AStu:d享OftheAir.Pollution
.
ControlSystemFromanAdministrativePerspective:TheCaseof
'L
os'
.Angeles'￠o噸ty,
ByAkira・Nakamura
1.Introduction
Oneofthemostsalientproblems・intrinsictourbanizationsee;nstQ
lieintherapidgrowthofpollution.Thiscanbesubstantiatedwhe尊
onecheckstheurbanconditionsinsome'ofthemetropolitanareasin
噛
variouscountries.Althoughd董ferentindegreeandinkilld,citieslike
London,Paris,NewYork,Singapore,etc.areallfacingsimilarissue
of.degredationintheirenvironmentalqualities.
Asfarasairpollutionisconcerned,.however,LosAngelesisconsideredasoneofthemost「interestingareastoobserveforseveralreasons.SouthernCaliforniahasbeena且dstillisoftenregardedashaving
theworstatmosphereintheworldduetoitsexcessivedependenceon
automobiles.Itisnoaccident,therefore,thatthephotochemicalsmog
was丘rstfoundandsonamedinLosAngeles.Eventothisdate,those
,
touristsfromabroadintendingtovisittherearemoreoftenridiculed
by㎜
・yA血
・・i㎝ ・ ・.Th・yarelik・lyt・1δth・ti・S・uth・mご
・lif・・⑫,
theywouldnotb6ablet6seeanythingexceptbeingexposedtofumes
andsmog.Thismaybetrueandperhaps,whatthetouristscould
enloyinLosAngeleswouldbeasm'oke・coveredDisne夕bnd.
However,oneshouldnotoverlookasign面cantfactabo口tSouthern
1
C・lif・mi律;ltwas・h・
ahighlyintegrativeand
「
丘rst'面
■
・P・litanregioni・t紅
・.ゆldt・i・iti・t・
の
.coherentapproachtothesmogabatement.,In
邑F 邑7r
1947,theCountyofLosAngeleserectedtheAirP、011utionConモro1
District(APCD)asthlefirstofits.kindi丘1theL.UnitedStai6sas』wellasin
th・w・
・ld・Si・ ・曾th・nジit・hassere
,.・8a・
・tや・b・ ・1C,m・d・land・
・nt・ib・t・d
muchtothealleviationofairpollutioninvariousurbanareathroughouttheworld.
SouthernCalifornia・and.jtsvicinitie§,therefore,providestudentsin
urbanpolicyaninterestingcasetostudy.Andtoexamineanyaspect
ofitsairpollutioncontrolseemshighlyvaluable,foritwillbringabout
anumberofdimcultiesinherentinthe.pollutioncontrol,whichare
german・.・ndrelβy・ntt・
problem・..
.,、
・therm・t・
・P・1itanrrgi…havi・gt翠
・same
、
Againstthesebackdrops,thisbτiefstudアseeksto
,describethe,air
pollutioncontrolsysteminLosAngelesfro卑anadministrativep亭rspective.AnemphasisinthisinstanceisgiventothepasteffortsaswelI
astothecurrentconditionsregardingtheadministrationofsmogabatement.InsodoingittriestoshowthatLosAngeleshasawel1・coordi・
natedandeffectivesystemofadministrationinits
・
.丘ghtagainstaircon・
.ta卿natlon.
911
.Background'
IndelineatingtheairpollutioncontrqlsysteminLosAngelesit
seρ 皿s五rstnecessarytopressent.abriefa∼
コcountofitspoliticallaτ}d幽
sCapeprimarilyforthebene丘tsofthosewhoareunfamiliarwiththe.
governmentandpoliticsinSouthernCalifornia.Particularlythefunc・
tion.ofthecountygovernmentshouldbeexplored,
.becauseitplaysthe
keyroleintheISSUEofairpol1Utioncon亡ro1.・
・.'
∴Accordingtothecensusof1960,thepqpulationofLosAngelesproper
'
2
wasinexcessof7million.Thisvastnumber'ofresidentsisgoverned
bythecounty・governmentand77incorporatedcりmmunitieswhich
maintaintheirown・governing.statutes『andadministrativestructures.
Ofthese,thelargestistheCityof`LosAngeles.Inadditiontothese
・incorporatedareas,manycitizensliveinunincorporatedplaces.Not
havingtheirowngoverningbodies,'theyaredependentuponthecounty
governmentforvariouslocalservices,including'policeandfireproteetions.1
『
「Thecountygovernmentwas且rst6rganizedin1850concomitantwith
theinceptionoftheStateofCalifornia.Itwasoriginallyconstruedas
apolitical
.armofthestategovernment。Itsfunctionswere,therefore,
1imitedtotheadministrationofsocial.welfare,theoperationofcourts,
theregistrationofpropertyrights,and.`otherstate-wideconcerns.2But
overtheyears,ithasextendeditsscope.'Itsfunctioncanbeclassified
intofourcategories:・(1)th6seofferedtOallciti乞enesunderitsjurisdiと
-tion;②thoserenderedtounincorporatedareas
・
,whichjncludesUch
municipalservicesas乞oning,urbanplann.ing,andbuildinginspection;
㈲thoseofferedtoincorp6ratedcommunitiesonacontractualbasis,
whichisoftenapackagedealofpoliceand且reprotection;and(4)those
providedbyspecialdistrictsfortheentirecounty,e.9.,fiood,fire,and
airpollutioncontrol.3'
Traditionally,the負rsttwoweretheprimej6bsofthecountygovernment.Butbeginningin1910,itstartedtoalteritsoutlook.Theim-
portantimpetusforsuchatransformationcamefromastateconsti一
価tionalamendmentofthatyear,whichallowedlocalpolitiesthroughout
Californiatohavehomerule.
.LosAngelesCountywasquicktocapi・
talizeonthisprovisionandestablisheditsowncharterin1912.This
coupledwithotherlegislationenactedinSacraロ1entoauthorizedthe
countytoenterintovoluntaryagreementswithincorporatedcommunities
3
forthepurposeofofferingthemmunidpalservices.4".'
Thiswasamajorbreakthrough,becausemanycitiespromptly.took
advantageofcou.11tyservicesi血taxcollectionandassessment,1ibrary
andhealthprograms.Followingthiswerenumerousotherconstitutional
changes.Allof.themcontributedto.thegrowthoftheroleofcounty'
government,andby1935countygovernmentcouldellterintocontracts
withcitygovernmentsforanycoUntyservices.5
.
Thetrendofgrowingcountygovernmentpowerhasbeenkeptalive
eveninthepost・warperiod.In1954,anotherprecedentwasestablished
whenLosA.ngeles:County;madel員packagedeal
corporatedcityofLakewood.Accordingtothisplan,thecountygovemmentwouldprovidevariousserviCesincludinglawenforcementforthe
municipalitiesandreceivethefullco§tfromthem.6,
ThegradualtransitionoftheroleofLosAngelesCountyhas、resultβd
inthe・expansionoftheforma!structureofgovernment.As,of1972,
itoperated70departmentsand,institutionsand321speCia1.districts。.
TheseagenciesvariedfromtheDepartmentofAdoptionstQthat,of
Weights、andMeasuresandincludedtheAir、PollutionControlDistrict・
.Morethan60
・examinations
,000persons,whowereselectedbycompetitivecivilservice
,werein.chargeofagencyoperations.7・..,
Thisvastpoliticalenterprisewasadministeredbyacommissiontypeof
localgovernment.層At.thetop.oftheorganizationwerethe丘vemembers
oftheCountyBoardofSupervisors.Theywerepopularlyelectedona
nonpartisanbasisforafour-year、termfrom丘verespectivedistricts..The
supervisorswereacombinationoftheexecutive,thelegislative,andtre
judicialsystemsofgovernment.Theywerethusthenerve℃ehter'of
countygovernmentinLosAngeles.8・
・The丘vemembersof'theCountySupervisorswereassistedbytheChief
AdministrativeOmceron・mattersofday・to・dayoperationofgovern-
4
.withthe,newlyin-
一〇
〇q
●
●
●
虚
●
一
o
●e`橘oo■
馳照隔脚5ロ鵤
0蟹 階解
轟鱈馴c喀
◎o凹
隔穐
,
勘1自P嶋
c㎝ 隅
6購 陰
噂閥
cOu闘
いOω
函5τ闘lc「
A署冒o口
周巳u
ム"巳脇o●
﹁O
εしt【
τo燗A7`
一
、
.
o
口`寓
εCU71V竃
o
O
口
o「「に【
鞠
●o餌o偲
脚pm㎜
醜9
,
…
馴隅し
o拗o即 騨
6L【貫"
O国
▲
開A億o鱒い30負
∀
御 ㎜ 醐
㎜ π1脇
,9
go
-9
A
畑
▲
亀
網 ■o隅既A鯛o
●qr韻lec頗D脚 富
鵡 剛OuL了馳し
⊂㎝ 陶 闘1昌
■
ム
膿 【凶
o「A鳳7
■
Ao.
