HARDWOOD
PLANTATIONS
SOUTHERN
F.
W,
ONTARIO
VON
ALTHEN
ONTARIO
FOREST
SAULT
CANADIAN
OF
LABORATORY
MARIE/
INFORMATION
DEPARTMENT
REGION
RESEARCH
STE,
OF
ONTARIO
REPORT
FORESTRY
FISHERIES
DECEMBER
O-X-2
SERVICE
AND
FORESTRY
1970
Copies of this reportj which is a
reprint of a report dated September
196Sj may be obtained from
Director3 Ontario Region,
Canada Department of Piisherieu and
Forestry3
Box 4903
Sault Ste. Marie3 Ontario.
Frontispiece.
High-value walnut trees grown in a small plantation
near a farmyard.
ABSTRACT
The development of hardwood plantations
discussed.
Height and diameter growth of
in southern Ontario is
17 tree species is listed and
the most interesting plantations are described in some detail.
Mean
annual height growth of the most commonly sampled species is evaluated
in regard to soil
texture, moisture,
the plantation site.
rooting depth and previous use of
Recommendations are made for planting site selec
tion of the most commonly sampled species.
TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION
1
THE STUDY AREA
2
COLLECTION OF DATA
2
ANALYSIS OF DATA
4
RESULTS
4
.
Black Ash
White Ash
Basswood
White Birch
Butternut
Catalpa
Black Cherry
Rock Elm
7
7
10
12
12
13
13
14
White Elm
Shagbark Hickory
14
16
Black Locust
16
Silver Maple
Sugar Maple
Burr Oak
Red Oak
White Oak
Carolina Poplar
Black Walnut
17
18
23
23
26
27
27
CONCLUSIONS
31
REFERENCES
33
APPENDIX A
34
INTRODUCTION
The hardwood
forests of southern Ontario are among the most
potentially productive, most accessible, and most poorly managed forests
of Ontario.
For over 100 years they have been a source of high quality
timber and many local industries are directly dependent upon them as a
source of raw material.
Over two-thirds of the forest area is held in
private ownership, mostly in the form of small woodlots, and this has
made it impossible to regulate the cut on a sustained yield basis.
Cutting has usually been done on a high grading basis in which a con
tractor obtains the right to cut all usable trees regardless of their
maturity or value in the future development of the stand.
Many woodlots have been logged three or four times and are now grossly under
stocked or contain traes of no commercial value (Fingland et at.
1964).
At least 50 percent of all woodlots are permanently or occasionally
pastured by cattle which destroy natural regeneration and cause exces
sive soil compaction.
Awareness of the growing scarcity of good quality timber and
the interest of individual land owners in the creation and maintenance
of productive hardwood forests,
combined with the government policy of
supplying planting stock at a nominal charge, has been responsible for
planting of millions of hardwood seedlings during the last four decades.
From 1936 to
1951,
the last year for which detailed figures have been
published, an average of two million hardwood seedlings or cuttings have
been distributed annually.
The apparent failure of many hardwood plantations,
compared to
the usually more successful coniferous plantings, has resulted in a
curtailment of hardwood planting stock production in the provincial
nurseries and relatively few new plantations have been established
during the last
10 years.
Although it is generally acknowledged that good hardwood plan
tations are more difficult to produce than those of coniferous
some very successful plantations do exist.
However,
species,
little information
has been published on the actual performance of different hardwood
species planted on various sites in southern Ontario.
A hardwood plan
tation survey was therefore carried out in 1963 and 1964;
summarizes the most important findings,
this report
provides a detailed description
of the more interesting plantations, and makes recommendations for
planting site selection of
the most commonly planted species.
The author is a Research Scientist,
Sault Ste.
Marie, Ontario.
Forest Research Laboratory,
THE
STUDY
AREA
The area of study covered by this report is that part of Ontario
that lies south of a line connecting the south shore of Georgian Bay
with the eastern end of Lake Ontario.
It includes one of the most heav
ily populated and industrialized areas in Canada.
Intensive agriculture
prevails wherever the land is suitable for farming, and timber stands
generally consist of small- to medium-sized woodlots owned individually.
The climate of this region is greatly influenced by the Great Lakes and
is generally milder than the northern or eastern parts of the province.
Average and extreme temperatures and precipitation of the study area are
presented in Table 1.
Landform consists of smooth lacustrine plains in
the west, changing eastward to undulating bevelled till plains or mor
aines with lacustrine deposits between the ridges. The main regional
soil types are grey-brown podzolics, dark grey gleisolics, or brown podzolics (Hills 1959). Nearly all of the commercially important hardwood
trees of Canada are found in the region and many species reach their
northern botanical limit here (Hosie 1969).
COLLECTION
OF
DATA
A check of the records of planting stock shipments in district
offices of the Ontario Department of Lands and Forests supplied the
addresses of plantation owners, the location of proposed plantings, and
the number of seedlings shipped. Only orders of at least 3,000 hardwood
seedlings shipped in any one year or 5,000 seedlings in aggregate were
included in the lists.
During the survey additional plantations were
found as a result of information received from foresters familiar with
their districts or from private landowners who had obtained seedlings
from commercial nurseries or had used wildlings from their woodlots.
A total of 296 locations were visited, each plantation was in
spected and the current owner questioned in regard to plantation history,
former land use, planting site preparation, planting method, cultivation,
and silvicultural treatments.
If sufficient information could be
obtained from the current or former owners, and survival and growth were
deemed sufficient to warrant an intensive investigation, one or more
samples were taken. Each sample consisted of a tally of not less than
10 dominant and co-dominant trees per species. Height of all sample
trees was measured by Abney level to the nearest foot and diameter at
breast height was measured by tape to the nearest 1/10 inch.
Survival
was estimated to the nearest 10 percent, whereas stand quality was
evaluated in regard to stem straightness, relative branchiness, and size
of crowns. At least one soil pit was dug in each plantation and the
profile was described together with notes on land form, aspect, minor
vegetation, or any observations of special interest.
Of the 296 properties visited, 68 plantations were selected for
intensive study and 190 samples were recorded. Table 2 lists by numbers
Table 1
Regional climates of southern Ontario
(Putnam and Chapman 1938)
Climatic region
Altitude
(ft)
Mean annual temperature (°F)
Mean winter temperature (°F)
Mean spring temperature (°F)
Mean summer temperature (°F)
Mean fall temperature (°F)
Extreme low temperature (°F)
Extreme high temperature (°F)
Daily range of temperature (°F)
Avg date of last frost in spring
Avg date of first frost in fall
Avg length of frost-free period
(days)
Beginning of growing season
End of growing season
Avg length of growing season
Avg annual precipitation
(days)
(in.)
Avg annual snowfall (in.)
Avg rainfall April 1 - Sept 30 (in.)
Avg summer rainfall (June, July, Aug)
P-E index
(June,
(in.)
