Television:AnInternationalHistory/editedbyAnthonySmithwithRichardPaterson.
Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1998.
1TheInventionofTelevision
AlbertAbramson
Televisionistheelectricaltransmissionandreceptionoftransientvisualimages,andis
probablythefirstinventionbycommittee,inthesenseofresultingfromtheeffortof
hundredsofindividualswidelyseparatedintimeandspace,allpromptedbytheurgeto
produceasystemof'seeingoverthehorizon'.
Whetherwithtom‐toms,smokesignals,orsemaphore,humanbeingshavealwaystriedto
communicatewithneighboursbeyondthehorizon.Thedesirehasbeenamatterof
commerce,curiosity,ormostimportantly,warfare.Writtenmessagesweresentbyships,
horses,birds,andshank'smare.Butthesewereslow,cumbersome,andsubjecttothe
whimsofweather,terrain,ortheenduranceofanimals.Thefirststepstowardsinstant
communicationswerereallytakenbyseventeenth‐andeighteenth‐centuryscientistssuch
asLuigiGalvani,AllesandroVolta,HansC.Oersted,AndréAmpère,GeorgeS.Ohm,Michael
Faraday,andJamesClerkMaxwell,whofoundthatelectricalcurrentscouldflowthrough
certainmaterialsaswellasinteractwithmagneticforces.Thefirstpracticalsolutioncame
in1843whenSamuelF.B.Morsedevelopedhis'telegraph'(distant‐record)machine.This
wasameansofcommunicationbywhichthelettersofthealphabetwereconvertedinto
electricalequivalents(theMorsecode)thatcouldbeeitherrecordedonpapertapeor
transcribedbytrainedoperators.Sincethecodewastransmittedoverwiresatalmostthe
speedoflight,itsoonbecamethequickestmeansofpoint‐to‐pointcommunication.Before
long,electricwireswerestrungonpolesconnectingmostofthemajorcities.Thesesame
wireswerealsorununderthelakesandoceansoftheworld.
Aboutthesametime,otherinventorswereseekingmeanstotransmitmore
‐13‐
LeThéâtrechezsoiparleTéléphonoscope,1883.
thandotsanddashesoverthesesamewires.OneoftheearliestwasAlexanderBainin
1843.InBain'sdevice,alphabeticalletterswereformedbyanumberoflines,eachbeing
connectedbyaseparatewire.Acomb‐likeprobecontaininginsulatedmetalpointsscanned
thetypetobetransmitted.Acomb‐likereceiver,asimilarmetalliccombreproducedthe
lettersonchemicallytreatedpaper.
TheTransmissionofSymbols
AmoreadvanceddevicewasthatofFrederickC.Bakewellin1847fortransmitting
handwriting,whichusedametalfoilinscribedwithinsulatinginkwrappedarounda
cylinder.Asthecylinderwasrotatedbyclockwork,ametalstyluswasusedtoglideoverthe
foil.Asimilardeviceatthereceiverprovidedmeanstoshiftthepensandtokeepthe
devicesinsynchronism.
AnotherinterestingdevicebyGiovanniCaselliin1855usedtheactionsofpendulums.At
thetransmitterastylusconnectedbyalevertoapendulumwouldphysicallytracethe
objecttobetransmittedandwouldbeelectricallyturned'on'or'offasitscannedpartsof
themessage.Atthereceiver,anotherstylusmovedbyapendulumwouldbeturned'on'or
'off'insequenceandwouldcreateareplica(onsomeformofrecordingmedium)ofthe
imagebeingtransmitted.
Thescanningofsimplefigureswasquiteimportantasitinvolvedtwoofthefoundationsof
thelatersystemofinstantvisualtransmission.Thefirstwassequentialscanning
(dissecting)ofthepicture.Thesecondwasameanstosynchronize(keepinstep)the
transmitterwiththereceiver.Theseprimitivemachines,whilequitecumbersome,did
work,andthoughoflimitedvalueatthetimeledtomoreimportantdevicesinthefuture.
Thesesystemswerethencalled'copy‐telegraphs'.Todaytheyareknownasphoto‐
telegraphyorfacsimile(fax).
