McPherson, J Primatol 2013, 2:2
http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2167-6801.1000112
Primatology
Research
Article
Review
Article
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Access
Normal Blood Parameters, Common Diseases and Parasites Affecting
Captive Non-human Primates
Françoise J McPherson*
School of Agriculture and Wine Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales 2850, Australia
Abstract
Non-human primates are kept in captivity as zoological exhibits as well as being used for research purposes
and as breeding colonies of endangered species with the aim of eventual release back into the wild. The aim
of this review is to collate data obtained for blood parameters for healthy animals as well as common diseases
and parasites encountered in captive non-human primates. This information can be used as a reference for
veterinarians, researchers and animal care workers working with primates. Comparisons to wild primates are made
where appropriate.
Keywords: Captive; Primate; Health, Hematology; Parasites
Introduction
Primates are studied extensively in their wild habitat as well as in
captivity. Indeed, there are colonies of captive primates of different
species ranging from the diminutive tamarins (Saguinus sp) to
chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and many other species on a global
basis. In the USA alone, up to 30,000 cotton-top tamarins (S.oedipus)
were imported for biomedical research up to 1973 when the species was
declared to be endangered and importation of wild tamarins ceased
[1]. In 2003, there were more than 35,863 primates held in 22 research
institutions across the USA [2]. In a research setting, primates such
as tamarins (Saguinus sp), capuchins (Cebus sp), baboons (Papio sp)
and rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) have immense value in studies
relating to xenotransplantation [3], social and cognitive behaviour [4]
and human disease models [5].
Until the practice of obtaining wild primates destined for captivity
was outlawed, mortality rates were high due to the effects of stress after
capture, inadequate diet and injury or illness [6]. Most zoos and many
university animal houses these days provide captive primates with
naturalistic habitats including trees, ropes and climbing structures for
arboreal species and food scattered throughout the exhibit to stimulate
foraging behaviour [7] and there are guidelines designed to optimize
captive primate health and well-being [8]. Indeed, survivorship of
captive orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) has increased over the years so
that instead of captive orangutans dying at an earlier age than their
wild counterparts, there is now no difference in survivorship between
captive and wild orangutans due to superior management practices [9].
Even so, captive primates are often kept in close contact with humans
and/or animals of other species (such as rodents) which means they can
be at greater risk of contracting and spreading pathogens and parasites
than primates in the wild [10]. In addition, some wild populations
are becoming more fragmented due to habitat loss and human
encroachment and are thus more vulnerable to disease outbreaks
which could have catastrophic outcomes [11].
Primates differ in their social needs also so some species, such as
baboons (Papio sp), gibbons (Hylobates sp), howlers (Alouetta sp),
chimpanzees (P. troglodytes) and gorillas (Gorilla gorilla), naturally
function best in stable social groups [12,13] of different sizes [14]
while others, such as tamarins (Saguinus sp) and capuchins (Cebus sp)
need to be housed as bonded breeding pairs with their offspring [15].
However, not all privately owned primates are housed in optimum
conditions so that boredom and (self)-destructive behaviour can occur
J Primatol
ISSN: 2167-6801 JPMT, an open access journal
[16]. Housing social primates in isolation for prolonged periods of
time can cause behavioral pathologies such as spinning in place or
self-mutilation [17]. Self-biting and other self-directed stereotypic
behaviors are significantly less common in primates kept in outdoor
enclosures than in indoor enclosures [18]. Primates which are housed
and cared for under optimum conditions are more likely to be healthy
and unstressed. Thus, their value as research animals is increased due to
their physiological and behavioral measurements being representative
of what is normal for the species.
Monkeys and great apes, although all are classified as primates,
vary immensely in terms of physical [19,20] and physiological
parameters [21] such as differential blood counts and biochemical
measurements such as sodium or calcium in serum. These parameters
are, in turn, influenced by age, sex and health status. It is beneficial for
researchers, veterinarians and zoo personnel to know what is normal
for the species in question so that intervention can be provided when
the animal/s deviate from the normal parameters. Problems with
previous studies include the use of only a singular blood sample per
animal or very limited number of animals per study group. However,
there are now comprehensive published studies where animals have
been sampled repeatedly over a period of years including both sexes
[22], wild vs. captive animals [21] and animals of different ages [23,24]
to provide a more accurate picture of what is normal or abnormal. It is
the aim of this review to collate data regarding common diseases and
parasites affecting non-human primates to assist anyone caring for and
researching primates.
Diet and Its Effect on Primate Health
Commercially prepared primate foods are now available for many
species of monkeys to ensure they receive a balanced diet optimum
for their health and reproduction. However, it has been shown that
*Corresponding author: Françoise J McPherson, School of Agriculture and
Wine Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales 2850,
Australia, Tel: +61 2 6925 8083; E-mail: [email protected]
Received March 23 2013; Accepted April 23, 2013; Published April 27, 2013
Citation: McPherson FJ (2013) Normal Blood Parameters, Common Diseases
and Parasites Affecting Captive Non-human Primates. J Primatol 2: 112.
doi:10.4172/2167-6801.1000112
Copyright: © 2013 McPherson FJ. This is an open-access article distributed under
the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and
source are credited.
Volume 2 • Issue 2 • 1000112
Citation: McPherson FJ (2013) Normal Blood Parameters, Common Diseases and Parasites Affecting Captive Non-human Primates. J Primatol 2:
112. doi:10.4172/2167-6801.1000112
Page 2 of 10
captive lemurs are prone to hepatic iron accumulation (hemosiderosis)
when fed a commercial primate diet which can contain excessive iron
for their requirements. Hemosiderosis can, in turn, lead to hepatic
disease [11]. Diet also can impact on the health of captive primates as
evidenced by increased cholesterol levels and cardiovascular disease in
apes such as gorillas (G. gorilla) and orangutans (P. pygmaeus) [21].
It has been established that captive gorillas consume different foods
or certain plant parts as opposed to their wild counterparts. Captive
gorillas (G. gorilla), being hindgut fermenters, tend to be provided with
a diet lower in fibre than what they would consume in the wild which
may adversely affect their health [25]. However, dietary fibre content is
not the only important factor in the diets provided to captive primates.
