AN INTRODUCTION TO REPORT
WRITING
by
Dr P.D. Hedges
School of Engineering and Applied Science
Aston University
Aston Triangle
Birmingham B4 7ET
AN INTRODUCTION TO REPORT
WRITING
Dr P.D. Hedges
School of Engineering and Applied Science
Aston University
5th Edition
13th October 2004
School of Engineering and Applied Science
Aston University
Aston Triangle
Birmingham B4 7ET
Tel: 0121-204-3594
SUMMARY
Guidance is given on the techniques of report writing, and on the
conventions to be employed by undergraduate students of the Engineering
Systems and Management Subject Group at Aston University in the
presentation of written work. Aspects covered include the framework and
content of a report, together with some notes on the wording and layout of
the text and the writing of references in accordance with the Author-Date
system.
1
1. INTRODUCTION
University students on courses with a technical content are generally required to write reports on
laboratory experiments and projects. These notes are an attempt to provide a clear framework and
some practical advice on the subject, which will be useful not only at undergraduate level but also in
your chosen career after you graduate.
There are no hard and fast rules for report writing and different organisations have their own
requirements. A study of the format and content of a variety of published reports will be beneficial in
developing your own style, and will help to clarify points raised in this discussion. Although many of
the observations are presented in as general a manner as possible, undergraduates are required to
adhere to the conventions outlined throughout their time at Aston.
This series of notes on report writing does not pretend to be comprehensive, and the books listed in
the Bibliography and Reference sections should be consulted for further information. As the aim of
these notes is to provide some guide to help students develop their report writing and presentation
skills, the structure and layout of the Introduction to Report Writing is itself intended as a ‘model’
of how a report should be structured and laid out.
A report, just because it is a report, should not be dull if properly presented and imaginatively
written. A well written document will assist the reader in understanding the contents and stimulate an
interest in the subject. There is little point in expending a great deal of energy in research or analysis if
the final report is incomprehensible, poorly presented and does not attract attention.
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2. GENERAL ASPECTS OF A REPORT
First, what is the object of a report? It is to convey a set of facts, impressions and deductions from
the writer to one or many readers. To do this well the report must be clear, precise and free of
ambiguities. By contrast with literary prose, where the pattern and rhythm of the words are as
important as the meaning conveyed, technical prose must be clear and definite with no vagueness.
There must be no doubt about what is in the author's mind.
2.1
CLARITY
A report must be complete within the scope and length which have been chosen. It is all too easy to
leave out some facts or background information which are needed for clarity or quick understanding.
The writer of a report is often so familiar with what is being described or discussed that it is easy to
fail to see that some part, which is obvious to the author, will not be in the least clear to the reader.
A scientist or engineer may have reached a sound and logical conclusion from the facts and
observations that have been combined with experience. However, the reader may not see the
arguments as logical if the writer has left out any vital links in the chain of reasoning by which the
conclusions were reached, or if it is not stated that experience has been called upon.
2.2
ACCESSIBILITY
Not only should a report be written so that it can be followed easily by an engineer, scientist or
supervisor unfamiliar with that particular job, but also so that another person with little or no technical
experience in that field could understand it without prolonged background reading. Furthermore, the
reader must be provided with the opportunity to explore the subject further and to verify the findings.
All the sources of information used in producing the report must be included or referred to by means
of a list of References or a Bibliography, so that other interested parties can check, not only the
conclusions, but the grounds on which they were reached.
2.3
STYLE AND HONESTY
The reader expects that a report will be reliable and truthful, without exaggeration. The overall tone
must neither be unduly favourable nor too pessimistic: superlatives should be kept to a minimum. The
report should show a full realisation and clear statement of the degree of certainty or uncertainty
about the assumptions, statements and deductions. Any attempts to write in a flashy or witty style
would be just as bad as a dull and confused mass of verbiage.
It is a rewarding exercise to cut out all words or phrases which could be omitted without losing the
meaning or detracting from the facts or ideas presented. Short sentences tend to be best, and short
words are certainly much easier to read than long words, but they must be used with care so that the
exact meaning is not lost.
Convention dictates that the first person (i.e. I, we, our etc.) is not used in scientific or technical
reports. However, if the personal experiences of the author are being reported, in an industrial
training report for instance, then use of the first person is acceptable. When using impersonal terms
3
avoid the use of 'he' as the pronoun. 'Equal opportunities' employers require s/he, his/her, etc. to be
used
The person who writes a report must be seen to understand all of the material that is being
presented. If there is any doubt or muddle left in the writer's mind, this will become apparent to an
astute reader. An explicit warning should be given if the evidence or the conclusions drawn are in any
way suspect.
2.4 PROOF READING
There is nothing more annoying than finding all the hard work and effort which you have put into the
production of a report spoilt by careless typographical errors, incorrect labelling of tables, the
omission of figures, duplication of pages, etc. Such errors, which can be eliminated by careful proof
reading, may also leave the reader with a bad impression regarding the quality of your work.
Unfortunately, when you have been immersed in producing a piece of work it is easy to read what
should be in the text, rather than what is actually there. If possible, therefore, leave a few days
between completing the final draft and proof reading, but if this is not feasible ask someone else to
check your report for you.
4
3. FRAMEWORK AND ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS
3.1
TYPICAL PATTERN
Though different conventions exist about the order in which a report should be arranged, most of the
features in Table 3.1 are likely to be found broadly in the order in which they are listed. In large and
elaborate reports there may be some additional items, and shorter ones will probably contain less.
Cover
Title page
Abstract, Summary, Resume or Synopsis
List of Contents
List of Tables and Illustrations
Notation employed
Preface (if any)
Introduction
Main Text (the detailed report)
Conclusions
Recommendations
Acknowledgements
References and/or Bibliography
Appendices
Drawings
Table 3.1 The Main Features Found in a Typical Report.
The preferred approach is to work from the general to the particular. History, facts and
observations should be given first; theories, interpretations and deductions afterwards.
Figures, tables, drawings and sketches often help where descriptions are difficult, and they can often
save a surprisingly large number of words. However, the text is the main vehicle for conveying
information and if the reader's attention is not drawn to the relevant illustrations they may go
unnoticed. Furthermore, if the author fails to refer to an illustration in the text it can only be concluded
that it is not particularly important - if this is the case the writer needs to consider whether or not it is
superfluous and should be left out.
Include anything that comes within the terms of reference laid down for the work. Either omit or
make sure the reader is informed of anything about which there is any shadow of doubt regarding its
validity or appropriateness.
3.2
CROSS REFERENCE
To assist the reader in referring to different items in the report it is necessary to adopt a logical
sequence of referencing. This is best achieved by dividing the text into sections which are numbered,
starting with '1' for the Introduction. The subsequent numbering of sub-sections, figures, tables and
equations follows from this base. However, if numbering does not assist the reader in negotiating
their way around the report, it should not be included.
5
3.2.1 SUB-SECTIONS
Where the selected section has sub-divisions these are given titles of their own and numbered
according to the parent section. For example this chapter is entitled and numbered:
3. FRAMEWORK AND ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS
which has been sub-divided into two parts:
3.1 TYPICAL PATTERN
3.2 CROSS REFERENCE
It has been found necessary to further subdivide section 3.2 into sub-sections of which this is the first
and hence is referred to as:
3.2.1 SUB-SECTIONS
Although the process can continue indefinitely (i.e. the next level of sub-section would be 3.2.1.1),
further subdivisions tend to make the report too disjointed, and are therefore inadvisable.
