Alberta Zucchi
Alternative Interpretations
of Pre-Columbian Water Management
in the Western Llanos of Venezuela*
En
base a investigaciones recientes se presentan en
este
trabajo d o s alternativas para e x p l i c a r : a ) la n o p o p u l a r i z a c i ó n
del sistema de c a m p o s elevados en l o s L l a n o s O c c i d e n t a l e s y
b ) la f u n c i o n a l i d a d de las " c a l z a d a s " . En el primer c a s o , se
sugiere q u e la p o b l a c i ó n prehispánica haya h e c h o u n m a y o r
uso
de
las
múltiples
estructuras
naturales ( b a n c o s ,
viejos
c a u c e s , e t c ) , q u e existen en la z o n a , y q u e s o n el resultado de
la intensa actividad fluvial. En s e g u n d o t é r m i n o , se sugiere q u e
las " c a l z a d a s " hayan servido c o m o
agua,
diques de r e t e n c i ó n
destinados a una intensa e x p l o t a c i ó n
de l o s
de
recursos
acuáticos.
Until recently the south american savannas were considered peripheral
zones, occupied mainly by hunting, fishing groups or, at best, Tropical
Forest agriculturalists (Cooper 1942, 1942a; Steward 1946, 1949; Meggers 1954). It was believed that their poor agricultural potential, the sea*
We want t o a c k n o w l e d g e the g e n e r o u s c o o p e r a t i o n received f r o m Drs. P. Urriola,
R. Schargel, E. P a c h e c o and R . Gutiérrez f r o m the V i c e r r e c t o r a d o de E x t e n s i ó n
A g r í c o l a at Guanare, and also t o the students w h o m a p p e d the R a m ó n Lepage site.
Dr. Gutiérrez supervised the field w o r k and m a d e the calculations and the m a p s ,
while Dr. Schargel analyzed the soil samples and h e l p e d with the air p h o t o interpretation. Kay Tarble o f I V I C D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t h r o p o l o g y m a d e useful c o m m e n t s and c o r r e c t e d the english style. S c h u b e r t and E. Wagner o f I V I C also m a d e
valuable suggestions. C. Q u i n t e r o m a d e all the drawings.
309
sonal availability o f f o o d resources, and the technological poverty o f the
prehispanic groups limited the existence o f more c o m p l e x culture types.
However, during the last twenty years there has been a drastic change in
this traditional view, due to advances in research dealing with the physical characteristics o f these environments, the archaeological and ethnohistorical record, and the frequent reports on the existence o f ridged
field systems. Certain areas o f these savannas are now viewed as the
historic loci o f multiple groups, including socio-culturally c o m p l e x
cultures, some o f them with considerable populations (Denevan 1966;
Morey 1975).
In Venezuela the subsistence strategies o f the prehispanic comunities
inhabiting the lowland savannas (locally called Llanos) seem to have been
varied, including multiple alternatives, closely inter-connected and related
to the micro-variations o f the environment. Due to their seasonal excess
and lack o f water, the active exploitation o f the grass environments within the savannas frequently required the development or use o f water
management techniques. In this paper we will analize two alternatives
that could have been used by the prehispanic groups inhabiting the
Western Llanos o f Venezuela in the need to intensify the management
o f this environment.
THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE WESTERN LLANOS
The Venezuelan Llanos consist o f a widespread lowland, covering an
area o f approximately 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 km^ (Fig. 1), adjacent t o the principal
mountains o f the country: the Coastal Range in the north, the Andes
in the west and the Guayana Shield in the south. In the west the Llanos
turn south to join the Eastern Colombian Llanos, while in the east they
gradually merge into the Orinoco Delta and the Atlantic coastal plain.
The morphological differences o f this depression originated through the
tectonic evolution o f two Tertiary basins (Vila 1960: 106). Thus, three
different areas can be distinguished within the Llanos: the Eastern Llanos
with mesas o f tabular topography, the Central Llanos, characterized by
low hills, and the Western Llanos with a flat topography. It is to the
latter that we will refer in more detail.