The type of plants available for consumption is important not only
for nutrition but also for self-medication. Self-medication through
consumption of plants with pharmaceutical properties (such as nettles)
has also been observed to occur in wild chimpanzees (P. troglodytes)
more than in wild gorillas. Therefore, the ingestion of unusual plants
and other foods may serve a need other than nutrition [26] such as
ridding themselves of gastrointestinal parasites [27]. A common plant
(Aframomum) eaten by Western Lowland (G. gorilla) and Mountain
gorillas (G. gorilla beringei) is thought to have anti-parasite properties
as is another plant, combretum [27]. Chimpanzees in Nigeria were
observed to swallow Desmodium gangeticum leaves and sharp-edged
grass blades without chewing which were recovered undigested in fecal
samples together with parasitic worms [28]. This suggests that the leaves
serve a medicinal rather than nutritional purpose and in particular,
aided in gastrointestinal parasite removal [28]. Wild chimpanzees (P.
troglodytes) in Uganda have also been observed to consume Trichilia
rubescens, a plant which contains anti-malarial compounds [29].
Captive gorillas are usually denied the plants they would normally seek
out in the wild for self-medication and are in fact often fed a frugivorous
diet rather than a more natural herbivorous diet [27]. Lack of provision
of medicinal herbage may therefore possibly aid parasite proliferation
and cause ill health in captive primates. Propagation of plants with
medicinal properties in zoological parks may thus be a feasible option
to maintain optimum health and encourage normal behavior in their
captive primates.
Hematology and blood biochemical parameters
There is wide variation in hematological and blood biochemical
parameters among primate species from prosimians to great apes.
Published results need to be interpreted with caution as factors such
as capture stress [1,30,31], anesthetic agents [32], parasitism [33] and
reproductive status (barren, pregnant or lactating) can all potentially
influence the results. For example, creatinine kinase is located in
skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscles and greater amounts are released
in response to stress, which can be due to being captured. Thus, stress
can account for highly variable results in this enzyme concentration
when animals are captured for blood sampling [6]. In addition, as can
be expected, it has been shown that there are significant differences in
hematology and blood biochemical parameters during different stages
of development in a primate such as neonatal, juvenile, adult and aged
animals [24,32]. However, many hematological studies in primates fail
to include aged individuals in their study animal cohort [22]. Data is
also scarce for pregnant and lactating primates although one research
group investigated the effect of iron supplementation of commercial
diets for pregnant and lactating rhesus monkeys on infant monkey
hematology profiles and iron status [34]. More research is needed to
provide physiology measurements on pregnant and lactating primates
of different species, ages and parity to fill the current large gap of
knowledge in this area.
J Primatol
ISSN: 2167-6801 JPMT, an open access journal
Therefore, to optimize the validity of the data, physiological
parameters should preferably be measured on animals of different
ages and both sexes as well in order to be most useful to the field of
primatology. In addition, comparing values from anesthetized and
non-anesthetized would show what effect the anesthetizing agent
potentially has on the physiological parameter being measured. One
way to achieve this is to train some individuals within a primate colony
to subject to blood sampling in return for a reward such as food so
that chemical restraint is not required while the other animals are
physically captured and anesthetized. Another useful study would be to
use different anesthetic agents to determine which one/s least affect the
blood chemistry and hematology parameters. Likewise, physiological
measurements such as hematology and blood biochemistry made
between animals that are suffering from a known pathogen or parasite
burden and compared to healthy individuals of the same species and
age can potentially highlight the effect the pathogen or pathogen has
on the host animals of a given species.
Hematology values: Table 1 shows the normal means and
standard deviations of haematological values of a range of primate
species commonly kept in captivity. Only parameters from adult
animals are given in table 1 and readers should bear in mind that there
can be large variations in haematological values when comparing
adults to juveniles or aged individuals. For instance, an 8-year study
in captive tufted capuchin (Cebus apella) monkeys showed that
erythrocytes, hemoglobin, calcium, alkaline phosphatase, glucose and
serum iron were all significantly higher in juvenile females than adult
females [23]. Likewise, juvenile males had significantly higher values
for phosphorus and glucose compared to adult males. However, adult
male tufted capuchins (C. apella) had higher values for leucocytes,
PCV, hemoglobin, neutrophils and creatinine [23] while capuchin (C.
apella) adult males have higher levels of neutrophils and lower values
for lymphocytes compared to juveniles [32]. In some cases, there are no
differences between adults and juveniles [6]. Some parameter changes
such as PCV, hemoglobin or MCV are not uniform across the animal’s
lifespan i.e., the reduction or increase may slow down or reverse postpuberty [22]. However, not all species show sex-specifc differences in
hematology or biochemical values such as free ranging brown lemurs
(Eulemur albifrons) or ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) [11,35].
Significant differences in hematological values were observed
between the sexes also where female juvenile tufted capuchins (C.
apella) had significantly higher values for neutrophils than juvenile
males. Adult males had higher values for erythrocytes, hemoglobin
and PCV compared to adult females [23], similarly male capuchin
monkeys (C. apella) also have significantly higher PCV, erythrocytes
and hemoglobin [32] as did cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus)
[1], golden lion tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia) [36], adult vervet
monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops) although not juvenile vervets [30].
Male apes such as chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) also have significantly
higher values for PCV, erythrocytes, hemoglobin while females have
significantly higher values for total white blood cell counts (WBC),
lymphocytes and eosinophils [22]. It is thought that males have higher
erythrocyte counts, PCV and hemoglobin concentrations due to the
greater muscle mass and male reproductive hormones in male monkeys
[37] as well as the menstrual blood loss in females [24]. Blood profiles
change as animals age as shown in cotton-top tamarins (S. oedipus)
where PCV and hemoglobin decreased significantly in older females
while age did not affect these parameters in aging males [1].
