Africa & Asia, No 2, 2002, pp 74-87
Dept of Oriental and African Languages, Göteborg University
ISSN 1650-2019
Lines of argument in the first inauguration speech held in
the Japanese Diet: the case of Yamagata Aritomo in 1890
Pia Moberg
Department of Oriental and African Languages
Göteborg University
[email protected]
1.
Introduction
This paper presents some of the findings from an ongoing PhD project which
examines how Japanese Prime Ministers have constructed their inauguration
speeches at times of change and transition. How did they approach the task of
convincing or persuading their audience?
The method employed in the analysis uses Western rhetorical criticism,
looking at the different components involved in the speech act from a rhetorical
perspective. This paper analyzes the argumentation used in the first inauguration
speech ever held in the Japanese Diet (= Parliament). The speech was given by
Premier Yamagata Aritomo on 6 December 1890.
The focus will be with the content and general lines of argument. What
kinds of argument are used? How are they presented and supported, and how do
they relate to the propositio, the main proposal? The isolated parts in the
arrangement will be outlined in a table, followed by a explanatory text. The
table will suggest to what group or groups of argument each sentence in the
speech belongs according to the list of common and special topics. There is also
an indication to which of the three modes (logos, ethos or pathos) the sentence
belong. It is not enough, however, to only read the tables; they will only serve as
a guideline as to where the speaker finds his arguments and are thus merely
supplements the text that follows each part.
The arrangement of common topics, their sub-topics and special topics has
been taken from Corbett & Connors (1999: 87-123). This scheme has been
arranged in a very clear way to present the topics used by the classical
rhetoricians.
Pia Moberg · Lines of argument in the Japanese Diet in 1890
2.
75
Analysis of the argumentation in Yamagata’s speech 1890
The speech, with an English translation, follows in the appendix.1 It has been
broken into nine sections, labelled A to I, for the purpose of the present analysis.
2.1
Exordium
2.1.1
Section A
Through his definition of the Emperor, the speaker establishes his own ethos.
Yamagata opens his speech by referring to the occasion when the Emperor
officially opened Diet on 29 November 1890. He expresses happiness and pride.
Since the Emperor was the common denominator in Japan for the Japanese
people at that time, this was the natural way to create the very important feeling
of togetherness with the audience. A:1–3 defines the new constitutional
government as something beneficial for the country.
2.1.2
Section B
In the second part of the exordium (section B), the speaker first defines the
official post to which he has been appointed. Then, in the same sentence (B:1),
he uses what can be called an occultatio, when something is emphasized by just
briefly mentioning it: since the Emperor has already outlined the government’s
policy, there is thus no need for the speaker to talk about it. This is a way to
create an ethos that is humble and modest. In the last sentence of the exordium,
B:2, there is a definition of the outline of the speech. Here there is also an
explicit wish from the speaker to deliberate with the audience (i.e. the other
members of Diet) on the subjects to be presented.
2.2
Narratio
2.2.1
Section C
The narration follows a chronological order, in Latin called ordo naturalis (or
ab ovo, ‘to start from the egg’). It opens with a description of the Shogunate’s
policy, and points out the consequences. In C:1, the first consequence is
mentioned: a continous peace and stability. The other side of the coin, however,
as stated in C:2 was the stagnation of Japan’s development. This therefore
detracted from the benefits accured from continuous peace and stability.
1
The English translation of the speech has been done by the present author.
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Ref.
Common topic
A:1-3 definition
(through the Emperor)
B:1
definition
(what this occasion is)
relationship
antecedent and consequence
(the policy mentioned before)
B:2
definition
division
(outline of the speech)
C:1
circumstance
past fact
(the Shogunate’s policy)
C:2
relationship
cause and effect
(the consequences of the shogunate’s
policy)
D:1
relationship
antecedent and consequence
(Meiji reform and afterwards)
D:2
definition
(of the period from Meiji reform
until now)
D:3
circumstance
possible
(to carry on the chosen path thanks to
the emperor)
E:1
comparison
difference in kind
(different ways to act)
E:2
comparison
difference in degree
(different opinions)
E:3
definition
(the speaker’s position)
F:1
comparison
past fact
(has presented the budget)
definition
(Imperial decree)
Special topic
worthy
Mode
ethos
ethos
logos
logos
expedient
logos
ethos
ethos
logos
expedience
ethos
ethos
ethos
ethos
Pia Moberg · Lines of argument in the Japanese Diet in 1890
Ref.