July, Aug)
Frequency of droughts
Percent possible sunshine
in growing season
and percentages the reasons for rejection of 228 properties.
Table 2
Reasons for rejection of plantations from survey
Reason for rejection
No.
Failure*
86
38
21
I
13
5
5
°
~
228
«>0
Ownership changed, present owner uninformed
Plantation destroyed by real estate and road
62
building
Trees used in landscape planting
Too young to evaluate
21
15
Planted in natural woodlot and impossible
to identify
Erosion control planting
Miscellaneous
Total
Percent
Li
9
'
* Most frequently due to planting on unsuitable sites and animal browsing
ANALYSIS
OF
DATA
For each species in each sample, average height and diameter
at breast height were computed as well as mean annual height growth from
seed.
If not stated otherwise, average height and diameter mentioned in
this report refer to dominant and co-dominant trees only.
The influence
of planting method, cultivation, or early stand treatments could not be
evaluated statistically since all information was based on the recollec
tion of work carried out 20 to 50 years ago.
Because of this a descrip
tion of the growth performance of individual species in various planta
tions was chosen to emphasize the factors that appear to be most respon
sible for the variations in plantation development.
Where considered use
ful, comparisons between species were made towards a better understanding
of the interactions of factors within the same stands.
For the most
commonly sampled species, a subjective evaluation of plantation success
or failure was made, taking into account survival, growth rate, form
development, and high grade timber production.
RESULTS
Success or failure of hardwood plantations must be evaluated by
different standards than those applied to coniferous plantations, since
quality of the individual hardwood tree is of paramount importance.
A
successful hardwood plantation must nor only have satisfactory survival
and growth, but quality and form must make the trees acceptable for
either sawlogs or veneer bolts since no market currently exists in
southern Ontario tor small or poorly shaped trees.
The only notable
exception is black locust
which is valued for fence posts.
In nearly all hardwood plantations sampled, height growth varied
widely within the same plantation and often changed abruptly from one
small area to another.
Investigation of the plantation soils nearly al
compaction, or moisture
ways showed that a change in soil texture, depth,
regime had affected height growth.
For example, a trench dug through an
area occupied by a group of good red oak trees, which were the lone sur
vivors of a large plantation,
showed a pocket of deep sandy soil under
the good oak, changing to a shallow, stony soil over compact clay in the
area of failure.
Selection of a suitable planting site must therefore
be regarded as
the most important factor in the establishment of success
ful hardwood plantations
(von Althen 1964).
Suitable planting sites are generally found in natural woodlots
with deep fertile, undisturbed soil,
in farm orchards, abandoned vege
table gardens, or other highly fertile areas such as moist bottomland
along streams and creeks and lower slopes with deep,
fresh soil.
Areas unsuitable for hardwood planting include abandoned agri
cultural and pasture land of low fertility, dry,
exposed ridges, or any
land with a shallow topsoil and a compacted or stony sub-soil.
As a
rule any land considered to be too poor for agriculture is also too poor
for good hardwood growth.
Site preparation and cultivation are necessary prerequisites
for
successful hardwood plantation establishment because any prolonged period
of slow growth during the early life of the plantation greatly increases
the danger of seedling loss or permanent injury owing to suppression by
weeds,
rabbit browsing, or ground frosts occurring after leaf
flushing.
Site preparation may be in the form of complete or partial cultivation
or chemical eradication of competing vegetation.
Plowing and tilling of the total plantation area is by far the
best method of site preparation because it offers
tages not obtainable by any other method:
the deep-rooted perennial species;
it loosens
improved aeration and water infiltration;
the following advan
it destroys all weeds including
the soil and provides
and it adds plant material
which improves the nutrient status and organic content of the soil.
Complete mechanical site preparation also provides
favourable conditions
the most
for subsequent chemical weed control because
regrowth of weeds can generally be prevented by applying herbicides
dosages small enough
to be tolerated by
seedlings.
Glossary of scientific names of
in
the highly susceptible hardwood
species appears in the appendix.
Where plowing of the total area is not feasible, strips several
feet wide should be plowed and the trees planted in the overturned soil.
On light-textured soils or those with few weeds,
site preparation may
take the form of chemical eradication of weeds on the total area or in
strips at least 5 feet wide.
However, these methods are generally much
less effective in promoting seedling growth than complete mechanical site
preparation.
Weed control during the first few years after planting depends
greatly on the intensity of site preparation with the most intensively
prepared sites requiring the least weed control.
The additional cost of
intensive site preparation may, therefore, be partly or totally offset by
reduced weeding costs.
Manual and mechanical weed control methods have
proven very successful but the frequency of operations required for effec
tive control makes these methods rather expensive.
Herbicides offer more
economical control, but many hardwood species are highly susceptible to
damage by the dosages necessary for effective control.
Tree girdling by mice and browsing by rabbits can cause heavy
damage in hardwood plantations.
Poisoning of the mice and application of
rabbit repellents can provide some protection but these methods are rather
expensive for the degree of protection they provide.
By far the best
protection against rodent damage is the elimination of weeds.
prives the animals of shelter and food and makes
This de
the plantation a hostile
environment for rodent survival and reproduction.
Deer browsing damage has been unimportant in southern Ontario owing
to the relatively small number of deer in the area.
However, in regions
with a dense deer population, serious consideration must be given to this
problem.
It should be obvious to every plantation owner that cattle
should never be allowed to graze in a hardwood plantation since they not
only damage the trees by browsing, but also break or bend many saplings
and severely compact the soil.
Where protection from livestock and wild
life cannot be guaranteed, hardwood planting should not be attempted.
Many of the sampled plantations had been established at a very
close spacing.
stock,
The reasons
for dense planting were smallness of planting
fear of low survival, and the desire for early canopy closure to
eliminate competition from herbaceous vegetation.
Not only had the es
tablishment of such plantations been very costly, but high survival had
frequently resulted in extremely dense stands and various degrees of
stagnation.
Thinning at an early age could have avoided stagnation and
the resulting loss in diameter increment, but very few plantations had
received any silvicultural treatments.
Changes in ownership were found
to be a major reason for the sometimes rather obvious neglect, but lack
of knowledge of growth requirements was also widespread.
Similar conditions prevailed in some mixed plantations where a
less valuable tree species,
such as black locust, was allowed to dominate
the more valuable black walnut or white ash trees.
In other mixtures
consisting of alternate rows of white and rock elm,
poor growth of the
latter species accidentally allowed the white elm trees
to reach maximum
growth rates.
Most tree planters have little or no control over the quality of
planting stock, but
seed zones give
the grading of nursery stock and
the buyer a guarantee that his
planting under average conditions.
1 or 2 years
nursery.