A common practice is to suffix a zero to the parent section or chapter reference number - i.e. 3.0
instead of 3. If the arrangement of sections is considered as hierarchical (as illustrated in Fig 3.1) then
3.0 would put the parent section on the same level of importance as sub-sections 3.1 and 3.2.
3. FRAMEWORK AND ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS
3.1 TYPICAL PATTERN
3.2.1 SUB-SECTIONS
3.2 CROSS REFERENCE
3.2.2 FIGURES, PHOTOGRAPHS,
TABLES AND EQUATIONS
Fig 3.1 Example of Hierarchical Arrangement of Sections
6
3.2.3 REFERENCES
3.2.2 FIGURES, PHOTOGRAPHS, TABLES AND EQUATIONS
In short reports, such those produced following laboratory experiments, where there are only a small
number of figures, tables or equations these items are usually numbered sequentially starting at 1,
irrespective of the section to which they relate.
However, in a long report or if there are a large number of figures, tables, etc., then a more
sophisticated method of numbering is adopted to assist the reader in finding his/her way around. The
following paragraphs outline the system which should be used.
Figures are numbered according to the parent section only and no account is taken of the
subsections. Figures are therefore NOT given more than two reference numbers. Thus the third
figure appearing in section four is Fig 4.3, and if it is mentioned later in the text the reader knows
where to find it providing the convention is adhered to.
The title 'figure' generally relates to all graphs, diagrams and any drawings small enough to be
included in the main report - there is therefore no need to try to differentiate between them.
Although photographs are also usually categorised as 'figures', they are sometimes denoted
separately and are then referred to as plates.
Figures and tables are best located as close to the appropriate text as possible so that they are easily
consulted. If this is impractical they are either grouped together at the end of the appropriate section
or at the end of the report before the appendices. Alternatively, collecting them together in a separate
volume avoids the reader's concentration being broken by having to turn pages. However, no matter
which method of presentation is chosen, ease of access is of paramount importance.
As with figures, the numbering of tables and equations relates directly to the main section alone. Thus
Table 2.2 is the second table of Section 2 and should be located as close the relevant paragraph as
possible. Equations which are either derived or quoted in a report should be numbered, and the
twelfth equation of Section 3 would be written:
F = M.a
(3.12)
This reference is placed towards the right side of the page with equation numbers appearing directly
beneath one another.
When a table, figure, plate or equation is referred to in the text, either a capital or lower case letter
can be used (i.e. Fig 4.3 or fig 4.3). The former tends to be preferred since the reference stands out
better from the general run of the text. Whichever alternative is used, it is important to be consistent
and not to chop and change between the two.
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4. DETAILS OF SECTIONS
This section provides advice on what each of the features listed in Table 3.1 should contain and how
they should be presented. As has already been mentioned in Section 1, this booklet is intended as a
model of how a report should be structured and laid out. Although direct reference will not be made
to the relevant aspect of the report, the reader's attention is drawn to the appropriate part of the
Introduction to Report Writing for an illustration of the subject under discussion.
4.1
TITLE PAGE
An example of a title page is shown in Fig 4.1. The title page answers questions in the mind of
someone who is going through a pile of reports looking for a particular one, and those questions (Q)
would probably be as follows.
Q. What is it about?
The title of the report is placed in a prominent position in the upper half of the page typically about a
quarter of the way down in larger letters. Though the title should be short enough to be read almost
at a glance, it should still be definite. The title should be centred in the middle of the page. If the title
runs into two or more lines, significant words should be grouped together in centred lines. The end of
a line should never break a significant group of important words.
Q. Who wrote it?
The author's name is usually placed in a prominent position, not too close to the title, and centred on
the middle of the page. The word "by" often precedes the author's name(s); degrees, professional
qualifications and position, if included, look best when centred underneath the name, perhaps in a
smaller size of lettering. In technical reports it is appropriate to give the full official title of the author in
his or her organisation, and for the report to be signed at the end with a note of his or her official
position.
Q. For whom? Why has it been written?
Give the name of the person or title of the group for whom the report has been prepared, or the
purpose - such as a final year project or industrial training report.
Q. From where?
The location of the organisation on whose behalf the report has been written should include the full
postal address and telephone number so that any queries can be sent to the correct place.
Q. When?
Give date of completion of the report, with the month if possible.
8
Fig 4.1 The Title Page from a Technical Report
4.2
ABSTRACT, SUMMARY, RESUME OR SYNOPSIS
Whatever the name given to it, this feature of a report is read first by a busy reader and so is most
important. It shows the scope of the report, any important conclusions reached, and any
recommendations made. Leave out unnecessary words such as 'The report describes....' and
condense phrases as far as possible. The layout of the Summary is a function of its length, and often
it is typed in single line spacing with much broader margins on the left and right than the rest of the
9
text, though not necessarily on a separate sheet by itself. A smaller size of type may be used in
journals. Some organisations circulate only the Summaries of reports for general reading.
In recent years there has been a tendency to replace this with an Executive Summary. This is much
more extended and designed to provide the reader with a précis of the complete report. Normally an
Executive Summary would contain the aims and objectives of the work, a review of the work
undertaken, and the main findings and recommendations of the report. As the purpose of the
executive summary is to provide the busy executive with an understanding of the report content
without him/her having to read the whole document, it requires quite a degree of skill to write an
effective one.
Whereas the traditional Summary is short, concise and only a few lines long (usually in the region of
300 words), the Executive Summary often extends to two or three pages. If you are required to
produce an Executive Summary for a University report, it should not normally exceed one page in
length.
4.3
LIST OF CONTENTS
The list of Contents helps a busy reader to find a particular section quickly without searching through
the whole report. As a starting point the main headings and sub-headings are used, but it may not be
necessary to provide further identification down to lower levels of sub-sections.
The page numbers must be included in the Contents list. Consequently, unless you are using a word
processor package which has an automatic renumbering facility, the Contents should be typed last of
all when the final ordering of pages has been completed.
4.4
LIST OF TABLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS
These lists, besides enabling the reader to locate illustrations and tables quickly, also provide a
valuable check against both inaccurate assembly before binding, and page loss after heavy use or
damage.
As with the Contents, it is important to include the appropriate page numbers where the items listed
are located. There is nothing more annoying than having to search through a document to locate a
specific table or figure which has been referred to in the text.
4.5
NOTATIONS
When a large number of mathematical symbols or acronyms are used in a document a reader can
easily become confused over their meanings, despite their being defined when first used in the text.
This problem is overcome by the provision of a list of Notations for quick reference. This is usually
placed immediately after the Contents and lists of Figures, Tables, etc. The symbols are arranged
firstly alphabetically, then numerically - symbols from the Greek alphabet are grouped together and
placed after those from the English alphabet.
4.6
PREFACE
10
It would be unusual to find a Preface in an undergraduate report. A Preface is often found in a large
general report, perhaps issued for the information of the engineering profession as a whole, or for the
general public. rather than for a particular body. It briefly explains why the writer or the employers
wanted to carry out the investigation, to write a report about it, or to explain why the report was
produced in the way it was.
4.7
INTRODUCTION
The Introduction should prepare the reader for what follows. It may well give the history of the
project itself. It will amplify the reasons for carrying out the investigation or experiment. The
statement of the problem being studied should be clear, so that the reader can quickly see the
background against which the report has been written. This may be presented in terms of the aims
and objectives of the project under discussion. It is also common in longer reports and theses to
outline the structure of the report and to indicate to the reader what she/he can expect to find in each
section or chapter.