The Western Llanos belong to the Barinas-Apure sedimentary basin
( F e o C o d e c i d o 1969) formed at the close o f the Paleozoic Era. In some
part o f the basin the Cretaceous and C e n o z o i c sediments reach thicknesses o f approximately 5 0 0 0 m ( F e o C o d e c i d o 1969). Since the Late
Tertiary, erosive processes have washed sediments derived f r o m the
Andes into the basin. Pleistocene tectonic activity (mainly uplift) is
310
another geological factor which, along with the variations in parental
material, was responsible for the regional morphological differentiation
o f the area. After the final elevation o f the Andes, the Western Llanos
were affected b y a succession o f morphogenetic cycles, with phases o f erosion, fluvial, fluvial-lacustrine and deltaic depositions and eohc sculpture.
These geomorphologic and climatic phases also influenced many o f the
Western Llanos soils, which have suffered a c o m p l e x process o f polyc y c h c differentiation (Sarmiento et al. 1971: 54 f.).
The topography o f the Llanos is the result o f a long geological and
geomorphological evolution, mostly Quaternary, after the sea retired
eastward toward the Atlantic ocean. This topography consists o f extense
alluvial fans and plains in most o f the Western Llanos. In this region,
subsidence o f the Barinas-Apure basin was fast enough to impede c o m plete alluviation. As the Western Llanos were filled with alluvium, and
near Andean piedmont were affected by uplift, drainage was promoted
north and eastward; the southern part remained relatively depressed and
this impeded proper drainage.
These geomorphological processes have produced three different
altitudinal levels (Fig. 2 ) : the highest has elevations above 2 0 0 m and
comprises the piedmont; the middle one has elevations ranging between
100 and 2 0 0 m and covers an irregular area near the piedmont; and the
third level, with elevations o f less than 100 m. This level is o f particular
interest f o r this paper and comprises the State o f Apure and the southern
parts o f the States o f Barinas and Protuguesa. Due to its insignificant slope
(less than 0.25 m per 1000 m), when the level o f the main rivers o f the
area such as the O r i n o c o , Apure, Portuguesa, Arauca and Meta rises, it
dams the lesser affluents, changing their courses and producing extense
flooding. In addition, due to the low speed o f the Llanos rivers, great
amounts o f sediments are deposited in their beds, while their banks
are gradually raised above the savanna level. During the rainy season,
with the heavy precipitación and the overflow o f the secondary currents,
these natural dikes are frequently broken, and openings or salidas de
madre occur. This causes new depositions o f sediments. The numerous
stream channels, former levees, and other hydrological surface modifications have created a plain o f irregular micro-topography.
Within this plain, the highest areas, locally called bancos (with heights
ranging between 1 and 2 m ) are usually selected for settlement and
agricultural purposes. On the contrary, the overflow basins, which are
seasonally flooded and where water is retained during most o f the year,
are locally called esteros. The intermediate land between the b a n c o and
the estero, called bajío, is seasonally flooded; however, the water is
quickly lost after the rainy* season ( R o a 1981: 33 f.). The proportion
311
o f banco, bajío and estero seems to be different for each area o f the
Western Llanos.
The regional cUmate is uniform with very definite alternation o f humid
and dry periods the latter lasting from 4 to 5 months. The natural vegetation o f the area has been grouped into four main types: forests, humid
grasslands, dry grasslands and swamps. However in small localized zones
seasonal swamps, palm groves and shrub areas are found. Although in the
past poor soils have been considered an important factor in grassland
genesis, there is no one to one correlation between them and grassland
vegetation. Different factors such as the age o f the deposits, the influence
o f the natural vegetation and the topographic, geomorphologic, lithologic
and climatic conditions account for the different kinds o f soils found in
the area. Alluvial soils or regosols with an AC profile lie over the more
recent sediments. Over the older deposits or in the better drained areas,
due to the nature o f the lixiviation process, ABC profiles with textural
B horizon have developed. In areas where the laterization process has
occured, a horizon with iron oxides, forming hard concretions is found.
Hydromorphic soils are widely distributed and lateritic-hydromorphic
soils are frequent (Sarmiento et al. 1971: 55).
As we will see in the rest o f the paper, the various combinations o f
morphological, topographic and drainage conditions o f the Western Llanos
of Venezuela, area o f particular interest, offered distinctive opportunities
and challenges for the aboriginal exploitation.
