ ﻭﺗﻐﻳﺭ ﺍﻟﻘﻭﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﺿﻠﻳﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺗﻌﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺿﻠﻲ‬
‫ﻧﻬﻳﺎﺭ ﺍﻷﻧﺳﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺿﻠﻳﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻳﺭﺗﺑﻁ ﺑﺈ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ‬
‫ﻣﺎ ﻣﺪﻯ ﺍﻟﺴﺮﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺍﻻﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺠﺮﻱ ﺑﻬﺎ؟‬
‫ﺑﻘﻠﻢ ﺟﻳﺭﻳﻣﻲ ﺭﻳﺗﺷﻣﻭﻧﺩ ‪Jeremy Richmond‬‬
‫‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻠﺨﺺ‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫ﺑﻣﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺍﺋﻳﻥ ﻳﺗﺣﺩﻭﺍ ﺑﻌﺿﻬﻡ ﺍﻟﺑﻌﺽ ﻟﻠﻔﻭﺯ ﺑﺎﻟﺑﻁﻭﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﻛﺑﺭﻯ ﻭﺍﻟﺟﺭﻱ ﺑﺷﻛﻝ ﺃﺳﺭﻉ‪ ،‬ﻓﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻁﺑﻳﻌﻲ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻛﻭﻥ ﻟﺩﻳﻧﺎ‬
‫ﻓﺿﻭﻝ ﻟﻣﻌﺭﻓﺔ ﻣﺎ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻫﻧﺎﻙ ﺣﺩ ﻟﻠﻣﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺫﻱ ﻳﻣﻛﻥ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺗﺣﻘﻕ ﻓﻳﻪ ﺭﻗﻡ ﻗﻳﺎﺳﻲ ﻋﺎﻟﻣﻲ ﻟﺳﺑﺎﻕ ‪ 100‬ﻡ‪ .‬ﻭﻳﻭﺟﺩ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﺎﺿﻲ ﺗﻧﺑﺅﺍﺕ ﺣﻭﻝ ﻣﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺳﺭﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﺗﻰ ﻳﻣﻛﻥ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺟﺭﻯ ﺑﻬﺎ ﺍﻻﻧﺳﺎﻥ ﺑﺎﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﺣﻧﻰ ﺍﻟﺭﻳﺎﺿﻲ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﺎﺳﺏ ﺍﻟﺫﻱ‬
‫ﻳﻌﺗﻣﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﺩﺍء ﺍﻟﺧﺎﺹ ﺑﻛﺳﺭ ﺍﻟﺭﻗﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﻳﺎﺳﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻣﻲ ﺍﻟﺳﺎﺑﻕ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻭﺍﻣﻝ ﺍﻷﻳﺿﻳﺔ ﻭﻣﺑﺎﺩﺉ ﺍﻟﺩﻳﻧﺎﻣﻳﻛﺎ ﺍﻟﺣﺭﺍﺭﻳﺔ ‪-‬ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﻭﺟﻪ ﺍﻟﺧﺻﻭﺹ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺳﺑﺎﻕ ‪ 100‬ﻡ – ﻭﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﻋﻥ ﻣﺧﺎﺯﻥ ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﻓﻭﺳﻔﺎﺟﻳﻥ‪ .‬ﻳﻌﺭﺽ ﺍﻟﻣﺅﻟﻑ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺫﻩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺗﻘﺩﻳﺭ ﺣﺩﻭﺩ ﺍﻷﺩﺍء ﺍﻟﺑﺷﺭﻱ ﻓﻲ ﺳﺑﺎﻕ ‪ 100‬ﻡ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﻘﻳﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﺳﻳﻭﻟﻭﺟﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﺭﻭﻓﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻣﻼﺣﻅﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺟﻠﺔ‪ ،‬ﺣﻳﺙ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻛﺛﻳﺭ ﻣﻧﻬﺎ ﻫﻲ ﻧﺗﺎﺋﺞ ﺣﺩﻳﺛﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻳﻔﺗﺭﺽ ﺃﻥ ﺯﻣﻥ ﺍﻻﺗﺻﺎﻝ ﺑﺎﻷﺭﺽ ﻳﺣﺩ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﺳﺭﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﺻﻭﻯ‬
‫ﻟﻠﺟﺭﻱ ﻭﺃﻥ ﺃﺯﻣﻧﺔ ﺇﻧﺗﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻘﻭﺓ ﻣﺗﺷﺎﺑﻬﺔ ﺑﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺍﺋﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﺫﻳﻥ ﻳﺟﺭﻭﺍ ﻓﻲ ﺯﻣﻥ ﺃﻗﻝ ﻣﻥ ‪ 10‬ﺛﺎﻧﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻳﻭﻡ ﻭﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﺳﻧﻭﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻷﺧﻳﺭﺓ‪ .‬ﻭﻳﺑﺩﻭ ﻣﻌﻘﻭﻻ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻷﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﺎﺣﺔ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻳﻣﻛﻥ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺻﻝ ﺍﻻﻧﺳﺎﻥ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺳﺭﻋﺔ ‪ 12.75‬ﻡ ‪ /‬ﺛﺎﻧﻳﺔ ﻭﺫﻟﻙ ﻣﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﺭﻗﻡ ﺍﻟﺫﻯ ﺣﻘﻘﻪ ﻳﻭﺳﻳﻥ ﺑﻭﻟﺕ )ﺟﺎﻣﻳﻛﺎ( ‪ 12.34‬ﻣﺗﺭ ‪ /‬ﺛﺎﻧﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺳﺑﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺫﻯ ﺣﻘﻕ ﻓﻳﻪ ﺭﻗﻣﻪ ﺍﻟﻘﻳﺎﺳﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻣﻲ ‪.9.58‬‬