4.8
THE MAIN BODY OF THE TEXT
The text of the report should be divided into sections, with sub-divisions where necessary. It has a
corresponding series of headings and sub-headings, which should be numbered in a long report, but
which may be left unnumbered in a short one (see Section 3.2.1).
In general the text, starts with the Introduction and then broadly goes from the 'general' to the
'specific', ending with a Conclusion. In the process the reader's attention is drawn from the wider
aspects of the subject under consideration, to the details of the work in hand.
It is not possible to provide a set of hard and fast rules for the arrangement of the main text, and so
the following example for a technical report is offered as a guide. In a short report the sections
suggested below may well be condensed: for instance the first and second sections could be merged
to produce a more wide ranging Introduction.
The Introduction, as outlined in Section 4.7, forms the first section.
The second section might explore items such as: the historical background; a summary of published
knowledge relevant to the report (a literature review); environmental considerations; the land use and
geology of the area (essential for a site investigation or large scheme); or a combination of all these.
The next major section should deal with the key aspect of the investigation itself. In other words, the
reader is told what is going to be done.
Another section outlines the studies made or the experiments undertaken, in logical order arranged as
far as possible in order of time. This is followed by a description of the methods employed, relegating
to appendices any well-known procedures or those laid down in British Standards which are
followed without any substantial deviation or change.
The actual tests follow next, together with the major results, including a detailed estimate of their
variability (e.g. deviation from mean or a mean relationship). Comparison should be made between
the values and variability actually found by tests, and those which would be expected from published
works or previous reports. This saves the readers having to waste a lot of time searching for that
11
information in order to obtain a background against which they can judge for themselves. It may be
appropriate to include here any details of costs.
The next section or sections cover the detailed analysis of test results or project findings. Only
include a few in full as typical cases, and relegate others to appendices. The flow of the story should
never be interrupted by irrelevant details. Calculations might similarly be given in detail for a very few
typical cases, but most of them should be put in an appendix. As far as possible the reader must have
the opportunity to check all the calculations made and all the reasons underlying the conclusions
reached.
The final section(s) before the Conclusion should consist of a discussion and evaluation of the work
undertaken. The procedures used, results obtained and experience gained should be reviewed and
the success or failure in meeting the aims and objectives of the project assessed. It is at this stage that
arguments are followed through, conclusions drawn and suggestions made for carrying the work
forward.
4.9
CONCLUSIONS
The findings and conclusions follow next, and these should be given in reasonable detail, but should
not be unduly long. The Conclusion is probably the second most important section after the
Summary or Synopsis. In effect it ties together all the threads of the report and summarises the
findings, and as such should not introduce anything new. An approach sometimes adopted in long
reports is to build the Conclusion around a review of whether and how the aims and objectives of the
project were met.
4.10
RECOMMENDATIONS
The logical item to follow the Conclusions would be recommendations for action or for further work,
or both. Many readers are mainly interested in the recommendations, which they will then use in
their own work.
4.11
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is customary in academic and published work to thank by name the Head of the Department,
Division or School for the provision of laboratory and other facilities, the supervisors and other
members of the staff for their help, colleagues for discussion and the workshop staff for making
equipment. Where money has been provided from outside funds, this must be mentioned but without
any indication of the actual sums involved. Help by secretarial staff and technicians should also be
mentioned, as should any who provided moral support.
4.12
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Both a Reference list and a Bibliography must provide enough detail about a source of information to
enable a reader to acquire or consult the original. In this way a reader can familiarise him/herself with
the background or underlying theory behind the work, and the validity of what is reported can also
be verified.
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4.12.1 REFERENCES
Any item which is not original work, but is referred to or used in the report, should be acknowledged
as such and the document from which it is taken should be stated. The full description of the work
appears in the list of References.
When giving the source of work quoted or drawn upon in a report, the Author-Date (the Harvard
System) style of referencing should be employed, unless you are specifically directed to use an
alternative. The system is detailed in Section 6, but for further directions the reader should consult
Pitson (1978), Ebel et al. (1987) or The Chicago Manual of Style (1993).
4.12.2 BIBLIOGRAPHY
A Bibliography is optional and is supplementary to the list of References. Where one is included, its
objective is to give the reader a guide to suitable reading that will provide the general background
information which is assumed in the report.
The publications to which the reader is referred in a Bibliography should also be presented in
accordance with the Author-Date system described in Section 6. If a document appears in the
Reference list it should not be duplicated in a Bibliography.
4.13
APPENDICES
Any relevant but less interesting material should be included in titled and numbered appendices,
which must be referred to in the main report and listed in the Contents. Repetitive calculations, tables
of test results, minor aspects of testing, standard procedures, lengthy derivations, etc., should all be
put in appendices.
4.14
DRAWINGS
Any drawings which are too big to be bound easily into the main body of the text are best presented
separately. These drawings can either be inserted into specially prepared pockets at the end of the
report, or presented in a separate folder. This latter should be clearly labelled, as far as possible in
accordance with the information given on the report's title page.
Since drawings can be separated from the main report, ease of understanding and cross-references
with the main text are essential. Number drawings so that the loss of a sheet is quickly detected.
Where tables of results are complicated and lengthy, it may be more convenient to treat them as
drawings to avoid difficulty and errors in typing/printing.
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5. WORDING AND LAYOUT
5.1
OVERALL SPACING AND APPEARANCE
Do not be frightened to use space in a report. Headings, text, diagrams and tables cramped together
give a claustrophobic feel to a document. Furthermore, text squashed together can be tiring to read.
All work should be proof read very carefully before submission to avoid giving offence by leaving
spelling, other mistakes and inconsistencies uncorrected (see Section 2.4). Where the author is not
the typist draft copies of a report should have double line spacing to enable corrections to be made
clearly. An introduction to standard correction marks is given in Appendix 1.
5.2
SETTING OUT THE WORK
Some suggestions regarding the font styles, type sizes and line spacings most suitable for scientific
and technical reports are given in Appendix 2.
Reports can be aligned flush left (as with the general layout of these notes) or justified (as used in
Appendix 2). Most readers feel that the former is more 'friendly', although the overall appearance of
justified text can look neater and less ragged. However, the spaces inserted to make the text fill the
line may make reading difficult since the words are often distributed unevenly.
A new paragraph should start against the left hand margin and be preceded by a blank line. After the
full stop at the end of a sentence, many typists put two blank spaces with only one blank after other
punctuation marks, but this is optional.
A4 paper should be used, with the following minimum margin widths: top margin 20mm; bottom
margin 25mm; right hand margin 15mm; left hand margin 35mm, so that the text is not lost in the
binding (15mm if the document is not bound).
All pages of a report must be numbered, with the possible exception of the title page. The page
numbers should appear in the bottom margin beneath the centre of the text - not the centre of the
paper.
Direct quotations taken from another source should: be indented from both the left and right hand
margins; be enclosed in quotation marks; have a blank line above and below; have the source
reference given.
5.3
USE OF ENGLISH
University entrants must demonstrate that they have achieved an adequate standard of English prior
to admission. It is therefore not the job of University lecturers to provide remedial teaching in English
language. However, despite the entry requirements many students have problems with written
English, and consequently Appendix 3 has been provided to highlight some of the common problems
which can arise.