Hematology parameters also change from what is normal for wildcaught primates, during the post-capture adaption period and life
Volume 2 • Issue 2 • 1000112
Citation: McPherson FJ (2013) Normal Blood Parameters, Common Diseases and Parasites Affecting Captive Non-human Primates. J Primatol 2:
112. doi:10.4172/2167-6801.1000112
Page 3 of 10
Species
M or F
Erythrocytes
(×106/μL)
Lymphocytes
(×103/μL)
Neutrophils (×103/
μL)
M. mulatta
F
5.2 ± 0.44
8.69 ± 2.72
7.17 ± 2.31
Monocytes (×103/μL) Basophils (×103/μL)
0.40 ± 0.20
0.02 ± 006
Eosinophils
(×103/μL)
PCV (%)
0.09 ± 0.10
0.41 ± 0.03
40 (36)
Reference
(n)
M. mulatta
M
5.51 ± 0.40
9.27 ± 2.10
4.86 ± 1.85
0.29 ± 0.19
0.0 ± 0.0
0.03 ± 0.06
0.43 ± 0.02
40,1 (36,
38)
S. oedipus
F
6.13 ± 0.35
2.96 ± 1.40
3.42 ± 1.16
0.36 ± 0.21
0.07 ± 0.06
0.16 ± 0.14
50.22 ± 3.00
1 (38)
S. oedipus
M
6.42 ± 0.2
2.37 ± 1.09
2.88 ± 1.17
0.38 ± 0.20
0.06 ± 0.06
0.18 ± 0.14
53.13 ± 1.92
1 (38)
S. labiatus
F
6.9 ± 0.5
6.85 ± 1.85
5.58 ± 3.02
0.40 ± 0.18
0.08 ± 0.12
0.13± 0.18
0.04 ± 0.41
33 (39)
33 (39)
S. labiatus
M
7.0 ± 0.3
5.91 ± 2.75
4.48 ± 2.27
0.27 ± 0.19
0.08 ± 0.07
0.08 ± 0.13
0.52 ± 0.03
S. leucopus
F& M
6.74 ± 0.8
51.1 ± 13.5*
46.6 ± 14*
n/e
n/e
n/e
49.0 ± 4.4
6 (29)
C.apella
F
5.37 ± 0.43
29.95 ± 6.78*
67.19 ± 6.1*
1.95 ± 1.73*
0.21 ± 0.22*
0.60 ± 0.63*
38.77 ± 3.57
23 (44)
C. apella
M
5.92 ± 0.45
33.21 ± 9.74*
63.89 ± 9.23*
2.06 ± 2.16*
0.21 ± 0.27*
0.82 ± 1.01*
42.58 ± 3.54
23 (44)
C. aethiops
F
5.4 ± 0.5
3.4 ± 1.5
3.6 ± 2.1#
0.6 ± 0.2
n/e
n/e
40.3 ± 4.0
30 (50)
C. aethiops
M
6.5 ± 0.8
3.5 ± 1.9
2.5 ± 1.3#
0.6 ± 0.3
n/e
n/e
50.6 ± 6.2
30 (50)
P. troglodytes
F
5.06 ± 0.34
4.72 ± 2.01
0.07 ± 0.07
0.32 ± 0.19
0.02 ± 0.03
0.24 ± 0.16
42.05 ± 1.8
22 (252)
M
5.4 ± 0.42
P. troglodytes
L. catta
F&M
n/e
4.58 ± 1.45
0.07 ± 0.01
0.33 ± 0.15
0.01 ± 0.02
0.22 ± 0.1
45.04 ± 4.17
22 (252)
3.75 ± 2.14
4.27 ± 2.94
0.37 ± 0.47
0.15 ± 0.68
0.33 ± 0.32
50.5 ± 6.2
35 (1249)
M=male; F=female. *results expressed as % of total leucocyte count.n/e=not examined. #measurement is for granulocytes which are neutrophils, basophils and eosinophils
combined.
Table 1: Normal mean and standard deviations of haematological parameters in the most commonly kept captive primate species of both sexes.
in captivity after habituation. This was shown in vervet monkeys (C.
aethiops) where there was a significant rise in packed cell volume (PCV)
and mean corpuscular volume (MCV) for sexes, adults and juveniles,
during the 4 months post-capture adaption period i.e. while the wild
caught animals adapted to captivity. Similarly, the WBC and platelet
counts both declined during the adaptation period in captivity [30]. It
is possible that WBC counts are high at capture which is a time of high
stress levels and decline thereafter due to the monkeys being exposed
to many microbes in the wild as well as being linked to higher levels
of cortisol in circulation as a stress response during and immediately
after capture [38]. Likewise, platelet counts tend to decrease during
adaptation to captive life as platelet release from the spleen takes
place in response to fright [30]. Diet has an effect on hematological
parameters also and it has been shown that a high protein diet as fed
in captivity to vervet monkeys (C. aethiops) significantly elevates PCV,
MCV as well as hemoglobin [39]. Illness changes the hematological
profile and sick golden lion tamarins (L. rosalia) showed a reduction
in monocytes and eosinophils and a concurrent increase in WBC,
neutrophils and basophils [36].
Biochemical blood values: Table 2 shows the normal means and
standard deviations of biochemical values of a range of primate species
commonly kept in captivity. There is immense variation between the
different species as well as the sexes. Striking differences are found
in blood biochemical values when comparing the different primate
species in table 2. For example, creatinine ranges from 0.33 mg/dL
for Saguinus Oedipusto 4.36 mg/dL in Papio hamadryas. Cholesterol
values range from 45.4 mg/dL in P. hamadryas to 224.7 mg/dL in P.
troglodytes.
Rhesus macaque (M. mulatta) males had lower sodium (149.7 ± 3.1
mmol/l) and potassium (4.7 ± 0.6 mmol/l) concentrations than females
(153.7 ± 3.5 mmol/l and 4.9 ± 0.8 mmol/l respectively) [36]. However,
in white-footed tamarins (S. leucopus), there was no difference in
serum sodium concentrations between the sexes but serum chloride
concentrations in males (94 ± 5.1 mEq/L) was significantly lower than
for females at 99 ± 5.4 mEq/L [6]. Male capuchin (C. apella) monkeys
had significantly more creatinine while females had higher values
for BUN, AST and GGT [32].Cotton-top tamarin (S. oedipus) males
also showed significantly elevated values for creatinine compared to
females [1]. The most striking difference between the sexes was seen in
J Primatol
ISSN: 2167-6801 JPMT, an open access journal
total serum bile acids where Rhesus macaque (M. mulatta) males had
twice as much than females at 24.9 ± 16.7 µmol/l vs 12.8 ± 10.3 µmol/l
respectively [40].
Juvenile primates are still growing therefore they show differences
in blood biochemical values compared to adults. One example of this is
in alkaline phosphatase which is an enzyme that is present in elevated
concentrations due to increased bone growth in juveniles [6,24,32].
Likewise, juvenile capuchin monkeys (C. apella) have significantly
higher values for calcium, inorganic phosphorus (both also required
for bone growth and development) and glucose than adults [32]. Male
cotton-top tamarins (S. oedipus) had less calcium as they aged but this
effect was not seen in females [1].
