DETERMINING DIFFICULT CONCEPTS IN MAP WORK AMONG
SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN NSUKKA
EDUCATION ZONE
BY
OKEREAFOR NNAWUGWU
PG/M.ED/08/49957
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION
(GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION)
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
NOVEMBER, 2011
i
TITLE PAGE
DETERMINING DIFFICULT CONCEPTS IN MAP WORK AMONG
SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN NSUKKA
EDUCATION ZONE
2
ii 3
APPROVAL PAGE
This thesis has been approved for the Department of Science Education,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
BY
Prof. S.A Ezeudu
Dr C. R . Nwagbo
SUPERVISOR
HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
________________________
Dr. J.J. Ezeugwu
INTERNAL EXAMINER
EXTERNAL EXAMINER
___________________
Prof. S.A. Ezeudu
DEAN OF FACULTY
JULY, 2012
iii4
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my parents, Mr and Mrs D.N. Okereafor, my
fountain of courage.
iv
5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I acknowledge my indebtedness to all those invaluable contributions saw
to the completion of this work. My unalloyed gratitude goes to my supervisor,
Prof. S.A. Ezeudu who painstakingly combed through this work, criticized and
contributed invaluable ideas in the course of writing this project. Also, to all
my lecturers, who in no small measure guided me through this programme.
The same gratitude extends to all my course mates. May the good Lord
grant you all success. Lastly, my immense gratitude goes to God Almighty, my
strength, who gave me favour and good health.
Okereafor N.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages
Title Page ..............................................................................................
i
Approval Page .......................................................................................
ii
Dedication .............................................................................................
iii
Acknowledgement ................................................................................
iv
Table of Contents ..................................................................................
v
List of Tables ........................................................................................
viii
Abstract .................................................................................................
ix
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study ......................................................................
1
Statement of the Problem ......................................................................
7
Purpose of the Study .............................................................................
8
Scope of the Study ................................................................................
8
Significance of the Study ......................................................................
9
Research Questions ...............................................................................
9
Hypothesis.............................................................................................
10
CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Conceptual Framework .........................................................................
12
Concept, Nature and Aims of Senior Secondary School Geography ...
12
Concept and Types of Map ...................................................................
16
Concepts in Topographic Maps ............................................................
18
Difficult Concepts in Secondary School Map Work ............................
29
Concepts and Types of Assessment .....................................................
30
Theoretical Framework .........................................................................
32
Theory of Instruction ............................................................................
32
Information Processing Theory.............................................................
33
vi7
Empirical Studies ..................................................................................
35
Difficult Concepts in Map Work ..........................................................
35
Gender and Students‟ Performance in Map Work ................................
36
Summary of Review of Literature .......................................................
37
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD
Design of the Study ...............................................................................
39
Area of the Study ..................................................................................
39
Population of the Study .........................................................................
40
Sample and Sampling Technique .........................................................
40
Instrument for Data Collection .............................................................
41
Validation of the Instrument .............................................................
41
Reliability of Instrument .....................................................................
42
Method of Data Collection..................................................................
42
Method of Data Analysis ....................................................................
43
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULT
Research Question I ..............................................................................
44
Research Question 2 .............................................................................
45
Research Question 3 .............................................................................
46
Research Question 4 .............................................................................
46
Research Question 5 .............................................................................
47
Research Question 6 .............................................................................
48
Hypothesis.............................................................................................
49
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Discussion of Results ............................................................................
51
Conclusion ............................................................................................
54
Educational Implications of the Study ..................................................
55
vii
8
Recommendations .................................................................................
55
Limitations of the Study........................................................................
56
Summary of the Study ..........................................................................
56
References .............................................................................................
59
Appendix I: Instrument of Data Collection .........................................
63
Appendix II: Estimate of Internal Consistency ...................................
67
Appendix III: List of Secondary Schools in Nsukka Education Zone
68
Appendix IV: Calculation of Mean and Standard Deviation................
71
Appendix V: T-test Calculation ...........................................................
78
9viii
LIST OF TABLE
1. Mean scores and standard deviations on the difficulty of concepts
associated with map work in geography among senior secondary
school students ...........................................................................
44
2. Mean scores and standard deviations on the concepts that involve
calculation in map work ............................................................
45
3. Mean scores and standard deviations on the concepts associated
with measurement in map work ................................................
46
4. Mean scores and standard deviations on the extent students find
the description of the characteristics of different features on
topographic maps difficult ..........................................................
47
5. Mean scores and standard deviations on the students‟
understanding of the representations of various landform
features in map work ..................................................................
48
6. Mean scores and standard deviations on the extent which students
find description of relationships on topographic map difficult ..
48
7. Summary of t-test on the difference in the mean perception of
difficult concepts in map work between SSIII male and female
geography students ....................................................................
49
ix
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ABSTRACT
The study was aimed at determining the difficult concepts in Map work in
geography among senior secondary school students. The sample was made up
of two hundred and fifty (250) SSIII Geography students from ten (10)
secondary schools in Nsukka Educational Zone. The study used the evaluation
research design. The Map work concepts assessed were Scale, Direction and
Bearing, Gradient, Measurement of Distance, Map Enlargement and Reduction,
Section Drawing, Description of Drainage Features, Pattern of Communication,
Settlement Pattern, Land use, Physical Features, Relationships on Contour
Maps and Intervisibility. Map Work Achievement Test (MWAT) was the
instrument used for data collection. The instrument was validated by two
Senior Geography teachers and two Measurement and Evaluation experts in
University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The reliability co-efficient of 0.77 for the
instrument was established using the split half method (Spearman-Brown
Prophecy Formula). Data collected were analyzed using the mean, standard
deviation and t-test. It was found that among the 13 concepts in map work
investigated, students had difficulty in 5 and that there was no significant
difference in the achievement between male and female students. Among
others, it was recommended that the teaching and learning of map work should
be practical-oriented to enable students master the various concepts in map
work.
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
The contributions of Geography to sustainable national development in
Nigeria cannot be overemphasized. This is because it instills in the students a
critical, inquiring mind and the basic communication skills such as literacy and
numeracy to name but two. The National Policy of Education has it that the
core subjects consist of six groups from which every student must make a
choice of one subject (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004). Geography is in one
of the groups and is offered by the science inclined students. Geography studies
spatial form and spatial relations as well as the distribution of phenomena on
the earth‟s surface (Ofomata, 2008).
Ezeudu (2003) describes geography as a subject which concerns itself with
the understanding of the spatial processes shaping the environment. At the
secondary school level, geography stands on a tripod. The three subdivisions
are physical geography, human and regional geography as well as map work.
These subdivisions are interrelated. Physical geography deals with the natural
environment while human and regional geography address issues which
directly relate to human activities (Amosun and Oderinde, 2004). Map work on
the other hand, deals with the representation on paper and analysis of selected
geographical information which may be physical or human and regional.
2
The objectives of geography education at the secondary school level
were outlined by Nigerian Educational Research Council (1985), Mansaray
(1992) and West African Examination Council (2009) as follows;
1. to understand the concepts of differential character and spatial
relationships of the features on the earth‟s surface.
2. to understand the concept of man-environment relations.
3. to develop in students the ability to appreciate the problems and
peculiarities of other people.
4. to develop critical thinking ability in the students.
5. to develop in the students the skills and techniques for accurate, orderly
and objective geographical investigation.
Maps aid the achievement of the objectives of geography as it is a
convenient inventory of selected information made available for immediate
visual inspection, in the form of exact locations and spatial patterns which are
manifestations of a variety of relationships (Ofomata, 2008). Maps are
representations on paper which contain both man-made and natural features on
the earth‟s surface (Okereafor, 2010). Maps therefore make it possible for the
geographer to represent and analyze the distribution and relationships of
phenomena in space. To this extent, Martin and Thompson (2008) hold that
map is the most important tool of geography and may be used to record either
simple data or the results of complicated geographic study. They further note
3
that maps are designed to indicate by means of symbols, not only the location
but also the characteristics of geographic features of an area.
The improvement in mapping technology especially through the use of
Global Positioning System (GPS), Laser Rangefinder and softwares like the
Geographic Information System (GIS), has made accurate map production easy
and faster (Pickles, 2003). Contemporarily, maps are used in almost every field
of human endeavour. For instance, they are used in transportation, tourism,
town planning, census, military, economic planning an son on. Thus Ehrenberg
(2005) posits that the uses of a map depend on the type of map and the
information it contains. Simple maps contain few information and little or no
map reading skills are required to use it. Complex maps according to Ovenden
(2007) demand some basic map reading skills on map interpretation as they
may contain the exact location of many land form features, actual distance,
elevation, vegetation, political divisions, drainage features, cultural features,
land use patterns and so on.
Map reading is the analysis of the representations on a map using the
signs and symbols. Therefore the understanding of the content of a map is
dependent on the ability to recognize and interpret the symbols on the map.
Map reading is an aspect of the geography curriculum in secondary education.
it is taught by most secondary school in SSIII. It is imperative to highlight that
4
the map reading section of the O‟ level geography examinations presents one
and the only compulsory question of the examinations.
The topographic map also known as a general reference map because of
the variety of information it represents, is the map type use for the O‟ level