14
In Appendix 3, Section A3.1 gives some basic spelling rules. Section A3.2 has been compiled in an
attempt to draw students' attention to common errors in the use of English. Further detailed guidance
can be obtained by referring to Oxford English (Dear, 1986) or the Longman Guide to English
Usage (Greenbaum and Whitcut, 1988).
5.4
HEADINGS
Careful attention should be paid to the design of headings. Their visual appearance should reflect the
relative importance of the sections and sub-sections that they introduce. Once a particular system has
been adopted it should be applied throughout the report. In this report the following sequence has
been adopted, but as long as the principles outlined are adhered to, you can develop your own
system.
(a)
Section heading: 14 point type size; capital letters in bold; centred in the middle of the
page: e.g.
4. DETAILS OF SECTIONS
(b)
Main sub-section heading:
left margin: e.g.
12 point type size; capital letters in bold; located against the
4.12 REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
(c)
Second level sub-section: 12 point type; capital letters in plain type; located against the
left margin.
4.11.2 BIBLIOGRAPHY
(d)
Were a third level of sub-sections used in this report the author would have chosen to use:
12 point type; capitals for the first letter of major words; located against the left margin.
4.11.2.1 British Standards
Note that boxes do not normally surround headings! They have been inserted to differentiate the
example headings from the actual headings in the report.
15
5.5
LISTS OF ITEMS
Where a listing has several levels of importance, each item should be indented, say, six or more
spaces further from the left hand margin than the next higher level. Items of equal importance level
would naturally be placed in corresponding positions on the page whatever the position of the
previous item. The Contents can be regarded as an example of a list with different levels of
importance.
Advice on the punctuation associated with lists is given in Appendix 3.
5.6
SYMBOLS
As many letters in both the English and Greek alphabets have specialised meanings, great care is
needed to avoid confusion in the reader's mind. Further information regarding Greek letters and
mathematical notations is given in Appendix 4.
The small letters i, j, k, l, m, n are customarily preferred for subscripts in such applications as
denoting the rows and columns in a matrix: i.e. the ith row and the jth column.
5.7
ILLUSTRATIONS
The most important point to remember about illustrations is that it is the written word which is the
main vehicle of communication between the author and the reader. The purpose of illustrations,
whether they be figures, tables or plates, is to enhance the text. Consequently all illustrations should
be referred to in the text - if they are not, then they are probably superfluous.
All figures, tables, plates and drawings must be numbered (see Section 3.2.2) and have a title, both
of which are located beneath the relevant illustration. The title should be clear and concise so that the
purpose of the illustration does not require further explanation.
Regarding the layout of illustrations, a landscape arrangement (where the horizontal edge is longer
than the vertical) is more pleasing to the eye than a portrait one (where the vertical edge is longer
than the horizontal) - see Fig 5.1. Provide illustrations with a good margin on all sides as this acts as
a frame.
If an illustration has to be arranged sideways on a page, its top should be at the left hand side of the
page as per Table 5.1. The reason for this is that the reader's natural action is to rotate the document
clockwise.
Where tables are concerned, remember that it is easier to read a list downwards rather than across.
Thus details to be scanned should be placed in vertical columns each with a clear heading. Allow
adequate space within a table, and provide the reader with some form of 'guide' to enable her/him to
match rows and columns. Too many vertical and horizontal lines within a table tend to distract the
eye, and it is best to use blank lines to group the data into blocks of four or five rows - see Table
5.1.
16
Data can be portrayed graphically in a variety of ways. These range from pictograms through pie
charts and histograms to straightforward graphs. Exactly which method is selected will depend on the
author's preference and just what she/he is trying to demonstrate. In general pictograms, pie charts
and histograms are used to show the relative importance of sets of
17
Time (mins)
Time (mins)
Table 5.1 Example of a Table Arranged Sideways on a Page
Distance (m)
Distance (m)
(a) Landscape Arrangement
(b) Portrait Arrangement
Fig 5.1 Landscape and Portrait Arrangement of Graphical Information
information, and although they should be drawn accurately, it is the visual impression which matters.
Some examples are given in Fig 5.2.
The amount of detail provided on graphs is dependent on their purpose. If the object is simply to
show trends, then no data points are shown. However, if the purpose is to show the scientific
outcome of a study, then all the data points should be included together with the line or curve of best
fit - if the latter are not included the graph is referred to as a scattergram. Visually graphs look best
without grid lines, however, their inclusion will help the reader to extract information.
No matter what the purpose of a graph, all axes must be labelled and the units shown. However, the
inclusion of a scale will again depend on the purpose of the graph - scales should certainly be
included where the intention is to report experimental results or to indicate levels of magnitude.
5.8 BINDING
All reports should be bound. The binding holds the report together so that none of the pages are lost,
and the covers protect the contents from damage. Covers should therefore be in a material which is
stronger than the pages of the report, and although the report title and author(s) should be shown, the
front cover does NOT form the title page. Were this the case and the cover damaged, the
information given on the title page would be lost.
Spiral binders, Velo binding (two plastic strips welded together by pins passing through the report)
and plastic slide binders are quite acceptable for use on reports. However, the latter have an
annoying tendency to pop off and send pages flying!
18
The first impression potential readers have of a report is the visual appearance when it is handed to
them. Consequently, no matter what method of binding is employed, the document should have a
neat, tidy, 'efficient' appearance. Initial impressions are important, and in the mind of the reader the
quality of a report's presentation will reflect the quality of the work and the attitude of the author.
19
Fig 5.2 Different Forms of Data Presentation
20
6. CITING REFERENCES TO SOURCES OF INFORMATION
The convention commonly used in scientific and technical publications is the Author-Date or Harvard
system. In using this system the author's surname and the date of the document's publication are
given immediately following the statement which refers to the publication; i.e. (Pitson, 1978).
Students should use the Author-Date system for all reports and thesis unless specifically requested to
do otherwise.
6.1
AVOIDING PLAGIARISM
A plagiary is defined by Chambers Concise Dictionary (Davidson et al, 1985) as:
“one who steals the thoughts or writings of others and gives them out as his
own”.
Plagiarism in a report can therefore be regarded as literary theft. Thus whenever you use or refer to
the works of others the source of your information should be cited. The procedure for doing this
involves using a ‘shorthand’ reference at the point where the information is used in the text, table,
diagram etc. The shorthand reference is complemented by giving full details of the source in the list of
References. The following four rules should be strictly observed.
1) ALL ITEMS WHICH ARE NOT YOUR ORIGINAL WORK SHOULD BE CLEARLY
SHOWN AS SUCH.
2) PUT ANY QUOTATION WITHIN QUOTATION MARKS. Even a single word might
have to be treated in this way if it expressed a major aspect of another writer's opinion.
Provide a reference to the source of the quotation.
3) EVERY REFERENCE IN TEXT, FIGURES OR TABLES TO PREVIOUS WORK
MUST APPEAR IN THE LIST OF REFERENCES.
4) EVERY ITEM IN THE LIST OF REFERENCES MUST BE REFERRED TO IN THE
TEXT (OR IN A FIGURE, TABLE, etc.). It is good practice for the text to make some
mention of any reference quoted on a figure as a source of data.
Ensure that you understand the University’s position on originality and plagiarism, which is
set out in Appendix 5 (School of Engineering and Applied Science, 1998).