Age-related changes in blood biochemistry values may increase
or decrease exponentially as with hematologic values. Both alkaline
phosphatase and creatinine are greatest in juvenile animals. The
alkaline phosphatase concentration curve flattens out at about 8 years
of age in baboons (P. hamadryas) while creatinine does not show any
sex-based differences until 5 years of age [24]. This is when baboons
undergo puberty and males undergo a disproportionate increase in
muscle mass compared to similar-aged females [41]. When studied
by two different research groups, captive tufted capuchins (C. apella)
showed significant differences between juvenile and adult animals in
terms of alkaline phosphatase, calcium, glucose, inorganic phosphorus,
aspartate aminotransferase and some serum proteins [23,32] although
iron and alanine aminotransferase were also significantly different [23].
There can also be differences based on where animals are housed,
presumably due to different diets and husbandry. This was the case
in white-footed tamarins (S. leucopus) which were housed in three
different facilities in Colombia and blood testing revealed significant
differences in values for haemoglobin, serum total protein, albumin,
glucose and alkaline phosphatase [6]. Differences also exist between
captive animals and their wild counterparts in terms of biochemical
parameters as was demonstrated in ring-tailed lemurs (L. catta).
Furthermore, captive lemurs, possibly due to a diet high in ascorbic
acid and low in tannins, can be more prone to hemosiderosis then
wild lemurs [11,35]. It is also noteworthy that prosimians metabolize
vitamins differently to other primates so, for example, carotenoids may
be undetectable in lemurs but present in otherprimate species [11].
Volume 2 • Issue 2 • 1000112
Citation: McPherson FJ (2013) Normal Blood Parameters, Common Diseases and Parasites Affecting Captive Non-human Primates. J Primatol 2:
112. doi:10.4172/2167-6801.1000112
Page 4 of 10
Albumin (g/
dL)
Calcium (mg/
dL)
Cholesterol
(mg/dL)
Potassium
(mmol/L)
Sodium
(mmol/L)
M. mulatta (F) 54.31 ± 2.73
48.96 ± 3.06
55.08 ± 7.2
4.90 ± 0.76
153.74 ±
3.47
M. mulatta (M) 53.43 ± 2.60
47.34 ± 2.34
51.3 ± 10.98
4.67 ± 0.62
149.71 ±
3.07
S. oedipus (F) 4.06 ± 0.31
9.02 ± 0.50
134.67 ±
31.04
4.04 ± 0.44
150.50 ±
2.12
S. oedipus (M) 3.97 ± 0.30
8.69 ± 0.59
153.94 ±
51.04
4.25 ± 0.64
150.06 ±
2.54
S. labiatus (F) 4.0 ± 0.42
2.60± 0.17
n/e
4.5 ± 0.78
156.0 ± 6.3
S. labiatus (M) 3.9 ± 0.47
2.5 ± 0.2
n/e
4.0 ± 0.95
159.0 ± 5.0
S. leucopus (M
3.1 ± 0.49
& F)
8.7 ± 1.1
79.0 ± 19.6
4.9 ± 1.0
148.3 ± 13.5
3.92 ± 0.36
148.02 ±
2.13
4.2 ± 0.56
148.95 ±
2.29
3.39 ±
139.97 ±
0.43
1.68
0.14
140.93 ±
2.33
1.12 ±
0.21
22 (252)
1.4 ± 2.2
31 (44)
24 (160
Species
C. apella (F)
61.76 ± 2.68*
2.39 ± 0.17
145.33 ±
38.44
C. apella (M)
61.22 ± 3.43*
2.33 ± 0.12
138.42 ±
18.74
P. troglodytes
3.34 ±
9.14 ±
224.72 ±
(F)
0.21
42.71
2.41
0.33
36.83
10.3
3.36 ± 0.37
93.02 ±
30.44
13.14 ±
5.43
9.15 ± 0.81
222.58 ±
31.8
100.33 ±
15.18
P. troglodytes
(M)
2.43
97.04 ± 1.67 3.43 ± 0.34
P. pygmaeus
4.07 ±
288.9 ±
10.8 ±
8.46 ±
161.9 ±
118.7 ±
97.5 ±
4.55 ±
135.5 ±
(F & M)
0.55
186.3
13.4
1.32
165.
47.5
1.63
97.5
4.55
P. hamadryas
4.09 ± 0.46
(F)
540.83 ±
429.49
81.18 ±
30.06
42.66 ± 2.88
45.54 ±
11.88
103.32 ±
31.86
108.98 ±
22.52
3.58 ± 0.53
145.69 ±
3.69
3.74 ±
0.87
P. hamadryas
4.17 ± 0.41
(M)
627.33 ±
428.73
92.7 ±
28.62
42.48 ± 2.88
45.36 ± 9.54
95.04 ± 24.3
107.86 ±
4.23
3.7 ± 0.53
146.35 ± 3.5
4.36 ±
2.88
24 (160)
89.0 ± 26.0
142.0 ± 0.2
108.0 ±6.0
4.4 ± 0.6
148.0 ± 5.0
1.0 ± 0.3
35 (903)
L. catta
5.7 ± 0.9
222.0 ±109.0 22.0 ± 8.0 9.7 ± 0.9
AP=alkaline phosphatase; BUN=blood urea nitrogen; n/e=not examined
Table 2: Normal mean and standard deviations of blood chemistry values for the most commonly kept species of captive primates of both sexes.
Cholesterol values vary widely among primate species (Table 2)
from a mean value of 45 mg/dL in baboons (P. hamadryas) to 225 mg/
dl in chimpanzees (P. troglodytes) which exceeds the recommended
maximum values for humans at <200 mg/dL [42]. Hypercholesterolemia
in humans is implicated in coronary heart disease and cardiovascular
disease is also a major cause of death in captive adult gorillas (G.
gorilla [43]) and orangutans (P.pygmaeus; [44]) while 77% of adult
chimpanzees (P. troglodytes; [45]) and 46% of adult bonobos (Pan
paniscus; [46]) have died in zoos from cardiovascular diseasesince
records were kept of causes of death up to 2003.