Thenextstepwasthetransmissionofaudiooverthesesamewires.In1876thetelephone
pioneerAlexanderGrahamBelltransmittedthesoundofavoicebymeansofanelectric
wireandthusthreemeansofinstantcommunicationscameintoexistence,thetelegraph,
thecopy‐telegraph,andthetelephone,andthetimewasripefortheintroductionofavisual
transmissionsystem.
In1873,WilloughbySmithwithJosephMay,anelectricianworkingontheAtlantic
Telegraphcable,reportedthatseleniumrodsusedforcontinuitycheckschangedtheir
resistance(conductivity)whenexposedtovaryinglight.Thisabilityofcertainmetalsto
reacttochangesoflightintensitywaswidelyreportedandmanifesteditselfinplansfor
devicesthatwouldtransmitpictures.
Bytheendof1878,thecombinationofBell'stelephoneandEdison'sinventionofthe
phonograph(1877)combinedwithprogressbeingmadeinphotographyledthemagazine
PunchtoprintacartoonofanewEdisoninventionthe'telephonoscope'.Herewasdepicted
atwo‐wayvisualsystemonawidescreendepictingparentsinLondonspeakingwiththeir
daughterinCeylonbymeansofan'electriccameraobscura'andtelephone.Edisondidnot
applyforapatenton
‐14‐
amotionpicturesystemuntil1889.ItisironicthatPunchshouldhaveEdisoninventan
'electriccamera'beforeheinventedthemotionpicturecamera.Butthereweremany
schemesforvisualcommunicationgadgetsatthetime.
In1880MauriceLeBlancdetailedaningeniousmethodoftransmittingmovingimagesover
anelectricalwire.Hedescribedascanningdevice(atbothsenderandreceiver)consisting
oftwovibratingmirrorsworkingtogetherattwodifferentratesofspeed.Thelightfromthe
imagewouldbesenttoatransducer(suchasaseleniumorBecquerelthermo‐electriccell)
tobeconvertedintoelectricity.Atthereceiver,heproposedthattwopiecesofmica(asa
shutter)wouldbemovedaccordingtothesignaltocontrolthelightfromalamp.He
suggestedthatbecauseofpersistenceofvision,itwouldbepossibletobuildupalikenessof
thetransmittedimage.LeBlanc's1880fundamentalpapercontainedinfactalltheelements
forapracticalvisualtransmissionsystem.
Itwasnotlongbeforethefirstpracticalsolutionappeared.In1884,PaulNipkowapplied
foraGermanpatentforanElektrischesTeleskop.TheheartofNipkow'spatentwasa
revolvingapertureddisc.Thedischadtwenty‐fourholesinaspiralneartheouterrim.
Nipkowproposedthatlightfromthesubjectwouldpassthroughtheperforateddiscontoa
seleniumcell.Atthereceiver,asimilarperforateddiscwouldbeilluminatedbyapolarized
lightsource.Withbothdiscsrotatingataconstantspeed,itwasintendedthatanimage
wouldbebuiltupandviewedthroughaneyepiece.Thispatenthadalltheelements
(synchronizationwaspresumedbyaconstantrotatingspeed)forasuccessfulvisual
transmissionsystem,andwassoonfollowedbyotherideasbasedonarotatingdisc,
includingrevolvingmirrordrums(LazareWeiller),lenseddiscs(LouisBrillouin),and
perforatedbandsandstrips(PaulRibbe).
Experimentswithelectricaldischargesinsideevacuatedglasstubesstartedwiththework
ofHeinrichGeisslerandJuliusPlückerin1858.Plückerdesigneda
‐15‐
sealedglasstubefilledwithgas,withanelectrodeinsertedateachend.Whenacertain
voltagewasappliedtotheelectrodes,thegasinthetubeionized(incandesced),current
flowed,andthetubeglowedwithacharacteristiccolour.Thisbecameknownasa'Geissler'
tube.