I N D I G E N O U S S U B S I S T E N C E IN T H E W E S T E R L L A N O S
Ethnohistorical accounts indicate the existence o f fairly dense populations in the Western Llanos at the time o f the Spanish contact (Morey
1975). This population was made up o f a variety o f groups which included
nomadic foragers, specialized fishers and sedentary agriculturalists, all
bound together by a widespread and complex trading network, through
which the different groups provided each other with their special products
(Morey 1975: 197). During early historic time, several agricultural groups
controlled the major riverine zones, while others were cultivating on
artificially built raised fields in the grasslands. Fishing communities
occupied strategic areas known for their year-round resources, while
foragers roamed the interfluvial regions.
A large number o f plants were utilized by the Llanos people. Corn and
manioc seem to have been the main crops and were grown in all the
Llanos areas. The cultivation o f the former, o f which several varieties were
known (including one that matured in two months), was emphasized in
312
the northern and western Llanos (Gumilla 1963: 4 3 1 ; G i l i j 1965, I: 185).
However, in some areas (along the Upper and Middle Orinoco and the
Guaviare) maize was apparently less important since a greater emphasis
was placed o n the exploitation o f several palms and fruits (Rivero 1956:
3 3 5 ; Cassani 1967: 2 4 0 ; Gumilla 1963: 4 4 0 - 4 4 2 ; Morey 1975: 46).
Several varieties o f manioc were consumed, although the bitter types
were preferred f o r their flavor and adaptability to different processing
techniques (Morey 1975: 46). Other f o o d crops included sweet potatoes,
yams, squashes, melons, beans and peppers (Morey 1975: 4 6 f.). T o b a c c o ,
c o t t o n and a great range o f other fruits and plants were also utilized.
The written sources also attest to the existence o f three types o f agricultural fields. The typical slash and burn plot, generally cut out o f the
forested areas. Sometimes in these fields, small mounds f o r improving the
local drainage, were constructed f o r manioc cultivation (Morey 1975: 48).
The second type was a wet garden placed mainly in f l o o d plains and o n
the edge o f lagoons. These gardens, fertilized through a combination o f
ashes and river silt (Gilij 1965, II: 2 7 6 ; Morey 1975: 50), were planted
seasonally as the f l o o d waters receded. The third type o f garden was a
clear garden, planted in the grasslands. This consisted o f raised fields
located in humid sites (Gumilla 1963: 4 2 9 f.). All the Llanos groups expended a great deal o f time and energy in activities o f hunting, fishing and
gathering. Even cultivators relied heavily upon game and fish as a source
o f protein (Morey 1975: 56).
W A T E R M A N A G E M E N T SYSTEMS R E L A T E D T O SUBSISTENCE
The first known inhabitants o f the Western Llanos, the Osoid people
(Zucchi 1967, 1972, 1973), entered the area sometime around the beginning o f the first millenium B.C. Initially, these groups occupied those
areas that offered the best soils and drainage conditions, and probably
limited their early agricultural activities to the forested areas along rivers
and streams, using the grasslands for settlement. Besides agriculture,
their subsistence activites also included gathering, fishing and hunting
(Zucchi 1 9 6 7 ; G a r s o n 1980: 286).
During the first millenium D.C. other groups entered and settled in the
Western Llanos, and between 5 0 0 and 1400 D.C, the Osoid, as well as
other groups, began to construct artificial earth structures such as
mounds, causeways and raised fields (Zucchi 1972: 1973). The c o n struction o f these structures seems to indicate population pressures, not
only within the Llanos, but also in adjacent areas such as the Middle
O r i n o c o floodplain (Zucchi 1978). The increasing competition between
313
communities apparently forced some o f the Llanos groups to extend their
subsistence activites, to the grasslands proper, an environment which
previously had been used exclusively f o r settlement purposes and hunting
and gathering activities. Occasionally, this grassland exploitation implied
the use o f earth structures.
Ridged Fields
At present only two raised field systems have been reported for the
Western Llanos. One at Caño Ventosidad (Denevan and Zucchi 1978;
Zucchi y Denevan 1980), and the other at the Hato de la Calzada (Garson
1980), both in the Barinas State. The results o f the research carried out
in Caño Ventosidad and the comparisons established between this system
and a modern developmental project called Modulas de Apure (CODEIMA 1976), currently being undertaken in the L o w Llanos, allowed
the formulation o f several suggestions regarding the characteristics o f
the system and its probable m o d e o f operation.