6.2
THE AUTHOR-DATE SYSTEM OF CITING REFERENCES
References in the text, figures, tables, etc. to the work of others are given by first introducing the
author's name(s), followed by the year of publication of the work. Family names (surnames) alone
are used; initials are only added to enable the works of two authors with the same surname whose
publications appeared in the same year to be distinguished.
The following example illustrates how Author-Date citations are incorporated into the text.
21
Where abstractions ultimately reached such a level that they exceeded
recharge, a variety of undesirable effects often occurred. These ranged from
the regional fall in rest water levels and subsidence of the ground surface, as
occurred in the Thames basin around London (Porter, 1978), to the intrusion
of saline water into the aquifer, as into the Permo-Triassic sandstones of
south Lancashire (Bow et al., 1969). Burgess and Smith (1979) described
the consequences of the over-development of the Southern Lincolnshire
Limestone aquifer.
In the second citation the use of "et al." indicates that the paper concerned has three or more authors
- note that only the name of the first author is quoted. If there are two authors both surnames are
given, as in Burgess and Smith (1979).
If neither an author nor an editor nor an organisation is named in a publication, then the title is given
(usually in italics), followed by the date. An illustration of such a case (The Chicago Manual of
Style (1992)) appears in Section 4.12.1. Alternatively, where there is a need to refer to a
newspaper, magazine article or official publication the title of the publication or organisation
concerned is given followed by the date, e.g.:
After a lengthy period of gestation, brought about largely by the stalling of
certain European Governments (amongst whom the British were prominent
(New Civil Engineer, 1984)), in June 1985 the Council of the European
Communities approved a Directive on Environmental Assessment (EEC,
1985).
Finally, if two or more publications appear in the same year credited to the same source, they are
differentiated by appending lower case letters to the year, e.g.:
Headworth has summarised the environmental effects which were
encountered, prior to January 1983, as a result of the implementation of both
pilot and fully commissioned schemes (Headworth et al, 1983a and 1983b).
At the end of the main text of a report a list of References is provided. The intention of this is to give
enough information for the reader to gain access to the original source referred to.
The Reference list is given in alphabetical order of author's surnames. Publications by the same
author are arranged chronologically, with single authorship quoted first, dual authorship second etc.
(see examples in Table 6.1).
The sequence of information provided in a Reference list for a book (e.g. Porter (1978) in Table
6.1) is as follows:
i.
authors' surnames, each immediately followed by the initials;
ii.
year of publication in parentheses;
iii. book title in italics;
iv. publisher.
The sequence for a journal article (e.g. Walley and Hussein (1982) in Table 6.1) is:
i.
authors' surnames, each immediately followed by their initials;
ii.
year of publication in parentheses;
iii. title of article enclosed in single quotation marks ('....');
iv. journal title in italics;
22
v.
vi.
vii.
volume number in bold;
part number in normal type;
start and end page numbers (e.g. 905-922).
Bow, C.J., Howell, F.T. and Thompson P.J. (1969), 'The Lowering of the Water Table in the
Permo-Triassic Rocks of South Lancashire', Water and Water Engineering, 73, 461-463.
Burgess, D.B. and Smith, E.J. (1979), 'The Effects of Groundwater Development: The Case of the
South Lincolnshire Limestone Aquifer', in Hollis, G.E., 'Man's Impact on the Hydrological Cycle in
the United Kingdom', Geo. Abstracts, University of E. Anglia, UK.
EEC (1985), Council of European Communities Directive on the Assessment of the Effects of
Certain Public and Private Projects on the Environment, 85/337/EEC, June 1985.
Headworth, H.G., Owen, M. and Skinner, A.C. (1983a), 'River Augmentation by Groundwater a Comparison of Schemes in the UK', Joint Informal Discussion, ICE Water Engineering Group
and Inst. of Geologists, ICE, London.
Headworth, H.G., Owen, M. and Skinner, A.C. (1983b), 'River Augmentation Schemes Using
Groundwater', Brit. Geologist, 9, 2, 50-54.
Porter, E. (1978), Water Management in England and Wales, Camb. Univ. Press.
Severn Trent Water Authority (1978), Shropshire Groundwater Scheme, Fifth Report, Dec 1978.
Shalhevet, J., Mantell, A., Bielorai, H. and Shimshi, D. (1979), 'Irrigation of Field and Orchard
Crops under Semi-Arid Conditions', IIIC Publication No 1, International Irrigation Information
Centre, Israel.
Shockley, D.J. (1956), 'The Influence of Soil Moisture Holding Characteristics upon Sprinkler
Irrigation Design', in 'Planned Irrigation', Wright Rain Ltd., Hampshire, England.
Skinner, A.C. (1979), Proof of Evidence of Andrew Charles Skinner, Shropshire Groundwater
Scheme Public Local Inquiry, Severn Trent Water Authority.
Skinner, A.C. (1988), pers comm, Severn Trent Water Authority.
Smith, N. (1976), Man and Water, Peter Davies.
Smith, P.J. (1975), The Politics of Physical Resources, The Open University.
Walley, W.J. (1979), Shropshire Groundwater Scheme, Proof of Evidence of W.J. Walley.
Walley, W.J. and Hedges, P.D. (1979a), 'Draft Proposals for a research Project into the Effects of
Groundwater Drawdown upon Available Soil Moisture', Dept. Civ Eng, University of Aston in
Birmingham, UK.
Walley, W.J. and Hedges, P.D. (1979b), 'The Effect of Groundwater Drawdown upon Available
Soil Moisture', Dept. Civ Eng, University of Aston in Birmingham, UK.
Walley, W.J. and Hussein, D.E.D.A. (1982), 'Development and Testing of a General Purpose
Soil-Moisture-Plant Model', Hydrological Sciences Jnl., 27, 1, 1-17.
23
Table 6.1 Extract from a List of References
Type of Reference
Article, no author given
Example
New Civil Engineer (1984), 'Environmental Law Delay
Challenged', New Civil Engineer, Institution of Civil
Engineers, 6th Dec. 1984, 10.
Chapter in edited book
Burgess, D.B. and Smith, E.J. (1979), 'The Effects of
Groundwater Development: The Case of the South Lincolnshire
Limestone Aquifer', in Hollis, G.E., 'Man's Impact on the Hydrological Cycle in the United
Kingdom',
Geo. Abstracts, University of E. Anglia, UK.
Edited book
Hollis, G.E. ed. (1979), 'Man's Impact on the Hydrological
Cycle in the United Kingdom', Geo. Abstracts, University of E.
Anglia, UK.
Personal communication
Brady, M. (1989), pers comm, MAFF Regional Office,
Shrewsbury, UK.
Standard
BS 1377 (1975), 'Methods of Test for Soils for Civil
Engineering Purposes', British Standards Institution.
( NB. The date is included where a BS is a single volume, or where one
part of a BS is referred to. Where an ‘umbrella’ BS, with several
separate parts is being cited, the date is
NOT given.)
Author/Editor not given
The Chicago Style Manual (1982), The University of Chicago
Press.
Thesis
Binley, A.M. (1986), 'A Three Dimensional Numerical
Investigation of Hillslope Flow Processes', PhD Thesis,
University of Aston in Birmingham, UK.
Work in press
Hedges, P.D. (1991), 'Communication Skills and the
Undergraduate Engineer', in Smith, R.A. (Ed), 'Innovative
Teaching in Engineering', Ellis Horwood (in press).