Otherscientistssoonstartedtoexperimentwiththesetubes.WilhelmHittorfdiscoveredin
1869thatasolidbodywouldcastashadowonthewallsofthetube.In1876Eugen
Goldsteinconcludedthattheradiationcamefromthecathodeandcalledthem'cathode
rays'.WilliamCrooksshowedthattherayswereprojectedathighvelocitiesbyelectric
forcesnearthesurfaceofthecathode.JeanPerrinshowedthatthechargewasnegativein
1895.In1897,J.J.Thompsonprovedthattheycouldbedeflectedbyanelectrostaticfield,
andfinallyin1897KarlFerdinandBraundevelopedthecoldcathoderaytubethatbears
his'nisname.
TheCathodeRayTube
AnInternationalElectricityCongresswasheldinconjunctionwiththe1900Paris
Exhibition.On25August1900apaperwasreadbyoneConstantinPerskyientitled
'Television',inwhichhedescribedanapparatusbasedonthemagneticpropertiesof
selenium.Thisnewtermslowlysupplantedtheoldernamessuchasthe'telephot'or
'telectroscope'todescribethenewlybornartandscienceof'seeingatadistance'.
Thevarioustheoriesoftransmittingpicturesbywirehadcreatedmuchcontroversyinthe
scientificcommunity.AlettertoNaturebyShelfordBidwellinJune1908,reviewingthe
variousmethodsbeingproposed,concludedthat,'Itwasimprobableforanysystemof
televisiontoviewimageshundredsofmilesapart.'
ThisletterwasansweredbyAlanArchibaldCampbellSwintonwhowrotethat'distant
electricvision'waspossiblewithtubesusingcathoderays(atboththetransmitterand
receiver)properlysynchronizedandwiththenecessarymeansforconvertinglightto
electricityandbacktolight.Thiswasthefirstmentionintheliteratureofanall‐electric
televisionsystem.
UnknowntoCampbellSwinton,bothProfessorBorisRozinginRussiaandDrMax
DieckmanninGermanywerealsoexperimentingwithcathoderaytubesasreceivers.
However,noonebeforehadsuggestedtheuseofacathoderaytubeasanimage
transmitter.
Justoneyearlater,in1909,threedifferenttelevisionsystemswereactuallybuiltand
operated.Thefirst(inorderofpublication)wasthatofDrMaxDieckmann.Hisequipment
consistedofauniquedeviceatthetransmitterwithacoldcathodeBrauntubefora
receiver.Thetransmitterconsistedofarotatingwheelthatwasfittedwithtwentywire
brushes.(ithadnophoto‐cellsorotherlighttransducingmeans.)Thebrushesactually
touchedtheimagetobetransmitted,verymuchliketheearlydevicesofBainandCaselli.At
thereceiver,theBrauntubewithfourdeflectingmagnetsscannedapictureapproximately
1.25inches
‐16‐
square.Theelectronbeamwasturned'on'or'offastherotatingbrushestouchedthe
object,thuscreatingapictureonthescreen.Thiswasnotatruetelevisionsystemasthe
transmitterwasactuallyaformoftelegraphsenderratherthanatransduceroflightto
electricity.
ThesecondsystemwasthatofErnstRuhmer.Itconsistedofamosaicoftwenty‐five
seleniumcellsinrowsoffiveeach.Eachcellwhenexposedtolightwasconnectedtoarelay,
whichsentanalternatingcurrentoveralinetoareceiver.Here,therewasasimilarmosaic
consistingoftwenty‐fiveincandescentlamps.Atthereceiver,therewasonerelayforeach
cellthatwouldoperateitsownincandescentlamp.Onlysimplegeometricfigurescouldbe
shown.Asitwasamulti‐wire(simultaneous)device,itwasnotatruetelevisionsystem.
ThethirdwasaquitedifferenttelevisiondevicebuiltanddemonstratedbyGeorges
RignouxandProfessorA.Fournierin1909.Thetransmittingscreenconsistedofabankof
seleniumcells,eachconnectedtoaseparaterelay.Therelayswereconnectedinsequence
byarotatingcommutator.Aseachrelaywasconnectedinturntothecommutator,itsent
itssignalthroughasinglewiretoareceiver.Herethesignalsweresenttoalightvalve
(modulator)basedontheFaradayeffectofpolarizedlight.(Thelightbeamwasalignedbya
Nicolprismandthensentthroughatubefilledwithbisulphateofcarbonaroundwhichwas
wrappedacoilofwire.)Asthecurrentvariedinthecoil(duetoscanning)thepolarized
lightwas'rotated'insuchamannerastovarytheamountoflightpassingthroughthetube.
