History of the Church
2 - The Imperial Church
Constantine: From Rome to Constantinople
The religious policies of Constantine had enormous consequences for the church. His path to becoming
emperor of the Roman Empire was a strategically planned campaign. After winning the battle for the west
under the Christian sign, he signed a pact with the larger of his rivals to the throne. That was when he issued
the Edict of Milan to stop the persecution of Christians. He positioned himself so that his two rivals fought
each other, and then he took full control in 324. Like Decius and Diocletian before him, Constantine sought
to restore the glories of Rome, in this case using Christianity not paganism as the vehicle.
During his campaigns, Constantine had noted the strategic importance of Byzantium, where Europe
connected to Asia Minor. He determined to build a “New Rome” there for the headquarters of the empire.
The location would allow him to be close enough to the east to deal with issues with the Persians but close
enough to the west to watch the Germanic tribes on the Rhine. Constantinople, the “city of Constantine,”
was a significant construction. Rome was overrun by the barbarians soon thereafter, so Constantinople was
the political and cultural center of the empire for over a thousand years. Because of its roots in ancient
Byzantium, the eastern empire became known as the Byzantine Empire.
From the Unconquered Sun to Jesus, the “Unconquered” Son
Constantine was friendly to Christians, but he was not baptized until near death. He had witnessed the power
of the Christian God and desired His good will; he was not as interested in the support of Christians, who
were generally of little influence, few in number, and poor as well. Constantine had to maintain favor with
the pagan Senate and other influences and was seen to participate in pagan rituals while at the same time
protecting Christians and appointing them to positions of authority. He never submitted to Christian
instruction, but considered himself over the church. Constantine in effect functioned as both the high priest
of paganism, including the Sol Invictus (the Unconquered Sun), as well as the authority over the Christian
church (who worshipped the “Unconquered Son.”) After his death, the Roman senate had Constantine
declared a god. The man who had done so much to damage paganism became a pagan god himself.
Church worship during and after the Constantine era took on a much more formal structure. Churches had
been home churches for the most part, but the imperial endorsement led to the building of church facilities
that were forerunners of contemporary cathedrals. Worship included processionals, choirs, incense, and
other trappings, such as robes for the clergy, polished marble, and decorative adornments. Worship still
focused on the communion, and baptism was by immersion.
Official Theology: Eusebius of Caesarea
Much of our knowledge of the early church comes from the writings of Eusebius of Caesarea, born in
Palestine around 260. Eusebius survived the great persecution, although his teacher and a number of
colleagues were martyred. A scholar by training, Eusebius was elected bishop of Caesarea after the
persecution ceased; as such he had the responsibility for re-energizing the church in Palestine in general and
Caesarea in particular. Although his new position curtailed his scholarly pursuits, Eusebius completed his
great work Church History. His Church History intimated that the church within the Roman Empire was
really the culmination of history. It pulled together themes from earlier writers that tied the Logos to Jesus
Christ, that the Hebrew Scriptures were given as preparation for the Gospel, and that the Empire had been
ordained by God to spread the Christian faith. The persecution took place, Eusebius reasoned, because the
earlier rulers did not recognize Christianity as the culmination of Roman history and traditions.
This marriage of church and Empire in the view of Eusebius was causing three changes in perspective. The
Gospel had previously seen as good news for the poor but not necessarily the rich, but now pomp and riches
seemed evidence of divine favor. Secondly, the focus on building grander and grander facilities was
accompanied by the growth of clerical aristocracy, similar to the political aristocracy of the empire. Finally,
Eusebius intimated that the great day of the kingdom of God had now come. His perspective is debatable;
his historical accounts valuable.
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Monastic Reaction
Another reaction to the imperial church was the monastic movement. Some saw that the church had gone
from boldness in the threat of persecution to complacency, from selfless service to ostentatious living.
Initially the monks lived a solitary life (“monk” comes from the Greek monachos which means “solitary.”)
One such was Anthony, whose life was later chronicled. The child of wealthy parents, Anthony gave his
inheritance to the poor and lived in abject poverty. He became known as a paragon of discipline, prayer and
contemplation. He was known for some healing powers.
As more people sought to learn the monastic life, communal monasticism evolved. A man named
Pachomius, born in Egypt in 286, ultimately founded nine communities; his sister Mary founded similar
places for women. The monastic communities were based on faith, discipline, piety, and hard work. The
abbot was the unquestioned authority; he hand picked his own successor. The monasteries produced enough
goods to sustain themselves. Although worship was frequent, they were not priests.