F:2
Common topic
definition
(feeling of affiliation)
F:3
definition
(how the money will be spent)
F:4
definition
divisio
(what will follow in the speech)
G:1-4 definition
(lists what is important to do)
G:5
definition
(the common goal)
G:6
definition
(joint effort to proceed)
H:1
definition
(of ways to defend the country)
divisio (two ways)
H:2
definition
(of the spheres)
H:3-5 argument through deduction
(every country has the two spheres.
Japan has to uphold these spheres)
H:6
definition
(how to achieve this)
H:7
relationship
cause and effect
(because it is our goal, the proposed
budget is appropriate)
H:8
relationship
antecendent and consequence
(assuming that H:7 is true, the
proposal is unavoidable)
I:1-2 comparison
degree, similarity, differences
(joint agreement)
I:3
relationship
antecendent and consequence
(in order to carry out duties, certain
things must be done)
I:4
Special topic
77
Mode
ethos
logos
expedient, useful logos
ethos
good, worthy
pathos
logos
logos
logos
expedient
logos
expedient
logos
expedient,
necessary
logos
good, worthy
pathos
necessary, good,
exhortation
pathos
ethos, pathos
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2.2.2
Section D
In section D, the speaker builds up his trustworthiness through logical arguments
which lead to further establish his ethos.
The second part of the narratio describes what happened at the time of the
Meiji Restoration, after the Shogunate had been overthrown and the rulers had
the heavy responsibility of compensating for past actions. In D:2–3, there is a
presentation of what had actually been done up to that point, and a statement
that the goal being achieved. At this time, the Emperor was an important
authority through whom you defined yourself, and the speaker thanking the
Emperor for what had been achieved so far further establishes his ethos and
trustworthiness. The agreed norm that is mentioned in D:3 refers to the diverse
political opinions and convictions as to how Japan should be developed in the
future. The fact that Japan had adopted Western learning was a part of this norm.
This had been agreed upon, to some extent, by the various leaders in Japanese
society at this time. Here we see how the speaker aims at creating a feeling of
affinity with the audience, a vitally important task for establishing a good ethos.
When the speaker praises the Emperor as being the main reason for success, the
line of argument is characteristic for the special topic of the epideictic genre:
praise.
2.2.3
Section E
So far in the speech, the speaker has taken us from the beginning of the
Tokugawa period to the time of the speech, i.e. Meiji Year 23. The third part in
the narratio describes the present scenario. How will the government rule the
country from now on? The speaker gives the audience in E:1 a choice; two
options that are different in kind but not in degree. It can be ‘fast or slow’, it can
be done in ‘this way or that way’. This dualistic way of presenting different
alternatives stated is very vague, but creates an interesting stylistic effect with a
Sino-Japanese flavour.
The conflicts referred to in E:1 and E:2 are related to the elected Members
of Diet from different regions. Before 1890, during the 1870’s and 1880’s, there
had been great turmoil among the different fractions of leadership. They all
agreed, more or less, that the days of the Shogunate was over, but the opinions
differed exactly how to develop the different industrial and governmental
institutions. Finally, after many quarrels, an elected Diet was established, and
the exhortation in the speech to follow the general trend and put personal
conflicts aside refers to these past events. E:3 is a statement that the speaker will
never leave this path, which further establishes his ethos. The building of the
Pia Moberg · Lines of argument in the Japanese Diet in 1890
79
ethos in A, B and D is thus intensified in E. This is a way to pave the way for the
proposition.
2.3
Propositio
2.3.1
Section F
At the time of the speech, getting approval for the budget was the most
important thing. In F:1, the speaker mentions that the Emperor had given the
government the task to present the budget. In fact, in the Imperial Edict read by
the Emperor at the opening of the Imperial Diet on 29 November 1890, it was
explicitly announced that the Prime Minister would present the budget proposal
for the coming year, Meiji Year 24. In the edict, the Emperor stated the
importance of expanding the country and the neccesity of having a strong army
and navy in order to maintain peace.2 The core of the proposal is presented in
F:3: the allocation of the costs in the budget proposal. As one of the most
influential military leaders in his time, the speaker asked for great sums in order
to build a strong army and navy. The audience is asked to consider the budget
proposal in F:2, but Yamagata was most likely not willing to compromise in this
matter. In F:4, the orator prepares the audience for the following parts in the
speech where, among other issues, arguments that will support the proposition
will be presented.