Hardwood planting stock is mostly
old when distributed and is seldom transplanted in the
Good stock should be hardy,
root system.
the establishment of
stock will be suitable for
sturdy and have a well-branched
During transport from the nursery and storage at the planting
site the stock must be protected against desiccation or any other
injury
which could preclude planting success.
Black Ash
Black ash has rarely been planted in southern Ontario because its
growth and form characteristics make it inferior to white ash.
plantation sampled was planted by spade in ploughed furrows,
The only
at a spacing
of 6 x 6 feet on former pasture land with a dense cover of weeds and
grasses.
The soil was a moist clay loam changing to clay at a depth of
15 inches.
After 22 growing seasons black ash survival was only 20 per
cent; height and diameter ranged from 16 to 22 feet and 2.1 to 3.3 inches,
respectively, and mean annual height growth was 0.9 feet.
In comparison,
on the same site, mean annual height growth of white elm was 1.0 feet,
silver maple 0.9 feet, and basswood 0.7 feet.
White Ash
White ash has been the most commonly planted hardwood
tree in
southern Ontario and 47 plantations were sampled, ranging in age from 19
to 43 years.
On the basis of subjective evaluation, 9 plantations were
classified as good, 26 as acceptable and 12 as poor.
Best growth was al
ways associated with fresh to moist soils of sandy loam to clay loam
texture and rooting depth of
15 inches or more, but an increase in avail
able soil moisture appeared to be able to compensate for a decrease in
possible rooting depth.
The species appeared to be well suited for planting on former
fertile soil, but on unfertile or
agricultural land with a deep, moist,
dry sites growth was generally slow and tree form was poor.
Plantings in
openings of natural woocllots were generally more successful than those
on former agricultural land of the same soil type.
Rabbit browsing was
a problem in some plantations but white ash seedlings appeared to be less
susceptible
than many other hardwood species,
notably
the oaks.
Site
preparation and cultivation after planting appeared to have increased
Table 3
Growth of planted white ash as influenced by site conditions and planting treatments
Age
froo
Avg
Dominant and co-dominant trees
Mean atra
Former
Depth
Moisture
Texture
in.
regime
Total +
fertilization
2 yr
clay loam
22
fresh
woodlot
none
none
clay loam
14
moist
good
woodlot
none
none
sandy loam
24
dry
2.0
fair
cropped
furrows
none
loam
34
moist
1.7
good
cropped
furrows
3 yr
sandy loam
24
dry
1.6
fair
pasture
total
3 yr
clay loam
16
fresh
1.4
good
cropped
furrows
3 yr
clay
18
fresh
1.5
fair
pasture
furrows
none
loam
22
fresh
1.2
fair
cropped
furrows
none
silty clay
16
fresh
0.8
poor
cropped
furrows
none
sand
20
dry
0.7
poor
cropped
furrows
none
silty clay
8
0.7
poor
pasture
furrows
none
sandy loam
11
Survival
dbh
Avg ht
ht growth
Tree
20
70
5.1
55
2.7
excellent
cropped
2.0
good
2.0
%
ln#
ft
Soil of rooting zone
Cultivation
planting
se«»d
r
Planting
ft
form
land
use
site
preparation
after
fresh
dry
Remarks
best growth
along creek
09
survival and early height growth in areas of heavy
competition
grass
and weed
(Table 3).
The best plantation sampled was planted by spade at a spacing of
4x4 feet on fully cultivated agricultural land with a fresh clay loam
soil
kept,
(Fig. 1).
Although no record of the amount of fertilization was
the owner recalled that nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus were
applied to the land shortly before planting.
Full cultivation was
maintained during the first 2 years after planting but no silvicultural
treatments were applied thereafter.
For 20-year-old white ash, height
ranged from 49 to 59 feet and diameter from 3.3 to 7.1 inches.
Mean
annual height growth was
2.7 feet.
With a survival of
70 percent,
the
stand is in urgent need of thinning.
White ash planted in alternate rows with black locust in another
section of
the same plantation was completely dominated by the locust,
average height and diameter being only 26 feet and 2.4 inches,
respec
tively, compared to 54 feet and 5.7 inches for black locust.
An example of poor white ash growth due to unsuitable conditions
was recorded in a 26-year-old plantation (Fig. 2).
The trees had been
planted by spade in ploughed furrows at 4 x 4 foot spacing on former
pasture land with a rolling topography and dry shallow topsoil of sandy
loam over medium fine sand.
and diameter averaged
Survival was only 30 percent, while height
17 feet and
1.9 inches,
respectively.
Eight years
previously the white ash had been underplanted with white pine which has
grown well and which shows internodes of up
to 2.5 feet.
pine establishment and early growth was probably aided by
Although white
the open ash
overstorey, pine, nevertheless, appeared to be much better suited for
afforestation of this site.
Growth of white ash was nearly always satisfactory and often
good in natural woodlot plantings.
In a 31-year-old plantation of white
ash and white elm established in a clearcut area of a natural woodlot,
with a moist soil of clay loam, mean annual height growth of white ash
was 2.0 feet while diameters ranged from 4.5 to 8.2 inches.
White ash has frequently been planted in alternate rows with
white spruce, Scots, red, and white pine.
Few of these mixed plantations
were fully successful because of differences in species requirements.
One of the better plantations was a mixture of white ash and other hard
woods planted in alternate rows with Scots pine.
Trees had been planted
by spade at a spacing of 6 x 6 feet on former pasture land with a fresh
clay loam soil.
At 43 years of age, height growth of white ash was best
with a range of 54
to 71 feet compared to 55 to 66 feet for Scots pine.
However, average diameter of Scots pine was 9.4 inches compared
for white ash.
to 7.4
A more representative example of mixed plantation development
was recorded in a 24-year-old plantation of alternate rows of white ash,
10
Figure 1.
White ash
plantation established
20 years previously on
soil of deep3 fresh
clay loam.
Avg. height
55 feet.
Figure 2.
White ash
planted 26 years pre
viously on dry, shallow
sandy loam.
Avg. height
17 feet.
White pine
underplanted 8 years
previously.
white spruce, white pine, and red pine.
Trees had been planted by spade
in ploughed furrows at a spacing of 6 x 6 feet on former pasture land
with a sandy loam soil.
Although survival of all species was fair, height
growth of white ash varied widely whereas heights of conifers were rather
even.
In areas of good growth, ash was superior to all conifers but
averaging the total 5-acre plantation, conifer growth was much better.
Mean annual height growth of "good" ash was 1.0 foot compared to 0.8 foot
for all three coniferous species.
Average diameter was
3.3 inches
for
ash and spruce, 4.5 inches for white pine, and 4.6 inches for red pine.
Basswood
Basswood has been recommended as a plantation tree with great
potential, but little is known about its site requirements.
Relatively
few. seedlings have been planted in southern Ontario and only five plan
tations ranging in age from 22 to 79 years were sampled, four of which
were evaluated as good, one as acceptable and one as poor.