Captive gorillas (G. gorilla) were found to have significantly higher
(approximately 1.5x) cholesterol concentrations than free-ranging
gorillas while both sexes of captive orangutans (P. pygmaeus) had
significantly higher total cholesterol concentrations than free-ranging
female orangutans [21]. The component of cholesterol which is linked
to elevated risk of cardiovascular disease is low-density lipoprotein
or LDL. The recommended concentration of LDL cholesterol in
humans is <2.59 mmol/L [21]. In a study of captive apes comprising of
Western lowland gorillas (G. gorilla gorilla), orangutans ( P. pygmaeus,
P.abeli), chimpanzees ( P. troglodytes) and bonobos (P. paniscus), only
bonobos had a mean cholesterol LDL value of 2.25 mmol/L which is
below what is recommended for humans. The highest mean value of
3.8 mmol/L for cholesterol LDL was recorded for gorillas [21] while
other researchers have documented similar high findings for gorilla
serum cholesterol [47], presumably due to obesity, which is in turn due
to inactivity and high dietary carbohydrate intake, insulin resistance
and type 2 diabetes as well as progestins and androgens [42]. These are
all risk factors which are in greater abundance for captive great apes
compared to free-ranging primates. It would be beneficial to establish
a database of known blood lipid values for captive gorillas (G. gorilla)
J Primatol
ISSN: 2167-6801 JPMT, an open access journal
to better assess the risk of arteriosclerosis and coronary heart disease so
that early intervention is possible [48].
Parasites
Nematode, cestode and trematode parasites
The use of captive primates as research animals could potentially be
jeopardised by internal parasites causing ill health and possibly death.
Likewise, endangered species’ survival may be further threatened by
the presence of heavy loads of parasites [49] although it has also been
proven that threatened species of primates which live in small groups
harbour fewer parasites (helminths, protozoa, arthropods, bacteria and
viruses) than non-threatened species where more individuals living in
a smaller area facilitate parasite exchange [50]. Most information on
parasite infections in primates comes from non-invasive fecal sampling
of wild animals. Data concerning endoparasite loads in captive primates
are scarce even though heavy infestations can cause diarrhea and even
death in the host animals [51].
Internal parasites are found primarily in wild primates, since
captive primates are often treated with anthelmintics as a preventative
strategy [52] such as ivermectin which are used routinely to kill
gastrointestinal parasites of domestic animals [53]. Even so, captive
primates, like their wild counterparts, have been shown to harbor an
extensive variety of internal parasites as outlined in table 3 however,
in another study, no significant differences were found in parasite
prevalence between wild and captive Olive baboons (P. cyanocephalus
anubis)and Sykes (Cercopithecus mitis) monkeys [52]. Sampling 40
animals belonging to 7 lemur species kept in captivity at two zoos
in Madagascar revealed significant differences between the two
sites in the prevalence of strongylids, possibly due to one zoo using
Volume 2 • Issue 2 • 1000112
Citation: McPherson FJ (2013) Normal Blood Parameters, Common Diseases and Parasites Affecting Captive Non-human Primates. J Primatol 2:
112. doi:10.4172/2167-6801.1000112
Page 5 of 10
Primate (W/C)
S. fulleborni S. stercoralis Trichuris sp Oesophagostomum sp Trichostrongylus sp S. mansoni Streptopharagus sp Ascaris
Reference (n)
P. cyanocephalus (W)
63.0
n/e
73.9
76.0
43.5
4.3
42.2
n/e
P. cyanocephalus (C)
17.3
n/e
69.3
17.3
16.0
0.0
0.0
n/e
52 (92)
52 (75)
C. mitis (W)
61.8
n/e
60.0
47.2
38.2
0.0
52.7
n/e
52 (55)
52 (43)
C. mitis (C)
32.5
n/e
51.2
20.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
n/e
C. aethiops (C)
44.0
n/e
50.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
n/e
52 (50)
C. guereza(W)
4.2
0.0
79.0
6.09
n/e
n/e
n/e
1.26
63 (476)
C. angolensis(W)
5.26
0.0
100.0
0.00
n/e
n/e
n/e
0.00
63 (19)
P. tephrosceles(W)
3.54
0.44
37.75
2.8
n/e
n/e
n/e
0.12
63 (1608)
P. cyanocephalus(W
& C)
30.6
9.0
38.7
n/a
n/a
3.6
n/e
n/e
49 (111)
C. aethiops(W & C)
16.3
22.8
47.1
n/a
n/a
4.9
n/e
n/e
49 (123)
C. mitis(W & C)
23.5
32.5
50
n/a
n/a
0.0
n/e
n/e
49 (34)
C. neglectus(W & C)
0.0
17.7
50
n/e
n/e
0.0
n/e
n/e
49 (12)
C. albigena(W & C)
0
50
37.5
n/e
n/e
0.0
n/e
n/e
49 (8)
C. torquatus(W & C)
12.5
62.5
62.5
n/e
n/e
0.0
n/e
n/e
49 (8)
P. pygmaeus(C)
39.0*
n/e
7.0
n/e
3.0
n/e
n/e
1
55 (119)
W=wild and C=captive. n/e=not examined. *includes all strongyloides sp.
Table 3: Percentage distribution of gastrointestinal parasites found in captive and wild primates.
anthelmintics and the different floor substrates used [51]. Other factors
that can increase parasite loads in primates, wild and captive, include
unwashed food items such as fruits and vegetables [51] and inbreeding
since outbred animals are less prone to parasite infections than inbred
individuals [54].
Out of 15 human workers taking care of captive infant orangutans
(P. pygmaeus), only 3 tested negative for intestinal parasites and
both humans and apes were infected with the same parasite species
[55]. This cross-infection was enhanced by the workers not using
protective clothing and infant apes (P. pygmaeus) being kept in large
groups, which is an unnatural living arrangement, so that soil and floor
contamination levels were high [55].
Many primate intestinal parasites are pathogenic in humans. Cross
infection from primates to humans can occur with those who work
with captive primates and also as a result of ecotourism where humans
enter the wild habitat of infected primates. A colony of 39 semi-captive
chimpanzees (P. troglodytes) in Uganda were found to be extensively
infected (seroprevalence rate >90%) with the trematode Schistosoma
mansoni while many of the 37 humans who came into close contact
with the animals also harboured this parasite [56].
Captive olive baboons (Papio cyanocephalus) were found to have
significantly lower parasite infection prevalence compared to their wild
counterparts with the exception of Trichuris sp. where both populations
had similar infection prevalence [52]. A coprological study of wild
guenons in Western Uganda showed that parasite infection of blue
monkeys (C. mitis) varied by location so most prevalence was found
in Kenya for S. fulleborni, Trichostrongylus sp., Oesophagostomum sp.
while there was no difference for Trichuris sp. and more prevalence of
Streptopharagus and Bertiella sp. in South Africa [57]. Environmental
conditions such as rainfall are most likely the cause for the difference in
prevalence of intestinal parasites [58].