Table 6.2 Some Examples of Non-Standard References
Books and journals are the most commonly quoted sources of information. However, there is a
myriad of alternatives and each of these is treated in a different, but standardised manner. Table 6.2
provides a guide to some of the more common variations.
24
6.3
CITING ELECTRONIC SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Currently there is no standard system for citing electronic sources of information. However, where
alternative methods are discussed, authors invariably refer to a book by Li and Crane (1996), and
their Webb site:
http://www.uvm.edu/~ncrane/estyles/apa.html
The following approach is drawn from this source and is compatible with the Author-Date system.
The reader is recommended to visit the above site if further details are required (last accessed by the
author in November 1999).
As Webb sites are transitory, and hence liable to change or disappear, it is imperative to include
within the citation the date on which the source was accessed
For individual works the recommended format is:
Author/editor (Year). Title (edition) [Type of medium], Producer (optional). Available
Protocol: Site/Path/File [Access date].
Example:
Pritzker, T.J. (No date). An early fragment from Nepal [Online]. Available:
http:/www.ingress.com/~ast anart/pritzker.html [1995, June 8]
Within the text the article would be referenced by:
either Pritzker (No date)
or
Note:
i.
ii.
(Pritzker, No date)
write (No date) when the electronic publication date is not available;
when citing information retrieved from the internet it is not necessary to
repeat the protocol (http) after ‘Available’ since that is stated in the URL.
For journal works the recommended format is:
Author/editor (Year). Title, Journal Title [Type of medium], volume (issue), paging.
Available Protocol: Site/Path/File [Access date].
Example:
Inada, K. (1995). A Buddist response to the nature of human rights, Journal of Buddist
Ethics [Online], 2, 9-12. Available: http:/www.cac.psu.edu/jbe/twocont.html [1995, June 21]
Within the text the article would be referenced by:
either Inada (1995) or
(Inada, 1995)
For Personal Electronic Communications (E-mail) the recommended format is:
Sender (Sender’s E-mail address). (Year, Month & day). Subject of Message. E-mail
to recipient (Recipient’s E-mail address)
25
Example:
Hedges, P.D. ([email protected]). (1998, October 22). Jnl. Env. Mgmt and
Health - submission of paper. E-mail to Leal Filho, W. [[email protected]]
Within the text the article would be referenced by: either
(Hedges, 1998)
Hedges (1998) or
7. COURSEWORK REQUIREMENTS
Continuous assessment assignments vary significantly both between the topics being addressed, and
individual lecturer’s requirements. It is therefore not possible to provide a set of hard and fast rules
for their presentation. You are strongly advised to ascertain from the member of staff concerned,
exactly what s/he requires before commencing work on your submission.
The Appendix 6 Laboratory Reports, Appendix 7 Project Reports and Appendix 8 Design Projects,
are intended as broad guides to the presentation of the different types of coursework normally
expected of undergraduates studying technical or scientific subjects.
8. CONCLUSIONS
All reports should end with a set of conclusions - and this is no exception! The Introduction to
Report Writing has been produced as a guide for Engineering Systems and Management students at
Aston University, and the conventions outlined should be followed in ALL REPORT WRITING.
The author's intention is that this document should not only provide guidance, but should also act as a
model which can be referred to as an illustration of good report writing and presentation practice.
The sections in the Introduction have moved from the general aspects of report writing (Sections 2),
through the arrangement of sections (Section 3) to the specifics of report writing (Section 4). In the
latter, what is contained in each individual component of a report and how those components are
presented is outlined. Section 5 provides some guidance on the appearance and the style of English
which should be used in technical reports. As students are expected to use the Author-Date
convention of citing references at all times, this system has been explained in Section 6. The
Introduction to Report Writing ends (Section 7) with a few words of introduction to Appendices
6, 7 and 8 which give some guidance on what lecturers expect to find in students' continuous
assessment submissions for three particular types of assignment.
This document, despite its length, does not pretend to provide an answer to all the questions which
might arise during the preparation of a report. Consequently, students are encouraged to consult the
publications listed in the References and Bibliography sections should the need arise.
26
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank the Subject Group secretaries for their help and patience in preparing
these notes. Also thanks to Diane for writing the section on Common Spelling Problems, A3.1, in
Appendix 3.
REFERENCES
BS 1192, 'Construction Drawing Practice', British Standards Institution.
BS 5261, 'Copy Preparation and Proof Correction', British Standards Institution.
Davidson, G.W., Seaton, M.A. and Simpson, J., Eds (1985), Chambers Concise 20th Century
Dictionary, Chambers
Dear, I.C.B. (1992), Oxford English, Oxford University Press.
Ebel, H.F., Bliefert, C. and Russey, W.E. (1987), The Art of Scientific Writing, VCH.
Greenbaum, S. and Whitcut, J. (1988), Longman Guide to English Usage, Longman.
ISE/Concrete Society (1989), 'Standard Method of Detailing Structural Concrete', Institution of
Structural Engineers, London.
Li, X. and Crane, N.B. (1996), Elecronic style: a guide to citing electronic information,
Medford NJ, Information Today
Pitson, J. (1978), Style Manual for Authors Editors and Printers, Australian Government
Publishing Service.
School of Engineering and Applied Science (1998), ‘ Freshers Information Booklet 1998/99:
Degree Programme in Civil Engineering’, Aston University, Birmingham, UK.
The Chicago Manual of Style (1993), The University of Chicago Press.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
This bibliography has been compiled as a source of information for those students who may have
difficulties with either communication or study skills. Students are also recommended to consult the
Study Guide information sheets produced and distributed free by LIS.
Barrass, R. (1982), Students must write: a guide to better writing in course work and
examinations Chapman and Hall.
Buzan, T. (1989), Use Your Head, BBC Books.
Katz, M.J. (1986), Elements of the Scientific Paper, Yale Univ. Press.
Kirkman, J. (1992), Good Style: writing for science and Technology, Pitman.
Langan, J. (1992), College Writing Skills, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill.
Swales, J.M. and Feak, C.B. (1994), Academic Writing for Graduate Students, Michigan.
van Emden, J. & Easteal, J. (1987), Report Writing, McGraw-Hill.
Winship, I (1996), The Student’s Guide to the Internet, Library Association Publishing
27
APPENDIX 1
Correction Marks
A full list of correction marks is given in BS 5261, but for the reader's convenience a short selection
is given below. The marginal mark usually goes in the nearest margin to the required correction.
Make all corrections neatly and very clearly.
28
APPENDIX 2
Fonts, Type Sizes and Line Spacings
The style of type (the font) used in these notes is Times New Roman and its size is 12 point; the line
spacing is one-and-a-half. However, for economy the pages have been reduced from A4 to A5 consequently the type size is approximately half that required for reports.
This appendix has been justified, whereas the remainder of the document is set out flush left. Where
justified text is employed the words are automatically spaced out to completely fill the line between
the margins, and their are no ragged edges at either left or right margin.
The usual line spacings are shown below, with a comparison in the Palatino font. Single spacing
should not normally be used for reports as it is hard to read (older people's eyes are much less
tolerant than those of younger people in this respect). Double spacing should be used for theses,
dissertations, reports and similar work. This leaves room for supervisors and examiners to insert
notes, comments, corrections, etc. However, it is common practice to use single line spacing for the
Summary and for quotations. The examples below are full size (i.e. they have not been reduced).
These lines are double spaced in Palatino 12 point.
These lines are double spaced in Palatino 12 point.