曜o帥隅Ou隅
吃
.∵,.い
、.1.・
罷'幽.噛v
■
■
∂u覧臨鴫
8阻 購 ξ9
ω
い'㌧.P
OO
■
㍉
o麗,
旧,5r霞A調v●
O「F咤`闘
髄剛 に騨 口Aし
駄鳥
躍 ε
●
凶o$門7紙5
■
㎜ 「
組鵬
口
Pm50■ 燗【L
c圃皿r鵠[蹴￠
鴫
匡
蒐鳩 唾圃
㎜
【
鱒
1
A
▲
A
●
60WuMr▼
5願 冒κ軍5
<a仰"閣1仁亀「IO嚇
`匿剛o貧`171τ
巳購
A「「A凧5
▲
乙
欄 陶τ
乱
●
￠
いし
了随
▲
醐匙1▼
直口▽胡o
w冨 冨
魔棚
"「 邸醐
A
oA7A
/S-X艦"榊o
4
A
賃mm胡
伽uo「 胴3
■ 幽
画εco叩m
㎜
4.
「A網
唱岨w50圃
.,a,,顛
◎
rl麗 脚直圃
麗噌
臨員鼻5隔眞【
こ
鴨、
聴鳥嚇1噌蟹
胸耀8
鵬m」 【鴨
.
亀
麗6
,㎝AL
Pい 膿1鳥o
co晒 鱒駆ゆ■
「鵬εmO旺C「 陰
側
Dl闘剛O賜
咀
鈎鵬
幽L
にo陶r剛
PA儲,A.風
陶隔,●
隔【じ 偽 頃 引`隠
o
闘 【焔5髄口陶
調亀軍凹 ■o画唱
m嘔7國確r雪
￠購w
COu瞳5匡し
0即3A闘「
協n四 冨【
『
u飼●崩
AF,A旧3
■
㏄ 旧剛 ▼
【Ll鳥
篤
A触
r一
〇
脚Aし亀`闘解買
髄亀網
… ■
■
圓o岨
し喝 剛 」噂0印」1隣唱C腸
…o"5「
圓へr`
・
【鵬 胸o
呈'㎜_
AP■Ol掃7,》
匡
9画
口
開M照o・ ▼㎜,▼
㎝ 顧7鯛
随㎝ 照◎●▼8rA7巳L鳩
ム1餌 岨u闘 搦o●Ψo鳥Ol駄開
￠■or
閣A闘00,即 巳爲
刷鱒 稲
●
V
fm脳
駄 【6↑1サ
冨
鯉6順 悶o・,甲 哨w㎜,顔
閥05蟹`r醇n嶋
rL㎝ 伽 τ
凧
a鴎
「
◎駄1㎜"5▼,
眺m咤"
A
`
脚暉16輔"A順
餉【"け畦5
蛸.0「
■
麗鵬5
■o胡oo,
`…r旧
嚇
α夢
願 轟η圏6CO輪 醐凶0噂3
`
…
口【L酬
㎜
一
▲.
㎜
に剛 し
「越巳
㎝ 幽 噛38絢
曙
4 ㎜ 銅酬◎
㎝ し口「`鷹
一
腺 膣
u巳顧」"
.
、」
㏄旧嚇脚.
u置訂
願1購 霞
悶
闘
肉肌鰐
隠 曜蹴竃隔
唱
LI6圓,陶6噸`凋
瞳 陶蝋
匿m臨 「
■
躍 脚㎝
陶A脚aAL
剛賀9隅7
■
【鳥Lに馴 《鳥α胡
S瞠Cl亀LL$了nlCIS■
亀'川.軌 四鵬 陶
側 冨凧m87
OOo
ム 脚 剛 菖即蝿 ≡
闘.
飢隅
GA騙4G匡 口瓢AL
o85mlc隅
【 ㎝ 馳o噂
鳶L駈騨川 【
蘭胡 … 」【
網▼
一 一■ 一 一一
簡.幽
9断
藺mε
鵡u鵬
U酬COし 鷹郡0●
四 鷹c鵬馴脇
酬◎5罵隅綿
亀
◎
ε照訂 縦閥「
OF醒 砿 圃
開
ム
臓CH酬1ご鵡
ment.Foundedin1938,theofficerwas盆civilservantappointedby廿Le
「B
oard.Hismainfunctionsentailed{1)makingimpartialpolicyrecommen・
dationstothesupervisors乳and(2)beingheldaccountableforoverseeing
.andcoordinatingvariousdepartmentssoastoobtainhighef丑cie且cyat
・thelowestcost
.9
コ
Theformalstruct町esof77in(orp⊃ratedcommunities.inthecounty
っfLosAngelesゆ(awedagreatdealofsimilarity.Exceptforthecityof
『L
・・A・g・1・ ・,・11.・fth・m茸
・pt'・n・1ec亡i・ ・b・a・d・rc6・n・ilwhl・h・
:asthelocallegislativeaゴdexecutive.Also.theyallhadacitymanager
'whowasresponsiblefor
一ments
.thedailyoperationoftherespectivegovern・
.10・"
Thecityof、LosAngeleshada"weak-mayor"system
.IThechief
・executiveinthiscommunity∼vasanelectiveofHcefromaci'ty-widecon-
stituencyandanonpartisancontestforafour・yearte㎜.Although
themayormade
、severalappoiptn}e薄t5るhehad.littlecρntroloveザhis
『b
ureaucracy.Infact,hewasthechiefexecutiveir.LosAngelesbyname
つnly・1・
・tead・ftk・m・y・r・
・C・hd・p・
・tm・ ・th・d・b・a「d・f丘vecom'
missionersapPointedbythemayor・for-a血ve-yeartermon.apart-time
basis.Thecommlssionerswereresponsiblefortheadministrationof
publicpolicy.11.・
TheactualoperationofthecitygQvernmentwascarriedout.byacorps
ofprofessionaladministrators.Thisgroupofpeoplewas.spearheaded
by・theChiefAdministrativeOfficerwhccontroled丘nancialandpersonnel
mattersinthevariousdepartment呂.Thegroupwastoalargeextenta
・self.governingbodyaccountablenottPthemayorbuttothecommis・
ロ
ノノ
ヲド
,siOIlers.12}
Thelegislativepowerofthe:city
.restedinacouncilof五fteenmembers.
Theywerechose且fromfifteendistrictsonanonpartisanbasisforfour-
y(garterms.Theirprimaryjobwastoissuecityordinanceswhich.might
・6
・t・d
OTmightnotbeapprovedbythemayor.Whenanordinancewasvetoed,
mutualrecriminationbetweentheseelectiveofficialwouldoftenensue.
Thepoliticalstyleandpersonality.oftheincumbentmayorofthe℃ity,
moreoftenthlannot,addedanextradimensiontothiSconfrontation.13
111.AirPollutionControl-PastEffortsinLosAngel.es
・ThecausativeagentsofaIrpollutionvaryaccording.totheregion's
particulargeographicandde田ographiccharacteristics.However,the
SourceSofairpollutioninlargemetropolitanareas,suchasLosAngeles,
revealedapatternofpol1耳tionreflectedinurbanizationandindustrial
expansion,It.is,consequen口y,safetoassu;nethat.themore
.theregion
beComescongestedanddeveloped,thegreatertheprobabilityofpolluted
aヌr.Suchatrendrapidlyincreasedand丘nally,in1943,.itcametothe
attentionofthepeoplelivingthere.InSeptemberofthatyear
LosAng・1・
・7繍f・
・.・h・
,丁
五rsttim・
・ ・…d・hr
.・m・9P士
・bl・m
加
.and
reportedthatseveralthousandresidentssufferedfromeyeirritation.This
wasthe
.beginningofthelonghistoryofstruggle.
.againstSmogin
SouthernCalifornia.14、
Primarilyasaresultofthisexperience,LosAngelesinitiatedthe
firsts叩ogcontrol
,policyin1943.Inthesameyear,theCountyofエos
Angeles,setupa.SmokeandFumeCommissiontostudythenatureand
theextentoftheprobleminSouthernCalifornia.InMarchofthefollowingyear,thisCommissionsubmittedareporttothe.BoardofSuper。
.
visorsoftheCountyofLosAngeles.Thereportrecommendedan
establishmentofanipdependent6f五ceofairpolutioncontroLThisre-
port,partlybecauseofpublicpressure,waswellreceivedbytheBoard
andbecameinstrume亘talinthe・issuanceoftwoimportantordinance
FirstwasOrdinance4460adoptedρnFebruary20
.
,1945,whichcreated
aDirectorofA辻PollutionControLSecondwasOrdinance4547which.
・
.7
madeitamisdemeanorfora血yohetodischargesmoke,soot,層or.'dust
overaprescribedamountl15・
・
『
・.・.;.」
『
一Eventhoughthesetwoc6untyordinancesconstitutedalandmark・in
legislation,theycontainedaseribus'defect..Theycouldbeappliedonly
tounlncorporatedareas.Asfarasincorpor興teqcitieswereconcerned,
theyeitherhadtheirownprogramsasdidthecityofLosAngeles,or
they.tendedtodis亡ountthes'mogproblem.However,inthe.eyesof
℃ountyo伍cials,sinceairpoUUtionwouldnot.respectartificialpolitical
boundaries,itsc6ntrolloughtto・be.asco加prehen6iveaspossibleand
atleasゼcovertheentireregion唖oftheCouhtyofLσsAngeles♂
・
Becauseofsucha.c6nvictibh,countyof五cialstriedtb幽persuade'.the
incorporatedcityg6vernmehtsf6adoptthewineordinances'asthbseof
thecounty..InordertoencouragesUchle≦iislatibn,theBoardofSuperV三sorsevenpromised:to.underwriteany￠ost辱deri》edfromtheordinance
'
ad6ptions..Unfortunat61y,・itfailed」to釜a6illtat6promptaction・onthe
partoftheincorporated』cities.Th三
§ ・1eft・only:6healternativeforごounty
governmenttb.'.folldw:thatis,stateaction三16『.'.『
Thecountycouncil'sofficeheadedbyHaro里dKenhedydrafted.air
pollutiohcontrollegislati6hfor.the・purpose.of.prov:idinga・county二wide
singlecontro1・agency.w'ithpolice・poくver.'In1947;thisbillwaspresentとd
,毛o・the℃alifornia'legislaturea=Asses血blyB量ll.1噛bytherepresentatives
from■osAngeles,butitmetstrongoppositionespeciallyfromrailroads
and..petroleum・industries.Theyboth,feared、thatthestateairpolluti.on
control:program'.might・deter.theirbus圭nessoperations.Once.this・be一
ぐame.knownto.thepublic'through'TheLOSAngeles・Times,however,
theindustrieswithdrew:the玉roppositionandrsupportedthe.measure.
