Academic Writing
Session 8
Establishing a critical argument
Task 1
Instruction words
•
the word ‘discuss’ appears in this title. This
word can be defined as follows:
_____________________________
_____________________________
•
can you see how you should think about what is
required in constructing your text?
____________________________
____________________________
Key concepts
•
•
look at other parts of the title
ask questions about what words or expressions
mean
e.g. …
Task 1
Instruction words
•
•
•
Key concepts
•
•
•
•
the word ‘discuss’ appears in this title. This
word can be defined as follows:
give reasons for and against; investigate and
examine by argument.
can you see how you should think about what is
required in constructing your text?
*Note the expression examine by argument.
The concept of ‘argument’ is central to the
meaning of the word ‘discuss’ in this title.
*the first word, ‘Critically’, tells you how to
discuss the question.
look at other parts of the title
ask similar questions about what words or
expressions mean
e.g. the notion of ‘why markets may fail’.
– What does ‘market failure’ mean?
– How can markets ‘fail to deliver’?
e.g. the expression ‘socially desirable
outcomes’.
- What does this expression mean?
It is often assumed that firms are simply concerned to maximize
profits: that they are not concerned with broader issues of social
responsibility. What this assumption means is that firms are only
concerned with the interests of shareholders (or managers) and are
not concerned for the well-being of the community at large. It is then
argued, however, that competitive forces could result in society
benefiting from the self-interested behaviour of firms: i.e. that
profit maximization will lead to social efficiency under conditions of
perfect competition and the absence of externalities. But, as we have
seen, in the real world markets are not perfect and there are often
considerable externalities. In such cases, a lack of social
responsibility on the part of firms can have profoundly adverse
effects on society. Indeed, many forms of market failure can be
attributed directly to business practices that could not be classified
as ‘socially responsible’: advertising campaigns that seek to misinform
or in some way deceive the consumer; monopoly producers exploiting
their monopoly position through charging excessively high prices; the
conscious decision to ignore water and air pollution limits, knowing
that the chances of being caught are slim.
Task 3 Answers
Paragraph sentences:
1d
2b
3f
4a
5c
6e
1. It is often assumed that firms are simply concerned to
maximize profits: that they are not concerned with broader
issues of social responsibility. (ll. 1-2)
Why is ‘It is often assumed’ used here?
 It is often assumed is argument language which presents
the main idea in the paragraph as a general belief held
by many people. It is not the author’s opinion.
 It is often assumed is different from it can be assumed.
This second expression means the writer does share the
opinion expressed. The difference lies in the use of
often in the first and the use of can be instead of is in
the second.
 Usually, when an argument begins with it is often
assumed the author goes on to question the data or the
explanation supporting the assumption
2. What this assumption means is that firms are only
concerned with the interests of shareholders (or managers)
and are not concerned for the well-being of the community
at large.(l.2)
What does this assumption refer to in the previous sentence?
This assumption is argument language which refers to the claim
in the previous sentence: firms are simply concerned to
maximize profits: that they are not concerned with broader
issues of social responsibility.
 This assumption is also a linking word group which links the

information in the first sentence to this sentence.
3. It is then argued, however, that competitive forces could
result in society benefiting from the self-interested behaviour
of firms: i.e. that profit maximization will lead to social
efficiency under conditions of perfect competition and the
absence of externalities. (ii. 4-8)
Why is however used in this sentence?

However is a connective word which reinforces the connection
between the idea in this sentence of society benefitting from the
self-interested behaviour of firms and the idea in the previous
sentence.
 The connective word shows that this sentence is in contrast
with the idea in the first sentence, where firms are said to
be not concerned with broader issues of social
responsibility.
4. But, as we have seen, in the real world markets are not
perfect and there are often considerable externalities. (ll.
8-9)
Why does the writer begin the sentence with But, as we
have seen …?
 But, The connecting word But tells the reader this sentence
will be in contrast to the one before.
 ‘as we have seen’ reminds the reader of a previous claim,
explanation and/or evidence that the reader would be aware
of. It contradicts the claim outlined in sentence 3. The
writer is using evidence from the real world in order to
build their argument.
5. In such cases, a lack of social responsibility on the part of
firms can have profoundly adverse effects on society. (ll.9-10)
What does such cases refer to here?
 ‘Such cases’ links back to the information in the previous
sentence: situations in the real world where externalities
occur.
6
Indeed, many forms of market failure can be attributed
directly to business practices that could not be classified
as ‘socially responsible’: advertising campaigns that seek to
misinform or in some way deceive the consumer; monopoly
producers exploiting their monopoly position through
charging excessively high prices; the conscious decision to
ignore water and air pollution limits, knowing that the
chances of being caught are slim.(ll. 11-16)
Why did the writer use ‘Indeed’ at the beginning of this
sentence?

Indeed is a connecting word which prepares the reader for

the part of the firms can have profoundly adverse effects
on society.
Indeed tells the reader that the writer has strong
further evidence or explanation of the point made in the
previous sentence: that a lack of social responsibility on
evidence for their claim. The evidence is a series of realworld examples.
What is the effect on the reader of the argument language,
linking words and connectives in this text?
• Argument language, linking words and connectives in this
text give the author the means of guiding the reader:
• It is clear which direction the writer is going in so the
reader can see the step-by-step construction of the
argument.
• When this is done well, the writer does the work for the
reader; the reader does not need to guess what the writer
is trying to say.
• The reader is in a better position to critically assess the
information in the text and form judgements about the
information.
One question that needs to be asked, however, is
whether ......
A serious weakness with this argument, however, is
that ......
One of the limitations of this explanation is that it
does not explain why... .
One criticism of much of the literature on X is that
......
Another problem with this approach is that it fails
to take X into account.
Perhaps the most serious disadvantage of this
method is that .....
Difficulties arise, however, when an attempt is made
to implement the policy.
Nevertheless, the strategy has not escaped
criticism from governments, agencies and academics.
The main weakness of the study is the failure to address how the
results of the new policy will affect X.
The study fails to consider the differing categories of damage
that .....
The research does not take into account pre-existing market
imperfections such as ......
The author offers no explanation for the distinction between X
and Y.
The author overlooks the fact that X contributes to Y.
However, Smith makes no attempt to differentiate between
various different types of X.
However, the paper would appear to be over ambitious in its
claims.