11
In a 25-year-old mixed hardwood plantation of four rows per
species, planted on fully cultivated agricultural land of sandy loam
texture at a spacing of 4.5 x 4.5 feet, average height and diameter were
47 feet and 6.2 inches, respectively, with a mean annual height growth
of 1.9 feet.
Tree form was good (Fig.
3).
Figure S.
Basswood planted
25 years previously on soil
of deep sandy loam.
Avg.
height 47 feet.
In a single tree mixture of basswood and white ash, planted by
spade on former agricultural land with a sandy loam soil, both species
appeared to be evenly matched after 25 growing seasons.
Since the orig
inal spacing was 3.5 x 2 feet and the plantation was never thinned,
approximately 40 percent of the trees had grown well while another 40
percent were badly suppressed, and the rest were missing.
Dominant and
co-dominant basswood trees were 24 to 39 feet high with diameters ranging
from 3.5 to 6.8 inches compared to heights of 25 to 44 feet and diameters
of 3.5 to 4.7 for white ash.
The oldest plantation sampled had been planted 79 years pre
viously at a spacing of 4 x 4 feet.
The main species was sugar maple,
with basswood and white ash scattered throughout the stand.
Soil was a
sandy loam near the surface changing to coarse sand at a depth of 22
inches.
11.5 to
Height of basswood ranged from 67 to 83 feet with diameters of
19.4 inches.
Height of sugar maple was nearly equal but the
largest diameter was only 11.6 inches.
12
White Birch
No extensive plantations of white birch were discovered during
the survey but the species has been planted intermittently and six plan
tations ranging in age from 18 to 26 years were sampled, three of which
were evaluated as good, one as acceptable and two as poor.
When white
birch was planted on abandoned pastureland with dry shallow soil of a
sandy loam texture, survival was less than 10 percent after 26 growing
seasons, and average height was only 23 feet.
A slightly better sur
vival of 20 percent and average height growth of 25 feet were recorded
in a 20-year-old plantation established by machine planting in furrows
on former agricultural land with a 21-inch-deep loamy clay soil.
In an 18-year-old mixed plantation of alternate rows of white
birch and several other hardwood species machine planted in furrows, on
dry pasture land with a loamy clay soil, birch had a survival of 80
percent while all other species failed completely.
Average height and
diameter were 27 feet and 3.4 inches, respectively, and mean annual
height growth was 1.5 feet.
!
Best survival and growth were recorded in a 20-year-old pure
white birch plantation established on fully cultivated agricultural
land at a spacing of 8 x 5 feet.
The soil consisted of a plough layer
of grey-brown clay loam over reddish-brown clay loam and changing to dark
reddish-brown sandy clay loam at a depth of 16 inches.
penetration was 32 inches.
Deepest root
Survival was 70 percent and height and diam
eter ranged from 37 to 46 feet and 4.4 to 7.2 inches, respectively.
Mean
annual height growth was 2.0 feet.
Stem form was good, with natural
pruning to a height of 12 feet.
Butternut
Butternut has been planted sparingly in southern Ontario because
its growth and wood characteristics are inferior to those of black
walnut.
Only four plantations ranging in age from 25 to 33 years were
sampled.
Best growth was found in a small plantation established in an
understocked portion of a natural sugar maple-hemlock stand.
Seedlings
had been planted by spade without site preparation at a spacing of
8x8 feet in fresh clay loam soil. After 25 years, average height and
diameter were 52 feet and 6.3 inches, respectively, and mean annual
height growth was 2.1 feet.
Natural pruning has been fair with some
large, dead branches persisting.
At the time of planting, butternut seedlings had also been
planted in an adjacent, open field on soil belonging to the same series.
Two years later red pine was planted between the rows of butternut to act
as a nurse crop.
After 25 years, average height and diameter of the
13
field-planted butternut
trees were 26
feet and 3.3 inches,
respectively,
and mean annual height growth was only
1.0 feet.
pine trees,
feet high and had an average diam
on the other hand, were 31
eter of 6.3 inches.
The 22-year-old red
Early thinnings favoring the butternut probably
would have increased diameter growth.
In a 25-year-old plantation, average height of butternut was 38
feet and average diameter 4.7 inches on soil of sandy loam, whereas on
compact clay loam within the same plantation, height and diameter growth
were only 30 feet and 3.5 inches,
respectively.
Catalpa
Catalpa is definitely not a plantation tree in southern Ontario
even though it is highly valued as an ornamental tree in landscape plant
ing.
The only plantation believed to exist in Ontario was planted in
1912 in a clearcut of a natural woodlot with a clay loam soil belonging
to the Perth series.
Planting stock was imported from a nursery in the
United States and seedlings were planted by spade on ploughed ridges
a spacing of 8 x 8 feet and were cultivated for at least 1 year.
at
The
owner had been led to believe that catalpa could produce fence posts
in
12 years and railway ties in 20 years, but the first fence posts of 8-inch
diameter were actually cut in 1940.
When the stand was sampled in 1964,
heights and diameters ranged from 39 to 59 feet and 5.2 to 14.9 inches,
respectively, with an average height of 52
feet and a diameter of 8.2
inches.
Tree form was fair with generally short but straight stems and
large crowns starting at a height of only 20 feet above ground.
Natural
regeneration has produced a dense second storey of good native hardwood
saplings 10 to 25 feet high which are expected to produce a fully stocked
stand when the catalpa are cut.
Blaok Cherry
Black cherry is of little importance as a plantation tree in
southern Ontario and only two planting sites were visited:
one planta
tion showed fair growth while the other was a total failure.
Black cherry machine planted in alternate rows with white ash,
white pine, and white spruce at a spacing 6x7 feet on former pasture
land had a survival of 70 percent after 22 growing seasons.
Soil con
sisted of a 9-inch-deep plough layer of dark grey clay loam over
yellowish-brown clay loam, changing to brown clay at a depth of
14 inches.
Form was very poor with half of the trees resembling small bushes with
multiple leaders, probably as the result of repeated rabbit browsing.
Heights and diameters ranged from 23 to 34 feet and 1.8 to 5.3 inches,
respectively, with an average height of 27 feet compared to 34 feet for
ash and pine.
14
Of many thousand black cherry seedlings planted by machine between
rows of red pine 10 to 15 feet high on soil of dry loamy sand, not a
single tree survived.
This complete failure was probably the result of
several factors, including unsuitable soil, excessive competition from
the well established pines, and extensive rabbit browsing.
Rook Elm
The few rock elm seedlings planted have invariably failed to
produce trees of acceptable size and form.
After 25 years, trees
planted on fully cultivated agricultural land with a sandy loam texture,
had an average height and diameter of 37 feet and 4.5 inches, respec
tively.
Tree form was poor.