geography examinations. English (2009) holds that topographic maps show
natural features, artificial features, cultural features and political boundaries of
a part of the earth‟s surface. Topographic maps are differentiated from other
maps in that they show both the horizontal and vertical positions of the terrain
(Martin and Thompson, 2008). Using a combination of contour lines, colours,
symbols, labels and other graphical representations, topographic maps show the
shapes and locations of mountains, forests, rivers, lakes, cities, roads, bridges,
and many other man-made natural features. The understanding of the contents
of topographic maps requires the application of certain relevant skills. The
skills include measurement, calculation, interpretation of relief representation,
description of the characteristics of features and relationships on maps.
The pursuance and realization of the objectives of geography would provide
students with the critical skills and competences needed for national
development (Amosun, 2002). Despite the importance of the subject, Amosun
and Oderinde (2004) hold that it does not seem popular with students.
Geography as a secondary school subject is perceived as a difficult subject with
wide scope (Adegoke, 1987). Mansaray and Ajiboye (1994) have observed that
5
50% of the topics indicated by students as problematic fall in the area of map
reading and physical geography. The
WAEC Chief Examiner‟s Reports over
the years on the achievement of candidates in the O‟ level Geography
examinations show that Geography students who sat for the examinations
performed poorly especially on the Map Reading section. Specifically, the
WAEC Chief Examiner‟s Report (2004) has it that most candidates could
neither draw an annotated cross profile nor determine the intervisibility
between given points. The report also points out most students‟ failure to
establish the relationship between relief and transportation as well as give
reasons for the sparse population of the mapped area. Yet, in 2010, the WAEC
Chief Examiner‟s Report reveals that most candidates failed to identify
correctly the given features on the topographic map. The students‟ poor
performance in map reading perhaps, is because it makes use of graphs,
symbols and calculations as reported by Mansaray and Ajiboye (1994) and
Amosun (2002).
Achievement test results over the years have shown an increasing gap
between the performances of male and female secondary school students in
science oriented subject (Onekutu, 2002). Lie and Sjoberg (1984) observe that
invincible rules within the society have provided what is feminine and what is
masculine. Hence, science oriented subjects in most cultures are defined as
masculine (Eriba and Ande, 2006). This contrasts the millennium declaration of
6
September 2000, which aims at the promotion of gender equity and the
elimination of gender inequality in basic and secondary education by 2005 and
at all levels by 2015 (United Nations, 2000). In realization of this laudable
objective of Geography education, subject mastery and achievement should be
evenly distributed across gender. Though it is believed that bridging the gender
gap is one major way of enhancing human development, research findings in
this area are not conclusive. Hence, the need to factor in the issue of gender,
therefore, becomes paramount to this study.
Assessment as defined by Palomba and Banta (1999) is the systematic
collection, review and use of information about educational programs
undertaken for the purpose of improving learning and development. Valentia
(1997) defines assessment as all activities a teacher uses to help students learn
and to gauge students‟ progress. Therefore, assessment refers to the different
methods used by teachers to determine the extent to which the learners have
mastered the intended learning outcome (s). Diagnostic assessment highlights
students‟ areas of strength and weakness. Bednarz and Petersen (1994) observe
that assessment is a central element in the overall quality of teaching and
learning in any educational process. It is an integral component of a coherent
educational experience (Black, 1996). It guides and encourages effective
approaches to learning. Again, assessment validly and reliably measures
expected learning outcomes. Harbour-Peters (2003) suggests that the feedback
7
function of assessment enables the teachers to assess their instructional
methods regularly. Thus, assessment is central in the process of knowledge
acquisition.
Statement of the Problem
Maps are convenient inventory of selected information made available
for immediate visual inspection, in the form of exact locations and spatial
patterns. Hence, maps have been described as the most important tool of
Geography (Martin and Thompson, 2008). Despite this importance, Mansaray
and Ajiboye (1994) reported that 50% of the Geography topics indicated by
students as problematic fall in the area of map work. Again, the WAEC Chief
Examiner‟s Reports (2004, 2010) have highlighted the candidates‟ poor
performance in the map work section of the O‟ level Geography examinations.
Achievement in map work is related to the understanding of the map work
concepts. If the understanding of the map work concepts is poor, achievement
in map work is bound to be poor. Could this poor achievement in map work be
as a result of poor understanding of the map work concepts by Geography
students? Therefore, the problem of this study is to find out the difficult
concepts in map work among the SS111 Geography students in Nsukka
Education Zone.
8
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to identify the difficult concepts in
secondary school map work in Nsukka Education Zone.
Specifically, this study intends to;
1. identify the difficult concepts associated with map work in geography
among senior secondary school students.
2. determine the extent of difficulty of the concepts that involve calculation
in map work in geography among senior secondary school students.
3. determine the extent of difficulty of the concepts associated with
measurement in map work in geography among senior secondary school
students.
4. identify the extent of difficulty in the description of the characteristics of
different features on topographic maps.
5. find out the extent of difficulty in the understanding of the
representations of various landform features on topographic maps.
6. determine the extent of difficulty in the description of relationships on
topographic maps.
Scope of the Study
The study is on the identification of the difficult concepts in the map
work aspect of the senior secondary school geography in Nsukka Education
Zone. The map reading concepts to be involved in this study consist of
9
concepts associated with topographic map which is the type of map used for the
O‟ level geography examination.
Significance of the Study
The findings of this study will be of immense benefit to the geography
students, teachers and their schools. The specific ways this study is considered
significant are presented below.
1. The result of this study will help geography teachers know the concepts
in map work students find difficult. It will thus make them place
emphasis on these concepts while teaching their students map work.
2. For the geography students, it will bring their focus to the difficult
concepts in map work. There by making them work hard to over come
the difficulty.
3. The schools also stand a better chance of obtaining better results from
their geography students in the O‟ level geography examinations.
Research Questions
The following research questions have been stated to guide the study.
1. What are the difficult concepts associated with map work in geography
among senior secondary school students?
2. To what extent are the concepts that involve calculation in map work
difficult for senior secondary school students of geography?
10
3. To what extent are the concepts associated with measurement in map
work difficult for students of senior secondary school geography?
4. To what extent is the description of the characteristics of different
features on topographic maps difficult for senior secondary school
geography students?
5. To what extent is the understanding of the representations of various
landform features in map work difficult for senior secondary school
geography students?
6. To what extent is the description of relationships on topographic maps
difficult for senior secondary school students of geography?
Hypothesis
There is no significant difference in the mean achievement on difficult
concepts in map work between SS III male and female secondary school
geography students.
11
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Literature is reviewed under the following sub-headings:
Conceptual Framework
Concept, Nature and Aims of Senior Secondary Geography
Concept and Types of Map.
Concepts in Topographic Maps
Difficult Concepts in Secondary School Map Work
Concept and Types of Assessment
Theoretical Framework
Theory of Instruction
Information Processing Theory
Empirical Studies
Difficult concepts in map work
Gender and Students‟ Performance in map work
Summary of literature review
12
Conceptual Framework
Concept, Nature and Aims of Senior Secondary School Geography
The word geography was coined by Erastothenes in 3 rd century B.C.
Geography literally means description of the earth. This meaning is inherent in
the word itself as the root „ge‟ is an ancient Greek word signifying any fact that
has to do with the earth and „graphie‟ also a Greek world meaning to write.
Immanuel Kant secured a philosophical foundation for geography within the
philosophy of sciences by asserting that empirical knowledge could be
considered from three organization view points among which is studying things
as they are associated in space. This is purely the domain of geographical
sciences.
However, with time geographers started to make different meanings out of
the original meaning of geography. Hence the concept of geography has
changed throughout the ages and this made the definition of geography
dynamic. Hartshorne (1939) opines that geography provides accurate, orderly,
rational description and interpretation of the variable character of the earth‟s
surface. Semple (1911) defined geography as the study of how the environment
controls human behaviour (environmentalism). According to Ofomata (2008),
modern geography concerns itself with more. It focuses on man, the earth,
relationships, analysis, and description. Thus he defines geography as the study
of spatial form and spatial relations as well as the distribution and interaction of
13
phenomena on the earth‟s surface. Also Ezeudu (2003) posits that geography is
a subject which concerns itself with the understanding of the spatial processes
shaping the environment.
From all these definitions of geography, it is deducible that geography is
a subject concerned with the study of spatial relationships of phenomena. By
this, geography studies man, nature and patterns of spatial relationships.
The operational definition of geography as the study of spatial
relationships of phenomena clearly captures the current nature of geography.
The study of the relationships among phenomena has made the study of
geography span into different areas. Thus geography is interdisciplinary in
nature. Its quest to understand the interrelated complex that give character to a
place has led geography into studying rivers, mountains, customs, rocks,
minerals, agricultural pattern, pollution, climate change and so on. Hence,
Abler, Adams and Gould (1972) assert that geography is the only science that
consistently concerns itself with the distribution of phenomena in terrestrial
space as well as spatial structure.
Geography is a very broad subject with numerous relationships with
other disciplines and has several branches within its framework (Ofomata,
2008). For instance, map work is related to surveying, urban planning, geology
and agricultural land use. The physical geography spans through climatology,
geomorphology, metrology, hydrology, chemistry, soil science, biology an so
14
on. The regional geography studies different parts of the world. For instance,
Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria, West Africa and Africa. From the foregoing, the
wide scope of geography is understandable. The wide scope of geography also
explains the use of different methods in geographical studies.
Geography is a versatile, expressive, creative, problem solving, practical
and intellectually stimulating school subject (NERC, 1985). The objectives of
education in Nigeria are embodied in the National Policy of Education. In
keeping with the dynamics of social change and demands of education, the
objectives of geographical education at the secondary school level are also
dynamic. However, these objectives have continued to revolve around those
enshrined in the senior secondary geography curriculum. According to NERC
(1985) and WAEC (2009) the objectives of senior secondary geography
education include:
1. understand the concepts of differential character and the spatial
relationships of the surface features of the earth;
2. understand the concept of man-environment relations;
3. appreciate and develop a sense of responsibility towards one‟s own
society and an intelligent interest in the formulation of national goals and
policies, especially as they influence the different resources and regions
of the area;
15
4. develop sympathetic understanding of the people of other lands, based
upon the recognition that they may have different assemblies of
resources, different goals and different problems from the people of their
home area;
5. organize and formulate principles according to acquired geographic
concepts which they can use to analyse and interpret spatial problems in
their immediate and wider environments;
6. to develop skills and techniques for accurate, orderly and objective
geographical investigations to be carried out both in the classroom and in
the immediate environment.
The role and importance of maps in the actualization of the objectives of
secondary school geography can not be overemphasized. Maps aid the
achievement of the objectives of geography (Ofomata, 2008). For instance, the
study of the spatial relationships of features on the earth‟s surface and the
analysis of the spatial problems in the environment are best done using maps.
Maps aid the understanding of the distribution of people and resources by
representing them on paper using symbols. Again, the results of geographical
investigations are also communicated using maps. (Ovenden, 2007).
16
Concept and Types of Map