Thismodulatedlightwasthensentthroughasetofrotatingmirrorswheretheimagewas
reconstitutedonascreen.Thereweremeansprovidedtosynchronizethereceiverwiththe
transmitter.Thiswasa'real'televisionsystem,thefirstonrecordashavingbeenbuiltand
operated.
Rozing,Zworykin,andSwinton
ImportantworkonacathoderaysystemwasalsobeingconductedbyProfessorBoris
RozingoftheTechnologicalInstituteofStPetersburg.In1907,RozingappliedforaRussian
patentproposingatelevisionsystemusingacathoderaytubeasareceiver.Thetransmitter
usedtwomirrordrumsforscanninganddissectingtheimage.Themirrordrumsmoved
magneticcoilsastheyrotated,thuscreatingscanningcurrentsfordeflectingtheelectron
beamatthereceivingtube.
Atthereceiver,thecurrentsweresenttoacoldcathoderay(Braun)tubewhichhadits
beamdeflectedbyeithermovingcoilsorplates.Thebeamitselfwasmodulated(varied)in
brightnessbyphysicallymovingupordownbetweentwosmallmetalplatesintheneckof
thetubeinaccordancewiththeincomingsignal.(Atthetime,therewasnoknownmethod
formodulatinganelectronbeam,sothiswasquiteingenious.)Theelectronbeamitselfwas
deflectedbycoilsusingcurrentsgeneratedatthetransmitter.Thispatentwassecondonly
inimportancetothatofNipkow'sof1884.
‐17‐
BorisRozing'slaboratory.
ItisclaimedthatRozinghadstartedworkingonsuchadeviceasearlyas1904,andwas
actuallybuildingworkingapparatus.In1908,hehadcarriedoutexperimentswithactual
modelsandattemptedtotransmitsimpleimages(slides,drawings,hands,etc.).InMay
1911,hesuccessfullydemonstratedadistinctimageconsistingoffourluminousbandsto
hiscolleaguesattheTechnologicalInstituteofStPetersburg.Forthishereceivedagold
medalfromtheRussianTechnologicalSociety.
ProfessorRozingbuiltallofhisapparatus(exceptforthecoldcathodeBrauntubethathe
purchasedfromascientificlaboratoryinBerlin),includinghisownphotoelectriccells.For
thishehadtheassistanceofayoungengineeringstudentbynameofVladimirKosma
Zworykin.ZworykinhadbeenchosenbyRozingin1911tohelphimwithhislaboratory
experimentsasaresultofhisgreatinterestinphysics.Rozingintroducedhimtothenew
artof'electricaltelescopy',somethingZworykinhadneverheardofbefore.Zworykin
workedparttimeinRozing'slaboratoryuntilhisgraduationin1912.Thiswasthe
beginningofyoungZworykin'sinterestincathoderaytelevision.
InNovember1911,A.A.CampbellSwintonbecamepresidentoftheRöntgenSocietyof
London.Hegaveaninauguralspeechentitled'DistantElectricVision'.Heelaboratedonhis
articleof1908inNaturemagazineanddescribedacompleteelectrictelevisionsystem
usingcathoderaytubesforbothtransmitterandreceiver.Headmittedthathisplanwaswn
ideaonly,hadneverbeenconstructed,andthatitwouldtakeagreatdealof
experimentationandmodificationtobepractical.However,theRöntgenSocietywasquite
smallanditsjournal'scirculationquitelimited,sohisideaswerenotwidespreadatthe
time.