Thisexpedited・the,やas§age・of・thebillwhich・wasapproved..bythe
Senat色'and五nallysigned:into'1awbyGovernorEarlWarrenon.June
ユ01947.17"噛',.,.7.畠.....」....、.」.6
,-「
8・
…....・.,!
・
TheCaliforniaAirPo11ution.ControllAct.of1947℃ontainedtwobasic
cbjecti・
…First・it・b・gh#㌻
・.さ・㌻・bli・h・i・'P・11uti・nc・nt・
・ldl・ 住i・t・ln
variouscountiesofCalifornia,Yet,sincetheproblemwasdifferentin
eachcounty,theActprovidedthaガitw6uld、beup「totheCountySupervisorstodecidewhetherornottheirresやectiveareaneededsuchspecial
districts.
.Thesecondobjectiveinthe.CalifomiaAirPollutionControl
Actwastoabatesmogpri.nlarilyfrom.thestationary.sources,Thiswas
ロ
ド
り
incorporatedintheHealthandSafetyCode.ahd
.madeexplicitinthe
controlprogramofdifferentcounties.18
亭'.冒
As・farasthe
、
.firstobjectivewasconcerned;'theBoardofSupervisors
〈)f.Lbs:Angelesheldaseriesofpublichearingsasprescribedbythe
Actandol10ctober14,1947determiDedtoestablishtheAirPollution
Con廿olDist「ict(APCD)・Upon「eac与
鴨this
.decision・.theBoardn・m・d
Dr.LouisC.McCabaeoftheBureauofMinesasthe丘rstOmcerof
ロ ヒ
ほ
レ
ドロ
ら
レ
ヒ
theDistrict.Hedirectedtheinitialthirteenmember;oftheAPCDto
carryout
,groundwork,and中eywerereadyforoperationbyFebruary
I
F.r・
乱1噛.
.'.・.層.
ユ,1948.19
!・1.
.'・
・The
followingcharacteristics.
'ofSupervisors
・.・.・
.筒耳sics御ctu「eoftheAPCDfo「mrd
..・
」一'1.,.,・.P,
、iゆat..yearcontainedthe
.ItwasundertheauthorityoftheCountyBoard
,whoservedasex-omciomembersofthehighestdecision・
makingbodyinformingpolicyfortheAirPo11utionControlBoard.
Thetaskofdailyoperations,however,wasinthehandsofthreemember;
ofthee)ζecutiv信staffoftheAPCD.TheyincludedtheChiefContro1
0伍
㏄r,theChiefDeputyControlOfficer,andtheDeputyContro10mcer.20
Underthisbody,theAPCI∼wasdividedintosixdivisions,eachofwhich,
wasassignedaspecificfunction.TheEnforcementDivisionwasoneofthe
mostimportant,for・itwasinchargeofdetecting
,investigating,andpro-
secutinganyviolationsofAPCDrulesandregulations.TheEnforce=
mentperso加elalsoprepareddocumentsanddataandappearedaswit・
9
Figure2:LosAngelesAirPollutionControlDistrict
AirPollutionControlBoard
Fivemember;:Servedby
theCountyBoardof
Supervisorsasexo伍cio
・ll
『
ExecutiveStaff
ChiefControlOfficer
ChiefDeputyControlOffices
DeputyControlOfficer
【
lilli
EnforcementEngineeringTechnicalEvaluation.Special
DivisionDivisionDivisionDivisionServices
,Division
11essesifcourtactionswereinvblved.21
TheEngineeringDivisionwasrespbns三bleforthreefields.First,itごonductedvarioustestsandexplorednewsourcesofairpollution.SecQnd,
itinspect6dandevaluatedallequipmentandprocessesaffectingtheair
inthisarea.Third,itwasaccountableforthepermitsystem.Itwould
seetoitthatanynewinstallationsofequipmentandprocesseswould
meetthecountystandard.Ifacceptable,itwouldissueapermittothe
firmconcerned.22
TheTechnicalD孟visionsupervisedtwelveairmonltoringstations'in
LosAngelesCounty.Itrecordedthelevelofcolltaminantconcentrations
ona24-hourbasis。Thesedatabecamethebasicinformationforthe
daily.f6recastsofairpollutioninthebasin.Theyalsobecameabasis
foralertwarningswhichwentinto
.effectinthecaseofan.excessive
build-upofpollutants.239層
TheEvaluationandPlanningDivision,'inconj皿ctionwithother
sections,measuredthepresentstateofairqualityandexplored
additionalsourcesofairpollution.1血thelightoftheseinvestigations,
10.
・1
Adminis・
tratlve
Service:
Division
thisdivisionevaluatedtheexistingcontrolregulationandprograms.
Ifitthoughtinappropriateorinadequate,itrecommended.anewruleor
`
reformofthepresentmethodstotheControlO伍cer.24.
Theprimaryfunctionsofthe'SpecialServicesDivisionweretwofold。
Thepersonnelinthisdivisioninformedandeducatesthepublicabout
thenatureofairpollutionandthework.ofthe・APCD.Theydistributed
materialsonthesequestionsandmadepublicspeechesifnecesary._In
addition,theSpecialServicesDivisionhad.the・taskof,reportingthe
-levelofaircontaminationdailytothemassmedia
,whichinturn.published
orreporteditthroughout,LosAngeles.・Ifpollutionexceededthecounty
standard,thisdivisionimmediately,wouldcontact.themedia,school
districtsandotherpartiesandwould.request・appropriateaction.25
Finally,theAdministrativeServicesDivislonwasin・chargeofthe.pre-
parationoftheannualbudgetandthecollection.andauditingofexpendituresand、revenuesinthe'APCD.Itpublishedthefinancialreports
andkeptallaccountingdocumentsandrecords.26
ThesecondobjectiveintheCaliforniaAirPollutionControlActof
1947wasthestationarysourcecontrol。Forthis,LosAngelesenacted
the丘rstrulesandregulations,inDecember1947.Authorized.bythe
Healthand
.SafetyCodeoftheStateofCalifornia,itservedasaguid-
ingロlanualfortheAirPollution.ControlDistrict.27
Anunderlyingpurposeoftheseregulationswastoupgradethequality
oftheLosAngelesatmospheretothe
.pre・19401evel.Toachievethis
goa1,theseprovisionsincludedmanyspeci丘cprohibit量ons.InitねIly,there
wereonlyfoursuchrestrictions.Rule50forbade.thedischargeofcon-
taminantsandsetforththeRing
.1emannChartasastandardmeasure-
ment.Rule51providedalegalbasisfortheControlof丘cerstoinitiate
preventiveactions.Rules52and53restrictedtheemissions,ofpar・
ticulatemattera口dtheuseofhighsulfurfuels..
.11
..In・1949,theAirPollutionControlDistrictinstitutedtwoadd重tional
regulationsaimingatdustandfumecontroL・In1955,iむadoptedRules
57and58,bothofwh玉ch:wereagalnstopen・air・and.incineratorburning
in.theCountyofLosAngeles.・Inaddition,partlybecauseofthefailure
of.abatementefforts,theDistrlctenactedRule62,acontroversialrule
forbiddingtheuseoflsulfurfuelfromMayltoSeptember30.28
AlthoughtheCountyof.LosAngeleshadfocuseditsattentiononthe
stationarysourcesofpollutidn,manypeoplebegantorealizethatthe
realproblem・inthisregionmightlieinthechemicalreactionsofhydrocarbonsandnitrogen,oxidesfromautomobiles.29...'・.・
Assoonasthisfindingwasmadepublic,the.Los,AngelesAirPollutionControlDistricttookprompt'actionandadoptedregulationscon・
・
cerningmotorvehicleemissions.Rule63,whichwasincorporatedin・
July1959,forinstance,specifiedthegasolinβcontentsold.andsupPlied
inLosAngelesC6unty。
.A1寧o,Rule66.21imitedthe・emission.ofany
photochemicalreactivesolventsintotheatmosphere.・.・
' ・Withrespect『tαmotor
.vehicle.emissioncontrol,.how'evef,itmustbe
notedthatthe・Mulford-CarrellAir、ResourcesAct・of19670ftheState
of・Californla``preempted,・
・theL6sAngelesAirPollutionControl
Districtfromthisproblemarea..Sinceitsin￠eption,theAirResources
Board,insteadoftheILos・AngelesAPCD,hasbeenresponsibleforpOL
』1
utionfroh1・movinggsources.Asthisexampleindicates,sincethe.mid・
・sixties
,theroleofthefedefalandstatego†ernmehtsinthecontrolof
.血otorvehicleemissionShadbecomemoreahdmorei血portant
・sequently
,muchofthelocaleffortsagainstthistypeofairpollution
・weredirectedtowardloca
.lcooperation
ofgove】mment.30・.一
Inenforcingtherulesandregulations,the.,Countyof.Los.Angeles
undertookseveralapproaches.First.wasthepermit'system.whichcon・
12.