1 ) T h e ridged fields o f Caño Ventosidad run perpendicular to the Ventosidad and other adjacent streams, and are arranged in pairs with an intervening canal and open savanna between pairs (Fig. 3). However, the
ridges and canals are not the only constituent part o f this system, since
the riverbank, the estero and the spaces o f savanna located between the
pairs o f ridges are also functional units (Zucchi and Denevan 1980:
74 — 81). In synthesis we can say that the Caño Ventosidad system
combines functionally both natural and artificial features.
2 ) Some o f the ridges o f Caño Ventosidad are completely artificial while
others seem to be partially or totally natural. This indicates that even
f o r raised areas the groups (El C h o q u e p e o p l e ) t o o k advantage o f preexisting natural topographic features (former levees, natural raised
areas), and adapted them to their o w n particular purposes.
3 ) T h e Ventosidad system had a double function: a) drainage, since it
provided dry surfaces that could be cultivated during the rainy season,
and b) water retention and storage, f o r use in the dry period ( Z u c c h i
and Denevan 1980: 74 - 81).
4 ) The retention and storage o f water probably provided additonal benefits to its users such as the production o f organic matter that could be
incorporated to fertilize the agricultural ridges, and as a source o f
protein represented by the acuatic fauna that could live in these artificial bodies o f water.
The Hmited scope o f the Caño Ventosidad research project did not
permit a satisfactory explanation as to why this kind o f system did not
attain a wider distribution in the Western Llanos inspite o f its apparent
314
productivity. At that time, two possible explanations were suggested:
1) that other similar systems had o n c e existed but had since been buried
under sediments which impeded their later discovery, and 2 ) that the
population responsible f o r their construction migrated f r o m the area soon
after this technology was introduced, in this manner reducing the population pressure that might have instigated their original development,
eventually leading to their abandonment (Zucchi and Denevan 1980).
Recent discoveries in the Portuguesa state permit an alternative explanation, opening up a new perspective regarding strategies developed b y
prehispanic groups in their efforts to extend their agricultural practices
into the seasonally flooded savannas. These fmds allow us to see the
potential importance o f natural features o f the irregular savanna t o p o graphy f o r the subsistence strategies implemented by these groups.
The site referred t o , Ramon Lepage (P-59), consits o f a large irregular
oval savanna surrounded b y a ridge 0 . 5 0 to 0 . 8 0 m high and 20 to 3 0 m
wide, with t w o openings to the southeast and southwest. In some parts
the ridge is double with a central canal (Fig. 4). The savanna surrounding
the structure is slightly higher than the internal area. The two openings
probably allow the entrance o f excess rain water f r o m the outer savanna
into the inner space. No archaeological material was found on the surface o n the structure; however no excavations were carried o u t . ' The
nearest archaeological site discovered so far in the area lies some 2 km
from the ridge.
In cross section the ridge has a trapezoidal profile similar to that described for other causeways and ridged fields (Fig. 5). The surface morphology o f the ridge and its layout gave us the original impression that
it represented an artificial agricultural system, with cultivation practices
o n the elevated area, while the lower central zone could have served f o r
water retention. Mulch and aquatic plants obtained from the central
part o f the structure as well as from adjacent esteros and ponds, could
have been worked into the surface o f the cultivated area in order to enrich
the soil. However, the examination o f the aerial photographs and the
preliminary analysis o f the soil samples obtained in the ridge, indicate
that the structure we have described was natural — not man made - and
a direct result o f the fluvial activity o f the area (Schargel, personal c o m munication).
Natural structures similar to the one described, providing elevated and
at the same time, irrigated surfaces f o r cuhivation, are probably frequent
1
In the Llanos, artificial e a r t h w o r k s such as c a u s e w a y s and ridged fields generally
d o n o t c o n t a i n arachaeological material unless t h e y stem directly o u t o f settlem e n t sites, f r o m w h i c h s o m e o f the c o n s t r u c t i o n material was o b t a i n e d .