Housing conditions can influence parasite infections. For
example, the prevalence of S. fulleborni is greatest in primates housed
on gravel/dirt floor enclosures, moderate in cement floor enclosures
while primates in cages suspended above the floor did not have any S.
fulleborni [52]. Wild baboons for aging on the ground, especially near
livestock and human settlements, are more susceptible to becoming
infected than captive baboons that do not forage [59]. Arboreal primate
species do not show significant differences in parasite prevalence
J Primatol
ISSN: 2167-6801 JPMT, an open access journal
between wild and captive animals since they tend to avoid coming into
contact with contaminated soil [60].
Sex-differences can occur as in the case of only adult female
guenons (Cercopithecus sp.) being infected with Oesophagostomum
sp. and S. fulleborni [57], a findingthat could be due to females being
pregnant and experiencing compromised immunity as a result [61,62].
However male red colobus (Piliocolobus sp.) showed higher infection
rates with S. fulleborni than females [63]. Wild male orangutans (P.
pygmaeus) had a significantly higher hookworm infection rate than
wild females however there was no difference between dominant
flanged males and subservient non-flanged males [55]. When taking
into account total intestinal parasite loads, wild females had a higher
total intestinal prevalence than males, presumably because the females
have more contact with other orang utans, both with other females and
their offspring [55]. However, a coprological survey of wild mountain
gorillas (G. gorilla beringei) in Rwanda revealed no significant sex
differences in parasite load or species of parasite harboured although
dominant silverback males tended to have a higher prevalence of the
pinworm Probstmayria sp. [64].
When two primate species co-inhabit the same region, parasite
infestation can be similar between the different primate populations
as determined in wild guenons of Western Uganda [57] or remarkably
different between the species as shown in a coprological survey
performed on western lowland gorillas (Gorilla g. gorilla)and
chimpanzees (Pan t.troglodytes) in Gabon. While 84% of the gorilla
fecal samples were positive for parasites, only 56% of the chimpanzee
samples contained evidence of intestinal parasites [65].The same could
potentially apply to primates of different species co-habitating the same
enclosure.
When closely related colobus monkey species were sampled; Eastern
black and white colobus, (Colobus guereza); Angolan black and white
colobus (C. angolensis) and red colobus (Piliocolobus tephrosceles),
host species effects were found for the prevalence of Trichuris, Ascaris,
unidentified strongyle sp. and Oesophagostomum sp. Overall, eastern
black and white colobus monkeys (C. guereza) were more susceptible
to parasite infection than red colobus (P. tephrosceles) [63]. However,
other researchers found that while black and white colobus monkeys
(C. guereza) harboured only a single species of parasite (Trichuris
sp.), the other 5 species of primates that were sampled harboured
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Citation: McPherson FJ (2013) Normal Blood Parameters, Common Diseases and Parasites Affecting Captive Non-human Primates. J Primatol 2:
112. doi:10.4172/2167-6801.1000112
Page 6 of 10
multiple concurrent parasite infections [49]. Mountain gorillas (G.
gorilla beringei) harboured cestodes such as Anoplocephala gorilla in
abundance (51-92%) while lowland gorillas in different geographical
areas did not have any, possibly due to the lack of intermediate hosts in
their environment [66].
However, while P. knowlesi tends to infect mainly long-tailed macaques
(Macaca fascicularis) and pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina),
humans can be infected also [70]. Likewise, malaria sporozoites can
be transferred from infected humans to primates as demonstrated in
gibbons (Hylobates lar [71]).
Protozoan parasites
Microsporidian parasites
Protozoal infections such as Balantidium coli and Entamoeba
colican are more common in captive primates, which could be due to
contaminated water and housing [52] (Table 4). However, free ranging
primates can also become infected when drinking water contaminated
by infected fecal material from ruminants, other primates or humans.
Free-ranging baboons (Papio sp.) had a lower rate of protozoal infection
than captive baboons for E. histolytica and B. coli but the reverse was
true for Entamoeba coli [52]. Captive Sykes (C. albogularis) monkeys
had a lower rate of infection for all three protozoal parasites compared
to free ranging Sykes monkeys [52]. Free-ranging arboreal species
such as colobus monkeys (Colobus sp. [63] and Ugandan guenons
(Cercopithecus sp. [57]) showed low prevalence of protozoan infections.
In another study of captive, semi-captive and wild orangutans (P.
pygmaeus), the prevalence rates of 3 genera of Protozoa was >10% of
which 2 are pathogenic (Entamoeba histolytica and Balantidium sp.)
while the third (Entamoeba coli) is non-pathogenic [55]. Balantidium
sp. was most prevalent at 39% and 41% prevalence in captive and semicaptive orangutans (P. pygmaeus) respectively. Entamoeba coli was
equally prevalent in captive and semi-captive populations at 22% and
32% respectively however, E. histolytica, with a prevalence rate of 3% in
captive vs 35% in semi-captive orangutans was not equally distributed
[55]. In a study comparing wild and captive ring-tailed lemurs (L.
catta), captive and wild animals harbored different parasite species with
Entamoeba coli being the only parasite common to both populations
[67]. Giardia was only present in captive lemurs (L. catta), despite no
clinical signs being present, while only wild ring-tailed lemurs tested
positive for Cryptosporidium [67].
Encephalitozoon cuniculi is a fungal obligate intracellular parasite
that can exist in infected individuals for years and quickly kill others. In
an affected colony of captive emperor tamarins (Saguinus imperator),
all infants died after showing obvious signs of disease such as infections
and systemic vasculitis as well as high titres for encephalitozoon [72].
Respiratory distress and acute onset of cardiac failure were symptoms
of microsporidia in an affected captive adult male Goeldi’s monkey
(Callimico goeldii). At autopsy,findings were multicentric arteritis and
aortitis [73]. Subsequent serosurveys of monkeys imported into the
USA in the same consignment and potentially exposed to the infected
individual revealed that multiple animals tested positive for E. cuniculi
antibodies against genotype II [73]. Other New World primates
harboured genoptype III E. cuniculi such as squirrel monkeys (Saimiri
sciureus) that were bred in captivity in Japan [74].
Malaria is a potentially fatal disease caused by the zoonotic
protozoan parasite Plasmodium sp that is transmitted not through direct
contact with infected animals or infected feces but by mosquito vectors
[68]. A blood smear survey and polymerase chain reaction analyzes
for Plasmodium sp. revealed that 29 out of 31 captive orangutans (P.
pygmaeus) and 5 out of 43 wild orangutans tested positive for malaria.
The greater prevalence in captive apes was possibly due to a 50-fold
increase in population density in captivity compared to the wild
population which facilitated transfer of the parasite by mosquitoes
[69]. Malaria can be host-specific, for example,orangutans (P.
pygmaeus) are naturally infected with either P. pitheci or P. silvaticum.