In a 23-year-old plantation of two rows of rock elm alternating
with one row of white elm, rock elm survival was less than 20 percent
and the best tree was only 24 feet high compared to 59 feet for the best
white elm.
White Elm
White elm has never been a common plantation tree in southern
Ontario and its susceptibility to the Dutch elm disease, caused by
Ceratoayatis ubni (Buism.) C. Moreau, has made planting completely inad
visable at present.
Fifteen plantations ranging in age from 20 to 41
years were sampled during the survey.
Since plantation development has
been greatly influenced by the severity of attack of the Dutch elm disease,
it was impossible to evaluate success or failure of individual planta
tions on the basis of survival and growth rate.
However, best growth
appeared to be associated with moist soils of silty clay or clay loam
texture.
On sandy, dry soils, on the other hand, growth was always slow
and tree form was generally poor.
Best growth was measured in a 23-year-old plantation of one row
of white elm alternating with two rows of rock elm, at a spacing of 6 x 3
feet.
Since the rock elm had grown very poorly and many of the white elm
trees had died, final spacing was approximately 18 x 10 feet.
Soil con
sisted of silty clay over compact clay at a depth of 18 inches.
Average
heights and diameters ranged from 50 to 59 feet and 7.6 to 10.6 inches,
respectively.
Mean annual height growth was 2.5 feet.
Planting of white elm at a spacing of 8 x 8 feet in openings of
a heavily cut woodlot with a moist, deep soil of clay loam texture pro
duced trees of good form, whose average height and diameter were 59 feet
and 8.7 inches, respectively, at 31 years of age (Table 4).
Table 4
Growth of planted white elm as Influenced by site conditions and planting treatments
Age
Dominant and co-dominant trees
from
seed
vr
Avg
Survival
%
Hean ann
dbh
Avg ht
in.
ft
ht growth
Former
Tree
land
ft
form
use
57
2.5
fair
59
1.9
32
Planting
site
Cultivation
after
Soil of rooting zone
Depth
Moisture
preparation
planting
Texture
in.
regime
pasture
furrows
2 yr
silty clay
18
fresh
good
woodlot
none
none
clay loam
14
moist
1.6
fair
cropped
total
2 yr
clay loam
> 17
fresh
36
1.4
fair
cropped
total
1 yr
sandy loam
16
dry
31
1.2
poor
cropped
total
3 yr
clay loam
12
fresh
27
0.8
poor
pasture
furrows
none
sand
20
dry
Remarks
best
growth
16
In mixed plantations of white elm, white ash, and silver maple,
the elm trnes was always slightly lower than that of
average height of
the other
two species while average diameter was
equal or slightly larger.
Shagbark Hickory
Shagbark hickory occurs naturally in many southern Ontario woodlots but has seldom been planted.
In the only plantation sampled,
the
species had been planted in single tree mixture with red oak, sugar maple,
and basswood on fully cultivated agricultural land of Burford loam.
Spacing was 7x3 feet and cultivation was maintained for 2 years after
planting.
The height and diameter of 27-year-old hickory ranged from 33
to 46 feet and 3.9 to 5.4 inches, respectively.
Mean annual height growth
was 1.4 feet for hickory, sugar maple, and basswood, and 1.8 feet for
red oak.
Black Locust
Black locust is not a common plantation tree in southern Ontario
but has been planted occasionally, mostly in the form of shelterbelts
around farms or fields or for erosion control on steep slopes or land of
low fertility.
Three plantations were sampled during the survey,
in age from 8 to 20 years.
When planted on infertile land,
growth were poor; but on deep,
fertile soil,
ranging
survival and
growth ranged from acceptable
to very good.
The average height of black locust planted in four rows along the
edge of a field at a spacing of 4 x 4 feet on soil of fresh clay loam over
compact clay was 23 feet after eight growing seasons.
Average diameter
was 2.5 inches and mean annual height growth was 2.8 feet.
Crowding and excessive drainage appeared to be the main causes of
poor growth of black locust planted
17 years ago in alternate rows with
black walnut on former pasture land with a dry sandy loam soil.
Spacing
was 6x3 feet.
High survival and lack of thinning has resulted in a very
dense canopy with none of the trees being able to express dominance.
Average height of black locust was 27 feet and average diameter 3.8 inches,
compared with black walnut growth of 22 feet and 2.8 inches.
In a mixed plantation of alternate rows of black locust and white
ash planted 20 years previously on fully cultivated agricultural land with
a clay loam soil and cultivated for 2 years after planting, black locust
completely dominated the stand
(Fig. 4).
Average height and diameter were
54 feet and 5.7 inches, respectively.
Form was good with long slender
boles, and few branches to a height of 30 feet.
attack were found.
No signs of locust borer
17
Figure 4.
Black locust and
white ash planted in alternate
rows 20 years previously on
soil of deep, fresh clay loam.
Avg. height of locust 54 feet.
Silver Maple
Silver maple has been planted extensively in southern Ontario
because the species is well suited for afforestation of poorly drained
areas too wet for farming.
Twenty-two plantations ranging in age from
15 to 43 years were examined; but since most plantings were restricted
to land unsuitable for farming, plantation size was generally less than
3 acres.
Evaluation of plantation success revealed that only three planta
tions could be classified as good, three as acceptable and 16 as poor.
Although height growth was often considered satisfactory, tree form was
generally poor, making the trees unsuitable for sawlog utilization.
Spacing as close as 3 x 3 feet did not prevent profuse sprouting from
the base. To produce trees of merchantable size and acceptable form,
it will, therefore, be necessary to reduce clumps to single stems and
even then many trees will tend to grow crookedly or lean excessively.
18
Moist bottomland is the natural habitat of silver maple in
southern Ontario and plantations established on such sites generally
showed satisfactory growth.
However, some plantings in fresh to moist
soils of silt, clay, or loam texture also grew well.
Plantings on dry
exposed sites or soils of coarse texture, however, never produced trees
of acceptable size or form.
On moist sites, even dense ground competition
had little effect on seedling survival and growth; while on drier sites,
cultivation for at least 2 years after planting will be necessary to
assure satisfactory establishment.
Although the species is presently of little value as a timber
tree, it can be used to good advantage as a nurse crop for more valuable
hardwood species.
Because of its rapid growth, it has also been found
useful for shade tree planting in moist corners of pastures or near barn
yards where shade is required for cattle.
The best plantation sampled grew on bottomland near a creek which
flooded the valley for short periods during spring.
Soil was a structure
less, deep silty clay.
For 23-year-old silver maple, average height was
57 feet and average diameter 8.2 inches.
Tree form was fair to good
(Table 5).
Good growth was recorded in a silver maple stand planted at the
bottom of a steep slope on soil of moist clay loam (Figure 5). For 43year-old silver maple, average height and diameter ranged from 69 to 90
feet and 9.5 to 15.4 inches, respectively, with a mean annual height
growth of 1.9"feet. However, most trees were crooked or leaning and will
produce little timber of sawlog quality.