‫ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻓﺗﺭﺍﺽ ﻭﺟﻭﺩ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺳﺭﻋﺔ ﻣﻣﺎﺛﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻣﻳﻊ ﻣﺭﺍﺣﻝ ﺍﻟﺳﺑﺎﻕ ﻭﻧﻔﺱ ﺯﻣﻥ ﺭﺩ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﻝ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺑﺩﺍﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺫﻯ ﺳﺟﻠﻪ‬
‫ﺑﻭﻟﺕ ‪ ،‬ﻓﻳﻘﺗﺭﺡ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻗﺩ ﻳﻘﺗﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺣﺩ ﺍﻟﺑﺷﺭﻯ ﻟﺳﺑﺎﻕ ‪ 100‬ﻡ ﻣﻥ ‪ 9.27‬ﺛﺎﻧﻳﺔ ‪.‬‬
‫‪New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012‬‬
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‫صخلم‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ‬
‫ﻁﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﻴﺔ ﻭﻓﺮﺩﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻨﺒﺆ ﺑﺎﻷﺩﺍء ﻓﻲ ﻣﺴﺎﺑﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﺮﻱ‬
‫ﺑﻘﻠﻢ ﺭﻳﺘﺸﺎﺭﺩ ﻭﺍﺕ ‪Richard Watt‬‬
‫ﻣﻠﺨﺺ‬
‫ﻛﺜﻴﺮﺍ ﻣﺎ ﻧﻬﺘﻢ ﺑﻤﺤﺎﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﻟﻸﺩﺍء ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺳﻴﺤﻘﻘﻪ ﺍﻟﻼﻋﺐ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﺃﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﻗﻮﻯ‪ .‬ﻭﻗﺪ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺫﻟﻚ‬
‫ﻷﻏﺮﺍﺽ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺒﻴﺔ )ﺃﻱ ﺑﻤﺎ ﺃﻥ ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺐ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺒﺎﻕ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻻ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺴﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﻬﺎ‪ ،‬ﻓﻨﻮﺩ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻲ ﻗﺪﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻼﻋﺐ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﻓﺔ ﻓﻲ ‪ % 100‬ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﻟﻮﺿﻊ ﺃﻫﺪﺍﻑ ﻭﺍﻗﻌﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺪﺭﻳﺐ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺮﻯ(‪ ،‬ﺃﻭ ﺭﺑﻤﺎ ﻟﻜﻲ‬
‫ﻧﺘﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻷﺩﺍء ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺣﻘﻘﻪ ﺍﻟﻼﻋﺐ ﻭﺍﻷﺩﺍء ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻣﺆﻫﻼ ﻟﺘﺤﻘﻴﻘﻪ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺎ‪ ،‬ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺟﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻷﺩﺍء‪ .‬ﻳﻘﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺗﺐ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻁﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﻴﺎﻡ ﺑﺬﻟﻚ‪ ،‬ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﻴﺔ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺗﺎﻡ ﻟﻼﻋﺐ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ‬
‫‪ /‬ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ‪ ،‬ﺃﻱ ﻣﻦ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻌﺎﻧﺔ ﺑﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻼﻋﺒﻴﻦ ﺍﻵﺧﺮﻳﻦ ‪-‬ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﺨﻤﻴﻦ ‪-‬ﺑﺄﻱ ﺣﺎﻝ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺣﻮﻝ‪ .‬ﻭﻧﺤﺘﺎﺝ ﺇﻟﻰ‬