Maps as opined by Ofomata (2008) are convenient inventories of
selected information made available for immediate visual inspection, in form of
exact locations and spatial patterns. Also Nimako (1999) posits that a map is a
sheet of paper which shows a part or the whole of the earth‟s surface. A similar
definition of map was given by Iwena (1996) as a representation of the earth‟s
surface as it is seen from the above on paper. Again, Okereafor (2010) holds
that a map is a representation of the features of the earth‟s surface on paper,
using a scale. In the view of English (2009) maps are graphical abstractions of
the real world. Maps are therefore sheets of paper on which features on the
earth‟s surface are represented using a scale.
Given that maps are representations of features on the earth‟s surface, it
contains both man-made and natural features. As such, Ovenden (2007) opines
that map provides a wealth of factual information, permits visual comparison
between areas because it is designed to indicate by mean of symbols not only
the location but also the characteristics of geographic features of an area.
Hence, Ofomata (2008) posits that map is a distinctive tool of the geographer
because with a map the spatial forms and spatial relations can best be seen and
analysed. This view is also corroborated by Pickles (2003) who assets that in
geographical studies, map is the most important tool and is used to
communicate the results of geographical analysis.
17
Every standard map has a set of symbols which indicate the placement of
factual objects. These symbols aid the understanding of the content of the map.
It is however, worthy of note that maps are not perfect, grow old and are biased
(English, 2009). Maps are not perfect because people make them from data
collected with certain tools.
Also maps grow old because the world is
constantly changing both physically and culturally. Maps do not show every
single feature on the mapped area. Thus, it is said to be biased.
There are different types of map. Raaflaub and Talbert (2009) and
Ovenden (2007) both broadly classified map types into two, namely; general
maps and thematic maps. But English (2009) differ slightly in his classification
of map types into three, namely general maps, thematic maps and charts.
Raaflaub and Talbert (2009), Ovenden (2007) and English (2009) are
unanimous in their description of general and thematic maps. General maps are
those maps that are produced for a general audience and as such, contain a
variety of features. Good examples of general maps are topographic and road
maps. Thematic maps display the spatial distribution of one geographical
phenomenon or the geographical relationship that occur between two or more
phenomena (Ovenden, 2007). Examples of thematic maps are the dot maps and
geology maps. Charts are the third category of maps and according to English
(2009), they show accurate routes of travel used for ocean and air navigation.
18
They are updated frequently to abreast captains and pilots of dangers along
their route. Weather maps are good examples of charts.
Concepts in Topographic Maps
The secondary school map work is based on topographic maps. Harvey
(1980) defines topographic map as a large-scale map, one that sets out to
convey the shape and pattern of landscape. The topographic map is a type of
map that shows the natural features, cultural features as well as political
boundaries of a part of the earth‟s surface (English, 2009). Topographic maps
are referred to as general reference maps because of a great variety of
information they contain.
This explains the wide scope of map work in
secondary education. According to WAEC (2009), the map work syllabus
consists of scale, measurement of distances, direction and bearing, map
enlargement and reduction, identification of physical and natural features.
Others are measurement of gradients, drawing of cross profiles, intervisibility,
description and explanation of drainage, pattern of communication settlement
and land use.
Scale
In topographical maps, the term scale is not ambiguous. English (2009)
posits that the scale to which a map is drawn represents the ratio of the distance
between two points on the earth and the distance between the two
corresponding points on the map. In the view of Iwena (1996), the scale of a
19
map indicates the relationship between the distance of two points on a map and
the actual or equivalent distance on the ground. Again, Okereafor (2010) views
the scale of a map as the relationship or ratio between measurement on map and
actual distance on land. He further points out that it is the scale that makes it
possible for the map makers to proportionally draw the features on earth‟s
surface on paper. Thus, the scale plays a very important role in the
understanding of the relationship between the features represented on maps and
the features existing on land especially with respect to distance. English (2009)
holds that the scale is commonly represented in figures, such that one unit
measured on the map represents the corresponding unit on land. For instance,
1cm on map represents 100,000cm on land. This assertion is corroborated by
Iwena (1996), Nimako (1999), Ajayi (2003) and Okereafor (2010). In
topographic maps, the numerator of the scale‟s fraction represents one unit on
the map while the denominator, represents the equivalent unit on land.
The scale of a map may be small or large. According to Nimako
(1999), small-scale maps show few details, but cover large areas while largescale maps show details clearly, but do not cover much area. Also see
Okereafor (2010). The import of this assertion is that the smaller the
denominator of a scale, the larger the scale of the map and the larger the
denominator of a scale, the smaller the scale of the map. Also in topographic
maps, the scale can be represented using the three methods. The methods as
20
reported by Iwena (1996), Nimako (1999) and Okereafor (2010) are statement
scale, linear scale and representative fraction (RF).
In topographic maps a method of scale can be converted to another. As
such, statement scale for example can be converted either to linear scale or
representative fraction. This is often done through a simple mathematical
process.
Map Enlargement and Reduction
In reading and interpreting topographic maps, a given map can be
enlarged or even reduced. According to Okereafor (2010), to enlarge a map
means to increase, expand or multiply the dimensions or size of a map by a
given value or scale factor. Ajayi (2003) defines it simply as making the size of
a given map larger than its original size. Thus, Iwena (1996) informs that when
a map is enlarged, the denominator of the scale‟s fraction becomes smaller. Put
differently, when a map is for instance enlarged by two (i.e. twice its initial
size), the area of such a map has been increased by four times (Ajayi, 2003).
This implies that if a map of length, 3cm and width, 2cm whose area is 6cm2 is
enlarged by two, the resulting area will be 24cm2. It is also pertinent to point
out that if a map is enlarged by three the resulting area of enlarged map will be
nine times the area of the original map. This point is clarified using the
following example. If a map of length, 3cm and width, 2cm with an area of
6cm2 is enlarged by three (3), the resulting length and width of the map will be
21
9cm and 6cm respectively, then the area of the enlarged map will be 54cm 2.
When a map is enlarged, every feature in the enlarged map is equally enlarged
using the same scale factor or value.
Map reduction is the exact opposite of map enlargement. Hence,
Okereafor (2010) defines map reduction as decreasing or contracting the
dimensions or size of a map by a given scale factor or fraction. Also, Iwena
(1996) informs that contrary to the reduced size of the denominator in map
enlargement, the denominator is increased in map reduction. When a map is
reduced, the size of the features is equally reduced. Thus in reduced maps, the
size of the features becomes smaller while in enlarged maps, the size of the
features is larger.
Direction and Bearing
The two main ways of showing the location of places on maps are
through the use of compass point for directions and angular bearing for bearing
(Okereafor, 2010).
Iwena (1996), Nimako (1999), Ajayi (2003) and Okereafor (2010) all
agree that the instrument used for the measurement of the direction of a place is
the prismatic compass. Also, they hold that the prismatic compass measures the
direction of a place in four main points. The four points are north, south, east
and west. These four points are known as the four cardinal points. Nimako
(1999) posits that the use of the four cardinal points does not accurately tell the
22
exact location of a place rather it informs one that a place is located either in
the north, south, east or west. It is because of this, that the four cardinal points
are used only for the primary location of the direction a place lies. He further
observes that there are other intermediate points of the compass, based upon
and named from the cardinal points. In line with the preceding view, Iwena
(1996) holds that for better accuracy in the measurement of direction, the eight
intermediate points are used at the secondary school level while the sixteen
intermediate points which further ensures accuracy are used at the advanced
level. The eight intermediate points are, north, northeast, northwest, south,
southeast, south west, east and west. Again, the sixteen intermediate points are;
north, north east, north-north-east, northwest, north-north-west, east, eastnorth-east, east-south-east, south, south east, south-south-east, south-southwest, west, west-south-west, west-north-west and south west. According to
Nimako (1999), as the number of intermediate points increase, it becomes
increasingly difficult to remember and use. He also points out that to describe
direction more accurately than the points of the compass does, the bearing is
used.
The bearing is a more accurate way of describing the location of one
point from another in map work. Iwena (1996) and Nimako (1999) both define
bearing as the direction of one place from another. But this definition is not
very comprehensive when considered that, given by Okereafor (2010). He sees
23
bearing as the location of the direction of one place from another in degrees. It
has been observed by experts in mapmaking that the most accurate way to
measure the bearing of one place from another on the map is through the use of
protractor. This is what is known as the angular bearing. Nimako (1999) notes
that the measurement of the angular bearing begins always from the north and
in a clockwise direction. This implies that the north becomes 0 0 and 3600, east
900, south 1800 and west 2700.
Okereafor (2010) classified bearing into forward and back bearing
relative to the observer‟s position. He explains that the forward bearing is the
bearing taken from the observer‟s position while the back bearing is the bearing
taken from a place to the observer. Given the forward bearing, the back bearing
can always be calculated and vice versa.
In determining the direction and bearing of any point on the map, it is
important to note the difference and relationship among true north, magnetic
north and grid north. According to Nimako (1999), the true north also known as
the geographical north lies in the direction of the North Pole. He further points
out that because the compass has a magnetic needle, it does not point to the true
north. Thus, the north point it shows is known as the magnetic north. The angle
between the magnetic north and the true north is referred to as the magnetic
variation or magnetic declination. Lastly, the grid north is the north shown by
the north-south grid lines on the map (Iwena, 1996).
24
Gradient
In topographic maps, gradient refers to the relationship between ascent
in height and distance. Iwena (1996) and Nimako (1999) define gradient as the
steepness of slope. On the other hand, Ajayi (2003) and Okereafor (2010) view
gradient as the degree of slope expressed in ratio. Gradient is writhen as the
ratio of the vertical interval to the horizontal equivalent. This is often expressed
as a fraction whose numerator is always one (1).
The vertical interval (i.e the difference in height between a given two
points on a map) is obtained by subtracting the lower contour value from the
higher contour value. On the other hand, the horizontal equivalent is the
horizontal distance between any two points on the map (Nimako, 1999).
Okereafor (2010) asserts that both the vertical interval and horizontal
equivalent must be of the same unit of measurement (e.g meters or feet) before
the gradient is calculated. In gradient the larger the denominator, the more
gentle the slope while the smaller the denominator, the steeper the slope.
Gradient is calculated using a simple formula:
Vertical Interval (VI)
Horizontal Equivalent (HE)
25
Relief Profile
The relief profile is also known as section drawing or cross profile.
Iwena (1996) opines that relief profile is the practice whereby relief shown by
contours on map is drawn to bring out the real appearance of such relief as it is
on the ground. Nimako (1999) sees relief profile as a representation of the
surface that would be exposed if the relief feature or landform were cut through
vertically.
Ajayi (2003) holds that section drawing enables us to bring out the true
appearance of various landscapes depicted on contour maps. Again, Okereafor
(2010) views relief profile as a process that helps in bringing out the actual
appearance of different landscapes represented on contour maps. He further
informs that ordinarily, one may not be able to make meaning out of the
contour lines that are drawn on topographical maps interns of the kinds of
landforms they represent. In other words, when the relief profile of a section of
a map is drawn using contour lines, the true shape of the landforms in the area
are revealed. Therefore, the relief profile shows at a glance the nature of the
relief that is represented by the contour lines.
To draw a relief profile, there is need for a vertical scale and horizontal
scale. In the opinion of Nimako (1999), the vertical scale which is chosen,
usually, is exaggerated to enable a better view of the relief. On the other hand,
the horizontal scale is the same as the scale of the map.
26
Vertical Exaggeration
When a relief profile is drawn, the vertical scale is often exaggerated to
aid a better view of the relief. To know the number of times the vertical scale
has been exaggerated relative to the horizontal scale, the vertical exaggeration