.Sub一
.andcoordinationwithotherlevels
・'・
・
rsist6doftwopa丘s.According'toRule100ftheoperationfnanualof
・theAPCD
,``anypersonbuilding,erecting,altering,.orreplacingany
article,machine,equipmentorothercontrivance,theuseofwhichmight
℃ausethe"issuanceofaircontaminantsortheuse6f.,whichmightelimi・
・nateorreduceorcontroltheissuanceof
・aircontaminantsshould丘rst
,
・obtain.authorizatiollforsuchconstructionfromthe.AirPollutionCon-
tro1・Officer.,,31・
・',
Whentheseprojectswerecompleted,theDistrict・required・another
writtenpermitfor・operation.Toobtainthesepermits,theownersor
・operatorshadtopayfeesaccordingtothescheduleprescribedbythe
.AirPollu7tionControlDistrictinLoSAngeles.・
Inthefiscal』yearof1947-48,theAPCD'received.86applicationsfor
・permit§
,ofwhich67,wereapproved'and3disapproved.Inthe、fiscal
yearof1950-51,theDiStrictgranted1,・246permitswhiledenying・.118
・of1;611apPlications.・Inthe・year1958-59,itprocessed.2,422reqUests
.
{)fthese,itauthorized1,175perrni亡sto・cons七ructand・3,339.tooperate.32
'Th
elatestfigures-indicatedthattheAPCDhad.
,receivedatotalof117,
:239・applicationsforpermitsinthelasttwenty-fiveyears.Of、these.apマ
Plications,ithadissued35,978constructionand119,9290peration・per・
mits.Atthesametime,ithaddenied6,67小requests.33….・
Anotherenforcehlentactionbythe'Controlo伍cer・wasperiodicexami一
・nationofequjpment;
・TheRulesandRegulationsof.theLosAngeles
APCD,aswellastheCaliforniaHealthandSafetyandMotorVehicle
Codes,・empoweredtheo伍certoinspectanyindustria1】ocationsat,reasonabletimes。Whenhewould丘ndaviolation,hewouldeither..issロe
.acitationorarrest
.theviolator.Asof1972,thereWereabout.100
・suchinspectorsintheEnforcementDivisionwhowereinchargeof
theentireCountyofLosAngeles.34噛.;
Accordhlgtothereportprovidedby.theAPCDforthefisgalyear
13
1969-70,・74percentofthetotalnumberof'violationswere
.againstRule
500ftheLosAngelesAPCD,whichdealtwithexcessivesmoke.The、
samereportalsorevealedthat10percentwerecitedforoperatingwith一
・
outpemits,and7.2percentagainstRule510nthenuisanceclause..
Intermsofthenumberofviolationsfromahistoricalperspective,there・
were2,369casesinl955and1,900in1956.Since'then,thenumbers
hadbeeninasharpdecline.Inthe五scalyear196〔
〕
」61,forinstance,
therewere164casesofviolationsfromstatio聰rysourcesandin1970,
therewereonly409.
.Theyseemedtoindicateadiminishingtrendofvio一
・
1ators.35
Asidefromtheseactivities,.theinspectorcouldciteor
.arrestsmoking
vehlclesin工osAngelesCounty.However,theproblemwas、that.there、
wereonlysixpatrolunitsinoperation.EventhoughtheAPCDreceived.
`
manycomplaintsofsmokingvehiclesfromcitizen,itcouldnotdovery・
muchaboutthem.WilliamFalknerofthe
.LosAngelesAPCDhadre・
・
markedthatthecontrolofficershouldwitnessandbepresent.atthetime
ofaviolationihorder.tomakeanarrestorgiveacitation.Fromhis
pointofview,withonlysixpatrolcarsthetaskseemedtobebeyond
thecontroloftheDistrict.Falkロer,notedthatinthefuturetheAPCD・
shouldcloselycoordinateitsactionwiththeLosAngelesPoliceDepart一
・
mentwhichalsohadpowertocolltrolsmokingvehicles.36
1twasnotuntil1955thattheAirPollutionControlDistrictbroke・
downthenumberofcitationsinto
.twocategories,stationaryandmoving
sourcesofviolat量on.Inthatyear,thestat重onarysourceviolat三
amo血ntedtoanoverwhelming78percentofthe‡otalnumberofcita-
t量ons.・Thismadequiteacontrasttotherelativelymarginalnumberof
violations.frommovingsourcesinthesameyear.Butthistrendwas.
completelyreversedin1957when87percentofviolationsstemmedfrom.
motorvehicles,althoughthenumber'ofviolationsfrombothstationary
14・
〇ns
andmovingsourcesweresomewhatreduced.37
AthirdsanctionwhichtheAirPollutionControlDistrictCouldadmihister
-wasthroughtheinitiationofcriminalproceedings
.Itcouldbringthecase
tocourtshouldaviolatorfailtocomplywithacitation.In1955there
・were2
・these
,349instancesofsuchactionofatotalof3,046violations..Qf
,2,292wereprovedtobeguiltyofamisdemeanor.In1965,the
I)istrictprocessed2,365citationsforcr勧minalproceedings,ofwhich99.4
:percentwereconvicted.In1970therewere1,362courtactions.witha
94.4percentconvictionrate・Since1955,theAirPollutionρontrol
,
Districthadsent43,886violations,or95percentofthe.totaln翠mberof
.citationstothecourts.38・',,,
ThelastpreventivemeasureaccordedtotheAPCDwas'thealertsys・
tem.Authorized.by:theCountyBoardofSupervisorsin1955,itenabled
theControlO伍cetoshutdownindustriesandtra伍cifaconcentration
・of.contaminantswouldreachadeterminedlevelofdanger。Tomonitor
・this
,theAirPollutionControlDistrictmaintainedtwelvesamplingstations
・inrepresentativelocations
.ofLosAngeles.Theyoperatedonacontinuous
basisandtransmitdataautomaticallytothecommunicationcenterat
theLosAngelesAPCD.39
1n・short,from層theexaminationofairpollutioncontrolinLosAngeles,
wecanseethatLosAngeleswasfar・sightedinseeingtheneedfora
specialo伍cetoundertakesuchacomplicatedproblemasairpollution.
WecanalsonotethatLosAngeleswasrelativelyadvancedintermsof
theestablishmentofrulesandregulations,thetrainingofpersonnel,
andinenforcementofsmogcontrol.Onthebasisoftheseaccomplish・
:ments,it童sfah・toconcludethatairpo】1utioncontrolinLosAngeles
.appearedtobeoneofthebetterairpo11utioncontrolprogramsinthe
τJnitedStates.
15
..IY.Thepe『ision-MakingSystemofAirPollutionControlin
LosAngeles
InLosAngeles,therewereseveralgovernmentagenciesthatwereinvolvedinthesmog.control.TheAirPollutionControlDistrictwasone,
organizationwhichwasmerelyapartofthelargeadministrativesystem
that'dealtwith層th.色smogproblem.Oneofthemostsigni丘cantfeatures.
aboUtLosAngeles『sとemsthatthedifferentgovernmentagenciesinvolved.
・formeda'highlycentralizedandcoherentsystemwhichwasquiteoper
3tionalintermsbfdecision-makingandpolicyimplementation'inthe
problemofsmogcontro1.
.Thededsion・makingstructureofairpollutioncontrolinLosAngeles.
encompassedfivegovernmentagencie<..Theywere:ωtheAirPollution.
・'CbntrolBoard;(2)theScien面cCommittee;(3)theAirPollutionCon一
't
rolDistrict(APCD);{4)theHearingBoard;and(5}.theEnvironmentaL
QualityControlCommittee.Theseofficeswerevestedwith.exclusive・
authorityinthecurtailmentbfsmogfortheentireregionofLosAngeles;.
Amongthesegovernmentagencies,theAirPollution・ControlBoardwas
the』highestorganizationsittingatthetopofthetier.Thefivemembeヒs
,ofthis.body,whowereconcurrentlytheCountyBoardof.Supervisors,
hadthreeimportantfunctions.They.werethelegislators.Theymade
'
.newregulationsandrevjsedoldones.Atthesametime,themembers.
oftheAirPollutionControlBoardwerethechiefexecutives..Theysaw
・toitthattheprogramtheyhadauthorizedwascarriedoUt..江norderto・
assurethisrule-application,oneofthese丘vememberswouldtakespecial.
responsibilitytooverseetheentireoperationoftheairpollutioncontroL
program.40'.
Inadditiontotheseprimereponsibilities,theAirPollutionControL
Boardperformedarepresentativefunction.Eventhoughthiswasmostly
1ち
-
Figure3:TheDecision-Making.Systemof.AirPollutionControlinLos
Angeles
AirPollutionControlBoard
Scientific
Committee
EnvironmentalQualityCont
Committee「of
AirPollutionControlDistrict
HearingBoard`
。by-P,6d。
。t。fm。mb。
士s巴。fbe{・gth・C。u・tyS。p6・vi、
。rs,it.wasq。it。
significant,especiallyfromthestandpointofcross-nationalcomparisons.