‫ﺃﺩﺍءﺍﻥ ﻟﻼﻋﺐ ﻟﻤﺴﺎﻓﺔ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺒﺎﻕ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻫﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﻣﻘﺪﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻼﻋﺐ ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﻟﻠﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﻟﻘﺪﺭﺓ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻼﻋﺐ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺴﺎﻓﺔ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻱ ﻣﺴﺎﻓﺔ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻫﻲ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﺿﻤﻦ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﻣﻘﺪﺭﺗﻪ‪ .‬ﻭﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻬﺠﻴﺔ ﻻ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺩﻗﻴﻘﺔ ﺇﻻ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺑﻀﻊ ﻧﻘﺎﻁ ﻣﺌﻮﻳﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻁﺮﻳﻖ ﺍﻷﺧﺬ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﺍﻷﺯﻣﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﻠﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﻗﻌﺔ ﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻼﻋﺒﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻴﻴﻦ ﺃﺻﺤﺎﺏ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻘﺎﻝ‬
‫ﻣﺴﺎﺋﻞ ﻣﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﻼﺹ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﺎﻟﺔ‬
‫ﺑﻘﻠﻢ ﻓﺭﺍﻧﻙ ﺩﻳﻙ ‪Frank Dick‬‬
‫ﻣﻠﺨﺺ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺳﻴﺎﻕ ﺍﻷﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻤﺒﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺣﻤﻠﺔ ﺭﻳﺎﺿﻴﺔ ﻛﺒﺮﻯ‪ ،‬ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﻮﻕ ﺃﻭ ﺗﺠﺎﻭﺯ ﺍﻷﺩﺍء ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺍﺩ "ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻡ‪ ".‬ﻗﺪ ﺗﻌﻨﻰ‬
‫"ﻓﻲ ﺃﻓﻀﻞ ﺍﻷﺣﻮﺍﻝ" ﻣﻴﺪﺍﻟﻴﺔ ﺫﻫﺒﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺑﻄﻮﻟﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻌﻨﻲ "ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﻗﻞ" ﺃﻓﻀﻞ ﺃﺩﺍء ﻟﻠﻤﻮﺳﻢ‪ .‬ﻳﺮﻛﺰ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﻼﺹ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﺐ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﻮﻕ ﺃﻭ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﻪ‪ .‬ﺫﻟﻚ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺘﺎﺡ ﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻌﺮﺍﺽ ﻭﻳﻤﻠﻲ ﻧﻮﻋﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺪﺭﻭﺱ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻔﺎﺩﺓ ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺳﺘﺤﺪﺙ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺎ ﺗﻢ ﺃﺩﺍﺅﻩ ﻭﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺫﻟﻚ ‪-‬ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﻮﻕ ﻭﺍﻣﺘﻼﻛﻪ‬
‫ﻭﻭﺿﻊ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﺔ ﻭﻣﻦ ﺛﻢ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺍﻷﻫﺪﺍﻑ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺇﺟﺮﺍءﺍﺕ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﺒﺮﺍﻣﺞ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻯ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﺩﺍء ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻲ‪،‬‬
‫‪5‬‬