One of the more notable monks was Martin of Tours, born in 335 in what is now Hungary. When Martin was
a soldier, he saw a shivering beggar. Martin had no alms but cut his cape in two and gave half to the destitute
man. Later Martin had a vision of Christ commending him, “Inasmuch as you did for one the least of these
my brethren, you did it to me.” Centuries later the cape reportedly of Martin was placed in a small church as
a valued relic. From the cape – capella – the little church became known as a chapel; those who served in it
were chaplains. When the bishopric of Tours became vacant, at the request of the people Martin became
bishop of Tours. He built a small cell there to maintain vestiges of the monastic life. Combining the virtues
of the monastic perspective with the more affluent church led to a more selfless body of God’s people.
Monasticism would become over the centuries an instrument for the charitable work of the church.
Schismatic Reaction: Donatism
During the fourth century there were schisms within the church. One of the larger controversies was with the
Donatists. After each of the periods of persecution the church had wrestled with the restoration to the
fellowship of those who had fallen away during the tribulation. This became a significant problem in North
Africa after the great persecution of Diocletian at the end of the third century. Some had surrendered
Scriptures to avoid punishment, and some had even worshipped idols. When peace was restored, those who
been tortured for their faithfulness (the “confessors”) were adamant that the unfaithful (the “traditores”)
should not be restored easily.
This came to a head when the bishopric of Carthage became open; a man named Caecilian was elected to the
position. Those who felt the traditores were getting off too easy sought to have Donatus elected instead.
They maintained that a traditore had participated in his consecration, so Caecilian was not a viable candidate.
The theological dispute rested on two points. First was the question of whether the sacrament of penance in
the church was adequate to restore a traditore. Second, was the consecration of Caecilian by a traditore
invalid, that is, was the performance of a sacrament valid if the officiant was a “sinner.” Constantine and
various church councils answered both questions in the affirmative, endorsing the election of Caecilian, but
resistance (and some violence) by the Donatists plagued the church in Africa until the seventh century.
Arianism and the Council of Nicea
Prior to Constantine, disputes within the church were handled through consensus at various church
assemblies. With the imperial church, there was now a structural hierarchy to expedite decision making. This
mechanism for handling disputes was put to the test with the Arian controversy in the fourth century.
The second century apologists, in an effort to relate Christianity to the Greek philosophers, drew a parallel
between the Supreme Being of the Greeks to God the Father, the Logos (reasoning and communicating part
of God) to Jesus Christ, the Son. Based on these writings, in the eastern church the idea that the Logos was
the intermediary between the immutable God and mankind was widespread. Arius, a respected presbyter in
Alexandria, advanced the notion that the Logos, the Word of God, was not co-eternal with God. However the
Gospel of John states that the Word of God (Who became flesh) was in the beginning with God and in fact
was a major participant in the creation itself. Arius disputed by saying that coeternity meant there were then
two Gods, not one. Alexander, bishop of Alexander, countered that this would make the Word of God (Son)
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a creature, not God, thus undermining the entire Christian religion. The dispute escalated, and Constantine
called for a church council in Nicea to resolve the matter. The council supported the coeternal position of
Alexander and published the AD 325 version of what is known as the Nicene Creed.
We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of all things visible and invisible.
And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father the only-begotten; that is, of the
essence of the Father, God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one
substance with the Father; by Whom all things were made both in heaven and on earth; Who for us men,
and for our salvation, came down and was incarnate and was made man;
He suffered, and the third day he rose again, ascended into heaven; from thence he shall come to judge the
quick and the dead.
And in the Holy Ghost.
But those who say: 'There was a time when he was not;' and 'He was not before he was made;' and 'He was
made out of nothing,' or 'He is of another substance' or 'essence,' or 'The Son of God is created,' or
'changeable,' or 'alterable'—they are condemned by the holy catholic and apostolic Church.
The Pagan Reaction: Julian the Apostate vs. Athanasius
The bad news for the Christian church was that the Emperor Julian who ascended the throne in 361 was
dedicated to halting the spread of Christianity and restoring Roman paganism to its former glory. He
organized the empire for pagan worship, using a hierarchical structure like the Christians and edicted some
limitations on what Christians could teach. He initiated mass animal sacrifices to the pagan gods and wrote a
work Against the Christians, ridiculing the teachings of Jesus. He became known by historians as Julian the
Apostate. The good news for the Christians is that Julian died in 363 after a reign of less than two years.
The Bishop of Alexandria at this time was Athanasius, a dedicated Nicean. Since the emperors after
Constantine were Arians, Athanasius had to flee Alexandria as they sought to eliminate this staunch
supporter of the Nicene Creed. When Julian became emperor, he had no interest in these Christian squabbles,
so Athanasius could return to Alexandria. Athanasius realized that some of the opponents of the Nicene
Creed were concerned that the creed made no distinction between God the Father and God the Son. He
worked out an understanding that there could be distinctions in the substances of the Trinity within the
framework of a single God. The amended creed was approved by the Second Ecumenical Council of
Constantinople in 381: (note changes in italics)
We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and
invisible.