is calculated. According to Iwena (1996), vertical exaggeration refers to the
number of times vertical heights are exaggerated or enlarged in relation to the
horizontal distance. Okereafor (2010) observes that the exaggeration of the
vertical scale creates a difference between the actual shape of the feature whose
profile was drawn and the appearance of the feature‟s profile on graph sheet.
To calculate the vertical exaggeration, the vertical scale is used to divide
the horizontal scale. The resultant figure tells the number of times the vertical
scale has been exaggerated.
Intervisibility
The knowledge of intervisibility equips one in map reading with the
ability to determine which places or features on a map are mutually visible.
Iwena (1996) defines intervisiblitiy as a way of knowing whether one point or
place on the map can be seen from another point or place on the same map
within the limits of physical sight. Okereafor (2010) opines that the
examination of the values of the contour lines aid in the determination of
intervisibility. But Nimako (1999) posits that the form of slopes complicates
this otherwise simple rule. This implies that the examination of the values of
27
the contour lines alone may not be enough to determine intervisibility. Hence,
Okereafor (2010) holds that to ensure accurate determination of intervisibility,
it is advised to draw the relief profile of the two points on the map. Yet, in the
opinion of Nimako (1999), a full section need not be drawn whenever the
intervisibility of two places are to be determined. He further suggests that
intervisibility of two places could be determined by drawing perpendiculars.
Relief Representation
The ability to recognize and understand the different relief forms
represented in topographic maps using contour lines is central to reading and
interpreting topographic maps. This is because topographic maps dwell mostly
on the representation of surface configuration of land. Thus, one of the key
skills required in reading topographical maps is the ability to recognize the
contour lines representing various landforms (Okereafor, 2010). There are
several relief features represented in topographic maps. For the clarity of
purpose, contour lines of ten relief features represented on topographic maps
will be discussed briefly. The ten relief features are round topped hill, conical
hill, knoll, escarpment, plateau, ridge, spur, valley, concave slope and
undulating plain.
The contour lines of a round topped hill and conical hill are usually
circular in shape and the contour lines are smaller inside. But the difference
between the two is that the inner most contour line of a conical hill is small
28
compared to the innermost contour line of a round topped hill. The values of
the contour lines of both features are higher inside. A knoll is represented on
topographic maps by smaller contour lines similar to that of either round topped
or conical hills. The difference is that the contour lines of a knoll are drawn in
contrast to the contours of the main highland. Escarpment is represented by
contour lines which run closely on the steep side and widely on the gentle side.
A plateau is represented by contour lines which may be circular or shaped
otherwise. The contour lines run closely to each other but the innermost
contour is broad. In topographic maps, a ridge is depicted by contour lines
which are drawn almost parallel to each other. Spurs and valleys are often
shown together. The contour lines of a spur are v-shaped while that of a valley
is also represented by v-shaped contours. The difference is that the innermost
contour line of valleys has the smallest value while the innermost contour line
of a spur has the highest value. The concave slope is shown by contour lines
that are drawn closely on one side and spaced out on the other side. The
contour values increases from the spaced contours to the closely drawn
contours. Lastly, an undulating plain is shown by contour lines which are well
spaced but have irregular values.
29
Relationships on Contour Maps
The description of relationship between any two features on topographic
maps demands analytical skills. Thus, it is done by carefully examining the
given two features on the map. According to Okereafor (2010), an even or
uniform relationship exists between any two features on a map if the
relationship between them does not vary from one part of the map to another
while uneven relationship between any two features exist if their relationship
varies from one part of the map to another. The process involved in the
description of the relationships between different pairs of features on
topographic maps has been outlined by Ojo, Ologe and Ezechukwu (1992),
Iwena (1996) and Okereafor (2010).
Difficult Concepts in Secondary School Map Work
An x-ray of the WAEC Chief Examiner‟s Report over the years
highlights candidates major areas of weakness in map work. Specifically, the
WAEC Chief Examiner‟s Report (2004) revealed that most candidates had
inadequate knowledge of drawing cross profile. Most of them could neither
determine the intervisibility nor establish the relationship between relief and
transportation network. Candidates were also not able to give valid reasons for
the sparse population of the mapped area (P.76). In 2005, the WAEC Chief
Examiner‟s Report has it that most candidates could not identify simple
features on the topographic map (P. 75). Also, the WAEC Chief Examiner‟s
30
Report (2010) points out that most candidates could not identify the given
physical features on topographic map.
The students were also poor in
describing relief and establishing the relationship between relief and settlement
(P. 75). Added to the observations of the WAEC Chief Examiner‟s Report
over the years on geography students‟ areas of poor performance in map work,
Ovenden (2007) points out that distance can be difficult to measure on maps
because of the distortions produced by projections.
Concept and Types of Assessment
Palomba and Banta (1999) define assessment as the systematic
collection, review and use of information about educational programs
undertaken for the purpose of improving learning and development. Valentia
(1997) posits that assessment refers to all activities teachers use to help students
learn and to guage students‟ progress.
Also Earl (2003) submits that
assessment refers to the estimation of students‟ ability to recall, understand,
analyse, interpret information as well as apply content in carrying out various
practical skills.
Thus, assessment refers to the different methods used by
teachers to determine to what extent the learners have mastered the internded
learning outcome(s). A well designed assessment in the view of Black and
William (1998), guides, encourages, defines and protects academic standards.
31
According to Valentia (1997) assessment is classified into three broad
categories; formative and summative, objective and summative and referencing
(criterion-referenced and norma-referenced).
Formative and Summative Assessment
Formative assessment is carried out during the learning process. Thus,
formative assessment enables the teacher to watch students and guage them
with respect to how they interact in the classroom environment (Valentia,
1997). Also, Palomba and Banta (1999) opine that formative assessment is
used by teachers to consider approaches to teaching and next steps for
individual learners and the class. This implies that formative assessment is
diagnostic. On the other hand, summative assessment as defined by Black and
William (1998) is the final test of how well a student has learnt a block of
work. Again, Earl (2003) submits that summative assessments are evaluative.
As such, they are used to assign grade.
Objective and Subjective Assessment
Both summative and formative assessments could be objective or
subjective in nature, Earl (2003) posits that objective assessment is a form of
questioning which has a single correct answer while subjective assessment is a
form of questioning which may have more than one correct answer.
32
Criterion-Referenced and Norm-Referenced Assessment
When test results are compared against an established criterion or against
the performance of other students or against previous performance, they are
known as referencing (Valentia, 1997). Criterion-referenced assessment is
used to measure students‟ performance against defined criteria or objective
while norm-referenced assessment is not used to measure performance against
a given criteria (Earl, 2003).
Theoretical Framework
Theory of Instruction
The theory of instruction is a theory that considers the nature of the
learner, nature of knowledge and learning process.
The theory addresses
students‟ predisposition towards learning, the structure of a body of knowledge
and the sequences used for materials presentation. The theory of instruction
was propounded by Jerome. S. Bruner. The theory holds that there are three
principles of instruction. First, instruction must be concerned with the
experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn.
Secondly, instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by
students and lastly, instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation
(Bruner, 1966). The proponents of the theory of instruction include Jean Piaget
and Sticht, T.G. The critics of the theory are Edwin Guthrie and Lowell, E.L
among others.
33
The application of the theory of instruction to the teaching and learning
of map reading in secondary schools will enhance students‟ understanding of
the map work concepts. This is because, if the lessons are made learnercentered, the present knowledge (entry behaviour) of the students should be
used as a criteria for teaching new map, work concepts to them. Previous
relevant experiences according to Ngwoke (2004) servers as “hangers” which
link up new ideas. The structuring and sequencing of knowledge inherent in the
theory of instruction, if adequately applied to the teaching and learning of map
reading concepts in secondary schools will bring about understanding and
mastery of the map work concepts. Mastery of structure instills in the learner
self-confidence and positive attitude towards learning, thereby minimizing
constraints on productive thinking, problem-solving and creativity (Ngwoke,
2004). Therefore,
the application of the theory of instruction to the teaching
and learning of map work in secondary schools will enhance students‟
performance in map reading and interpretation.
Information Processing Theory
The information processing theory holds that human beings process the
information they receive rather than respond merely to stimuli. The theory
informs that the mind is responsible for analyzing information from the
environment. Information processing theory is associated with Miller George.
A. The theory has four fundamental assumptions (Pillars). These pillars are
34
thinking, analysis of stimuli, situational modification and obstacle evaluation.
Also, the theory presents three structures of information processing. These are
sensory register/encoding, short-term memory and long-term memory Miller,
1956). Information is first received, stored and retrieved when needed. The
proponents of information processing theory include Frieder Nake, Abrahma
Moles and Friedrich Hayek. The theory has been criticized for its inability to
explain how the process works. Clark R.A. is one of the front-line critics of this
theory.
The information process theory is completely based on how the learner
processes the information he receives. To this extent, its application to the
learning of map reading and interpretation will enhance students‟
understanding, proper storage and retrieval of information on map work
concepts. If the students sharpen their listening ability and develop the habit of
selective attention, it will help in the proper encoding of map work concepts.
This is because selective attention filters out some communication channels so
that only one required channel takes priority (Ngwoke, 2004). Conscious
efforts are made to store and retrieve information in both the short-term and
long-term memories. This implies that students should make conscious effort to
store and retrieve information on map work concepts in both the short-term and
long-term memories through memory practice and training. Memory practice
involves the reading and re-reading of the materials to be committed to the
35
long-term memory while memory training entails organization of the input
information (Ngwoke, 2004).
Empirical Studies
Difficult Concepts in Map Work
Mansaray and Ajiboye (1994) carried out a research work on Topic
Difficulties in Senior Secondary School Map Work among Nigerian Students.
The population of the study was all the SS111 Geography students in Delta
State. The study used a case study research design. A sample of seven hundred
(700) students was used for the study while a structured questionnaire was the
instrument used for data collection. The instrument was validated by three (3)
senior Geography teachers. The reliability coefficient of the instrument is 0.81.
The data analysis was done using percentage. The findings of the study show
that 60.7% of the sample students find map work concepts that involve
calculations and measurement difficult.
Another study was conducted by Atanga (2007) on Identification of
Difficult Map Reading Topics among Senior Secondary Geography Students.
The study used the descriptive survey research design. The instrument for data
collection was a developed Achievement Test on Map Reading (ATOMR). The
instrument was validated by two senior Geography teachers and one
Measurement and Evaluation expert. The reliability of the instrument is 0.68
established using the split-half method. The instrument was administered to a
36
sample of 360 senior secondary geography students. The analysis was done
using percentage mean. The findings of the study reveal that an average of
59.5% failure was recorded in seven (7) out of the thirteen (13) map reading
topics covered by the test.
Gender and Students’ Performance in Map Work
Amosun and Oderinde (2004) carried out a research to find out the
Performance of Male and Female Students in Map Work in Urban and Rural
Schools of Ogun State. The population of the study was made up of all the SS
III geography students in the chosen two local government areas of Ogun State.
A sample of two hundred and forty (240) students was used for the study. The
data was collected using the Map Work Achievement Test (MWACT). The
instrument has a reliability coefficient of 0.80. The data collected was analyzed