‫ﻓﻴﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﻼﺹ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﺳﺘﻌﺮﺍﺽ ﺍﻷﺭﺑﻊ ﺳﻨﻮﺍﺕ ﻭﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺨﻄﻴﻂ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺩﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻻﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻤﺒﻴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﺎﻟﻬﺘﺎﻓﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻣﻴﺰﺕ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻮﺓ ﺍﻷﺧﻴﺮﺓ ﻟﻼﻋﺐ ﺗﺠﺎﻩ ﻣﻨﺼﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺘﻮﻳﺞ ﻓﻲ ﻟﻨﺪﻥ ﻋﺎﻡ ‪ 2012‬ﻫﻲ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺳﺘﻤﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻮﺓ‬
‫ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ ﺗﺠﺎﻩ ﻣﻨﺼﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺘﻮﻳﺞ ﻓﻲ ﺭﻳﻮ ﻋﺎﻡ ‪ .2016‬ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﻟﻒ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺪﻳﺮ ﻓﻨﻲ ﻷﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻯ ﻣﻦ ﺫﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﺨﺒﺮﺓ‪ ،‬ﻭﻳﻘﺪﻡ ﺇﻁﺎﺭﺍ‬
‫ﻻﺳﺘﺨﻼﺹ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺨﻄﻴﻂ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺪﻯ ﺩﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻹﻋﺪﺍﺩ‪ ،‬ﺑﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻷﺳﺌﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺑﺎﻷﺭﺍء ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺪﻳﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻘﺼﻴﺮﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻄﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﻮﻳﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻯ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻬﺎ ﻛﻤﺮﺷﺪ ﻟﻠﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ‪.‬‬
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152
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
摘要
摘要
各国在2012年伦敦奥运会田径项目中取得的成功和有效性
贾斯珀·特吕扬（Jasper Truyens）和菲尔勒·德·波斯沏尔（Veerle De Bosscher）
2012年伦敦奥运会的田径比赛见证了多个新标准的确立。这些不仅仅包括个人成就(有八项奥运
会记录，四项世界纪录和23个世界领先成绩)，还包括标志各国取得竞技成功指标的新水平。由于下一
届奥运会新计划制定和准备周期已经开始，体育政策制定者是时候该考虑所有可用的数据，并为未来
发展从中吸取教训。在伦敦，有些国家超出预期取得优异成绩，而有些国家功亏一篑。本文通过详细的
成绩统计阐释，描述了当前各个国家田径实力的平衡情况。首先，讨论了为取得绝对成功（扩大传统奖
牌排行榜排名提升的意义）的不同措施。这个更广泛的视角使各个国家奖牌排行榜的相对位置更具有
解释价值。第二，描述了当前市场结构的成功演变。第三，描述了一个国家田径成绩有效性的取得需要
采用的具体措施，用来阐明取得成功与一个国家的可利用资源之间的关系。作者发现，尽管2012年伦敦
奥运会中参与田径比赛的国家数量是创纪录的，但是国际化的成功还有待提升。
2012 年奥运会成绩评估–从欧洲的视角
弗兰克·迪科（Frank Dick）
基于有效总结汇报和实践经验教训的训练计划是任何努力后取得可持续成功的关键。作为任何
运动员的最高竞技挑战，奥运会既是运动员的个人目标，也是他们为实现成绩和目标而采用训练计划的
的核心。奥运会或者其他主要锦标赛之后进行总结汇报是各个国家田径协会及其工作人员的主要责任，
尤其是他们的主教练或成绩发展主任。本文改编自提交欧洲田径协会的一份报告，通过收集田径比赛
的技术和数据统计分析，为伦敦奥运会后的总结报告提供文本文件。本文由一名有经验的前主教练完
成，它包括“当天”运动员运动成绩的独特分析，可以作为衡量国家层面政策、教练执教和其他支持有
效性的一个指标。一个关键的发现是，欧洲田径队一般来说没有美国和牙买加田径队高效。该报告最后
为田径协会政策制定者、成绩发展主任和精英教练提供了十条初始建议。
马拉松运动中的肌肉损害和疲劳
胡安·戴尔·科索（Juan Del Coso），胡安·琼斯·萨利涅罗（Juan José Salinero），贾维尔·阿宾维
森（Javier Abián-Vicen），克里斯蒂纳·冈萨雷斯米兰（Cristina González-Millán），瑟吉奥·加德
（Sergio Garde），帕布罗·维加（Pablo Vega），贝尼托·佩雷兹冈萨雷斯（Benito Pérez-González）
马拉松运动中的肌肉疲劳，与身体质量的改变（脱水）和/或在24.2公里距离中持续以脚打击地面
产生的肌肉损害有关系吗？本研究改编自最初在《应用生理学营养和新陈代谢杂志》发表的一篇文章。
在马拉松比赛之前，测试业余运动员（114名男子和24名女子）腿部肌肉功率输出、记录他们的体重和采
集尿样。比赛在28 ºC气温46%的相对湿度中进行，在比赛结束后的3分钟内，受试者重复进行腿部功率
测试，然后再次测量他们的体重和采集尿样。作者们发现，平均体重下降2.2±1.2%。这个变化值表现出
高度的个体差异变化性，但在被研究的运动员中只有7%的人体重下降超过4%。在赛前尿样中没有发现
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
153
肌红蛋白（一种指示肌纤维损害的蛋白质），而在赛后尿样中肌红蛋白的浓度增加到3.5±9.5 µg·mL-1
（P<0.05）。赛后平均腿部肌肉功率下降16±10%。肌肉功率的变化与赛后尿样中的肌红蛋白浓度显著相
关（r=-0.55；P<0.001），但身体质量变化无显著相关性（r=-0.08；P=0.35）。肌红蛋白尿和肌肉功率变
化的相关性表明，肌肉疲劳与肌肉组织的崩溃有关。
一个人能够跑多快?