These lines are double spaced in Palatino 12 point.
These are line-and-a-half spacing in Palatino 12.
These are line-and-a-half spacing in Palatino 12.
These are line-and-a-half spacing in Palatino 12.
These lines are single spacing in Palatino 12.
These lines are single spacing in Palatino 12.
These lines are single spacing in Palatino 12.
The font adopted should be generously proportioned otherwise it will become tiring to read in long
documents even with ample line spacing. The examples of Arial type sizes which follow have not
been reduced.
29
As noted above, the main text is typed in Times New Roman font with letter size 12 point, this sentence
is in Arial but is 10 point. If the type size were smaller than 10 point, for instance 9 point like this sentence, it
On the other hand to use 14 point
type size, such as this, would mean few words to the line and it would be
difficult for the flow of the text to be maintained by the reader.
would be difficult and tiring to read over a long period.
Relative to the Palatino and Arial fonts demonstrated so far, this style (Times New Roman) is quite
small and compact. Despite the fact that these two lines are 12 point they take up less space than
would the other two. The difference between Times and the fonts used in the examples above is that
the thickness of the lines forming each letter varies, but in the others the lines are uniform throughout
each letter.
30
APPENDIX 3
Some Hints on the Use of English
With the advent of GCSE the ways in which English Language were taught changed. This meant a
move away from teaching about the formal structure of the language, towards an emphasis on
communication. As a consequence many people no longer have a knowledge of the formal terms
used and basic spelling rules. This has the disadvantage that there is no 'common language' which can
all be used to explain where problems in the use of English are occurring. The following two sections
have been prepared to help those students who have difficulties with English.
A3.1 COMMON SPELLING PROBLEMS
Much of our spelling conforms to certain 'rules' of which most of us are probably unaware. This is an
attempt to pick out the most common errors occurring in student writing, and to provide some
guidelines and aide memoires for preventing some of the these mistakes.
Phonics
Bear with this section - the following sections depend on you understanding the terminology used.
Phonics are the sounds that letters make - they are not the same as the name of the letter. In your
infant school days you may (or may not) have been taught the following sound rules:
the letter a
the letter e
the letter i
the letter o
the letter u
(called ay)
(called ee)
(called eye)
(called owe)
(called yew)
makes an
makes an
makes an
makes an
makes an
'a' sound
'eh' sound
'ih' sound
'o' sound
'uh' sound
as in cat
as in engine
as in inform
as in oscillate
as in umbrella.
There, their!
Where, there and here are all to do with place. All you need to remember is that any word to do
with place has the word here in it:
here, where and there .
Apostrophes and plurals
31
To make something into a plural, you (usually) simply add the letter s and nothing else - the flying
ducks fell off the wall.
Apostrophe s (or 's) signifies belonging - the duck's beak was chipped.
When denoting possession related to something already in the plural, take care. Write the plural form
(e.g. ducks) then add either apostrophe s ('s) or simply an apostrophe (') - the ducks's beaks or
the ducks' beaks. Remember that some words have a different form in the plural, and in the those
cases the apostrophe s still comes after you've made the word plural - e.g. child (singular); children
(plural); children's (possessive plural).
The magic 'e'
Many students seem to have problems when it comes to adding ed and ing onto the end of words.
There is a very simple rule which can help with this. In primary schools, it's called the magic 'e' you can call it what you like! When added onto the end of a word, 'e' makes the vowel preceding
the last single consonant say its name instead of sound. Some common three and four letter words
are good examples of this:
in pal
in cub
in fin
'a' makes its sound (a);
'u' makes its sound (uh);
'i' makes its sound (ih);
in pale
in cube
in fine
'a' says its name (ay)
'u' says its name (yew)
'i' says its name (eye).
The magic 'e' can't work if it's too far away from the vowel in question. If there are two consonants
in between the magic 'e' and the preceding vowel, adding an 'e' has no effect on the sound remember this for the next section!
Adding 'ing' - Rule 1
This is often a problem area in spelling. The 'ing' (present participle) suffix has the same function as
the magic 'e' - it makes the vowel preceding the last single consonant say its name. So when adding
'ing' onto a word ending in 'e', you drop the 'e' - otherwise you're performing the same function
twice. Rage therefore becomes raging; tube becomes tubing; ice becomes icing, etc.
Adding 'ing' - Rule 2
32
When adding 'ing' (or 'ed') to a word not ending in 'e', to keep the vowel before the final consonant
saying its sound, you must double the last consonant:
begin becomes beginning
swim becomes swimming
rag becomes ragging
So, in a rhyming nutshell -
if a word ends in 'e', knock it off, add i - n - g;
if a word ends in 'd', double it up, add i - n - g.
A3.2 SOME PERENNIAL USE OF ENGLISH PROBLEMS
1.
INCORRECT USE OF WORDS:
2.
NEVER start a sentence with a CONJUNCTION . . . . "and", "but", "because", etc.
3.
i.e. or e.g. ?
4.
"that"
or
"which" ?
"affect" or
"effect" ?
"ensure"
or
"insure" ?
Make sure you understand exactly what a word means before using it. Make use of a
DICTIONARY (what's that?!).
i.e. (id est) means:
"that is" - usually only ONE example applies;
used for clarification.
e.g. (exempli gratia):
"example given" - one or a few examples are
given out of a range of possibilities.
Sentences must contain a VERB.
Most sentences will contain a subject, a verb and an object - they must always have a verb.
Put simply a verb is a "doing" word; the subject is what does the "doing" (it is sometimes
implied): the object has the "doing" done to it.
Consider the sentence:
"A dragon will spit fire when poked with a spear."
The dragon is the subject, will spit is the verb, and fire is the object.
5.
LISTS - be consistent with punctuation. Note the use of capital letters, full stops, colons and
semicolons in the following examples.
33
EITHER www wwww wwww.
(a) Wwww (sentence) wwwww.
(b) Wwww (sentence) wwwww.
etc
OR
www wwww wwww:
(a) wwww (phrase) wwwww;
(b) wwww (phrase) wwwww;
etc
(n) wwww (phrase) wwwww.
OR
www wwww wwww: www (phrase) wwww; www (phrase) wwww;
www (phrase) wwww, and www (phrase) wwww.
6.
Ensure that the VERB TENSES are consistent: eg. if you are describing what you DID,
everything should be in the past tense, not a mixture of present and past tense.
7.
Is the LINK between the VERB and the sentence SUBJECT correct ?
The GROUP of women IS . . . .
The MEMBERS of the group ARE . . .
8.
Minimise REPETITION of the same word close together.
9.
PUNCTUATION occurs at pause points. Try reading what you have written out loud. Can
you do it , AND make it make sense, AND breathe? IF not then check the punctuation - a
comma is "half a breath"; a full stop a "complete breath".
34
APPENDIX 4
Mathematical Symbols
Students studying technical or scientific subjects should be familiar with standard mathematical
symbols, and so the content of Appendix 4 has been limited to the letters of the Greek alphabet and
to the notation used for multiples of ten.
Where many symbols are used in a report their meanings should be defined in a 'Notation' section at
the start of the document (see Section 4.5). If there is any likelihood of a misunderstanding arising
over the meaning of particular terms a Glossary, in which definitions are given, should be provided.
The Glossary is often located in the appendices.