And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all worlds, Light
of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father; by whom all
things were made; who for us men, and for our salvation, came down from heaven, and was incarnate by
the Holy Ghost of the Virgin Mary, and was made man;
he was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered, and was buried, and the third day he rose again,
according to the Scriptures, and ascended into heaven, and sitteth on the right hand of the Father; from
thence he shall come again, with glory, to judge the quick and the dead; whose kingdom shall have no end.
And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver of life, who proceedeth from the Father, who with the Father and
the Son together is worshiped and glorified, who spake by the prophets.
In one holy catholic and apostolic Church; we acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins; we look
for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.
Ambrose of Milan
When the bishop of Milan died in 373, the election of the replacement had the potential for violence because
both the Arians and the orthodox wanted their man to be the new bishop. The popular governor of the city
was Ambrose. He spoke calmly and effectively to the crowd at the church, and both groups realized that
Ambrose would be an excellent choice. Ambrose accepted the challenge. He studied church doctrine
diligently and became one of the better theologians in the western church. Ambrose was a gifted preacher;
one of those impacted by his preaching was young Augustine, who turned to the church as result.
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In 379 Theodosius, a Nicene Christian, became Emperor. It was under his auspices that the Council of
Constantinople was convened and approved the revised Nicene Creed. When rioters in Thessalonica killed
the commandant of the city, Ambrose counseled moderation to the Emperor. The Emperor ignored the
advice, and some seven thousand rioters were slaughtered. When Theodosius next went to church, Ambrose
courageously barred his entrance saying he was not worthy of entering God’s holy place and partaking of
communion. The Emperor acknowledged the sin and offered penance. When the Emperor later lay dying in
395, he called for Ambrose, the man who had censured him in public, to be at his side.
Jerome
Born in Italy in 348, Jerome was a scholar with a wide background. Ordained as a presbyter in Antioch, he
moved to Rome and served as secretary to the bishop Damasus. Damasus encouraged Jerome to translate the
Scripture into Latin, and he eventually completed the translation. There were Latin translations from the
Septuagint, but the Jerome translation was directly from the Hebrew source. His translation, called the
Vulgate (because it was translated into the “vulgar”, or common, language of the time), was originally
resisted because it did match the “translation of translations” of the Septuagint. It was Jerome who termed
the books in the Septuagint which were not part of the Hebrew canon as the Apocrypha (“hidden.”) The
Vulgate ultimately became the standard Scripture of the Roman church.
Augustine of Hippo
Born the son of a pagan father and Christian mother from North Africa in 354, Augustine had become a
professor of rhetoric in Milan. Augustine toyed with a couple of religious philosophies but was not firmly
convinced of either. He had two issues with Christianity. From a philosophical point, he had the classic
problem with evil: if God is both good and powerful, why is there evil? He finally came to view evil not as a
creation of God but rather a movement away from God. Secondly, he found the writing in the Scripture crude
and inelegant, missing the point that it was not written by scholars for literary value. At his mother’s urging,
he determined to attend the sermons of Ambrose to learn at least the rhetoric of Scripture if not the divine
truth. Ambrose was effective, and Augustine became a Christian. After being baptized by Ambrose,
Augustine gave up his rhetoric professorship and returned to Africa for a life of meditation and study.
One thing led to another. Augustine was called into the ministry and ultimately became the bishop of Hippo,
a city in what is now Algeria. His early writings addressed the issues he had personally wrestled with in
coming to the faith: the authority of Scripture, the origin of evil, and human free will. In terms of free will,
Augustine wrote that our decisions are a product of our will, not determined of necessity by either inner or
outer forces. Circumstances influence us, but our decisions are not predetermined. This leads to an
understanding of how a good God can allow sin. In His goodness, God created free will; free will can create
evil. Evil is not a thing, it is the negation of good.
One of the most important areas in Augustinian theology was refutation of Pelagianism. Palagius, a British
monk, agreed with Augustine that God made us with free will, so that we could choose not to sin. If we did
not have free will, our sin would be excusable because we could not choose otherwise. Based on his own
personal experience Augustine wrote that the power of sin takes our free will to the point that we cannot
choose not to sin on our own; we can only choose between sinful alternatives. How, then, can a person
choose to accept the grace of God at conversion? For those whom God has “predestined,” God gives the gift
of grace; the initiative in conversion is not human but divine.
Augustine died in AD 430. Augustine was one of the last of the great western theologians in the Imperial
Church. He is one of most widely quoted theologians throughout the Middles Ages. He was an important
influence on the Protestant reformers of the sixteenth century. He remains as one of the most influential
theologians in the western church, for both the Catholics and the Protestants.
After Augustine, the western Roman Empire crumbled; the Byzantine Empire to the east, however, lasted
another thousand years. It was the western church which played a great part in providing continuity during
the chaos which followed and reestablishing the Christian society. The emergence of a new civilization
which combined classical Greco-Roman antiquity with Christianity and Germanic traditions is the story of
the church in the Middle Ages.
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