315
in the area due to the fluvial activity. The utilization o f natural features
such as these would preclude the construction o f artificial structures
and therefore account for the scarcity o f more elaborate-ridged field
systems, such as that found in Caño Ventosidad. This calls our attention to a viable alternative for the exploitation o f p o o r l y drained grasslands that would not entail the investment o f the time and energy involved in artificial earthworks. As we have seen, the Caño Ventosidad
ridged fields constitute a water management system that takes advantage
o f both natural and artificial features. It is therefore likely that the Llanos
groups could have utilized many o f the natural features existing in the
area (eg. bancos, old levees), with or without further modification or
formal layouts.
We d o not mean to imply that all the elevated features f o u n d in these
areas, were in fact, used for this purpose. What we want to emphasize
is that they must be considered as potential prehispanic agricultural
grounds, and f o r this reason should be studied carefully. If in fact, the
aboriginal population t o o k advantage o f these features (as the Caño
Ventosidad suggests), the surface o f seasonally flooded savannas which
could be easily transformed into agricultural grounds could be considerably extended, with little investment o f time and energy devoted to c o n struction. As a final point we would like to bring up a cautionary note
concerning the classification o f ridges as artificial features. As evidenced
by the ridges at the Ramon Lepage site, it is impossible to establish the
artificiality o f earth structures in the Western Llanos based only on
surface m o r p h o l o g y .
Causeways
The second point that we would like to explore is the possiblity that
causeways were constructed to serve as dikes in water management
systems, intended to intensify the exploitation o f aquatic resources.
Causeways are artificial earth ridges with variable lengths, that run parallel
or perpendicular to nearby water courses. Their heights usually range
between 1 and 2 m, and their widths between 3 o r 4 m to more than
10 m. Usually they are related to settlement sites. Recent research o f the
Osoid people's settlement patterns at the Hato de La Calzuda site in the
state o f Barinas, led to the establishment o f a preliminary t y p o l o g y o f
these artificial features that includes: a) causeways that interconnect
settlement, b ) causeways that connect settlements with activity areas
along rivers and streams and c ) intrasettlement causeways (Garson 1980:
291 - 329).
316
In 1966 Cruxent proposed that causeways could have served as roads,
occasional house floors, areas o f cultivation and hunting grounds. In a
recent work, Garson ( 1 9 8 0 ) maintains that their principal function was
to serve as roads, not discounting secondary functions such as those
proposed by Cruxent. His interpretation is based o n two arguments:
a) the use attributed to causeways in other areas (Denevan 1966) and
b ) the difficulties for f o o t travel in the areas where these structures
are f o u n d . In support o f this argument this author reports that:
" . . . T h e area o f the Calzada Paez is a w e t savanna surface as p o c k marked w i t h
depressions, marshes, p o n d s , streams and o t h e r features that m a k e f o o t travel
s l o w , indirect and t r e a c h e r o u s during b o t h the dry and the rainy season. A n
elevated path o r road is o n e manner o f mitigating these d i f f i c u l t i e s . " ( G a r s o n
1980: 3 2 )
Considering the peculiar characteristics o f the Western Llanos, we are
inclined to believe that another important function o f the causeways,
so far neglected, could be related to water management. This is without denying that, primarily due to their interconnective characteristics,
they could have served as roads and, occasionally, also f o r other uses.
Some causeways could have been constructed f o r the embankment o f
rain and flood water, in order to increase the number, depth and extension o f aquatic environments during the dry season, as a mean to intensif y the exploitation o f aquatic resources.
We have already stressed that the Western Llanos consist o f a mosaic
o f topographic units which are seasonally affected b y different levels o f
flooding.
In the lowest areas, water remains throughout the year, whereas the more elevated sectors dry up completely soon after the rains have
ended. The ongoing research in the Modulos de Apure (Fig. 6), where
rain water is artificially dammed up and controlled, has provided important data o n the aquatic fauna o f these modified environments. It gives
us some idea o f the possible benefits that the aboriginal population could
have derived f r o m an artificial water retention system, formed b y a network o f causeways.
The increase o f surface water brought about b y the construction
o f dikes in the wet savannas, produces a mosaic o f new aquatic environments, each having different condition o f depth, stability and physiochemical properties, all o f which directly affect the dynamics o f their
respective living communities. In the Modulos, the construction o f dikes
has effectively extended the original aquatic environments o f the grassy
savannas, while new ones have been added ( b o r r o w pits). Some o f these
retain water during the whole year.