Greek Alphabet
English
Equivalent
a
b
g
d
e
z
e
th
i
k
l
m
n
x
o
p
r
s
t
u
ph
kh
ps
o
Greek
Name
Lower case
(small)
α
β
γ
δ
ε
ζ
η
θ
ι
κ
λ
µ
ν
ξ
o
π
ρ
σ
τ
υ
φ
χ
ψ
ω
alpha
beta
gamma
delta
epsilon
zeta
eta
theta
iota
kappa
lambda
mu
nu
xi
omicron
pi
rho
sigma
tau
upsilon
phi
chi
psi
omega
35
Upper case
(capital)
Α
Β
Γ
∆
Ε
Ζ
Η
Θ
Ι
Κ
Λ
Μ
Ν
Ξ
O
Π
Ρ
Σ
Τ
Υ
Φ
Χ
Ψ
Ω
Multiples of Ten
prefix
abbrev
factor
prefix
abbrev
factor
exapetateragigamegakilohectodeca-
E
P
T
G
M
k
h
da
1018
1015
1012
109
106
103
102
10
decicentimillimicronanopicofemtoatto-
d
c
m
m
n
p
f
a
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-6
10-9
10-12
10-15
10-18
36
APPENDIX 5
Originality and Plagiarism
The following sets out clearly the University’s position on plagiarism and collusion.
All written work submitted for assessment (essays, project reports, laboratory reports, computer
assignments etc.) and all examination answers should be your own work. When you consult original
sources or secondary literature, this must be acknowledged. In addition, although it is important to
discuss your work with your fellow students, it is not legitimate for you to copy their work, to allow
them to copy your work or to produce joint reports unless this has been specifically required.
Acknowledging your sources means:
•
referring to each source briefly in your work at the point at which you are drawing upon
information or views from that source;
•
providing full information about your sources in your bibliography. You should use a standard
format for your bibliography and unless otherwise advised this should be the Author Date
(Harvard) system;
•
using quotation marks whenever you are citing an author’s views in his or her own terms. In
general you should not copy large sections from a source;
•
acknowledging the source of any diagrams, tables or graphical representations of data that have
been copied directly from a literature source.
In general you must summarise, analyse or synthesise the ideas you encounter in your reading in your
own words.
Any student found to have “borrowed” from published work without acknowledgement, or from
other student’s work, may be awarded a fail mark for the work in question and may be failed in the
relevant unit of assessment. Plagiarism is regarded as an offence against the University’s Examination
Regulations and as such may be the subject of formal disciplinary proceedings.
In the University code of practice for dealing with alleged Plagiarism the following definitions apply:
Plagiarism - a form of cheating in which a student uses, without acknowledgement, the intellectual
work of other people and presents it as his or her own.
Collusion
- where two or more students have worked together to produce a piece of work
which is then submitted for assessment as the work of only one of the students.
It should be noted that matters of Collusion are dealt with under the code for Plagiarism and action
may be taken against the student who has allowed his/her work to be used as well as action taken
against the user.
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APPENDIX 6
Laboratory Reports
The presentation of observations and experimental results from laboratory experiments is an exercise
in report writing. Only a few of the items listed in Table 3.1 will be used, but the final work should
follow the framework set out in these notes, including a Contents and the internal referencing of
Figures and Tables.
The following is a summary of the content which a supervisor/demonstrator would normally expect to
find in a laboratory report.
1.
Introduction. The introduction describes the aim of the experiment and what the
report hopes to prove.
2.
Method. The apparatus is described together with the experimental techniques
employed in obtaining results. Limit your description to the essential facts, and do not
include any unnecessary detail in either figures or text.
3.
The Results. Readings, often presented in the form of a Table, and the values derived
from observation and subsequent calculation are reported in this section. If possible
the results are presented graphically since visual appreciation often helps in analysis
and in drawing conclusions. Repetitive calculations should not be shown, but if
deemed necessary are confined to an appendix.
4.
Analysis of Results. The results and their validity are discussed and the source and
reasons for errors given. The effect of these errors on the final results is estimated and
suggestions made on how to improve the experiment.
5.
Conclusions. An appraisal of the success of the experiment is made and the overall
outcome summarised.
6.
References. The source of any theory not proved in the text should be quoted
together with the source of any results used but not obtained by observation.
The exact content of a laboratory report will depend upon the wishes of the individual supervisor.
Therefore, it is recommended that students consult the relevant supervisor prior to writing up the
work.
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APPENDIX 7
Project Reports
All 'in house' project reports should follow the format detailed in this set of notes. The actual length
and content will depend on the assignment concerned, and if not told you should seek clarification on
these points from the relevant member of staff before you prepare your report.
Reports produced for final year projects should be prepared in accordance with the conventions
specified in this booklet. TWO copies of the report must be submitted. The first copy is retained by
the Supervisor. The second is submitted to a second Examiner, but returned to you after a viva.
The length of the report must be restricted to approximately 10,000 words (excluding Figures,
Tables, etc.) for double module projects, and 7,000 words for single module projects. The text must
be typed in double or one-and-a-half line spacing on A4 paper, on one side only, with pages
numbered consecutively. The cross referencing system detailed in Sect 3 should be employed, and
citations should be in accordance with the Author-Date convention as set out in Section 6.
The assessment system used for Final Year Projects will vary from programme to programme.
However, usually two assessors mark your project: the Supervisor, who has been overseeing the
day-to-day operation; the Examiner, a member of staff appointed to monitor the progress of the
project and to evaluate the final report. The distribution of marks is likely to accord to the following
pattern:
Overall performance during project
Report presentation
Report content
20%
20%
60%
Thus 80% of the marks are awarded for the project report itself!
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APPENDIX 8
Design Projects
Although the design projects undertaken by students vary both in their complexity and length, the
content of the work which is finally submitted is essentially the same in every case. A supervisor
would expect to find the following components in a design project.
1.
Title Page, Contents and list of Drawings.
2.
Introduction - a statement of the problem.
3.
Feasibility Study. An outline of alternative practical designs and/or materials, together
with a discussion of their merits and their weaknesses. Selection of final design, giving
reasons for the choice made.
4.
A Non-Technical Summary. This is a four to five page statement for the client (in
non-engineering terms) outlining the final design and noting important features. In this
section, which should be presented separately from the main submission, there must
be a complete set of A3 drawings folded to A4.
5.
Calculations. Present neat handwritten design calculations in pencil (single sided) in a
standard format complete with computer printout, if applicable, and appropriate
sketches. The organisation of the calculations should be broadly as follows.
a) Introduction - statement of the Codes on which the design is based.
b) Design of elements, systematically laid out in sections, together with the
design of details such as connections. Final results should be highlighted in
some manner so that they are immediately clear to the reader.
6.
Conclusions. This should contain a brief overview of the final design, together with an
appraisal of the work.
7.
References, and Bibliography if appropriate.
8.
Appendices. These might contain extensive computer printout and design calculations.
9.
Drawings are presented, folded to A4 size, in a separate folder to avoid their being
damaged.
It is important that calculations are presented so that an independent person can check them without
asking for further information. Thus they must be fully referenced to relevant Codes, Standards etc.
and any assumptions and simplifications must be stated.
All design drawings (which usually form a significant part of the assessment) must be produced on
CAD and must not be larger than A1 size. Drawings should be of a sufficient standard to enable the
project to be built without reference being made to the design calculations. All drawings must comply
with the relevant clauses of BS 1192. Reinforced (and prestressed) concrete detailing must comply
with ISE/Concrete Society (1989) standard method.
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