WiththestartoftheWorldWarinEuropein1914interestinthenewartof
‐18‐
televisiondiminished.Butthewarbroughtgreatadvancesincommunicationsbothbywire
andradio.Theendofthewarfoundthe(British)MarconiWirelessTelegraphCompanyin
virtualcontroloflong‐distancecommunicationsbetweentheUnitedStatesandEurope.The
MarconiWirelessTelegraphCompanythentriedtobuyfromtheGeneralElectricCompany
theAlexandersonradioalternator,whichmadetheselong‐distancecommunications
possible.ThiswasbroughttotheattentionoftheUSNavyDepartment,whichobjected
strenuously.GeneralElectricwastoldtorejecttheorder.Itwasdecidedtobuyoutthe
AmericanMarconiCompanyandreplaceitwithanewAmericancompanytobeformedby
GeneralElectric.ThisnewcompanywastobecalledtheRadioCorporationofAmerica
(RCA).Apatentpoolwasformedandon17October1919,RCAwasincorporated.On1July
1920,anagreementwasalsoreachedwiththeAmericanTelephoneandTelegraph
CompanyanditssubsidiarytheWesternElectricCompany,whichweretogetherknownas
theTelephoneGroup.Thisalliancedidnotlast;twoyearslaterAT&TsolditsRCAstockbut
remainedinthepatentpool.
CommercialradiobroadcastingbeganintheUnitedStatesin1920whenWestinghouse
ElectricstartedoperatingradiostationKDKA.Thiswassosuccessfulthaton30June1921,
WestinghouseElectricwasallowedtojointheGE/RCA/AT&Tconsortium.KDKAwassoon
joinedbyhundredsofradiostationsallovertheUnitedStates.
Interestintelevisionwasalsorevivedafterthewar.InAugustof1921,thefirstpatentfor
anelectriccameratubewasappliedforbyoneEdvardGustavSchoultzofParis.Thereisno
recordofthistubebeingbuiltandnomorewasheardoftheinventor.
IntheUnitedStates,CharlesFrancisJenkinshadturnedhisattentionfromthemotion
picture(hehadinventedthefirstmotionpictureprojectorwithThomasArmatin1895)to
thatoftelephotographyandtelevision.In1922Jenkinsappliedforhisfirstpatentfor
transmittingpicturesbywireless.Itusedauniquescanningdevice,'prismaticrings'.These
wereglassprismswithvaryingsurfacesthatwouldbendthelightfromanobjectasthey
rotated.Atthetransmitter,thetwoprismsoperatingtogetherwouldscanthescene(attwo
ratesofspeed)toanalyseitandsendthelighttoaphotoelectriccell.Atthereceiver,two
similarprismsreconstructedtheimageusingalightvalveoftheFaradaytypeproposedby
Rignoux.Thislightwasprojectedonatypeoffluorescentorphosphorescentscreen.
JenkinswasassistedbyboththeGeneralElectricCompanyandWestinghouse.Hewasthe
firstexperimentertousethespecialneonlightvalvedevelopedbyD.McFarlanMooreof
theGeneralElectricCompanyinhisreceiver.
InDecember1923,JenkinsdemonstratedhistelevisionapparatusseparatelytoHugo
Gernsback,editorofRadioNews,andWatsonDavis,editorofPopularRadio.Theyclaimed
thattheapparatuswascrudeandcumbersome.Goneweretheprismaticrings,prismed,
mirroreddiscsbeingsubstituted.Jenkinswasusing
‐19‐
thesensitiveTheodoreCaseThalofidephotoelectriccellatthetransmitterandtheGeneral
ElectricMooreglow‐lampatthereceiver.Botheditorsclaimedthattheycouldputsmall
objectsinthepathofthetransmitterandseethematthereceiver.Thesignalsweresentby
asmallradiotransmitteracrossthelaboratory.Asfarascanbedetermined,thesewerethe
firstwitnesseddemonstrationsofradio‐televisioneverreported.
TheStrugglesofJohnLogieBaird
Aboutthistimein1923,ayoungexperimenter,JohnLogieBaird,startedwhatwastobehis
life'sworkontelevisioninLondon.WiththefinancialassistanceofWilfredE.L.Dayhewas
setupinalaboratoryat22FrithStreet,Soho.HefiledforhisfirsttelevisionpatentinJuly
1923.ItincludedaNipkowdiscatthetransmitterwithabankoflightsarrangedtoforman
imageonascreenatthereceiver.Thiswasthefirstofamultitudeofpatentstakenoutby
Bairdinhisquestforapracticaltelevisionsystem.