External parasites
Primates are prone to similar exoparasites as other animals such
as fleas and lice, potentially causing sarcoptic mange. Alopecia is not
always due to exoparasites and can be a form of self-mutilation when
hair loss is apparent. External parasites are not usually problematic
unless primates are housed in isolation since mutual grooming serves
to not only strengthen and reaffirm social bonds [75,76] but also rid the
fur of exoparasites such as lice which are eaten by the groomer animal
[77]. Indeed, mite infestation in wild brown lemurs (E. fulvus albifrons)
was not associated with alopecia or pruritis [11].
Infectious Viral Diseases
Primates and humans share susceptibility to a range of pathogens
which makes it a challenge to work with these animals and prevent
transfer of zoonoses. One such example is the mumpsvirus (Epidemic
parotidis) where apes can be infected from a human [78]. As a
precaution, infected animals should be quarantined and protective gear
worn by their carers such as gloves, face mask and surgical apron or
overalls. Likewise, when a researcher, veterinarian or zoo worker is ill,
he or she should either refrain from coming into contact with healthy
primates or take all the necessary precautions to avoid spreading
infectious agents throughout the primate colony.
In wild primates, sudden deaths en-masse can be a sentinel message.
Primate species
Entamoebahistolytica
Entamoeba coli
Endolimax
Iodamoeba
Balantidium
Giardia
Blastocystis
Reference (n)
P. pygmaeus (C)
3
22
9
4
39
3
15
55 (119)
P. cyanocephalus (W)
26.1
78.3
n/e
n/e
43.6
n/e
n/e
52 (92)
P. cyanocephalus (C)
26.6
66.7
n/e
n/e
23.2
n/e
n/e
52 (75
C. mitis (W)
23.6
54.5
n/e
n/e
43.6
n/e
n/e
52 (55)
C. mitis (C)
16.3
34.9
n/e
n/e
23.2
n/e
n/e
52 (43)
C. aethiops (C)
25.4
74.0
n/e
n/e
30
n/e
n/e
52 (50)
63 (476)
C. guereza(W)
7.56
7.77
n/e
n/e
n/e
0.0
n/e
C. angolensis (W)
10.53
15.79
n/e
n/e
n/e
0.0
n/e
63 (19)
P. tephrosceles(W)
3.48
4.35
n/e
n/e
n/e
0.81
n/e
63 (1608)
L. catta(C)
0.02
0.0
n/e
n/e
0.0
0.1
n/e
67 (50)
L. catta(W)
0.0
0.0
n/e
n/e
0.04
0.0
n/e
67 (99)
W=wild and C=captive. n/e=not examined.
Table 4: Percentage distribution of common intestinal protozoan parasites found in wild and captive primates.
J Primatol
ISSN: 2167-6801 JPMT, an open access journal
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Citation: McPherson FJ (2013) Normal Blood Parameters, Common Diseases and Parasites Affecting Captive Non-human Primates. J Primatol 2:
112. doi:10.4172/2167-6801.1000112
Page 7 of 10
This has occurred previously with fatal outbreaks of yellow fever [79]
in Howler monkeys (Alouatta sp) and Kyasanur Forest disease virus in
bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) and hanuman langurs (Presbytis
entellus) in India which later infected humans living near the forest
[80].
Since it is probable that the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
originated from simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) through direct
contact between affected primates and humans [81] and especially
from chimpanzees and sooty mangabeys [82,83], the threat of zoonoses
is especially high for humans working with primates.
Arboviruses
Arboviruses infecting primates include dengue, Japanese
encephalitis, Langat, Sinbis, Tembusu and Zika. It is considered to
be beyond the scope of this review to cover every single virus known
to infect primates so only a select few of greatest importance will be
covered here.
The incidence of primates testing positive to any virus is variable
among wild and captive animals. No animals tested positive for any
of the 33 viruses tested for out of their sample population of 44 semicaptive and 54 free-ranging orang-utans (P. pymaeus) in Malaysia
[31]. However, in another study of wild and semi-captive orangutans
in Borneo, one out of 71 apes (1.4%) tested positive to all flaviviruses
examined [84]. Wild and semi-captive orangutans were both infected
with dengue-2, Zika, Tembusu and Japanese encephalitis virus. Sindbis
virus was found only in wild orangutans (P. pygmaeus) while only
semi-captive orangutans tested positive to Langat virus. Humans
living near the forest were infected with all viruses except Sindbis virus
[84]. The difference in prevalence could be due to the wild ape cohort
being primarily adults while the semi-captive orangutans were mostly
juveniles. Adults showed a greater seroprevalence for all 6 viruses
examined than juveniles [84]. Dengue-2 and Japanese encephalitis
were the two most common flaviviruses among both orangutan groups
[84]. Both viruses are not species-specific and infect other mammal
species and birds [85,86].
Non-Arboviruses
Non-arbovirusesthat can infect primates include rotavirus SA11,
respiratory syncytial, parainfluenza 3, mumps, foamy, Ebstein-Barr,
Coxackie B-4, herpes, hepatitis A and B, poliomyelitis, rubella,and
monkey pox.
The prevalence of Simian Foamy Virus (SFV) is captive nonhuman
primates is very high at approximately 70% while the prevalence of
simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) is up to 36% in wild primates
[81]. SFV is the most transmitted primate retrovirus to humans
working with primates [80] and people who hunt and eat primates [87].
In a sample of wild-caught primates, 5 out of 27 gorillas (G. gorilla;
19%), 7 out of 11 mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx; 64%) and 2 out of 6
drills (Mandrillus leucophaeus; 33%) tested positive to SFV although
not all harboured the same viral strain with the drills being infected
with two different strains and the gorillas having 3 strains of SFV [88].
Chimpanzees (P. troglodytes) were found to be source of SFV infection
in 9 out of 10 infected human workers with the remaining person
infected by a baboon [81]. Prevalence of SFV in captive primates is
also high at more than 70% of animals infected with this virus [89] and
this is most likely due to its transmission between primates by direct
contact [81]. The high prevalence of SFV among captive and wild
primates, especially baboons (Papio sp), chimpanzees (P. troglodytes)
J Primatol
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and gorillas (G. gorilla), is most likely the reason why it is the most
commonly transmitted retrovirus from primates to humans through
infected saliva and blood when zoo workers, veterinarians and animal
researchers are bitten or through needlestick injury when the needle
contains infected blood [90]. Even so, many SFV-infected humans
show no apparent signs of ill health for many years after exposure
to the virus which seems to remain latent in the blood peripheral
lymphocytes. Transmission between humans is not as prevalent as
between primate and human [81].