317
In addition, the construction o f the dikes has produced a partial isolation o f the embanked areas, whose nutrients are supplied principally
by rainwater, and whose excess exits only through f l o o d gates. This
implies that the ichthyo-fauna found within each Modulo (cell) is that
which was trapped in the area, at the moment o f dike construction
(Pinowski and Morales 1981: 81). Certain vertebrates adapted f o r land
and water l o c o m o t i o n (Cayman crocodilus and Podocnemis vogli) have
remained in the embanked areas or in its surroundings, since the changes
produced by the cell system-are favorable to their species. The coexistence
within the Modulas o f permanent water bodies, areas o f low water, and
also dry zones, provides the necessary environments f o r nesting and f o r
the breeding o f newly born and immature specimens o f the cayman. In
addition, the lengthened period o f water retention which, in turn, prolongs the f o o d supply, has eliminated the need f o r long migrations during
the dry season ( R a m o s et al. 1981).
On the other hand, the data regarding fish populations indicates qualitative differences in each aquatic environment o f the Modulos. The
f l o o d e d areas covering prior vegetation (large amounts o f submerged
stolons and vegetal matter in different stages o f d e c o m p o s i t i o n ) are
inhabited only by small species, or juvenile specimens o f larger species
that prefer deeper water bodies (Pinowksi and Morales 1981: 91). On the
contrary, in areas o f deeper water, such as the b o r r o w pits, larger species
are found. In general, it has been established that within the Modulos,
large fishes are usually found in the deep water areas that are free f r o m
vegetation, and have the best oxigen conditions.
Finally, more than 100 species o f birds have been identified in the
general area. Twenty species belong to the savanna-forest environment,
twenty are predators, while the other sixty five center their activities in
the aquatic environments. Thus, the artificial extension o f the latter
must lead to an increase o f the population o f aquatic bird species.
The mammalian fauna is also affected by the artificial water retention,
favouring the aquatic or amphibious species as well as those that can
react quickly to change. However, research in this field is still incomplete
(Ojasti 1981).
Although we cannot directly extrapolate the results o f the Modulos
research to a probable prehispanic water retention system formed b y
causeways, the data obtained in this proyect, have sufficient e c o n o m i c
implications as to be taken into consideration when trying to reconstruct
the ancient indigenous subsistence strategies o f the Western Llanos. H o w ever, we consider that the demonstration o f the benefits accruing f r o m
such a system, as shown in the Modulos studies throws a new light o n
318
a possible function of prehispanic causeways in the Llanos, and serves
further study.
As a last point, we would like to mention that the probable use o f
causeways as water retention features, which created favorable environments for aquatic species, seem to receive support by the recent data
obtained on the subsistence patterns o f the Osoid groups, which constructed most o f these earthworks. Beside agriculture and the gathering
o f wild fruits, fishing and hunting were the other means o f f o o d procurement of the Osoid people. However fish, reptiles and amphibians
were the preferred animals, followed by mammals, birds and moluscs
(Garson 1980. 271).
These two alternatives for prehispanic agriculture and animal exploitation o f the wet grassland savannas, call attention on the diverse opportunities offered by this environment, a fact which undoubtedly was
noticed by the prehispanic populations and favoured the development
o f multiple exploitative alternatives. The complete knowledge of the
techniques employed by the main Llano groups, and their interrelationships will require years o f active research. The possibilities presented here
are only ideas that will have to be carefully explored in future archaeological research.
REFERENCES
Cassani, José, SJ
1967
Historia de la provincia de la Compañía de Jesús del Nuevo Reyno de Granada en la América. Caracas (Biblioteca de la Academia Nacional de la Historia:
Fuentes para la historia colonial de Venezuela, 85J.
CODEIMA
1976
Plan integral de aprovechamiento
MOP -
MAC -
y producción
de los modulos
de
C o o p e r , J o h n M.
1942
" A r e a l and T e m p o r a l A s p e c t s o f A b o r i g i n a l S o u t h A m e r i c a . " In
Man, 1 5 . 1 / 2 : 1 - 3 8 , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C .
1942a
"The
South
Scientific
Apure.
S A S , Caracas.
American
Congress,
Marginal C u l t u r e s . " In Proceedings
of
the
Primitive
Eighth
2, Washington, D.C.
C r u x e n t , José M.