InLosAngeles,anycitizenor.groupcouldattendany.oftheregu-
lars6ssi。n、
。f'th。B。a・dandp・e、entalvi。w。
・・nt・・1・・hldb・
inL・
・n.theag・nd・.Thi・p・i・i1・g・w・6》
・Angeles「ega「dles等
・!hi$ec・n・micprP・lltical・
tivesfromcivicgroupssuchasWomenForaswellasthosefrombig
、1。 。SasF。11亡ti。h
・・t・di・ ・nyi・di・idUal
加t…R・p「ese噸
一
ド
interesガgroupssuchasStandardOi1,forexample,couldbringtheirpar一
tjcularopinionst6theAirPo11uti6nControlBoard.Appearingbeforさ
theBoard,eachgrouphadanequalchahceofbeingheard.4'1幽
Followingthesepresentations,the'AirPollution..℃ontrolBoardcould
engageinanintensivestudyoftheissuebeforetheinterestedaudience.
Ifitlookedcomplexandbeyondtheirimmediatecomprehension,the
コ
Boardmemberscouldsummo且amemberoftheadministrativestaffand
askforhisprofessionaljudgment.Thebasicconceptullderlyin9'this
particularpoliticalprocesswasthattheAirPollutionControlBoardwould
17
.listentoanexpressionofpublicopinion.・Fullytakingthisintoconsideセ
。
ation,itwouldtrytoprovidethebestlegislationtosafeguardthegeneral.
welfare.Inarrivingatsuchanultimateobjective,theBoardmembers'
wouldhavealongandheateddebate,showingthatthiswasoneofthe
moreopensoundingboardsjnthepoliticalsystemofLosAngeles.42
Thesecondorganizationinthedecision・makingstructureoftheair
pollutionとontrolinLosAngeleswastheScienti且cCommittee.Itwas
establishedasanadvisorybodytotheAlrPollutionControlBoardbecauseofthehighlytechnicalnatureoftheproblem.Anypolicyrecom・
InendationmadetotheBoardshould丘rstbediscussedwiththiscommittee.Therationalebehindthisprocedurewasrootedinthehistoryof
theAirPollutionControlDistrict.Whenitwasstilljnarudimentary
stageofdevelopment,theControlBoardwasafraidthattheDistrict
mightintroduceanewrulewhichwouldbetechnicallyandeconomically
unfeasible.Itmight,forinstance,proposeto,closetheentirefreeway
'
systemwheneversmogwouldhangoverLosAngeles.Inorderto,
avoidsuchanextremeproposal,theAirPollutionControlBoardkept
theScientificCommitteetoscrutinizenewproposals.Thisprobably
smoothedouttheprocessofpolicymaking.43
1nadditiontosuchanoriginalresponsibility,theScientificCommittee
hadtwootherfunctions,bothofwhichwerespelledoutinAPCDRules
andRegulations.First,itstudied"the.mostsuitablemethodfor
mentofaircontaminants',andrecommendedtotheAirPollutionCon・
trolBoardanychangeregardingthelevelofsmogconcentrationsforthe
alertsystem.Secondly,it.servedasaconsultingbodytotheAPCD.
Itespecially.providedinformationonthehealtheffectsofsmog.Thus,
theDistrictcouldtakepromptandappropriateactionforthewelfare
ofalLpersonsin.thecounty.44'
.AccordingtoRule1630fAPCDRulesandReguiations,themembers
18
.measure-
・
ofthiscommittee,exceptfortheexっ
伍ciomelhbers(i.e.,theAirPol.
1udonControlo丘icerandtheCountycounsel)were.appo玉ntedby.theAir
PollutionControlBoardforatwo・yearte㎜.Butinpractice,theap・
pointmelltswereusually'semi・permanent.Accordingto・thedataof1971,
theCommitteeconsistedof18professionalpeoplea取dwasheadedby
ChairmanHurleyL.Martley,MD.45,
Aninvestigationintothebackground6feach.=memberrevealedtWo
interestingfacts」First,itshowednoIaymanonthelist.Bythevery
natureofthiscommittee,thismaybeunderstandable.Evenifalay
personhadbeenincluded,itwouldseemdoubtfuithathecouldhave
mademuchofacontribution.'Butwhenthisfactwascheckedagainst
thesecond
、丘nding,ittended`tohaveasigni丘callt.meaning,46
Acursoryexaminatiollshowed・thatatleasttwocommitteemembers
hadabusinessbackground.Othermaterialsconsultedrevealedthat
therewereat!east
.負veorsixmemberswhorepresentedvariousindus㌘
tries.Asamatteroffact,theVice-Chairman,Uh重c.B.Bray,wasthe
chiefengiロeeroftheCaterp重11arT】
嘔ctorCorporation..andacopsultant
oftheSocietyofAuto・Engineers.Inotherwords,.bUsinessinterests
werewellrepresentedinthisorganization,whilethenon・businesspublic
層
wasrepresentedonlybymedicaldoctorsandcollegeprofessors.47
Third,anotheragencywhichplayedanimportantpartinthedecision・
makingsystemofairpollutioncontrolwastheAirPollutionControlDis-
trict.Althoughanoutlineofthis
.organizationhadalreadybeenpre-
sented,itisworthpointingoutagain,itsmajorfunctioninthissystem.
Strictlyspea
.king,theAPCDwasan・agentwhichbelongedtoanexecutive
branchofthelocalgovemment.Consequently,itsmaintaskwastocarry
outthedecisionsmadeby.itssuperior,theAirPollutionControlBoard.
βut,primarilybecauseofthenatureoftheproblem,theAPCDo㏄u・
:piedamo∫eimportantand'strategicpQsitionthanusuallyassumed.
19
・InLthis㌧issueareaダ
.sdientificknowledgeon、.airpollutionwascriticsユ
層and
セ6.alargedegree・determinedtheext(妻nto{powerthateachagencycould
muster.Since.the.APCDconstantly・studied..additional..pollutants・.and
Ihethodsofcontrollingthem,itsinfluence・ontheentiredecision-making
system/loomed'1argerthanthatofanyother'.organization..Thefactof..
thematterwasthattheexpertiseoftheAPCD.'ellableditto,write..amajor
portionめfthe・rules『and.regulations,.allof,・whichセit.would.1aterexecute.'
層1
.ThelcaseinvoMng.theru16amendmentonthe.Ringle血a血.Chartin
1971clearlyihUstrated,thekey.rolethatthe.APCDplayedjnt耳isdecisionmakingsystem:..::'Sever..divisionsoftheDistrict,after.many・
・years.・of
practical.層experience,noted'amalordefect.・in・Rulel50.oftheR.ule畢
・and
RegulationsoftheyAirPollutionContr61・.Dis廿ictofLos.'Angeles.・The
stationary.sources..ofpollutionwere:・growingata.rapidrateand・.these
peoplestrongly.feltthattheruleshouldbeChanged・toforbid・any'conご
ta血ihationwhich.was・
・
チ`darkordark6ガin.shadeP∴and.exceeded.'theIevel
of・Nufnberlinfh6'RinglemannChart.instead・.ofNu血ber.・2.4fl….'・
・.The.questionwas.eventuallybroughttO..the'attentionof.theexecutive
staffoftheAPCD,.whichimturnformeda'task.forcetostudythe.pro-
posedchange=・
ξThisad・hoccolnmittee'was.1.comprisedofalldivision
heads6f'thさ.Districtandrepreselltatives.of.industrieswhichwould6b6
.directlyaffectedby.theruleamendment、':Aftera己seriesofmeetings,『.it
wasdecidedtob{ぎgina.jointresearごh・projecttofindout.the,technical
盆ndeconomicfeasibilityoftheproposedruleundeゴ
.examination..49Thus,
theAPCDconsultedwith.railroads,construction,andotherindustries.
Ouゼofthis(三
〇n'sultationcamean.agreementinOctober1971tosupP6rt
theproposedhlleamendment.50=.L・.巳
一'!.『
BasedoゴSuchanunderstanding,theAPCDsubmitted・arequestfor
apublic・hearihgonthisquestionsto『
This'wasgranted.`andthedate・wasset・forNovember4,1971`・Assoon
20
・theAirPolhltionControlBoard.
・'
・
・asthe'announcementwasmadepublic
,alarge.number.魑o飼irms,、mostly
『fr
om.outsideLosAngeles,.sentcables.andIetterstoprotest.againstthe
'hea・ihg
,fee且
・lnadditi・
・>P・
・b・blybeca・r・th・
・eu・h・pPy
.i・d・ ・柱iesdidh・t
・secUre,theydeterminedtoτpreSehttheifopinionin.1)ersohat』the
」
血eetingl51'
":
・'On'November4ヂ1971
サ
,BillRyah;theChairlnanloftheCal{forn.ia'Mah丘
一
facturersAssociation,spearheadedthedri†eagainst.the'fUleamend血eht.