2.4
Confirmatio
2.4.1
Section G
In these first four sentences, G:1–4, we see a series of statements, growing in
urgency, about important matters for the government. Auxesis, or the use of
words to reinforce, are used to build up the argument. In G:1, it is ‘most urgent’
to review executive and juridical systems; in G:2, it is of ‘great importance’ to
support agriculture, industry and business; in G:3, ‘[we] cannot ignore’ domestic
politics and administration; and finally in G:4, it is ‘essential’ to maintain
independence and expand the country. G:4 is the climax in this progressio, and
directly related to the main proposal in F. Since a large part of the budget will be
used for military and naval expenditure (F:3), this is the subject to explain and
argue for. In G:6, the metaphor of the ‘straight line’ (or ‘borderline’) is used,
and connotates to the ‘sphere’ in E:2. In G:5–6, the speaker fills the air with
pathos and ethos, to stir the emotions and prepare the audience for the next
argument. He makes the audience jointly responsible for implementing the
2
A reprint of the edict can be found in Meiji Jingu\ (1974: 892).
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measures outlined. G can be seen, therefore, as a prelude for the detailed
explanation that will follow in H.
2.4.2
Section H
To ‘defend the independence of the country’ is the matter in focus. According to
Yamagata, the budget proposal, where over half of the budget is to be put aside
for military and naval expenditure, was unavoidable in order to defend the
country. In H, he argues for the proposal.
Firstly, in H:1, two ways to defend the country are declared. The two
spheres that represent the two ways are defined in H:2: the ‘sphere of
sovereignty’ is the geographical border, and the ‘sphere of interest’ represent the
immediate area around the ‘sphere of sovereignty’. Then, in H:3, there is a
general statement that every country has these two spheres. This clear-cut
reasoning is then disrupted in H:4 by what appears to be a bold and illogical
departure in the train of thought. H:3 says nothing about being totally
independent or defending the spheres. However, the speaker probably counts on
tacit understanding on the part of the audience when in H:4 he uses the
statement in H:3 as an argument for defending the country. The enthymem
presented in G:4–5 implies that in order to be a ‘totally independent country’
one has to ‘safeguard the sphere of interest’ and ‘uphold the sphere of interest’.
H:6 explains the way to achieve this control: to gradually increase the power,
and here, the ‘country’s power’ means national power, which can be interpreted
as military power.
The use of the two key expressions ‘sphere of sovereignty’ and ‘sphere of
interest’ was new to the public at the time of the speech. The definition of the
‘sphere of interest’ is described as regions directly related to safety and danger
on the borderline of sovereignty, i.e. an area beyond the territorial boundary.
Although the speaker did not explicitly state which regions he aimed at, it is
most likely he had Korea in mind. In March 1890, a statement written by
Yamagata, and circulated among the Cabinet Members, was about his
“Diplomatic political strategies” where he declared that “the focal point of our
country’s sphere of interest is Korea”.3
The concrete problem related to the ‘sphere of interest’ was the situation on
the continent. Yamagata feared that the completion of the Siberian railway
would give Russia a rapid advance eastwards and threaten Korea’s
independence. The ‘sphere of interest’ indicated a strategic area surrounding the
‘sphere of sovereignty’. If Korea’s position would change, Japan’s ‘sphere of
3
See Kenzo et al. (1990: 88). Hackett (1971: 138-139) and Iriye (1989: 763-764) also
draw the conclusion that the ‘sphere of interest’ meant Korea.
Pia Moberg · Lines of argument in the Japanese Diet in 1890
81
interest’ was endangered.4 Yamagata’s prerequisites for preventing this was an
military expansion.5
Judging from the speaker’s own statement in the concluding part, H:6–7,
the speaker obviously finds his proposal well-supported and declares that the
proposition is both possible and necessary.