Another retrovirus, simian type D retrovirus (SRV), is a highly
prevalent virus with >90% of captive Asian macques infected and
displaying symptoms similar to AIDS [91]. On the other hand,
herpesvirus papio2 (HVP2) is not as prevalent with only 3.8% of
captive baboon (Papio sp) swabs being positive for HVP2 over a period
of 1.5 years with twice yearly testing of 128 baboons [92] although
another captive colony of baboons (P. anubis and P. cyanocephalus)
had a HVP2 prevalence rate of 85% [93]. All animals (except for one)
shedding the virus were infants and the virus was isolated in the oral
cavity [92]. Of the 31 wild-caught baboons that were swabbed before
being added to the colony, none were shedding the virus although
>93% of these animals were seropositive for the virus. Another captive
colony of baboons had a HVP2 infection rate of ~33% with half of the
baboons shedding the virus into the oral cavity and the other half into
the genital tract [92]. HPV2 appears to be present predominantly in the
oral cavity of young baboons and is transmitted sexually in adults [92].
In another study, >90% of wild caught adult olive baboons (P. anubis)
and chacma baboons (P. ursinus) were seropositive for HPV2 although
there were no differences in immune sera reactivity to HPV2 between
the baboon species [93].
Infectious Bacterial Diseases
Leptospirosis
Leptospirosis is a zoonotic bacterial disease spread through
infected urine that infects domestic and wild animals as well as humans
[94]. Primates, even in captivity, may become infected when they
come into contact with seropositive animals such as rodents. Humans
coming into contact with primates can transfer or become infected
with the bacteria [95]. Primates destined for release back into the wild
are not routinely tested for anti-Leptospirosis antibodies during their
rehabilitation period so there is a real risk of introducing the disease
into naïve wild populations. In a captive population of 44 marmosets
and capuchins (C. jacchus, C. pennicilata and Cebus sp) in Brazil,
56.8% tested positive for the presence of Leptospirosis antibodies
despite no signs of clinical disease being present [96]. The prevalence of
leptospiral antibodies in 73 captive lion tamarins (l. rosalia) elsewhere
in Brazil was much lower at only 15% [97] suggesting that there may be
a species-effect in antibody prevalence rates.However, at a Colombian
Zoo, not only was the seroprevalence 23% in the resident Neotropical
monkeys, 25% of zoo workers also tested positive for Leptospirosis
antibodies despite most of the zoo workers wearing protective clothing
to minimise transmission risk between animals to humans [95]. Most
reactivity was found in Black spider monkeys (Ateles fusciceps), whitefronted capuchin (Cebus albifrons) and white-footed tamarin (Saguinus
leucopus). Monkeys and zoo workers had different predominant
serovars [95] which may be due to serovar conversion within a new
host.
Stress levels can influence prevalence of protozoan, as well as
helminth, infections [98]. An example of this was found in semi-captive
lactating orangutan females which were rescued and experienced
Volume 2 • Issue 2 • 1000112
Citation: McPherson FJ (2013) Normal Blood Parameters, Common Diseases and Parasites Affecting Captive Non-human Primates. J Primatol 2:
112. doi:10.4172/2167-6801.1000112
Page 8 of 10
unstable grouping arrangements from constant introductions of newly
rescued individuals. These animals had a high prevalence rate of 76%
(55) and this is a similar finding as in red colobus monkeys with high
stress levels, lowered immune response and high prevalence of parasite
infections [99].
Other ailments
Although great advances have been made over the years in terms
of knowledge of primate husbandry, mortality can still be high. For
example, half of the gorillas which died in zoos did so before reaching
maturity at 8 years of age [100]. Reproductive failures such as rejection
of newborns and stillbirths account for some of these deaths while
pathogenic infections and internal parasites are preventable causes
of death. Dental disease and cardiac disease are also threats to captive
gorilla (G. gorilla) health [100].
Captive primates can be prone to boredom and social stress due
to being kept in groups without the possibility of subordinates leaving
at their free will when they are the repeated recipient of aggressive
behaviour directed at them. Captive great apes are prone to obesity
when opportunity to exercise and forage for food is denied. Obesity
is also linked to cardiac disease which is currently a main cause of
mortality in captive gorillas [101]. Male gorillas (G. gorilla and G.
beringei) are more prone to cardiac disease than females and the most
common conditions are progressive left ventricular (LV) hypertrophy
and depressed LV ejection fraction [102].
Vitamin D deficiency due to lack of adequate exposure to natural
sunlight is a potential problem documented in captive primates,
especially in juvenile and prime adult primates housed only indoors
[103]. Effects such as lowered serum calcium and phosphorus
concentrations seem to affect female chimpanzees (P. troglodytes) more
profoundly than males. In juvenile primates, vitamin D deficiency
manifests as rickets and pathologic fractures, symptoms that can
be reversed by daily oral administration of vitamin D2 following an
injection of vitamin D2 in sesame seed oil [104]. Prevention of rickets in
juvenile apes raised indoors under sky lights was achieved with a single
injection of slow release vitamin D at a rate of 5000 IU intramuscularly
at 4 months old followed by a daily oral vitamin D supplement [104].
It should be noted that male ring-tailed lemurs (L. catta) tend to have
significantly higher serum vitamin D concentrations than females
which could be due to differential sunning behavior or consumption of
different foodstuffs between the sexes [35]. Similar findings could apply
to other lemur species also.
Summary
In conclusion, the health and welfare of captive non-human
primates has improved over the years so that mortality rates have
declined however, the main causes of death for great apes include
cardiovascular disease and diabetes which is directly linked to a
sedentary lifestyle in captivity. There are significant differences in
physiological parameters such as blood biochemistry, even between
closely related species while endoparasite loads can vary between
species in a given location or between the sexes. The risk of zoonoses
remains high for humans coming into close contact with primates with
regards to endoparasites and infectious diseases. Therefore, it remains
prudent to take precautionary measures such as protective clothing to
prevent transmission of pathogens and parasites between primates and
humans. The data presented in this review could assist in improving the
health of captive primates.
J Primatol
ISSN: 2167-6801 JPMT, an open access journal
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doi:10.4172/2167-6801.1000112
J Primatol
ISSN: 2167-6801 JPMT, an open access journal
Volume 2 • Issue 2 • 1000112