HefirsゼcriticizedtheAPCDbyarguingthatith註d:been頁h.d6r.heavy
lpfesgurさfrbmthefederal・government
.・ 層InRyan's'⑪ini6n,・.圃thismore
thananythingelsemotivatedthe・AirやoliUtion・.Coh廿01.Distr.￠tto・in一
'iti
atean.alteration・bfthe・currentrule..・`'Ryancontendedthatsincethe
.centralauthoritydid一
直6ガunderstandlocalcondition:,the:C6ntroレBoard
・shouldrejectsuchanunseasonablede血and
.52.〔'..ド.1・'・i・1.㌧`」
Againstthesearg廿meh七s,'theAPCD'p6ih亡ed'o直
立thaゼ1!the.pr6pos6d
changeonRule50wasaresultoftheconsiderabler6忌
the.Districtahdloと
三
セi・6i・gC・
註lindust】
さarch1〕y一
一both
》..Aゼthesalhe「time,『it'.deve丘)Pさdacon一
・e・th・t;ffもmbothto・h・i・alande・
。n6面ic「pdi。t、
・
。f・vi。w;the
「h
ewregulationcouldbe'complied輌th"withoutcausinginuch.burdent〔
》
business;.This,the.APCDcontinued,had"alreadybeeflde血onstrat6dby
ド
ニ
ア
層it
sc611aborationwiththe.1.businessindustry:Finally,thd幽APCDemphati一
ヒ
ロ
ト
げ
ロ
℃a11yheldthatthenewrulecould3h.bstantiallyimprovethe'smogconL
dition
.of'LosAngeles;As.thiswas.what.,e》6ryone・.、Hoped.to'achieve.
the'b血Sinessgroupsshouldtolerate,suCha.1ittle..inconマeniehce.incurred
bytherulechange.53、
一. ..、.・
/Becausetheentireissueappearedcontroversial
、..・..∴
ゼ..
,theAir.Pollution『Con-
trolBoardmadeamotiontoho豆danadditionalhearingonJanuary6.
1972.Onthisoccasion,theBoardlistenedtovarious'opinio血sfrom
differentgroゆs.ofpeople.・Themostimportantwere,thetestimonies
by丘vemembersofthe-Scienti丘cCommittee,Theyallcameout.a耳d
21
・supportedtherulechange
.Thisseemedtohaveagreatimpact.onthe
、membersoftheBoard.Eventhoughthese.丘vescientistswerenot
directlyinvolvedintheresearch,theirprofessionalcompetencewasbe一
.yondanydoubt.'Andthefactthattheysanctionedthemeasureledthe
ノ
Boardmemberstobelievethattheyshouldpassthenewamendmenton
:Rule50、Thus,althe
.endofthemeetingonJanuary6,1972,theAir
.PollutionControlBoardapProvedof・itunani∬1Qusly.54
1nsummation,theexperiencerevolvingaroundtheRingIemannChart
amendmentclearlyindicatedtheimportantandstrategicposition
.that
.theAPCDoccupiedinthedecision-makingsystemrelated㌻qsmog
￡on廿olinLosAngeles.Itconstantlyundertookresearc弊.Italsofor一
'皿ulatednewregulaUons
.Alsoittriedtofacilitatethelegislationof
.thesepolicieswithconvincillgtechnicalevidence
.Allthese・functions,
asaresult,卯adetheAPCP.thenervecenterof
'programofLosAngeles
.theentire,smogcontrol
。.
Thefourthorganizationtobereviewedhereinrelationtosmog
abatementisthe耳earingBoardoftheAPCD.This.was.aquasiう
μdical
』b
odyofthreemembers・TheprimaryfunctionoftheHearingBQardwas
t・re・
号i・・pρ
㌻iti…f・
・v・
・i・ncesandt・9「antthem・ifconsideredneces'
sary.Avarianceinthiscontextmeantthatifafirmcouldnotmeetthe
・
、county'srequirementsforsomereasonbeyonditscontrol,.itcould.then
.一apPeal'f。,a,t,m,。ra,y。x,m,・i。
。f・ 。m・h・
・theprovisionforavarlance
,thecompanywhiChsoughtreliefshouldes・
・tablishthespeci丘creasonforandestimatetheduratlonofitミ.noncom一
・pliance
:Board.55
.Itshouldsubmitthisinformationinw雌tenformtotheHearing
..
Approximatelytwoweeksafterthepetitionwasfiled,theBoardwould
二reviewthecase.Atthehearipg(hearingswereheldthreetimesaweek)
thepetitionerwasu$uallyrepresentedbya_privatelawfirm,whilethe.Air
22
・。1es。1・
・v・ili・gi・
・elf・fぐ
Pollution・ControlDistrictdependedonfivelawyersfromtheCounty
CounsePsO伍ce.Thestagebe三ngsoset,theDistrictwouldappearasan
adversaryopposingtheセariance.Thefiセ
罰qunderexaminationshould
.provethatithadaprogramforcomplianceandshouldshowgood
.intentionineventUally.complyingwiththelaw.Without.theseefforts
,
itseemedunlikelythatthepetitionerwouldsecureatemporarysuspension
ofthe.rules.56
1ntota1,theHearingBoardhadreviewedmorethan4,300.casessince
1957andgrantedvariancesfor3,246petitions.Inrecentyears,onthe・
average,100utofllapplicants(90percent)werewinningマariances.A
variancecouldbegrantedonlyuptooneyear,Butthiscouldbeextended
foピan・unlimitednumberofyearsaslongastheapplicantcouldprove、
thatnollcompliancewasunavoidablefortechnicalandeconomic'reasons.57
1nrecentyears,theHearingBoardhadcome
、underfire.Themajor
criticismagainstthisinstitutionwaSthatitwas.toolenientingranting
variances.Accordingtothisaccusation,evenifthecountymadestrin一
・
gentregulations,itcouldnotcontrolpollutionbecausetheseruleshad
beenexemptedoneafteranotherbytheHearingBoard
。Thischarge
was,however,emphaticallydeniedbyboththeme血bersoftheBoardand
theAirPollutionControl.District.58Yet,itremainedtruethattheBoard
.
didnotpublicizeitsrecordforgrantingavariance,apracticefrequently
`attackedbyecologygroups
.
'Finally
,inLosAngeles,therewastheEnviromnentalQualityControl
Comm量ttee,whosefunctionamongotherswastooverseetheentifeoper.
ationoftheairpollutioncontrolprogram..Thiscountyorganizationwas
establishedonMarch17,1970,byanactoftheCountyBoardofSuper・
・
visors.Attheoutset,theCommitteeconsistedoftwogroupsofpeople
、
The且rstgroupwasmadeupoffivecitizenmemberswhowereappointed
.
byeachofthefiveSupervisors,whilethesecondgroup.wascomposed
`23
ofseventeendepartment.headsofthecountyadministration.A耳of
thesemembers.had,votingrights.59,
But.thisorganizationalstructuresoonrevealedaseriousdefect.In
ユ970,whena.stateinitiativeon.thes川ogcontrolbecameabigissue,
'theEnvironmentalQualityControLCommitteedecided
.tostudy.it..Having
heart、both.sidesoftheargument,theCommitteetookavote..The
:resultindicatedthatallcitizenmemberswerefortheproposition,While
all'ex-o伍cio『memberswereagainstit60'
.・
・
Thisexperience・taughtagoodlesson.especjallytothosecitizenmembers
く)ftheCommittee...They
.felt..thaレitshould:avoidsuchaclear
Sφismifitwantedtoりeagoodadministrativeoverseer...Thusゴnine
;months.afterits.foundation,tWobasicchangeswereintro(1uced.First,
alldepartlnentheadslosttheirvotingrights・andwouldhenceforth.serve
・
〈)nlyasanadvisorybody.Second,thefive・
.citizenmembersbecamethe
coreof:theCQ坦mitteea耳d・eachwouldhaveanalternatewho玉wasnamed
by・theCounty・Supervisors.61,
Until.the、,endof1971,theEnvironmenta1-QualityControlCommjttee
、:hadbee耳veryactiveinmakingvarious.independentstudies・onecology
problem:.Oneof.the,mosts量gni血cant-andcontroVersialcontributions
wasitsreview,.ofthesmog.contro1書.p轍)graln.ofLosAngeles.Fro皿
June14toJune24,1971ジ.1the.Colnmittee、invitedmorethan35witnesses
whorepresenteddifferentsectorsofthecommunity.TheyincludedDr.
AJ.Haagen・Smltジ}the"father"ofphotochemicalsmogcontrolandthe
℃hairmanofthe・.A.h':ResourcesBoard,.Robert・ChassoftheAirPollution
Control・
・District}of・
・LosAngeles,JosephR。Rensch,thevice-president・of
thePacificLighting二
τCorporation,・Lawrence・Kelbleyof.theLeagueof
.WomenVoters;.and.otherprominent・
℃itizens.62-
Thesehearings・:wereconductedbyJudgeHerbert・Walker,aretired
juristwithmany・yearsofexperiencβon'theHearingBoardofthe
24
一APCD,whoacted・as.thechairmanoftheCommittee.・Assis伽g・.hin}
wereJerryHilby,anattorney,Dr・'RobertKramer,Dean
Pomona,Martin.Waisbren,・
.of'℃al,pQly
、abusinessmanandpast・chairman
.Qf一,the
FederalGrandJury,andMrs.El;enSternHarris,apast即e田berof.the
Regional・WaterQuality,ControlBoard.ofLosAngeles.サ3,
Except・forMrs.Harris,other田emberswere.notwellversedinthe
smogproblemand.it、took,them甲ore.than伽emonthsφ
.comeupwith
a∬nal・report.Because.thereport.w融sextremely
,crl‡icaLo`..the,、c口rreht
℃ontfoレprogram・in、genera1'=and、theAir、
・particular
・Pollutlop..