using the mean, standard deviation and t-test. The result of the analysis shows
that there is no significant difference in the achievement of male and female
students in map work. In fact, the study presented a mean and standard
deviation scores of 18.4, 2.02 and 18.4, 2.12 for male and female students
respectively.
Another study was conducted by Ihekoronye (2008) on the Influence of
Sex and School Location on Students‟ Achievement in Map Reading. The
descriptive survey research design was design for the study. The population of
the study was made up of 1, 998 SS III Geography students while the sample of
37
the study was 800 students. The sample comprised four hundred (400) male
and four hundred (400) female students. It was drawn through a multi-staged
proportional random sampling technique. The Map Reading Achievement Test
(MRAT) was the instrument used for data collection and it has a reliability
index of 0.76. The data collected was analyzed using mean, standard deviation
and ANOVA. The findings of the study show a significant difference in
achievement in favour of the male students.
Summary of Review of Literature
The materials reviewed for the study were journal articles test books and
WAEC Chief Examiner‟s Reports. The studies show that students‟ performance
in map reading and interpretation over the years is poor. Specifically, the
studies reveal that students have inadequate knowledge of drawing cross
profile, determination of intervisibility and can not establish the relationship
between features represented on topographic maps. Again, the studies show
that most students could not correctly identify simple features on topographic
maps and such, could not interpret the maps.
Studies reviewed on difficult concepts in map work show that
Geography students performed poorly in most map work topics. On gender and
students‟ performance in map work, the studies reviewed show different
conclusions on the performance of male and female Geography students in map
38
work. From the studies reviewed, there is no evidence of a research work on
the assessment of difficult concepts in secondary school map work. Thus, this
study is timely in order to obtain data on the extent students find map work
concepts difficult in geography.
39
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHOD
This chapter describes the; Design of the study, Area of the study,
Population of the study, Sample and sampling technique, Instrument for data
collection, Validation of the instrument, Reliability of instrument, Method of
data collection and Method of data analysis.
Design of the Study
The design used for this study is the descriptive survey research design.
This research design suits this study because it aims at systematically collecting
data on and describing the characteristics of a given population from a sample
considered representative (Nworgu, 2006). It seeks to describe certain variables
in relation to the population by studying only a part of the population. Thus, the
descriptive research design is appropriate for this investigation because it will
enable the researcher to collect data from a sample of the population. Also, the
analysis of the data got from a sample of the population will be generalized to
the entire population.
Area of the Study
The study was carried out in Nsukka Education Zone in Enugu State.
This education zone is made up of three local government areas namely;
Nsukka, Igbo-Etiti and Uzo-Uwani local government areas. The area of study
is made up of settlements with rural and urban characteristics. The area of
40
study was chosen because some SS III geography teachers in the area have
observed that a good number of the SS III geography students have low
achievement in map work generally and particularly in map work aspects that
involve calculation.
Population of the Study
The population of this study consists of the SS III Geography students in
the fifty eight (58) public secondary schools in Nsukka Education Zone. It is
made up of 2, 475 (1,284 males and 1,191 females) SS III Geography students
in Nsukka zone, PPSMB (2011).
Sample and Sampling Technique
The sample for this study was made up of 250 (125 males and 125
females) SS III Geography students drawn randomly from ten (10) selected
secondary schools in Nsukka Education Zone.
To avoid bias, the simple random sampling technique was used to select
the secondary schools from which the sample of the study was drawn. This is
because the simple random sampling technique gives each element of the
population equal and independent chance of being part of the sample. The
number of secondary schools to be selected from each local government area
was based on proportionate stratified random sampling. Proportionate stratified
random sampling ensures that each strata of the population is proportionately
represented in the sample. This, therefore, makes the sample characteristics
41
better approximations of the population characteristics (Nworgu, 2006). Thus,
each local government area was classified as a stratum. This is to ensure a
proportionate representation of the sample schools in relation to their
population.
Instrument for Data Collection
The instrument used for this study was a Map Work Achievement Test
(MWAT). The test consists of a fifty (50) structured response diagnostic test
items spanning the entire contents of secondary school map work. The
structured test items are of the supply type which demands a word, statement or
sentence as answers. The test items were developed in such away that every
topic in map work was covered to test students‟ knowledge in different areas of
map work.
Validation of the Instrument
After developing the Map Work Achievement Test (MWAT) used for
data collection, it was given to two secondary school Geography teachers in St.
Cyprian‟s Girls and Special Science Secondary Schools, Nsukka and two
experts in Measurement and Evaluation in the Faculty of Education, University
of Nigeria, Nsukka to validate. The Geography teachers evaluated the content
coverage of the instrument while the Measurement and Evaluation experts
evaluated the extent to which the items in the instrument measure what they
42
have been designed to measure.
Their corrections and suggestions were
incorporated into the instrument for the study.
Reliability of Instrument
To ensure the reliability of the items in the instrument, it was first trial
tested by administering it to a few secondary school SS III Geography students
out side the sample (in Owerri, Imo State). The information collected after the
trial testing helped the researcher clarify the items in the instrument as well as
determine the difficulty respondents may have in responding to items in the
test.
The internal consistency of the items in the instrument was calculated
using the Split half method (Spearman-Brown Prophecy Formula). At 0.77
internal consistency, the items in the test are reliable.
Method of Data Collection
The instrument was administered to the SS III Geography students in
their various schools as randomly selected in a conducive environment like that
of an examination for one and half hours.
The achievement/diagnostic test was administered by the researcher with
the assistance of the Geography teachers of the selected schools. The test
scripts were collected as soon as the given time was exhausted.
43
Method of Data Analysis
The mean and standard deviation were used to establish the extent to
which the students find the questions in MWAT difficult. Mean scores of 4.0
and above were regarded as not difficult while mean scores of less than 4.0
were considered as difficult. The hypothesis formulated was tested using the ttest statistics. This was used to find out if there is a significant difference in the
map work concepts found difficult by the male and female SS III Geography
students.
44
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
This chapter presents and describes the results of the study according to
research questions and hypothesis.
Research Question 1
What are the difficult concepts associated with map work in geography
among senior secondary school students?
Table 1: Mean scores and standard deviations on the difficulty of concepts
associated with map work in geography among senior secondary school
students.
S/N Topics
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Scale
Direction and
Bearing
Gradient
Measurement of
Distance
Map Enlargement
and Reduction
Section Drawing
Description of
Drainage Features
Pattern of
Communication
Settlement Pattern
Land use on
Contour Maps
Physical Features
Relationships on
Contour Maps
Intervisibility
Marks
Obtainable
10
6
Mean
Score
4.2
2.7
Standard
Deviation
2.82
1.74
Decision
8
10
3.14
5.4
2.10
3.55
Difficult
Not difficult
8
4.6
2.50
Not difficult
10
6
4.66
3.81
3.14
2.27
Not difficult
Difficult
4
2.16
1.46
Difficult
4
12
2.75
7.32
3.75
3.75
Difficult
Not difficult
12
6
5.6
3.04
3.35
2.12
Not difficult
Difficult
4
100
2.14
3.96
1.46
2.44
Difficult
Difficult
Not difficult
Difficult
45
From the results in Table 1, it is evident that the students generally
performed slightly below average on the test with an average mean score of
3.96. However, the table also reveals that the students performed averagely in
map work topics like scale, map enlargement and reduction as well as in
section drawing with mean scores of 4.2, 4.6 and 4.66 respectively. The
students performed above average in topics like measurement of distance, land
use on contour maps and physical features with mean scores of 5.4, 7.32 and
5.6 respectively.
Research Question 2
To what extent are the concepts that involve calculation in map work
difficult for senior secondary school students of geography?
Table 2: Mean scores and standard deviations on the concepts that involve
calculation in map work.
S/N
Topics
Mean Score
Standard
Decision
Deviation
1
Scale
4.2
2.82
Not difficult
2
Direction and Bearing 2.7
1.74
Difficult
3
Gradient
3.14
2.10
Difficult
3.35
2.22
Difficult
Total
Table 2 shows the mean scores on the extent which the concepts that
involve calculation in map work are difficult for senior secondary school
geography students. The data on the table reveals that the students‟
performance on the map work topics that involve calculation is below average
as shown by an average mean score of 3.35. From their performances on each
topic, it can be observed that performance on direction and bearing is the
poorest with a mean and standard deviation of 2.7 and 1.74 respectively.
46
Gradient has a mean score of 3.14 and standard deviation of 2.10 while scale
has a mean score of 4.2 and standard deviation of 2.82.
Research Question 3
To what extent are the concepts associated with measurement in map
work difficult for students of senior secondary school geography?
Table 3: Mean scores and standard deviation on the concepts associated with
measurement in map work.
S/N
Topics
1
Mean Score Standard
Deviation
5.4
3.55
Measurement of
Distance
2
Map Enlargement and 4.6
Reduction
3
Section Drawing
4.66
Total
4.89
Decision
Not difficult
2.50
Not difficult
3.14
3.06
Not difficult
Not difficult
Table 3 reveals that the students have average performance on the three
map work topics that have to do with measurement. This is shown by the
average mean score of 4.89. However, the students performed averagely on
map enlargement and reduction and section drawing with mean scores and
standard deviations of 4.6, 2.50 and 4.66, 3.14 respectively. The students‟
achievement on measurement of Distance is above average with a mean score
of 5.4 and standard deviation of 3.55.
Research Question 4
To what extent is the description of the characteristics of different
features on topographic maps difficult for senior secondary school geography
students?
47
Table 4: Mean scores and standard deviations on the extent students find the
description of the characteristics of different features on topographic maps
difficult.
S/N
Topics
Mean Score
Standard
Decision
Deviation
1
Pattern of
2.16
1.46
Difficult
Communication
2
Settlement Pattern
2.75
1.48
Difficult
3
Land use on Contour 7.32
3.75
Not difficult
2.23
Difficult
Maps
Total
4.08
The data on Table 4 shows that generally the students performed slightly
above average on the topics that describe the characteristics of features on
topographic maps with an average mean score of 4.08. From their performance
on each topic, it can be observed that on Pattern of Communication and
settlement pattern, the students obtained mean scores and standard deviations
of 2.16, 1.46 and 2.75, 1.48 respectively. On land use on contour Maps, the
students obtained a mean score of 7.32 and standard deviation of 3.75.
Research Question 5
To what extent is the understanding of the representations of various
land form features in map work difficult for senior secondary school geography
students?
48
Table 5: Mean scores and standard deviations on the students understanding of
the representations of various landform features in map work.
S/N
Topics
Mean Score
1
Description of
3.81
Drainage
Features
2
Physical Features 5.6
Total
4.71
Standard
Deviation
2.27
Decision
3.35
2.81
Not difficult
Not difficult
Difficult
From the results in Table 5, it is evident that the students achieved
poorly on Description of Drainage features with a means score of 3.81 and a
standard deviation of 2.27. However, on Physical features, the students
performed above average with a mean score and standard deviation of 5.6 and
3.35 respectively. On the general achievement under this section, the students
have a mean score of 4.71 indicating average performance.
Research Question 6
To what extent is the description of relationships on topographic maps
difficult for senior secondary school students of geography?
Table 6: Mean scores and standard deviations on the extent which students find
description of relationships on topographic maps difficult.
S/N
Topics
Mean Score
Standard
Decision
Deviation
1
Relationships on
3.04
2.12
Difficult
2.14
1.46
Difficult
2.59
1.79
Difficult
Contour Maps
2
Total
Intervisibility
49
The data on Table 6 reveals that generally, the students have a poor
achievement on the topics that describe relationships on topographic maps with
an average mean score of 2.59. From their performance on each topic, it can be
observed that on Relationships on Contour Maps, the students obtained a mean
score of 3.04 and a standard deviation of 2.12. On intervisibility, the students
obtained a mean score and standard deviation of 2.14 and 1.46 respectively.
Hypothesis
There is no significant difference in the mean achievement on difficult
concepts in map work between SSIII male and female senior secondary school