Anotherapplicationforacameratubewasmadeon29December1923,byVladimirK.
ZworykinoftheWestinghouseElectricCompany.Itwaspartofapatentforanall‐electric
televisionsystem.Thecameratubehadanaluminumfoilplatecoveredwithathinlayerof
potassiumhydride.Atthereceiver,aBrauntubewouldreconstructtheimageona
fluorescentscreen.WhilethispatenthadmanysimilaritiestotheoriginalCampbell
Swintonplanof1911,itdifferedinonemajoraspect.CampbellSwinton'scameratube
disclosedamosaicofrubidiumcubes,Zworykin'sshowedaplatecoveredwithalayer
photoelectricmaterial.ThiswastocauseZworykinmuchgriefduringthepatentprocess
andittookfifteenyearsbeforeitwasgrantedbytheUSPatentOffice.
InApril1924,CampbellSwintonagaindescribedhisall‐electrictelevisionschemein
WirelessWorldandRadioReview.Hehadupdatedhisideaswiththeuseofahotcathodeto
createanelectronbeamresultinginbetterfocusattheviewingscreen.Helamentedthe
hopelessnessofhistaskunlessoneofthebigelectriccompanieswithmoneyandresources
decidedtogetinvolved.Thispaperstimulatedmanyresearcherstostartworkontelevision
projects,includingtheGeneralElectricCompanyinSchenectady,theAmericanTelephone&
TelegraphCompany,aswellasmanyindependentresearchers,amongthemDrAugust
KarolusandManfredvonArdenneinGermanyandKenjiroTakayanagiinJapan.
InJanuary1925theBellTelephoneLaboratories(theresearcharmoftheAmerican
Telephone&TelegraphCo.)startedaresearchprogrammedealingwiththeproblemof
television,undertheguidanceofDrHerbertE.Ives.Hehadbeenworkingonphotoelectric
cellsforphoto‐telegraphyandinvitedDrFrankGrayandJohnHofeletoheadthe
programme.WiththeenormoustechnicalresourcesofthenewBellTelephone
LaboratoriesinNewYorkCity,thegroup
‐20‐
JohnLogieBairdandoneofhisearlytelevisionmachines.
madeexcellentprogressandbyJuly1925weresendinghalf‐tonepicturesfromslides
acrossthelaboratory.
TheirmechanicalsystemwasbasedontheNipkowdiscforbothtransmissionand
reception.TheirsuccesscamefromtheinventionbyDrFrankGrayofthe'flyingspot'
scanner,developedaroundMay‐June1925.Inthisdevice,thesubjectwasbathedinaflying
spotoflightfromanarclampbehindtheNipkowdisc.Thereflectedlightwenttofourhuge
photo‐cellsthatpickedupthepicturesignal.Thismadehalf‐tonetelevisionpossible.
InApril1925,JohnL.BairdsetuphisapparatusinSelfridge'sDepartmentStoreinLondon
forthreeweeksandgavetheEnglishpublictheirfirstcrudedemonstrationofmechanical
television.Thenon2October1925Bairdalsoindependentlydiscoveredtheprincipleofthe
flyingspotscanner.Heappliedforapatentonthisideaon20January1926,andgavea
demonstrationofhisnewsystemtosomefortymembersoftheRoyalInstitutionathis
laboratoryinFrithStreeton26January1926.Thiswasthefirstpublicdemonstrationof
televisionwithhalf‐tonesevergiven.
‐21‐
Whileitwasreportedthatthepictureswere'faintandoftenblurred',thedemonstration
wasconsideredasuccess.Bairdandhisassociateswerecarefulnottorevealhowithad
beendoneatthetime.(TheflyingspotprinciplehadbeenpatentedbyG.RignouxinFrance
in1908,byA.EkstrominSwedenin1912,andfiledforinAugust1923byJohnH.
HammondJr.intheUSA;issuedin1929).
InJune1925,CharlesF.JenkinsmadeheadlinesinnewspapersallacrosstheUnitedStates.