2.5
Peroratio
2.5.1
Section I
The concluding part of the speech focuses on joint cooperation and personal
sacrifice for the common good. The speaker argues that since the degree of
similarity in thought is greater than the differences there will be no problems
with mutual understanding. In I:3, the arguments are used to stir the emotions
for the common good, and to ‘sacrifice the benefits that ensue from our
circumstances’, ‘fairly and unselfishly open our hearts’ and ‘have a frank
discussion’. They all refers to decorum, common values of good ethical
behaviour in its time.6
In the last sentence (I:4), the speaker appeals to the audience for
understanding.
3
Conclusions
The structure in Yamagata’s speech is uncomplicated. There is an introduction
(A–B) followed by a narration (C–E). Then comes the proposition (F) and the
argument to support the proposition (G–H), followed by a conclusion (I). The
proposition is well supported in the line of argument.
In the introduction and the proposition, the ethos mode is the most
frequently used, whereas in the narration and the confirmation the logos mode is
the most dominant. In the conclusion, pathos is the working mode. However, the
dominant mode of persuasion is ethos. The feeling of authority is very obvious.
The common topics of definition, relationship and comparison are used, as
are the special topics for the deliberative discourse. It is interesting to notice that
Yamagata brings up special topics which are not only used in the deliberative
genre, but also topics which are used both in the judicial and the epideictic
discourse. The special topics of ‘justice’ and ‘injustice’ (used in the judicial
genre) can be seen in the narration C:2, where the speaker condemns the
4
5
6
See Shu\giin/Sangiin (1963: 66-67).
This expantionistic policy would today certainly be classified as pure colonialism.
In bushido (the warrior code of ethics), these qualities were of the utmost importance
for a man of honour. Even though the warrior class was officially abandoned, the majority of
those holding important positions in government institutions were of a samurai descent.
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Shogunate’s policy, and in B:2 and F:2, where he appeal’s for a fair judgement
from the audience. The special topic of ‘praise’ often used in the epideictic
genre is used when the speaker praises the Emperor (A:1, D:3).
The speech is rather short, and only a few issues are addressed, which
agrees closely to what the classic rhetoricians suggested. It was advisable not to
bring up too many different topics, since the audience would not be
concentrating and interested enough to remember them all. Also, it was
rhetorically effective to support and pursue the main argument from many
different angles through repetitions and variations.
The main issue is directly related to the propositio (F), which is strongly
advocated and supported by the speaker. Since the speech is rather short and
only touches on a very few topics, it is easy to remember the line of argument in
relation to the proposition.
In sum, the analysis has showed that the first inauguration speech held in a
Japanese Diet reflects classical rhetorical structures. It is short, a strong ethos is
established at the beginning, the narratio is informative without emotional
exaggeration, and the main proposal is fully supported. The speech treats only a
few topics, which makes it is easy to remember for the audience, and finally, the
peroratio is permeated with pathos.
REFERENCES
Corbett, Edward P. J. & Robert J. Connors. 1999. Classical rhetoric for the
modern student. New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hackett, Roger F. 1971. Yamagata Aritomo in the rise of modern Japan: 18381922. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Iriye, Akira. 1989. Japan’s drive to great-power status. In: The Cambridge
history of Japan, Vol. 5: the nineteenth century, pp 763-764. Edited by Marius
B. Jansen. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kenzo, Uchida, Kinbara Samon & Furuya Tetso. Eds. 1990. Nihongikai shiroku
[= A historical record of the Japanese Diet], vol 1. Tokyo: Daiichi houki
shuppan.
Meiji Jingu\. 1974. Meiji Tenno\ sho\choku kinkai [= Meiji Emperor’s imperial
edicts]. Tokyo: Kodansha.
Shu\giin/Sangiin. 1963. Gikai seido nanaju\nen shi [= A history of the
parliamentary system during seventy years]. Tokyo: Okurasho\.
Pia Moberg · Lines of argument in the Japanese Diet in 1890
83
APPENDIX: Yamagata’s speech with English translation
Section A
1) Gentlemen, we are truly thankful that it was the gracious wish of our eminent and most
revered Emperor that enabled this magnificent ceremony to be held not long ago. 2) To be
able to meet you all here is of infinite joy for the whole country. 3) And a great honour for
me.
Section B
1) Even if this occasion provides an opportunity to tell you about domestic and international
affairs and the existing political plan, there is no need to mention it here since most of the
government’s policy was already outlined and clearly stated in the Emperor’s Word at the
opening of Parliament recently. 2) But I will give you a brief outline of two or three important
points, and wish to have your fair judgement of them.