geography students.
Table 7: Summary of t-test on the difference in the mean achievement on
difficult concepts in map work between SSIII male and female senior
secondary school geography students.
Gender
N
Mean
Standard
Score
Deviation
Male
125
49.46
14.00
Female
125
48.82
15.09
t-value
df
Sig.
Remarks
Not
0.35
248
1.645 Significant
Table 7 shows a comparison of male and female achievement in map
work in geography. The mean score and standard deviation of the male students
are 49.46 and 14.00 while the mean score for the female students is 48.82 and
the standard deviation is 15.09. From the table, the calculated value of t = 0.35
p<1.645. This shows that performance in map work between male and female
students is not significant at 0.05. Thus, there is no significant difference in the
50
mean achievement on difficult concepts in map work between SSIII male and
female Geography students. This is consistent with the findings of Amosun and
Oderinde (2004).
Prof. E.O. Akuezuilo
51
52
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
This chapter includes the discussion of the results of the study,
conclusions, implications of the research findings, recommendations,
limitations, suggestions for further studies and summary.
Discussion of Results
The discussion is organized under the following sub-headings:
1.
Extent of difficulty of the concepts associated with map work in
geography.
2.
Extent of difficulty of the map work concepts that involve calculation.
3.
The extent of difficulty of the map work concepts associated with
measurement.
4.
The extent of difficulty in the description of the characteristics of
different features on topographic maps.
5.
The extent of difficulty in the understanding of the representations of
various land form features in map work.
6.
Extent of difficulty in the description of relationships on topographic
maps.
Extent of difficulty of the concepts associated with map work in geography
The results show that the students performed slightly below average on
the test. However, performances on each topic indicate that on Direction and
Bearing,
Gradient,
Description
of
Drainage
features,
Pattern
of
Communication, Settlement Pattern, Relationships on Contour Maps and
intervisibility, the students‟ achievement was below average. The students
53
performed averagely on Scale, Map Enlargement and Reduction as well as on
Section Drawing, while on Measurement of Distance, Land use on contour
Maps and Physical features, the students‟ achievement was above average. The
findings are consistent with the WAEC Chief Examiner‟s Report 2004 and
2005 on Relationship s and Contour Maps and Intervisibility which holds that
most candidates could not determine the intervisibility between given points
nor establish the relationship between relief and transportation. The findings,
however, differs with the above mentioned WAEC reports on the students‟
achievement on cross profile and physical features.
Extent of difficulty of the map work concepts that involve calculation
The results reveal that the students‟ achievement on the map work
concepts that involve calculation was below average. This finding agrees with
the views of Mansaray and Ajiboye (1994), Amosun (2002) and WAEC
(2005). They observed that map reading is found difficult because it makes use
of graphs, symbols and calculations. Their views are not far from the findings
of this research work which has found that students transfer the fear of
mathematics on concepts in map work that involve calculation. Therefore, there
is need for effective teaching and learning of mathematics to encourage
positive transfer of learning.
54
The extent of difficulty of the map work concepts associated with
measurement
The findings show that students performed averagely on Measurement of
Distance and Map Enlargement and Reduction. However on Section Drawing,
the students performed below average. The students‟ performance of below
average disagrees with the WAEC Chief Examiner‟s Report (2004). The report
has it that candidates had inadequate knowledge of section drawing. Again, the
students‟ average performance on Measurement of Distance disagrees with the
view of Ovenden (2007) which holds that distance can be difficult to measure
on maps.
The extent of difficulty in the description of the characteristics of different
features on topographic maps
The results show that the students‟ achievement on the map work
concepts on description of the characteristics of different features on
topographic map is above average. This agrees with the report of the WAEC
Chief Examiner‟s Report (2010). The report has it that the candidates
performed better on the description of the settlement pattern and land use.
The extent of difficulty in the understanding of the representation of
various land form features in map work
The results show that the students‟ achievement on Description of
Drainage features is above average while their achievement on physical
features is below average. This findings agrees with WAEC Chief Examiner‟s
55
Report (2005). The report holds that most candidates could neither determine
the intervisibility nor establish the relationship between relief and
transportation network.
Conclusion
From the results obtained on the assessment of difficult concepts in map
work among senior secondary school students in Nsukka education zone, the
following conclusions could were made.
1.
The students find map work concepts on scale, Direction and Bearing,
Gradient, Section Drawing and Physical features difficult.
2.
The students performed below average on the concepts that involve
calculation in map work.
3.
The students‟ achievement on the concepts associated with measurement
in map work is average.
4.
The students‟ achievement on the description of the characteristics of
different features on topographic map is slightly above average.
5.
The performance of the students on the understanding of the
representations of various landform features in map work is average.
6.
The students‟ achievement on the description of relationships on
topographic map is average.
7.
Both the male and female SSIII geography students have the same
achievement on map work concepts.
56
Educational Implications of the Study
The findings of the study have a number of implications particularly for
geography as a school subject and education in general. The findings of the
study indicate that the students averagely find the map work concepts difficult.
This implies that more effort should be put in to ensure high level achievement
in map work.
The study also revealed that there were variations on the extent of
achievement on the map work concepts. Performance on Scale, Direction and
Bearing, Gradient, Section Drawing and Physical features was below average
while performance on the other topics, generally, was average. The implication
is that some concepts in map work are more difficult than the others.
The findings of the study show that the students‟ worst achievement was
on the concepts that involve calculation in map work. This implies that most of
the students lack sufficient mathematical knowledge.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, the researcher makes the following
recommendations.
1.
The teaching and learning of map work should be practical oriented to
enable students master the various concepts in map work.
2.
The geography teachers should pay more attention to the map work
concepts students find difficult while teaching them map work.
57
3.
Finally, it is important that the students are taught very well in
mathematics as it will positively impact on their performance in map
work especially on the concepts that involve calculation.
Limitations of the Study
The study was constrained in a number of ways which include the
following:
1.
In a few sample schools, the students were not allowed to exhaust the
prescribed time. As such, pieces of information were obviously lost. This
to an extent might have influenced the conclusions drawn from the
findings of the study.
2.
Some teachers thought that the exercise was deliberately planned to
expose their inadequacies. It could not therefore be ignored that some
teachers might have aided their students.
3.
Some initially randomly selected schools do not have up to twenty five
(25) SSIII geography students. Hence, their substitution through another
set of random sampling. This to an extent might have influenced the
conclusions drawn from the findings of this study.
Summary of the Study
This study examined the assessment of difficult concepts in map work
among senior secondary school students in Nsukka education zone. Thus, the
need for this research work was to find out the difficult concepts in map work.
58
Evaluation research design was used for the study. Related literatures were
reviewed and their findings noted. The sample consisted of ten (10) secondary
schools and two hundred and fifty (250) SSIII geography students. The
developed Map Work Achievement Test (MWAT) was used as instrument for
data collection. Four experts, two geography teachers and two Measurement
and Evaluation experts validated the instrument. The reliability of 0.77 for the
instrument was calculated using the Split-half method (Spearman-Brown
Prophesy Formula). Six research questions and one null hypothesis were posed.
Mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions while
the t-test was used to test the null hypothesis formulated at 0.05. The following
results were obtained:
1.
The students find map work concepts on scale, direction and bearing,
gradient, section drawing and physical features difficult.
2.
The students performed below average on the map work concepts that
involve calculation.
3.
The students‟ achievement on the concepts associated with measurement
in map work is average.
4.
The students performed slightly above average on the description of the
characteristics of different features on topographic map.
5.
The students performed averagely on the understanding of the
representations of various landform features in map work.
59
6.
The students‟ achievement on the description of relationships on
topographic map is average.
7.
Both the male and female SSIII geography students have the same
achievement on map work concepts.
These findings formed the basis for the discussion and educational
implications that were highlighted. Recommendations, limitations as well as
suggestions for further studies were outlined.
60
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64
Appendix I
Department of Science Education
University of Nigeria,
Nsukka,
14th September, 2011.
Dear Sir/Madam,
PERMISSION FOR INSTRUMENT ADMINISTRATION
I am a postgraduate student of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka,
carrying out a research work on Assessment of Difficult Concepts in Map
Work Among Senior Secondary School Students in Nsukka Education Zone.
This achievement test is therefore designed to elicit data on the subject.
The purpose is purely academic and will be treated as such with every
confidence it requires. Thanks for your co-operation.
Yours faithfully
Okereafor Nnawugwu
PG/M.ED/08/49957
65
MAP WORK ACHIEVEMENT TEST (MWAT)
1. What is a scale in map work?
2. List the three ways of indicating scale on a map
3. Differentiate these scales; 1:200,000 and 1 cm is to 2km.
4. Convert 1:100,000 to linear scale.
5. Interpret this linear scale
4
0
4Km
6. What are the methods used for measurement in map work?
7. What do you understand by measurement as the crow flies?
8. How is a winding distance measured?
9. Given that the scale of the map is 1:50,000 and the measured distance of a
rail line on the map is 24cm, calculate the actual distance.
10. The actual distance on land is 6km and the scale of the map is 1:100,000.
Find the measured distance.
11. Name the four cardinal points.
12. In map work, bearing is determined using which instrument?
13. In calculating bearing, 2650 falls into what quadrant?
14. What is map reduction?
15. A map with length 12cm, width, 8cm and scale 1:50,000 is drawn to a scale
of 1:200,000. What is the new length and width of the map?
16. When a map with a scale of 1:100,000 is drawn to a scale of 1:50,000, the
map has been ____________
17. What is a gridline?
18. Outline three (3) symbols each used to identify physical features and
cultural features on a topographic map.
19. What is the important symbol used to show relief on topographic maps.
20. List any two examples of man-made features represented on topographic
maps.
66
21. Differentiate between physical features and cultural features.
22. How is relationship on contour maps determined?
23. Described any two of the following landforms; valley, spur, conical hill and
concave hill.
24. Differentiate between uniform and uneven relationship on maps.
25. What is gradient?
26. Gradient in map work is calculated using _________ and __________
27. How is the vertical interval calculated in gradient?
28. How is the horizontal equivalent calculated in gradient?
29. The scales used for drawing cross profile are ___________ and
______________
30. In drawing the cross profile, which of the scales is fixed by the person
drawing the profile?
31. What is the difference between horizontal scale and the scale of the map in
drawing relief profile?
32. Explain why contour line values are important in drawing relief profile.
33. What is a relief profile?
34. When are two points on a map said to be intervisible?
35. Is there intervisibility between any two points separate by a convex slope?
36. What are trignometrical points?
37. How are trignometical points shown on maps?
38. What is a water shed?
39. What is the difference between ox-bow lake and meander?
40. Braided channel is associated with which stage of river development?
41. List any three communication symbols represented on topographic maps.
Name any four means of communication on contour maps.
42. Name any four means of communication on contour maps.
43. Outline the settlement patterns.
67
44. Differentiate between scattered and nucleated settlement.
45. Outline any three lands use types represented on contour maps.
46. Which type of land use is indicates by the presence of forest?
47. The presence of market indicates which land use type?
48. Medical land use is represented on a map by which symbol(s)?
49. The presence of scattered cultivation is an indication of which land use
type?
50. Parks and gardens are indicators of which land use type?
68
Appendix II
Estimate of the Internal Consistency using the Split Half Method
N
X
Y
X2
Y2
XY
25
645
505
17,031
10,643
12,773
nxy  (x) (y )
r
n x  (x) 2 x ny 2  (y ) 2
2
25 x12,773  (645 x 505)