1966
" A p u n t e s s o b r e las Calzadas de Barinas, V e n e z u e l a . " In D e p a r t a m e n t o de
A n t r o p o l o g í a I V I C : Boletín
Informativo,
4 : 1 0 — 2 2 , Caracas.
319
D e n e v a n , William M.
1966
The Aboriginal
Cultural
Geography
of
Berkeley and L o s Angeles (Ibero-Americana,
1970
the
Llanos
48).
de
Mojos
de
Bolivia.
" A b o r i g i n a l Drained Field Cultivation in the A m e r i c a s . " In Science,
6 4 7 - 6 5 4 , Washington, D . C .
169:
D e n e v a n , William M., and Alberta Z u c c h i
1978
" R i d g e d Field E x c a v a t i o n s in the Central O r i n o c o L l a n o s , V e n e z u e l a . "
In D. L. B r o w m a n ( e d . ) : Advances
in Andean
Archaeology,
pp. 235 — 245,
T h e Hague and Paris.
Feo Codecido
1969
" C o n t r i b u c i ó n a la estratigrafía de la C u e n c a B a r i n a s - A p u r e . "
de Minas y H i d r o c a r b u r o s : Memoria
del IV Congreso
Geológico
( " B o l e t í n de G e o l o g í a " , Publ. 5 , t o m o 2 ) , Caracas.
Ministerio
Venezolano
Garson, A.
1980
Prehistory,
Settlement
and Food
Production
in the Savanna
Region
of la
Calzada Paez, Venezuela.
Ph. D. Dissertation, Y a l e University, N e w Haven.
Gilij, F i l i p p o Salvadore
1965
Ensayo
de historia
americana.
demia Nacional
de la Historia:
zuela, 71 73;.
V o l s . 1 — 3 , Caracas (Biblioteca
de la AcaFuentes
para la historia
colonial
de
Vene-
Gumilla, José
1963
El Orinoco
ilustrado.
Historia
natural,
civil y geográfica
B o g o t á {Biblioteca
de la Presidencia
de Colombia,
8).
de este
Meggers, Betty J.
1954
" E n v i r o n m e n t a l L i m i t a t i o n s o n the D e v e l o p m e n t o f C u l t u r e . " In
Anthropologist,
5 6 : 801 - 8 2 4 , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C .
M o r e y , N a n c y K.
1975
Ethnohistory
of the Colombian
and
University o f Utah, Salt Lake C i t y .
Venezuelan
Llanos.
gran
rio.
American
Ph. D. Dissertation,
Ojasti, Juhani
1981
" P a p e l e c o l ó g i c o de m a m í f e r o s en sabanas i n u n d a b l e s . " In Boletín
de
Sociedad
Venezolana
de Ciencias Naturales,
3 5 ( 1 3 9 ) : 5 9 - 6 6 , Caracas.
la
P i n o w s k i , Juan, and G o n z a l o Morales
1981
" A s p e c t o s e c o l ó g i c o s de las aves de l o s m o d u l o s de A p u r e . " In Boletín
de la
la Sociedad
Venezolana
de Ciencias Naturales,
3 5 ( 1 3 9 ) : 6 7 — 7 8 , Caracas.
R a m o s , Santiago, Stanislaw Daniellewski and G r e g o r i C o l o m i n e
1981
" C o n t r i b u c i ó n a la e c o l o g í a de l o s v e r t e b r a d o s a c u á t i c o s en esteros y b a j í o s
de sabanas m o d u l a d a s . " In Boletín
de la Sociedad
Venezolana
de
Ciencias
Naturales,
3 5 ( 1 3 9 ) . 7 9 - 1 0 3 , Caracas.
320
R i v e r o , Juan P.
1956
Historia
de las misiones
Meta. B o g o t a (Biblioteca
de los Llanos
de Casanare
y los Ríos
de la Presidencia
de Colombia,
23).
Orinoco
y
R o a Morales, Pedro
1981
" A l g u n o s a s p e c t o s de la e v o l u c i ó n s e d i m e n t o l ó g i c a y g e o m o r f o l ó g i c a de la
llanura aluvial de d e s b o r d e en el b a j o l l a n o . " In Boletín
de la
Sociedad
Venezolana
de Ciencias Naturales,
3 5 ( 1 3 9 ) : 3 1 — 4 7 , Caracas.