Section C
1) If we look back, there is no doubt that during the three hundred years when the old
Shogunate’s policy was not to let any foreign ship call at a Japanese port, there was
continuous peace and stability in our country. 2) But this policy meant that we turned our
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back on the rest of the world and what was going on there. The result is that, during these
three hundred years, our country’s development has lagged behind and this is deplorable.
Section D
1) At the time of the major political Meiji reform, you could surmise in what direction society
would change, and since it was realized that you had to clear the debt for the many hundred
years that development had stagnated, we have put all our efforts during this short period of
time into paying off this debt. 2) However, in this short period of time of about twenty years,
we have together shouldered this very important, heavy burden and obligation to reach where
we are today although we are not even half way. 3) But fortunately, first of all, thanks to our
Emperor’s just and wise rule of this country and secondly, thanks to you gentlemen who
supported the government’s policy, we have, to a great extent, attained the agreed norm, and
step by step developed in accordance with it to where we stand today.
Section E
1) As for the work of the government, it is naturally the case that we can either be cautious or
we can hasten, also, it can be done in this way, or in accordance with this law. It depends on
Pia Moberg · Lines of argument in the Japanese Diet in 1890
85
every individual’s point of view, as we cannot escape the fact that people have different
opinions. 2) With regard to the political situation in general, let us now put these minor
conflicts aside, and together follow in the tracks of contemporary development, and not go
beyond this borderline that has been decided upon. 3) This I hereby declare with
determination.
Section F
1) Now the government has presented the budget proposal for the year Meiji 24, and
according to the Constitution and the Imperial decree, we are responsible for this annual
account. 2) Concerning this annual budget, I have no doubt that you will give it your support
and conduct a careful and impartial discussion of this matter. 3) Looking at the budget, the
main part of the annual expenses has been expenditure for the army and the navy. 4) I will
here explain the government’s position on this, and also say a word about the future, and I
respectfully ask for your attention.
Section G
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1) What is most urgent for our country at this time, is to review the executive and juridical
systems and to organize them to function effectively. 2) Furthermore, I think it is of great
importance to support agriculture, industry and business, and to foster the country’s real
power. 3) Therefore, I need not say that not even for one day can we ignore domestic politics
and administration. 4) At the same time, it is essential to maintain the independence of our
country and strenghten the power of the country. 5) This is a common goal for all of us, not
only a task for the government alone, and even if the political situation changes in the future,
we will not change our position. 6) Generally speaking, all the citizens of the Empire have to
work together making a joint effort and proceed in the direction of the straight line. We must
not fail to reach this common goal, but continue to advance.
Section H
1) There are probably two ways to defend the independence of the country: the first is to
defend the sphere of sovereignty, the second is to safeguard the sphere of interest. 2) The
sphere of sovereignty has its origin in the country’s geographical borders, the sphere of
interest is regions directly related to safety and danger in the sphere of sovereignty. 3)
Generally speaking, there is no country that does not have both a sphere of sovereignty and a
sphere of interest. 4) In order to defend the independence of the country in relation to other
countries at the present time, it is not enough only to protect the sphere of sovereignty, we
must also safeguard the sphere of interest. 5) Now, to uphold the sphere of interest as well as
the sphere of sovereignty in order to be a totally independent country, it goes without saying
that this cannot be accomplished overnight. 6) Surely, I think we must make an effort to add
sun and to pile up shaku, and, step by step, to develop the country’s power and study the
result of these efforts. 7) That is to say, as can be seen in the budget, that even if a huge
amount of money is put aside for expenditure on the army and the navy, it is in accordance
with our goal. 8) Thus, it is merely a necessary cost that cannot be avoided.
Pia Moberg · Lines of argument in the Japanese Diet in 1890
87
Section I
1) Even if there can be small differences of opinion regarding the matters discussed so far, I
do not doubt that we can be in agreement on almost everything and cooperate. 2) With regard
to everything I mentioned previously, we have a common obligation to do our duty with all
speed. 3) In order to carry out these heavy duties, I think we must all sacrifice the benefits that
ensue from our circumstances, and fairly and unselfishly open our hearts and have a frank
discussion, and I do not think it will be difficult to agree on this. 4) I sincerely hope that you
will meet this with understanding.
(Translation by Pia Moberg.)