Planted in mixture with white spruce on dry soil of medium fine
sand, silver maple survival was less than 20 percent after 35 years while
mean annual height growth of the poorly shaped trees was 1 foot.
Sugar Maple
Planting of sugar maple has often been attempted but since the
majority of plantations have been marked failures, the belief is widely
held that the species cannot be planted successfully.
The survey has
shown that although sugar maple is more difficult to plant than almost
any other native hardwood species, planting, nevertheless, is quite
feasible.
Eleven plantations ranging in age from 23 to 79 years were
sampled and four plantations are discussed in some detail.
Evaluation shows that two plantations may be classified as good,
two as acceptable, and seven as poor.
Size of planting stock appeared to
be of great importance in the establishment of successful plantations.
Large wildlings transplanted frcm nearby woodlots were generally more
successful than small nursery-giown stock.
Table 5
Growth of planted silver maple as influenced by site conditions and planting treatments
20
Figure 5.
Silver maple planted
43 years previously on soil of
moist olay loam.
Avg. height
81 feet.
Tree form poor.
While natural regeneration is nearly always abundant under the
canopy of a mature sugar maple forest, plantation establishment in the
open is difficult because the seedlings appear to be very susceptible
to heat and frost damage.
Furthermore, the seedlings' inability to
compete with herbaceous vegetation and their susceptibility to rabbit
and deer browsing appear to be the main obstacles to successful planting.
In a 25-year-old mixed hardwood plantation of four rows per
species, planted on fully cultivated agricultural land of sandy loam
texture at a spacing of 4.5 x 4.5 feet, survival of sugar maple was
lowest of all species planted (Table 6).
Only 40 percent of the
original number of seedlings planted were alive and less than 10 percent
are expected to grow into trees of acceptable form.
Tree height ranged
from 26 to 41 feet with diameters of 2.8 to 5.5 inches.
In comparison,
basswood and silver maple in the adjacent rows were 60 to 65 feet high.
An even lower survival was recorded in a mixed 23-year-old hardw od plantation of 10 rows per species.
Less than 10 percent of the
sugar maple trees had survived after years of rabbit browsing and com
petition from weeds and grasses.
Comparative survival of white ash was
80, black walnut 70, and red oak 50 percent.
The remaining sugar maple
trees ranged in height from 17 to 30 feet with diameters of 1.2 to 3.0
inches.
Stem form was generally acceptable but because of their open
growth all trees had exceptionally large crowns.
Table 6
Growth of planted sugar maple as influenced by site conditions and planting treatments
22
Use of large natural seedlings resulted in high survival in a
26-acre sugar maple plantation established on fine, sandy soil of an
abandoned strawberry plantation.
Natural seedlings 4 to 6 feet high,
from the adjacent woodlot were planted at an even spacing of 12 x 12
feet, and hay and hardwood slash were spread over the soil to prevent
drifting and to help in the establishment of a grass cover.
Thirtyeight years after planting survival was still 90 percent.
Heights
ranged from 30 to 51 feet and diameters from 4 to 9 inches.
Tree form
was only fair because of short boles and bushy crowns, but 2 years
previously the owner had successfully started to tap the larger trees
for production of maple syrup.
Figure 6.
Sugar maple planted
79 years previously on soil
of sandy loam.
Avg. height
71 feet.
The oldest plantation sampled was planted 79 years previously
at a spacing of 4 x 4 feet on former agricultural land with a sandy
loam soil changing to coarse sand at a depth of 22 inches (Fig. 6).
Origin of planting stock could not be determined but it is believed
that natural seedlings were used.
In 1947, 63 years after planting,
the stand received a light thinning.
Since the survival has been very
high, the stand would probably have greatly benefited from repeated
thinnings started at an early age.
Height and diameter ranged from
53 to 83 feet and 5.6 to 11.6 inches, respectively.
Tree form was
23
excellent, with straight stems free of branches to a height of 30 feet.
Diameter growth, on the other hand, has been retarded by the very close
spacing which still averages less than 6x6 feet.
Burr Oak
Burr oak has been recommended for planting on adverse sites, but
few trees have been planted in southern Ontario and the species was
sampled in only two plantations.
In the first plantation, burr oak had been planted on abandoned
farm land with a topsoil of clay loam changing to compact clay at a depth
of 17 inches. After 19 growing seasons survival was only 30 percent
while average height and diameter were 13 feet and 2.1 inches, respective
ly and mean annual height growth was 0.8 feet.
In a 30-year-old plantation,of alternate rows of Scots pine and
burr oak planted at a spacing of 4 x 4 feet on sandy loam soil, survival
of both species was over 80 percent. Height and diameter of burr oak
ranged from 35 to 51 feet and 5.1 to 9.2 inches, respectively, mean
annual height growth being 1.4 feet. The height of Scots pine equalled
that of the oak but the average diameter was nearly 80 percent higher.
All oaks had very straight stems, but despite the close spacing, small
adventitious branches covered nearly the total length of all stems.
Red Oak
Red oak is a rapidly growing timber tree of good quality and is
one of the most commonly planted hardwood trees in southern Ontario.
Of
the 13 plantations sampled ranging in age from 23 to 60 years, six were
classified as good, three as acceptable, and four as poor.
Best growth
was always associated with deep, well-drained soils ranging in texture
from loamy sand to loam, whereas trees planted on soils of very coarse
or very fine texture or those with a shallow topsoil and a compacted
subsoil never grew well.
When planted on suitable soils, the species
appears to be well adapted for reforestation of cleared land.
However,
rabbit control is an absolute prerequisite to successful plantation
establishment.
In sevtiral reforestation areas visited during the survey,
rabbits had either killed the seedlings or by repeated browsing of
annual shoots had held total height to less than 4 feet.
In mixed plan
tations of red oak and pine, oak survival was generally low because of
the difficulty of rabbit control
(Table 7).
In a single tree mixture of red oak, sugar maple, shagbark
hickory, and basswood planted 25 years previously on fully cultivated
agricultural land with deep loam soil, red oak growth was greatly sup
erior to that of all other species (Figure 7).
Height and diameter
Table 7
Growth of planted red oak as influenced by site conditions and planting treatments
to
25
ranged from 36 to 57 feet and 3.5 to 9.6 inches, respectively, while
mean annual height growth was
1.8 feet.
Tree form was
Twenty-three years after red oak, white ash,
good.
and black walnut
had been planted in several rows per species on old pasture land with a
deep, loam soil, height and diameter of red oak ranged from 27 to 54
feet and 2.9
was
to 6.3 inches, respectively,
1.6 feet compared
to
1.5
and mean annual height growth
for black walnut and
1.3 for white ash.