S a r m i e n t o , G u i l l e r m o , M. M o n a s t e r i o and J. Silva
1971
" R e c o n o c i m i e n t o e c o l ó g i c o de los llanos
e c o l ó g i c a s r e g i o n a l e s . " In Acta
Científica
Caracas.
Schargel, R . , and R. A . G o n z á l e z
1973
Estudio
agrológico
preliminar.
E d a f o l o g í a , Caracas.
Sectores
Steward, Julian H.
1946
" I n t r o d u c t i o n . " In J. H. Steward
Indians,
1 : 1 - 9, Washington, D.C.
1949
occidentales.
Venezolana,
M O P , División de
Bruzual-Mantecal.
( e d . ) : Handbook
I. Las unidades
22.2:
52 - 60,
of
South
American
" S o u t h A m e r i c a n Cultures. A n Interpretative S u m m a r y . " In J. H. Steward
( e d . ) : Handbook
of South
American
Indians,
5: 669 — 7 7 2 , W a s h i n g t o n ,
D.C.
Vila, Pablo
1960
Geografía
Caracas.
de
Venezuela.
V o l . 1. El territorio
nacional
Z u c c h i , Alberta
1967
La Betania:
Un yacimiento
arqueológico
del occidente
u n p u b l i s h e d D o c t o r a l Thesis, U C V , Caracas.
y su ambiente
de Venezuela.
físico.
2 vols.,
1972
" A b o r i g i n a l Earth Structures in the Western V e n e z u e l a n L l a n o s . " In
Caribbean
Journal
of Science,
12.1: 95 — 106, Mayaguez, Puerto R i c o .
1973
" P r e h i s t o r i c H u m a n O c c u p a t i o n s o f the Western V e n e z u e l a n L l a n o s . " In
American
Antiquity,
2 8 : 182 - 190, Washington, D.C.
1978
" L a variabilidad e c o l ó g i c a y la i n t e n s i f i c a c i ó n de la agricultura en l o s llanos
v e n e z o l a n o s . " In E. Wagner y A . Z u c c h i ( e d s . ) : Unidad y variedad.
Ensayos
en homenaje
a J . M. Cruxent,
p p . 3 4 9 — 3 6 5 , Caracas.
The
Z u c c h i , Alberta, and William M. Denevan
1980
" C a m p o s elevados e historia cultural prehispánica en l o s llanos o c c i d e n t a l e s
de V e n e z u e l a . " In Montalban,
8 : 5 6 5 - 7 3 6 . Caracas.
321
™ is S
C -< M
.2
'S 2 C ra
3 .5 ö -s
'S« s
6¿ -a >
£•0 g ' o
322
u
>•
i
c
.. ^
ob
iZ
<
323
S -a
Cd
^ 3
^ 2
•a D
(2>
o
E «
324
11
1 1
11 1
o
»r
o
<
Oí
to
y
11 1
11 1
S/
y
11 1
!o
o
<
y/
\
1
o
4
lO /
Kl/
m
<J\
o
<
rS
I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
'• §S§ rMa i §r 8i S
1 ie a
MS §S §s ig H
§
§
8
§
8
8
I
8
SigSagragC
I I /' I I
1
I I I I I II I I I I I I
I
I I I I |l I I il I I
<0 /
"
u
<I
«t'
I I III
(M
O
<
S)
-8
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I r I I I I I I I I Í I I II
- 8
í í í n í l í í í l l l í í l í í í l í l l í l í í í í i l í í í í í
1
1 1 1
Ñ
O
<t
g
O
<
-
o\
<
-A-
-
/
í
u
on
to
-s
111111111111111111111111111111111
liliilsi
I I I I I I I
oJ-
y/
01/
o
<0/
-8
liiliiliiliiPilliiliillil
II
h-/
II
I I II
(0
I I I I I
m
st
II
II
I -«
a
V
c
•o
E
u
»-1
3
u
s
CA
-s
x;
-s
ao
yv
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Sg8g8ggggg8Sg8gggggggg8gggggg8
i g l í a g s i g s i g c i g s i g z i g s i g s ü s s i g :
I I I -8
gg8
ig;
Vh
CLi
.2?
326
rsi
ON
Cu
O
s
3
O
C«
u
ríá
T3
Cm
^o
)-<
^O
u
Z
>o
sil
327