杰瑞米·里士满（Jeremy Richmond）
随着短跑运动员们相互挑战，跑得越来越快去赢得重大比赛的胜利，我们自然会产生这样的好奇
心，是否存在着100米世界纪录的某个极限。过去采用数学曲线拟合的方法，根据先前打破纪录的成
绩、代谢因素和热动力原理，特别在100米跑情况下的磷酸原能量储备，对于人类能够跑多快曾做出过
多次预言。在本研究中，作者根据已知的生理学测试数据和观察记录，其中许多是最近的研究发现，对
于人类100米跑的成绩极限进行推测。作者认为，接触地面的时间限制了最大跑速，在目前和近年来成
绩在10秒以内的短跑运动员中，他们的发力时机都是相似的。从现有的证据中，与乌塞恩·博尔特（牙买
加）在比赛中创造的9.58秒世界纪录所达到的12.34米/秒的速度相比较，似乎人类能够达到12.75米/
秒的速度是可信的。假设在比赛所有阶段中具有相似的速度关系和与博尔特具有相同的起跑反应时，
作者提出人类100米跑的成绩极限可以接近9.27秒。
径赛项目中客观和个体化的成绩预测方法
理查德·瓦特（Richard Watt）
通常情况下，我们希望能预测运动员在田径赛事中的表现和成绩。成绩预测可以服务于训练（由
于日常训练距离通常要长于比赛的实际距离，因此我们需要了解运动员在比赛强度的要求下发挥100%能
力时的成绩，并以此为根据来设定合理的目标和间歇），或者可以用运动员理论上应取得的成绩与其实
际已取得的成绩加以对比，来作为运动员成绩的评价标准。本文作者提供了一种只基于运动员的客观成
绩数据的方法，完全不需要其他运动员的信息和资料，也不涉及任何猜测工作。在运动员的能力范围之
内，用运动员两项距离的成绩来预测他/她其它距离的成绩。在将一些世界顶级运动员的实际成绩和预
测成绩加以对比之后，证明此预测方法的精确度能达到几个百分点以内。
成绩汇报的有效措施
弗兰克·迪克（Frank Dick）
在举办奥运会或大型体育比赛时，运动员通常能在赛期当天超常发挥并取得优异的成绩。在最
理想的情况下，这就意味着运动员能获得一枚金牌或取得冠军的成绩。至少，运动员也能取得赛季的最
好成绩。赛事之后的情况汇报会通常侧重于运动员取得优异成绩或发挥失常的原因。情况汇报是总结
比赛过程的关键，它不仅决定吸取比赛经验教训的质量好坏，也是未来训练内容和方法安排的影响因
素——重新定义和再次取得优异成绩，设计训练计划并通过有效的行动来完成目标。对于奥运会等高
水平的竞技比赛来说，情况汇报会、四年总结和计划安排应该在比赛结束后尽快进行。2012年伦敦奥运
会领奖台上的欢呼声不仅标志着运动员一段赛程的终点，同时也是迈向2016年里约奥运会领奖台的起
始点。作为一位经验丰富的田径主教练，本文作者为大家提供了情况汇报安排的总体框架和整个准备
周期的计划安排，包括短期、中期和长期总结等指导性的关键问题。
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155
x
x
INDEX
Index of NSA
Volume 27/2012
© by IAAF
27:4; 157-164, 2012
Guex, Kenny
Kinematic Analysis of the Women's 400m
Hurdles
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 41-51
Hanley, Brian; Bissas, Athanassios
Biomechanical Analysis of Leg Asymmetry
in Young International Race Walkers
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 57-63
Ditroilo, Massimiliano; Castagna, Carlo;
Lucertini, Francesco
Post-Competition Blood Lactate Concentration in Regional Level and Masters Athletes
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 67-74
Bedini, Roberto
Drills for Top-Level Hurdlers
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 79-83
Depiesse, Frederic; Adams, Bob
Ankle Sprains in Athletics
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 87-99
A. Contents
Nurmekivi, Ants; Lemberg, Harry
Training Transfer in Elite Distance Running:
From Theory to Practical Application
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 103-116
2012 Volume 27 - Issue 1/2
Schiffer, Jürgen
The 400m Hurdles
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 9-24
Digel, Helmut
Iskra, Janusz
Athlete Typology and Training Strategy in
the 400m Hurdles
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 27-37
Major Sports Events and Regional Development
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 121-131
New Studies in Athletics · 4.2012
157
Index of NSA Volume 27/2012
Truyens, Jasper; De Bosscher, Veerle;
Heyndels, Bruno
The SPLISS Athletics Project: A ResourceBased Evaluation of Elite Athletics Polices
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 133-139
Schiffer, Jürgen
Selected and annotated bibliography 94:
The 400m Hurdles
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 145-174
Schiffer, Jürgen
101 Winning Strategies for Runners by
Jason R. Karp [book review]
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 177-178
Schiffer, Jürgen
The Website of the Sport Information Resource Centre [website review]
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 181-186
Drawer, Scott
Top 5 Apps for Coaches [technology
report]
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 189-192