.CoptrolDistr.ict.in
,it.wassoonattackedbyboth.the・DiStricto伍cersandthe
Supervisors.Infact,・thereport,wassocontroversial'that.the・.EnvironmentalQualityControl.Committee,was..dissolved・afewweeks,after.jts
publication.64
・Yet
,・inthebeginningof1972,・,the・Committee:・was・reconstitutedand
newmembers・wereappointed、:Butithad・110tundertakenanyprolect
andhadremaineddomlantuptothe・present.time.『5'
Insu皿mary,wehave.examined、deciSion-makipg
.
..,
.in.theorganization
andadmiロistrationofairpollutioncQntrolofLqs・Angeles,withspeciaI
emphasisonstructUre,process,anddecisjonmakers
.・Froロ1.thisinvesti-
gation,wecandraw.severaIimportant,conclus1ons.IIItemls・ofthe
structure,wehavefoundthatthefivegovernmentagenciesrelatedto
thisissueformedacoherentandcoordinatedsystem.Theywere.alllinked
togetherbytheircontribution,todecision-making
pollutiOncontroL・..,
TheAirPollutionControlBgardmade
.with,respect..toair
...'
.・basicpolicy.Ipdoingthis,
itreceivedvaluable.technicahnformationfromtheScientificCommittee.
The
.APCD,atleastfromthestructuralstandpointenforcedtherules
andregulationsconcomitantWiththelegislativeactionsoftheAlrPol・
1utionControlBoard.TheHearingBoardfunctionedasajudic{ary,or・
2^
ganization.Itweighedthestatutesagainsttechnicalandeconomicfeasi・
・
bilities.Finally,theEnvironmentalQualityControlCommitteeactedasa
watchdogseeingtoitthattheentiresystemoperatedproperlyandhelped.
tosolve亡hesmogproblemofLosAngeles.
Fromthepointofthedecisibn・makingprocess,wehavelearnedthat'
亡hepositionoftheAPCDweighedmoreheavilythanthatofanyothers
inthepollutioncontrolsystem.Notonlywasitdecisivelntheproposa1.
andacceptahceofrules,butjtalsoenjbyedaconsiderableamountofjnHuenceintherule-makingprocessoftheAirPollutionControlBoard..
Thisis,aswehave皿oted,primarilyattributableto..thetechnicalnature・
・
oftheproblem.lThein-depthknowledgeoftheDistrictonairpol・.
lutionhelpedittoassumethemostimportantposition`inthe・policy
processofI,osAngeles.・
・
Anotherimportantpointtobestressedhereisthe至ackofinterマe!1tionbythefederalgovernmentin'theIocaldecision-makingproves:.
Inthisregion,andfor・thatmatterintherestofthe'metropolitanareas
oftheUnitedStates,localinitiativeandresponsibilitywerehighlゾvalued.
Thiswasclearlythecasein'LosAngeles,wherethefivelocalairpollution.
controlagencieswereexclusivelyinvolvedintheinitiative
,administration
andreviewoftheprogramwithrespect,toair・pol豆utloncontrolfrom
Stat10narySOUrCeS.・
Fin・lly,wesh・
圏..・
・1d・1・ ・n・t・theg・n・
cision-makersonsmog.Theelectedof五cialsi血'LosAngeles'weresμr-
prisinglysensitivetothisissueandmadeconsciouseffortstodiscus:'and.
studytheproblem.Evenifthiswasmainlyapoiiticalexpedience,there,
seemedljttledoubtthatsuchorientationsOnthepartofthe.decision.
makershadalreadybeen.ofdecisiveimportanceinhelpingLogAngeles
toinstitutearelativelybetterprogram.thanmanyothersintheUnited
States....・'.
26
.
・
・al・ ゆd・am・
・g・th・t・pde-
Notes:
8圃'「
1LeagueofWomenVotersofLosAngelεsCounty,」LOS!1πgθ1θ3Coμ
吻
Goρ 〃"翅g"'(LosAngeles:LeagueofWQmenVotersofLosAngeles
o
County,1968),pp.3-6.
2HelenL.JonesandRobertF.Wilcox,ル
惣〃 のo〃tanLosAnge'θs'」'3Go"〃r・
泌 θπ'(LosAngeles:TheHaynesFoundation,1949},p.8,
3LeagueofWomenVoters,p.5.
の
4RobertWarren,"TheRiseofLosAngelesCountyasaProducerof
MunicipalService,"i轟Go"θ7π
〃:en!げ'加1吻
〃 ψo'ゴ3,ed.byJosephF。
Zimmerman(NewYorklHolt,Rineむart,andWinston,1968),pp。208-219.
5JohnRiesandJohnJ.Kirlin,``GovernmentintheLosAngelesArea:
ヨ
コ
TheIssueof・CentralizationandDecentralization,"inLo34"9θ1θ
う〃 め2σ
π4P70膨`isfor〃
ロ
ε31!冨
ココ
θ'(ψ01ゴ}8πLead〃5纐,ed.byWernerZ.Hirsch
σ・
(NewYork,Washington,&London:Praeger,1971),p。103.
61bid.,pp.93-94.SeealsoRichardM.Cion,``AccommodationParExce1一
・1ence:TheLakewoodPlanノ'inル
勉 〃 ψo'f'σ 〃P∂'漉`3'∠4Reader
,ed.
byMichaelN.Danielson(Boston:Little,BrownandCo.,197),pp.224231.
7CountyofLosAngeles,ChiefAdministrativeO伍ce,7乃
θGoρ
ロ ヤ
.'乃
θCoμ
麗yげ'五
ヒ
θ7π鷹
π'げ
〇3∠ 肋gg16ε(LosAngeles:ChiefAdministra正ive
.0缶ce,
n.d.),pp.1-14.'8CountyofLosAngeles,County
.ρ∫Loε
ロ
ノ1πgθ'θ31)G'aGuideJ1971-1972,
1972,8-18.SeealsoJaneGladfelder,Cc'ヴb7〃is'εEmergingCo朔'1E5
ヨ
(Sacramento,Calif.:CountySupervisorsAssociationofCalifornia,1968),
pp。25-52.
9CountyofLosAngeles,ChiefAdministrativeO伍ce,InformationServices,
コ
コ
Chief・44〃2fη
ゴε〃 αだz2θ0ガcθJHistory,Sθ
ア擁 σ93andFπ
π`'ions(LosAngeles:
ChiefAdministrativeO伍ce,1969},pp.1-8.
10WinstonCrouchandBeatriceDinerman,&厩
・4Stnめ,ゴ
πDθ
伽
〃θのρ加 θπ'(り 「 σoび〃 π吻 θπ'ノb7Qル
πCσ
惣 〃0ρo'"σ
」
吻7癩1晩
π
〃oρo万S:
ん ・
θσ{Berkeley
andLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1963),pp.8-9.;and
'JonesandWilcox
,漉
〃(ψ01f'σ πLo3Angeles,pp.21-29.
11Franc三sCarney,``TheDecentralizedPoliticsofLosAngeles,"ノ1朋4Zsげ
,加
ノ1〃t〃i`4π!kσ46溺yρ
ノpolf,f6〃andSo`16jS6fθ"`θ
ε,CCCLIII
.(May,1964),
107-112.Somepeopleholdanentirelyoppositeopinionwithrespect
tothemayor'§politicalpowerinLosAnge!es.See,e.g.,加
ε.ノ㎞gg12∫
27
Ti〃2θs,January21,1973,Pt.2,pp.1,7,8.
12Carney,"DecentralizedPolitics,"p.112.SeealsoJones狐dWilcox,
ル観7ψo'吻
πLoε
、
肋gθ1θ3,p,
、17,andRiesan4Kirli項,``Governmentin
theLosAngelesArea,"p.92.
13Wilson,AReportoπP∂1耽
∫ofLo:Angeles,pp.II,4-5;andEdwardC.
Ban丘eld,Bゴgα
≠y勘1ゴ
彦∫c3(NewYork:RandomHouse,Inc.,1967),pp.
P
82-83.
、■
14LewisHerber,C7fsゴsitOurCities(EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.=Prentice・Hal1,
1965}・PP・48-51・
.
.,.・
・.、.・
、,
15p.S.,DepartmentofHealth,Education,andWelfare,4ヶPθ
.,.〃o'」FieldOpera吻
〃 瞬oπCon・
ε 〃 伽 解',ed.byI導elvinI.W号isburd,
.PHSPub・
1icationNo.937(Washington,D.C.:GovernmentPrintingO伍ce,1962),
P.60;seealsoCountyofLosAngeles,0伍ceofAirPollutionContro1,
A脚
・'Red・
・'げAirPc〃
解伽C卿
・'」 .1945-46(L・sAngeles:O伍ce
ofAirPollutionContro1,1946),p.13.
16Countyof
..
.LosAngeles,0伍ceofAirPollutionContro1,ノ1塀
伽0匝
・・ げ
砂
利1勉
だ・〃C・
・'・・1・1946τ
κ〃1∼6ρ07'げ
.47〔L・
・A・g・1…0缶ce・f
AirPollutionControl,1947),P.1.
17CountyofLosAngeles,BoardofSupervisors,TheHistory,Lθgσ!and
〃
〃加'sf7α'勿
り
θ1始 ρθ`'ε(ゾ 海7物
ヒ
ヒr1●'ド
〃纏oπControlin'舵Coμ
ず
吻
げLos加8θ
」
θε,
byHarol"W.Kennedy(LosAngeles:CountyBoardofSupervisors,・
1954},pp.1-17.