25 x17,031 6452 x 25 x10,643  5052
319,325  325,725

425,775  416025 x 266,075  255,025
6,400

9,750 x 11,050

6,400
98.74 x 105.11
6400

 0.62
10,378
2 1 2 . 12
 11 
1   12 . 12

2 x 0.62
1  0.62
1.24
1.62
 0.77

69
Appendix III
LIST OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND STUDENTS OF GEOGRAPHY
IN NSUKKA EDUCATION ZONE
Name of Schools under Nsukka L.G.A and Number of Geography
Students
S/N
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Name of Schools
S.T.C. Nsukka
N.H.S. Nsukka I
N.H.S. Nsukka II
Q.R.S.S.
C.S.S. Isienu
U.G.S.S.
O.H.S. Opi
C.S.S. Lejja
C.S.S. Edem
C.S.S. Umabor
G.T.C.
C.S.S. Ehandiagu
C.S.S. Okpuje
C.S.S. Ibagwa-Ani
C.S.S. Obimo
C.S.S.Obukpa
C.S.S. Ede-Oballa
C.S.S. Ezebunagwu
St. Cyprian S.S.S.
St. Cyprian G.S.S.
B.S.S. Nru
M.S.S. Nsukka
G.S.S. Opi
C.S.S. Alor-Uno
C.S.S. Opi-Agu
C.H.S. Lejja
Agu C.S.S. Umubor
U.B.S.S. Nuskka
Edem-Ani CJHS EdemAni
C.S.S. Breme
Total
No. of Geo. Students
45
43
39
62
26
48
72
18
19
50
14
62
33
44
48
57
61
63
70
67
41
29
52
12
14
31
8
13
10
5
1, 156
70
Names of Schools under Igbo-Etiti LGA and Number of Geography
Students
S/N
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Name of Schools
P.S.S.S. Ukehe
B.S.S. Aku
B.S.S. Ohodo
G.S.S. Ozalla
C.S.S. Ohodo
C.H.S Ekwegbe
C.S.S. Ohebe-Dim
O.C.S.S. Ukehe
C.S.S. Ukopi
C.S.S. Umunko
C.S.S. Aku
C.S.S. Umuna
S.S.S. Ukehe
I.S.S. Ikolo
Akutara C.S.S. Ohodo
Total
No. of Geo. Students
58
31
39
37
51
33
54
49
53
38
49
65
46
55
57
715
71
Names of Schools under Uzo-Uwani L.G.A. and Number of Geography
Students
S/N
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Name of Schools
A.S.S.S. Nkoologu
U.S.S. Adani
A.G.H. S. Adaba
G.S.S. Umulokpa
C.S.S. Nimbo
C.S.S. Abbi-Ugbene
C.S.S UKpata
C.S.S. Igga
B.S.S. Akiyi
C.S.S. Ugurugu
U.S.S. Uvuru
C.H.S. Nrobo
Opanda W.S.S.
Total
Sum total
No. of Geo. Students
53
42
65
43
65
68
36
7
39
19
60
69
38
604
2, 475
Source: Statistics Unit, Enugu State Post Primary School Management
Board (PPSMB), 2011.
72
Appendix IV
1. Mean scores and standard deviations on the concepts that involve
calculation in map work
Class
True limit
interval
0–4
- 0.5 -4.5
5–9
4.5 – 9.5
10 – 14 9.5 -14.5