2012 Volume 27 - Issue 3
Schiffer, Jürgen
Plyometric Training and the High Jump
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 9-21
Bora, Piotr
Direct Competition Preparation in Elite High
Jumping
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 23-28
Panoutsakopoulos, Vassilios;
Kollias, Iraklis A.
3D Biomechanical Analysis of Women’s
High Jump Technique
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 31-44
Arcelli, Enrico; Bianchi, Amos;
Tebaldini, Jennifer; Bonato, Matteo;
La Torre, Antonio
Energy Production in the 800m
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 49-56
158
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
Index of NSA Volume 27/2012
Ritzdorf, Wolfgang
The 5th European Pole Vault and High
Jump Conference, Cologne, Germany
[report]
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 61-66
Hollings, Stephen; Hume, Patria;
Hopkins, Will
The CD Performance Progression Tool
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 71-79
Schiffer, Jürgen
Selected and annotated bibliography 95:
The High Jump
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 83-99
Schiffer, Jürgen
Historical Dictionary of Track and Field by
Peter Matthews [book review]
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 103-105
Schiffer, Jürgen
The databases of the Institute for Applied
Training Science (IAT, Leipzig, Germany)
[website review]
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 107-111
2012 Volume 27 - Issue 4
Digel, Helmut
London 2012 – “Everyone’s Games”
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 7-9
Truyens, Jasper; Bosscher, Veerle De
National Success and Efficiency in Athletics at the 2012 Olympic Games in London
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 11-23
Dick, Frank
2012 Olympic Performance Assessment –
A European Perspective
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 25-40
Coso, Juan Del; Salinero, Juan José;
Abián-Vicen, Javier; González-Millán,
Cristina; Garde, Sergio; Vega, Pablo;
González-Pérez, Benito
Muscle Damage and Fatigue in the Marathon
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 45-55
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
159
Index of NSA Volume 27/2012
Schiffer, Jürgen
Richmond, Jeremy
Selected and annotated bibliography 95:
The High Jump
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 83-99
How Fast Can a Human Run?
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 57-62
Dick, Frank
The 2012 Olympic Global Coaches House
Report [report]
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 67-74
Schiffer, Jürgen
Selected and annotated bibliography 96:
Olympic and Championship Athletics
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 91-119
Dick, Frank
Effective Debrief Matters
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 79-86
Biomechanics
Schiffer, Jürgen
Selected and annotated bibliography 96:
Olympic and Championship Athletics
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 91-119
Schiffer, Jürgen
Running for Women – Your complete guide
for a lifetime of running by Jason R. Karp
and Carolyn S. Smith [book review]
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 121-123
Hanley, Brian; Bissas, Athanassios
Biomechanical Analysis of Leg Asymmetry
in Young International Race Walkers
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 57-63
Panoutsakopoulos, Vassilios;
Kollias, Iraklis A.