In a mixed plantation of several rows of red oak,
silver maple, white elm,
and white ash,
black walnut,
planted on former agricultural
land of fairly compact clay loam texture changing to very compact clay
at a depth of 16 inches, red oak growth was greatly inferior to that of
all other species.
was only 1.2 feet,
After 25 growing seasons, mean annual height growth
compared to
1.7 feet for black walnut and
1.6 feet
for white ash.
Figure 7.
Red oak planted 25
years previously in mixture
with other hardwoods on deep
loam soil.
Avg. height 48
Figure 8.
Pure red oak plan
tation established 23 years
previously on soil of deep
sandy loam.
Avg. height 41
feets good form.
feet.
One of
the best red oak plantations sampled was
a pure stand,
established 23 years previously on former agricultural land of deep
sandy loam (Fig.
8).
Twenty years after planting approximately 200
trees per acre had been pruned to a height of
17
feet.
inal spacing of 4 x 4 feet and a survival of 70 percent,
not
thinned because a sufficient number of
With an orig
the stand was
trees had achieved dominance.
26
The height and diameter ranged from 33 to 48 feet and 4.0 to 6.8 inches,
respectively,
inches.
for an average height of 41 feet and a diameter of
5.4
This growth compared favorably with that of an adjacent white
pine plantation of equal age, having an average height and diameter of
38 feet and 6.9 inches,
respectively.
The oldest red oak plantation sampled was established 60 years
previously by direct seeding.
Acorns had been sown in several rows
the middle of a white pine plantation established at
deep, well-drained soil of medium fine sand.
was 67 feet compared
to 59 for white pine.
and pine were 8.1 and 9.2 inches,
in
the same time on
The average height of oak
The average diameter of oak
respectively.
Tree form of oak was
good to excellent.
White Oak
White oak is of little importance as a plantation tree in
southern Ontario because of its relatively slow growth and its suscep
tibility to rabbit browsing.
However,
the species has been planted occa
sionally and three plantations were sampled in which white oak occurred
as a minor species.
In a 19-year-old plantation, white oak had been planted in
mixture with white ash, silver maple, burr oak,
and black walnut on
abandoned farmland with a topsoil of dark grey,
friable clay loam
changing to brown clay loam at a depth of 9 inches, and to yellowish
17 inches.
White oak survival was only 20
brown very compact clay at
percent while average height was 12 feet and mean annual height growth
was 0.6 feet, compared to
silver maple.
growth;
1.1 feet for ash and 0.8 feet for burr oak and
Black walnut was a total loss owing to very stunted
its height averaged 3 to 4 feet.
Growth of white oak was mjch better in a mixed plantation of
sugar maple, white ash, and black walnut planted 20 years earlier in an
old,
poorly regenerated clearcut.
loam over very compact clay.
of 4 x 2 feet and lack of
Soil consisted of 21 inches of clay
All trees had been planted at a spacing
thinning and dense ingrowth of blue beech
resulted in a very crowded stand.
Height and diameter of white oak trees
ranged from 17 to 33 feet and 1.3 to 3.4 inches, respectively, while
mean annual height growth was
1.2 feet compared to
1.3 feet for the two
other species.
Best growth of white oak was recorded in a 43-year-old mixed
plantation of Scots pine, white ash, black walnut, silver maple, and
white oak,
listed in order of survival.
than 10 percent is attributed
The poor oak survival of
to heavy rabbit browsing.
was a dark brown friable clay loam to a depth of
less
Plantation soil
12 inches underlain by
6 inches of lighter colored clay loam and changing to medium brown,
27
compact clay at a depth of 18 inches.
Very few roots were found below
this depth.
Height and diameter growth were surprisingly even for all
species with the best Scots pine tree reaching a height of 66 feet and
a diameter of 11.3 inches, while the best white oak was 71 feet high and
12.8 inches in diameter.
However, only one such tree was found and the
average height and diameter of white oak were 56 feet and 7.9 inches,
respectively.
Mean annual height growth of oak was 1.3 feet compared to
1.5 for white ash and 1.4 for Scots pine.
Carolina Poplar
Nearly all poplar plantings in southern Ontario have been in the
form of windrows or afforestation of either swampland or very dry, sandy
areas.
No large forest plantations were found but a few height and di
ameter data were collected in windrows or erosion control plantings.
Carolina poplar cuttings planted 26 years previously in a single
row along the eastern side of a silver maple plantation on soil of fresh
clay loam grew to a maximum height of 88 feet and a diameter of 13.5
inches.
Average height and diameter were 65 feet and 10.0 inches, respec
tively, compared to 56 feet and 6.7 inches for silver maple.
On the slope of an artificial dam constructed of stony clay fill,
height and diameter of 21-year-old poplar trees ranged from 46 to 64 feet
and 5.0 to 10.1 inches, respectively, with healthy trees of acceptable
form.
All plantings on very dry, sandy soil failed to produce trees of
acceptable size or form and most stands started to deteriorate at an age
of 20 years or younger.
No natural regeneration of any kind was found
in these plantations and the soil was at best only partially covered by
patches of sparse grass or dead branches.
With the deterioration of the
poplar stand, the site will again be subject to erosion.
Poplar there
fore appears less suitable for afforestation of such sites than jack pine
which was planted occasionally on the same site and was generally growing
well.
Black Walnut
Black walnut is unquestionably the most valuable timber species
in Ontario.
Trees of good form and diameters of 20 inches and larger are
in great demand as veneer logs and command prices up to 10 times higher
than those paid for sugar maple or yellow birch logs of equal quality.
Because of the great demand and high value, black walnut has been planted
extensively throughout its range.
During the survey 43 plantations
ranging In Jif»ii
from
14
1am lu;iL Ion r Ins.s 11 i oil
to 85 years were sampled on a varLety of soLls.
IJ of
these plantations as good,
19 as acceptable,
28
and 11 as poor.
Woodlot plantings were generally more successful than
plantations established on former agricultural land belonging to the same
soil series.
Of the six woodlot plantings sampled, three were classified
as good, two as acceptable, and only one as poor (Table 8).
Most plantation failures could be traced directly to unsuitable
soil and moisture conditions of the planting site.
Since black walnut
is a very demanding species, good growth can be expected only on rich,
moist, deep, fertile soil which is found in natural woodlots, valley
bottoms and along creeks.
On the farm, the most suitable planting sites
appear to be orchards or other highly fertile areas such as abandoned
vegetable gardens or moist but well-drained draws.
It is completely
inadvisable to plant black walnut seedlings in abandoned fields or pas
tures of low fertility or on dry exposed ridges or shallow soils.
The most successful planting was found in a natural woodlot
where seedlings had been planted by spade in openings of a mature stand
of sugar maple, silver maple, white elm, and white ash
(Fig. 9).
At 48
years from seed, average height and diameter were 72 feet and 8.8 inches,
respectively, with the best tree reaching a height of 90 feet and a di
ameter of 15.3 inches.