X
Class
mark
(X)
2
7
12
Scale
F
FX
149
92
9
250

XX
298
-2.2
644
2.8
108
7.8
1,050


2
X

X




4.84
7.84
60.84



F X  X 2


721.16
721.28
547.56
1,990
 fx 1050

 f 250

X  4.2

 f ( x  x) 2
1,990
SD 

n
250
 7.96
SD  2.82
Class
True limit
interval
0–2
3–5
6–8
- 0.5 -2.5
2.5 – 5.5
5.5 – 8.5
Direction and Bearing
Class
F
FX X  X
mark
(X)
1
124 124 - 1.7
4
110 440 1.3
7
16
112 4.3
250 820


2
X  X


2.89
1.69
18.49



F X  X 2


358.4
105.9
295.84
760.14
73

X
 fx  676
 f 250

x  2.7
SD 


f ( x  x) 2
n

760.14
250
 3.04
SD 1.74
Class
True limit
interval
0–4
- 0.5 – 4.5
Class
mark
(X)
2
5–9
4. 5 – 9.5
7

X
Gradient
F
FX

XX


2
X

X







F X  X 2


193
396
- 1.4
1.30
250.9
57
399
3.86
14.9
849.3
250
785
1,100.2
 fx 785

 f 250

X  3.14

 f ( x  x) 2
1,100.2
SD 

n
250
 4.40
SD  2.10
2. Mean scores and standard deviations on the concepts associated with
measurement in map work
Class
True limit
interval
0–4
- 0.5 – 4.5
5–9
4. 5 – 9.5
10 – 14 9.5 – 14.5
Measurement of Distance

Class F
FX
XX
mark
(X)
2
105 210
- 3.4
7
96
672
1.6
12
39
468
6.6
250 1, 350


2
X  X


11.56
2.56
43.56



F X  X 2


1, 213.8
245.76
1, 698.84
3, 158.4
74

X
 fx 1350

f
250

x  5.4

 f ( x  x) 2
SD 

n
3,158.4
250
12.63
SD  3.55
Map Enlargement and Reduction



Class
True limit
Class
F
FX
X  X  X  X  2 F  X  X  2
interval
mark




(X)
0–4
- 0.5 – 4.5
2
120 240
- 2.6 6. 76
811.2
5–9
4.5 – 9.5
7
130 910
2.4
5.76
748.8
250 1, 150
1, 560

X
 fx 1,150

f
250

X  4.6

SD 
 f ( x  x) 2
1560

n
250
 6.24
SD  2.50
Class
True limit
interval
0–4
- 0.5 – 4.5
5–9
4.5 – 9.5
10 – 14 9.5 – 14.5
Class
mark
(X)
2
7
12
Section Drawing

F
FX
XX
135
97
18
250
270
679
216
1, 165
- 2.66
2.34
7.34


2
X  X


7. 08
5.48
53.88



F X  X 2


955.8
531.56
969.84
2, 457.2
75

X
 fx 1,165

f
250

X  4.66

SD 
 f ( x  x) 2

n
2, 457.2
250
 9.83
SD  3.14
3. Mean scores and standard deviations on the extent students find the
description of the characteristics of different features on topographic map
difficult.
Pattern of Communication

Class
True limit Class
F
FX
XX
interval
mark
(X)
0–2
- 0. 5 – 2.5 1
153
153 - 1.16
3–5
2. 5- 5.5
4
97
388 1.84
250
541

X


2
X

X




1.35
3.39



F X  X 2


206.55
328.83
535.38
 fx 541

 f 250

X  2.16

SD 
 f ( x  x) 2
535.38

n
250
 2.14
SD 1.46
Class
True limit
interval
0–2
3–5
- 0.5 – 2.5
2.5 – 5.5
Settlement Pattern
Class
F
FX X  X
mark
(X)
1
104
104 - 1.75
4
146
584 1.25
250
688


2
X  X


3.06
1.56



F X  X 2


318.24
227.76
546
76

X
 fx 688

 f 250

X  2.75

SD 
 f ( x  x) 2

n
546
250
 2.18
SD 1.48
Land use on Contour Maps

Class
True limit Class
F
FX
XX
interval
mark
(X)
0–4
- 0.5 – 4.5 2
63
126
- 5.32
5–9
4.5 – 9.5 7
108
756
- 0.32
10 – 14 9.5 – 14.5 12
79
948
4.68
250
1,830

X


2
X  X


28.30
0.10
21.90



F X  X 2


1, 782.9
10.8
1, 730.1
3, 523.8
 fx 1,830

f
250

X  7.32

SD 
 f ( x  x) 2
3,523.88

n
250
 14.10
SD  3.75
4. Mean scores and standard deviations on the students‟ understanding of the
representations of various land form features in map work.
Description of Drainage Features


Class
True limit Class F
FX

2
XX
X

X


interval
mark


(X)
0–2
- 0.5 – 2.5 1
80
80
- 2.81
7.90
3–5
2.5 – 5.5
4
106
424
0.19
0.03
6–8
5.5 – 8.5
7
64
448
3.19
10.18
250
952



F X  X 2


632
3.83
651.52
1, 287.35
77

X
 fx 952

 f 250

X  3.81

SD 
 f ( x  x) 2
1,287.35

n
250
 5.15
SD  2.27
Class
True limit
interval
0–4
- 0.5 – 4.5
5–9
4.5 – 9.5
10 – 14 9.5 – 14.5

X
Physical Features

Class F
FX
XX
mark
(X)
2
101
202
- 3.6
7
118
826
1.4
12
31
372
6.4
250
1, 400
 fx 1400

f
250

X  5.6

SD 
 f ( x  x) 2

n
 11.24
SD  3.35
2,810
250


2
X  X


12.96
1.96
40.96



F X  X 2


1, 308.96
231.28
1, 269.76
2, 810
78
5. Mean scores and standard deviations on the extent which students find
description of relationships on topographic maps difficult
Class
True limit
interval
0–2
3–5
6–8

- 0.5 – 2.5
2.5 – 5.5
5.5 – 8.5
X
Relationships on Contour Maps


Class
F
FX

2
XX
X  X
mark


(X)
1
115
115 - 2.04
4.16
4
100
400 0.96
0.92
7
35
245 3.96
15.68
250
760



F X  X 2


478.4
92
548.8
1, 119.2
 fx 760

 f 250

X  3.04

SD 
 f ( x  x) 2
1,119.2

n
250
 4.48
SD  2.12
Class
True limit
interval
0–2
3–5

X
- 0.5 – 2.5
2.5 – 5.5
Class
mark
(X)
1
4
 fx 535

 f 250

X  2.14

SD 
 f ( x  x) 2

n
 2.12
SD 1.46
530.2
250
Intervisibility
F
FX X  X
155
95
250
155
380
535
- 1.14
1.86


2
X  X


1.30
3.46



F X  X 2


201.5
328.7
530.2
79
Appendix V
T-test calculation of the achievement of male and female geography students in
MWAT
Class
True limit
interval
70 - 79
60 - 69
50 - 59
40 - 49
30 - 39
20 - 29

Xm 
69.5 – 79.5
59.5 – 69.5
49.5 – 59.5
39.5 – 49.5
29.5 – 39.5
19.5 – 29.5
Class
mark
(X)
74.5
64.5
54.5
44.5
34.5
24.5
F
16
10
32
40
16
11
125
Male
FX
1,192
645
1,744
1,780
552
269.5
6,182.5

XX
25.04
15.04
5.04
- 4.96
- 14.96
- 24.96


2
X  X


627.00
226.20
25.40
24.60
223.80
623.00



F X  X 2


10,032
2,262
812.8
984
3580.8
6,853
24,524.6
 fx 6,182.5

 49.46
f
125
SD m 
24,524.6
 196.20  14.00
125
N m 125
Class
True limit
interval
70 - 79
60 – 69
50 – 59
40 – 49
30– 39
20 – 29
69.5 – 79.5
59.5 – 69.5
49.5 – 59.5
39.5 – 49.5
29.5 – 39.5
19.5 – 29.5
Class
mark
(X)
74.5
64.5
54.5
44.5
34.5
24.5
F
16
18
16
44
16
15
125
Female
FX
1,192
1,161
872
1,958
552
367.5
6,102.5

XX
25.68
15.68
5.68
- 4.32
- 14.32
- 24.32


2
X  X


659.46
245.86
32.26
18.66
205.06
591.46



F X  X 2


10,551.36
4.425.48
516.16
821.04
3,280.96
8,871.9
28,466.9
80

Xf
 fx 6,102.5

 48.82
f
125
28,466.9
 227.74  15.09
125
N f 125
SD f 

t

X m X
f
2
2
S m S f

nm
nf

49.46  48.82
142  15.092
125
125
0.64
196 227.70

125
125
0.64

1.57  1.82
0.64

3.39
0.64

1.84
t  0.35

df  n m  n f 2
 125  125  2
 250  2
 248
 table value of t at 0.05  1.645