3D Biomechanical Analysis of Women’s
High Jump Technique
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 31-44
Schiffer, Jürgen
Virtual Library of Sport Science – www.
vifasport.de: A Project Under the Control
of the Central Library of Sport Science in
Cologne/Germany [website review]
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 125-129
Drawer, Scott
New Developments from London 2012
[technology report]
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 131-134
B. Subject Index
Schiffer, Jürgen
101 Winning Strategies for Runners by
Jason R. Karp [book review]
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 177-178
Schiffer, Jürgen
Historical Dictionary of Track and Field by
Peter Matthews [book review]
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 103-105
Schiffer, Jürgen
Bibliographies
Schiffer, Jürgen
Selected and annotated bibliography 94:
The 400m Hurdles
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 145-174
160
Book Review
Running for Women – Your complete guide
for a lifetime of running by Jason R. Karp
and Carolyn S. Smith [book review]
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 121-123
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
Index of NSA Volume 27/2012
Coaching Practice
Literature Review
Iskra, Janusz
Depiesse, Frederic; Adams, Bob
Athlete Typology and Training Strategy in
the 400m Hurdles
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 27-37
Ankle Sprains in Athletics
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 87-99
Nurmekivi, Ants; Lemberg, Harry
Training Transfer in Elite Distance Running:
From Theory to Practical Application
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 103-116
Bedini, Roberto
Drills for Top-Level Hurdlers
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 79-83
Bora, Piotr
Direct Competition Preparation in Elite High
Jumping
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 23-28
Overview
Schiffer, Jürgen
The 400m Hurdles
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 9-24
Development
Schiffer, Jürgen
Digel, Helmut
Major Sports Events and Regional Development
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 121-131
Truyens, Jasper; De Bosscher, Veerle;
Heyndels, Bruno
The SPLISS Athletics Project: A ResourceBased Evaluation of Elite Athletics Polices
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 133-139
Hollings, Stephen; Hume, Patria;
Hopkins, Will
The CD Performance Progression Tool
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 71-79
Plyometric Training and the High Jump
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 9-21
Digel, Helmut
London 2012 – “Everyone’s Games”
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 7-9
Report
Ritzdorf, Wolfgang
The 5th European Pole Vault and High Jump
Conference, Cologne, Germany [report]
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 61-66
Dick, Frank
Essay
Dick, Frank
The 2012 Olympic Global Coaches House
Report [report]
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 69-74
Effective Debrief Matters
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 79-86
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
161
Index of NSA Volume 27/2012
Study
Technology
Guex, Kenny
Drawer, Scott
Kinematic Analysis of the Women's 400m
Hurdles
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 41-51
Ditroilo, Massimiliano; Castagna, Carlo;
Lucertini, Francesco
Post-Competition Blood Lactate Concentration in Regional Level and Masters
Athletes
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 67-74
Top 5 Apps for Coaches
[technology report]
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 189-192
Drawer, Scott
New Developments from London 2012
[technology report]
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 131-134
Website Review
Arcelli, Enrico; Bianchi, Amos; Tebaldini,
Jennifer; Bonato, Matteo; La Torre, Antonio
Energy Production in the 800m
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 49-56
Schiffer, Jürgen
The Website of the Sport Information Resource Centre [website review]
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 181-186
Truyens, Jasper; Bosscher, Veerle De
National Success and Efficiency in Athletics at the 2012 Olympic Games in London
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 11-23
Dick, Frank
2012 Olympic Performance Assessment –
A European Perspective
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 25-40
Coso, Juan Del; Salinero, Juan José;
Abián-Vicen, Javier; González-Millán,
Cristina; Garde, Sergio; Vega, Pablo;
González-Pérez, Benito
Schiffer, Jürgen
The databases of the Institute for Applied
Training Science (IAT, Leipzig, Germany)
[website review]
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 107-111
Schiffer, Jürgen
Virtual Library of Sport Science – www.
vifasport.de: A Project Under the Control
of the Central Library of Sport Science in
Cologne/Germany [website review]
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 125-129
Muscle Damage and Fatigue in the Marathon
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 45-55
Richmond, Jeremy
How Fast Can a Human Run?