181bid.,pp.19-20.
,19CountyofLosAngeles,APCD,!1π
πμ〃Rψ07彦'.1947-1948(LosAngeles:
APCD,1948),pp.1-2.
20NancyConnick,eta1.,S〃20gParadox(LosAngeles:ProgramillPublic
.PolicyStudiesoftheClarem⑳t.Colleges,1971),p.86.
21CountyofLosAngeles,APCD,ノ1pCD'猛5'oアyandFμ
π6'∫oπ,Publi・
cationNo.1(LosAngeles:APCD,1972),pp.a-11.
.
221bid.
231bid.,●
■」
241bid.
251bid....
261bid...・..1.
27WillialhFalkner,SpedalServicesDivision,APCDofLosAngeles,private
interviewheldinLos.AngelesonJanuary10,1972.
28GeorgeH.HagevikうDecision.Makingin1fir勘
28..
〃躍 如 ヵCoπ'70」{NewYork:
FrederickA.Prae曾er,1971},pp681-127.,,;、..、
、
・,,
:29U.S.,Congress,Senate,Co卑mitteeonPublicWorkS,,Hearing§,beforea
subcommitteeonairandwaterpol.1ution,90thCong.多1st.sessり1967,P.
218.........、
・..
.30Asaresult・oftwoagenciesdealing・witha董rpollution.cQntro1,therehad
beenmany・reportedincidences.ofadロ1inistrativein・
丘ghting..Particularly
becausetheAPCDinLosAngeleswa6the,・
'States
丘rstof,itski茸dinthe』United
,ittendedt6100kdownonothergovernmentorganization:.incharge
ofsmo9「controLRegardingthisadministratiyeprOblem,seeConnicket
a1、,SmogPα
アσdoκ,PP.67-97,Seealso・StateofCalifornia,Of五ceofLegiS・
1ativeAnalysis,AirP∂
〃纏oπCo"〃01inCσ1吻
〆π∫σ(Sacramento,.Calif.:
Of五ceofLegislativeAnalysis,1971),pp.73-96..』
、.!..
Withrespecttotheroleofthe
.federalgovernmentip.theareaofair
pollutioncontrol,seeJeffreyFromson,``A..HistOryofFedera1、AirPo1・
lutionContro1,"inEnvironmentalLa.〃
・Review1970,ed.byH.Floyd
Sherrod(Albany,N,Y.:SageHa11,1970),pp.214-238;and.J.Clarence
.DaViSL2協
θ、PoliticsげP∂
〃曜'0π(Ne隅
∼-YOrk:PegaSUSデ1970)..・
31CountyofLosAngeles,APCD,Rule、10."・':.、
.32SinceeachapplicationQftenrequestedseveraldifferentequipmentsys・
tems,thenumbeピofpermit'sgranteddidnot-・equalthenumberof
apPlicationssubmitted.
.・.幽1唱
・"
:33These丘gureswere.tabulated.bythis.writerbnthebasisoftheannlual
・reportsoftheAPCDsince1946
。圏BecausetheDi.strictdidnotdisclose
reasonsfordenialofpermits,nopatternscouldbeestablishedtd'determine
typesofeq血ipmentsystemsacceptable』t6theAPCD.・
39Conhicketal.,SmogParadox,1pp.・75」76.Regardihg層inspections,there
lhadbeenmanycriticismsagainsttheAPCD.JaneWilsonin"Scenario
.、
foraSmogSnafu,"West,January9,1972,pp.14-15,forinstance,argued
thatallelaborate``daw取raids',werenothihgbetterthahshowcasesof
theAPCDtodemonstrateitse伍ciencyandeffectiveness.層
:35Allfiguresweretabulatedbythiswriterbasedontheannualreportsof
thAPCDsince1946..・
:36Falkner,privateinterview,January10,1972.∵.・
37Thesedatacollectedandsortedout.by.thiswriteronthebasisofthe
annualreportsoftheAPC1)since1946.・..
38Thesefigure:aretabulatedbythiswriterbasedontheannualreports
oftheAPCDsince1946..『
ド.
29
39CountyofLosAngeles,!1P.Cρ,S〃20g、4197'srSmog砺4飾
β〃ゐSmog
Warnings〔LosAngeles:APCD,1972),pp.1-9.
・40U
.S.DepartmentofHealth,Education,andWelfare,AirPり
FieldOp〃
〃 μ'fo〃Control:
α'∫oπManual,ed.byMelvinI.Weisburd,PHSPublicationNα
.
937(Washington,D.C.:GovernmentPrint量ngOffice,1962},pp.62-72.
41LeagueofWomenVotersofL.A.COunty,Lo3AngelesCoπ
πり,Govern〃
欄'.
pp.8-10.SeealsoCountyofLosAngeles,ChiefAdministrativeO缶ce,.
InformationServices,The.Government{ゾLo3.4πg81θs(LosAngeles:Chief'
AdministrativeOffice,n.d.),pp.1-2.
42CountyofLA.,ChiefAdministrativeO伍ce,Government〔
ゾLoεAngelesY
PP.・1-2..・
43ConnicketaL,Smog、Paradox,pp.73-74.SeealsoJane.Wilson,"Scenario
foraSmogSnafu,"West,January9,1972,p.13.'
・44CountyofL
.A.,APCD,Rulel63..'・'「.
45APCDDigest,1,No.1{November1971),4..
461bid.,.p.4.'..
47CountyofLosAngeles,Co血ntyBoardofSupervisors,.MinutesofMeeting・
ofMeetingoftheCountyBoardofSupervisors,MeetingofJanuary1,,
..1972.∵.
.48・ThisinformationcamefromastatementmadebyRobertChass
,Air
PollutionControlO伍ceroftheAPCD,inthepublichearing-beforethe.
・
..`AirPollutionControlBoardonNovember4,1971.SeeCountyofLos
Angeles,qountyBoardofSupervisors,MinutesofMeetingoftheCounty『
.ofBoardofSupervisors
.November4,1971.
49WilliamFalkner,aninterviewonJanuary7,1972.
50A,statementofRobertChassbeforetheAirPollutionBoard,Minutesof
CountyBoardofSupervisors,November4,1971。
'51Th
eseletterswerefiledinthe.AdministrativeO伍ceoftheCountyof
BoardofSupervisorsunderthetitleofairpollution.
52LettersubmittedbyWilliamRya取totheCountyBoardofSupervlsors
ofL.AldatedNovember3,1971..・
53AstatementmadebyRobertChassbeforethe.CountyBoardofSupervisors,MinutesofMeetingNovember4,1971..・'1.
54CountyofLA.,MinutesofMeetingoftheCountyBoardofSuperVisors,.
January6,1972..
55CountyofL.A,,APCD,Rules76and77;・...
56StateofCalifornia,AirResourcesBoard,Draft
30・.
.・ReportげSpecial/1'r
Resource:・BoardPanelor肋
〃o'1万
θε彦'8σ'ゴ0川 ゾ
伽Lo34π9θ'e:海7・%〃
μ'foπCO〃
・
ε〃 ゴc'(California:AirResourcesBoard,1972),pp.31-34.
57ThesestatisticaldatawerefromtheannualreportsoftheAPCD.
58ConnicketaL,S〃20gParadox,p,90.
,
.59ThisinformationwasmadeavaiIablebyRobertSorenoftheChiefAd・
ministrativeOfficeofLosAngelesCountyinatelephoneinterviewheld
inLosAngelesonAugust8,1972.
・60GladysMeade,"A田endmentofArticleXXVI"(1971),pp.16-17.
・611bid
.,p.17.AlsoatelephoneinterviewwithRobertSorenonAugust8,
1972.
62CountyofLosAngeles,EnvironmentalQualityControlCommittee,1∼
θ一
port,pp。1-4.
・63Meade,"Amendment,"pp.17-18.
・64.Ibid.,pp.18-22,
65Soren,telephoneinteryiew,August8,1972.
〈Addendum>
'TheabovestudyregardingtheAirPollutiollControlSysteminLosAngeles
isaportionoftうiswriter'sdissertationwithrevisionsubmittedtothe
GraduateSchooloftheUniversityofSouthernCaliforniain1973.Thedis・
《二ussionpresentedhereisthereforepertinenttotheconditionuptothat
period.InJuly,1975,theBoardsofSupervisorsoftheCountiesofLos
.Angeles,Orange
.SanBernadinoandRiversidedecidedtoformauni丘edad-
ministrativesystem,theSouthernCaliforniaAirPo11utionControlDistrict,
・inordereffectivelytodealwiththeproblemofaircontaminationinthe
・southernpartofCalifornia
。Underthisnewsetting,theLosAngelesAir
.P
ollutionControlDistrictisidenti丘edasthe``MetropolitanZone"andwill
.performadualfunctionastheLosAngelesAirPollutionControlDepartment
aswellasaZoneoftheUni且edDistrict,However,accordingtothelatest
・report
,thetransitionisstillunderwayandthe"former"LAAPCDremains・
.prettymuchintact
.Thisbeingthecase,theanalysisinthepresentstudy
・seemsstillhighlyrelevant
,atleastuntiltheuni丘cationofvariousAPCD's
ゴnSouthernCalifomiawinbecomplete.
31