Form was excellent with clear boles to a height
of 30 feet.
The woodlot soil belongs to the Perth series and consists
of 8 inches of dark brown clay loam over 7 inches of greyish-brown clay
loam changing to a dark brown clay, mottled and compact.
consists of a compact, mottled,
below a depth of
15 inches.
pale brown clay.
The C horizon
No roots were found
The site is imperfectly drained and pools
of water cover the surface until early summer.
The woodlot is well
managed, has never been pastured, and since the owner still uses fuelwood on his
farm, he has removed all dead,
dying, or poorly shaped trees,
thereby releasing the walnuts.
Black walnut seedlings, while intolerant of overhead shade,
appear to demand protection when planted in the open.
plantation established on good,
soil, black walnut seedlings
pine trees,
In a 20-acre
fully cultivated farm land of clay loam
grew only a few inches
per year until red
planted 3 years later between the rows of walnut,
started
to
provide protection (Fig. 10).
After 25 growing seasons, average height
and diameter of walnut were 27 feet and 3.2 inches, respectively, com
pared to 30 feet and 5.4 inches
for the 22-year-old red pine.
Since the
trees were planted at a spacing of 4 x 3 feet and had never been thinned,
crowding limited crown development of many black walnut saplings,
but
enough trees maintained their position in the canopy to be able to grow
into a fully stocked stand
if removal of red pine
trees
is not
too
long
delayed.
At the time of open-field planting, a small walnut plantation
was established in an understocked area of
growth has been much better
the adjacent woodlot.
than in the open field.
diameter of black walnut were 49 feet and 5.5 inches,
mean annual height growth being 2.0 feet and
to good.
Here,
Average height and
respectively;
tree form ranging from fair
Table 8
Growth of planted black valnut as Influenced by site conditions and planting treatments
to
30
Figure 9.
Excellent black wal
nut planted 47 years previously
in a natural woodlot on soil of
moist clay loam. Avg. height
72 feet.
Figure 10.
Alternate
rows of black walnut and
red pine, planted respec
tively 3 25 and 22 years
previously on soil of
fresh clay loam.
Avg.
height of walnut 27 feet.
Figure 11.
Poor, deteri
orating black walnut, planted
38 years previously on soil
of 11-inch deep clay loam
over very compact clay.
Figure 12.
Trees of the
same plantation as Figure
11 but growing in 21inch-deep soil of clay
loam over compact clay.
Avg. height 24 feet.
Avg.
height 48 feet.
31
The effect of rooting depth and spacing on height and diameter
growth of planted black walnut is shown in Table 9.
plots were measured in the same plantation (Fig.
plots number
Three 1/10-acre
11 and 12) but while
1 and 2 were located well inside the plantation,
plot
3
represented only trees growing in the outside row bordering a pasture.
All
trees had been planted 38 years previously in a fully cultivated
field at an even spacing of
10 x 10 feet and clean cultivation had been
maintained for 5 years after planting.
The soil belonged
to the Schomberg
series which is characterized by a dark clay loam topsoil underlain by
lighter colored clay loam over a very compact clay which appears to be
impenetrable to tree roots.
Table 9
Influence of soil depth and spacing on black walnut growth
Rooting
Plot
no.
1
depth
in.
Avg
Avg
Survival
%
ht
ft
diam
in.
70
24
4.4
11
Stand quality
deteriorating, poor form, many
dead branches, gnarled tops.
2
21
70
48
7.4
healthy, good form, long boles,
small crowns.
3
21
100
47
12.0
healthy, fair form, short boles,
large crowns.
The difficulty of obtaining reliable information on plantation
establishment and stand history has limited the survey
stands.
to a few mature
The oldest trees measured had been planted 85 years previously
in an abandoned nursery with a deep clay loam soil.
The height and diam
eter ranged from 84 to 95 feet and 15.0 to 23.5 inches, respectively.
Tree form was fair to good,
some trees having clear boles
to a height of
45 feet.
CONCLUSIONS
The results of
the survey lead to the conclusion that it is not
at present economically feasible to establish large hardwood plantations.
The few excellent plantatiors, on the other hand,
can be planted successfully if
prove
the proper conditions
that hardwoods
are met.
Unfortu
nately, our knowledge of "proper conditions" is so limited that hardwood
reforestation is mostly carried out by
costly and wasteful.
trial and error and this is both
32
The survey results also indicate that hardwood trees planted in
woodlot soils have succeeded much more frequently than those planted on
former agricultural or pasture land.
It therefore appears reasonable to
concentrate present day hardwood planting at the rehabilitation of de
vastated, understocked woodlots and those small areas near creekbeds and
on lower slopes which are characterized by deep, moist, fertile soils.
Intensive research on the other hand should be directed toward increasing
our knowledge of species requirements, in regard to soil, moisture and
nutrition as well as protection from exposure and browsing damage.
Since the first printing of this report, 6 years ago, intensive
research (von Althen 1969a,b; 1970) has produced sufficient information
to recommend hardwood afforestation if the following conditions can be
met:
(1) a deep, fertile, moist but well drained planting soil;
(2) complete mechanical site preparation; (3) large, sturdy planting
stock;
(4) large, deep planting holes and careful planting;
weed control; and
(6)
fertilization where necessary.
(5) effective
33
REFERENCES
Fingland, J.A. et at.
1964.
Report of the committee on private forest
lands in southern Ontario.
Ontario Professional Foresters'
Association,
Hills, G.A.
1959.
p
13.
A ready reference to the description of the land of
Ontario and its productivity.
Dept.
Hosie, R.C.
Lands Forests,
1969.
Native trees of Canada.
Forest. , Can.
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34
APPENDIX
A
Common and Botanical Names Mentioned in Text
Black ash
Fraxinus nigra Marsh.
White ash
Fraxinus americana L.
Basswood
Tilia amerioana L.
White birch
Betula papyrifera Marsh.
Butternut
Juglans ainerea L.
Catalpa
Catalpa speaiosa Ward.
Black cherry
Prunus serotina Ehrh.
Rock elm
Ulmus thomasii Sarg.
White elm
Ulmus amerioana L.
Shagbark hickory
Carya ovata (Mill.) K.Koch
Black locust
Robinia pseudoaoaoia L.
Silver maple
Acer saooharinum L.
Sugar maple
Acer saocharum Marsh.
Burr oak
Querous macrocarpa Michx.
Red oak
Querous rubra L.
White oak
Querous alba L.
Carolina poplar
Populus oanadensis Moench
Black walnut
Juglans nigra L.
Eastern hemlock
Tsuga oanadensis
Eastern white pine
Pinus strobus L.
Jack pine
Pinus banksiana Lamb.
Red pine
Pinus resinosa Ait.
White spruce
Pioea glauoa (Moench) Voss
(L.) Carr