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 57-62
162
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
Index of NSA Volume 27/2012
Ditroilo, Massimiliano et al.
C. Authors Index
Arcelli, Enrico et al
Energy Production in the 800m
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 49-56
Post-Competition Blood Lactate Concentration in Regional Level and Masters
Athletes
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 67-74
Drawer, Scott
Bedini, Roberto
Top 5 Apps for Coaches [technology
report]
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 189-192
Drills for Top-Level Hurdlers
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 79-83
Bora, Piotr
Direct Competition Preparation in Elite High
Jumping
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 23-28
Coso, Juan Del et al
Muscle Damage and Fatigue in the Marathon
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 45-55
Depiesse, Frederic et al
Ankle Sprains in Athletics
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 87-99
Drawer, Scott
New Developments from London 2012
[technology report]
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 131-134
Guex, Kenny
Kinematic Analysis of the Women's 400m
Hurdles
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 41-51
Hanley, Brian et al.
Biomechanical Analysis of Leg Asymmetry
in Young International Race Walkers
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 57-63
Dick, Frank
2012 Olympic Performance Assessment –
A European Perspective
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 25-40
Dick, Frank
The 2012 Olympic Global Coaches House
Report [report]
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 67-74
Dick, Frank
Effective Debrief Matters
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 79-86
Hollings, Stephen et al.
The CD Performance Progression Tool
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 71-79
Iskra, Janusz
Athlete Typology and Training Strategy in
the 400m Hurdles
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 27-37
Nurmekivi, Ants et al.
Digel, Helmut
Major Sports Events and Regional Development
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 121-131
Digel, Helmut
London 2012 – “Everyone’s Games”
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 7-9
Training Transfer in Elite Distance Running:
From Theory to Practical Application
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 103-116
Panoutsakopoulos, Vassilios et al
3D Biomechanical Analysis of Women’s
High Jump Technique
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 31-44
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
163
Index of NSA Volume 27/2012
Schiffer, Jürgen
Richmond, Jeremy
Historical Dictionary of Track and Field by
Peter Matthews [book review]
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 103-105
How Fast Can a Human Run?
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 57-62
Ritzdorf, Wolfgang
The 5th European Pole Vault and High Jump
Conference, Cologne, Germany [report]
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 61-66
Schiffer, Jürgen
The 400m Hurdles
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 9-24
Schiffer, Jürgen
The databases of the Institute for Applied
Training Science (IAT, Leipzig, Germany)
[website review]
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 107-111
Schiffer, Jürgen
Selected and annotated bibliography 96:
Olympic and Championship Athletics
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 91-119
Schiffer, Jürgen
Selected and annotated bibliography 94:
The 400m Hurdles
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 145-174
Schiffer, Jürgen
101 Winning Strategies for Runners by
Jason R. Karp [book review]
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 177-178
Schiffer, Jürgen
The Website of the Sport Information Resource Centre [website review]
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 181-186
Schiffer, Jürgen
Schiffer, Jürgen
Running for Women – Your complete guide
for a lifetime of running by Jason R. Karp
and Carolyn S. Smith [book review]
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 121-123
Schiffer, Jürgen
Virtual Library of Sport Science – www.
vifasport.de: A Project Under the Control
of the Central Library of Sport Science in
Cologne/Germany [website review]
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 125-129
Truyens, Jasper et al.
Plyometric Training and the High Jump
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 9-21
The SPLISS Athletics Project: A ResourceBased Evaluation of Elite Athletics Polices
NSA 27 (2012), 1/2 pp. 133-139
Schiffer, Jürgen
Selected and annotated bibliography 95:
The High Jump
NSA 27 (2012), 3 pp. 83-99
164
Truyens, Jasper et al.
National Success and Efficiency in Athletics at the 2012 Olympic Games in London
NSA 27 (2012), 4 pp. 11-23
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
165
166
New Studies in Athletics · no. 4.2012
PReview
Preview
Special Topic
Youth Athletics
including:
} Predicting Sustained Participation in Competitive
Sports: A Longitudinal Study of Young Track and
Field Athletes
by Niilo Konttinen, Antero Toskala, Lauri Laakso
and Raimo Konttinen
1/2
Volume Twenty-eight, issue numbers 1 and 2; March/June 2013
New Studies in Athletics, printed by Druckerei H. Heenemann GmbH & Co. KG Berlin, Germany
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New Studies in Athletics · no. 3.2012