Heagaindemonstratedhistelevisionsystembytransmittingtheimageofarevolving
windmillfivemilesbyradiofromtheUSNavyradiostationNOFinAnacostia,Maryland,to
hislaboratoriesinWashington,DC,aneventwitnessedbymanyUnitedStatesofficials.
Meanwhileintheautumnof1925(theexactdateisunknown)VladimirK.Zworykin
assembledacomplete,workingelectrictelevisionsystemforademonstrationto
managementattheWestinghouseElectricCompany.Withthehelpofhistubeblowerhe
builtthefirstelectriccameratubeintheworldandusedaconvertedWesternElectric
oscilloscopetubeforareceiver.Healsoconstructedtherestofthesystem,whichoperated
quiteerratically.
Unfortunatelythedemonstration,whichconsistedonlyofanXpaintedonthefaceofthe
cameratube,wasnotconsideredasuccessbymanagement.Theyrecommendedthathebe
puttoworkonsomethingmoreuseful.ZworykinwasthenforbiddenbyWestinghouseto
doanymoreactualworkontelevision(filingpatentswaspermitted)andheconcentrated
onphotoelectriccellsandotherdevicesthathadimmediatecommercialvalue.However,
thisdemonstrationwasthefirstofanelectriccameratubetobedisplayedonacathoderay
tube.
CharlesFrancisJenkinsandhis1928Radiovisor.
‐22‐
On26July1926ÉdouardBelingaveademonstrationinParisofhisnewcathoderay
televisionsystemtothreeimportantFrenchofficials.Herevealedthathehadbeenjoined
byDrFernandHolweck,ChiefofStaffoftheMadameCurieRadiumInstitute.Thesystem
wasnowcalledthe'BelinandHolweck'systemafteritsinventors.Ithadbeenbuiltand
operatedbyBelin'schiefengineerGregoryN.Ogloblinsky.Theimageswerepickedupby
twosmallvibratingmirrorsthatweresynchronizedtogether.Thereceiverfeaturedametal
cathoderaytubethathadbeendesignedbyHolweck.Thefaceofthetubecouldonlyshow
outlinesoffacesorfigures.Thesepictureswere33linesataboutioframespersecond.
Theygavethefirstdemonstrationofmovingimagesonacathoderaytube.
Abouttwoweekslater(2August1926)thecathoderaytelevisionsystemofDrAlexandre
DauvillierofthePhysicalResearchLaboratoryoftheLouisdeBroglieLaboratoriesinParis
wasrevealed.Healsousedtwosmallvibratingmirrorstodissecthisimage.However,his
cathoderayreceivingtubewasquitemodern.ItwasmadeofPyrexglass,hadahigh
vacuum,andusedmagneticfocus.Hisscreenwasmadeofwillemite.Heclaimedtobe
producing40‐linepicturesatioframespersecond.
InOctober1926,KenjiroTakayanagiinJapanstartedhisfirstactualexperimentswith
cathoderaytelevision.HeclaimedthathewasabletotransmittheJapanesecharacter
katakana(i)inscribedonamicaplateon25December1926.
On7April1927,theAmericanTelephone&TelegraphCompanygavetheirfirstpublic
demonstrationoftelevision.ThiswasajointeffortoftheBellTelephoneLaboratoriesand
WesternElectricthatwaspartoftheTelephoneGroup.Itconsistedofatelevision
programmetransmittedbyland‐line(wire)fromWashington,DC,toNewYorkCity.There
wasalsoawireless(radio)transmissionfromWhippany,NewJersey,toNewYorkCity.It
wasclaimedthattherewasnodifferenceinthequalityoftheimagestransmitted.
Usinga5o‐holeNipkowdiscrunningat18framespersecond,thepictureswereofexcellent
quality.Itwasinfactthefinestdemonstrationoftelevisionevermadeuptothattime.The
BellLaboratoriesadmittedthattheyhadbeenworkingontheprojectsince1925andthe
demonstrationrequiredtheservicesofalmosti,ooomen.
ThissuccessfuldemonstrationbytheTelephoneGroupdismayedDavidSarnoff,nowVice‐
PresidentofRCA.Relationsbetweenthetwogiantsofcommunications,theRadioGroup
(GE/Westinghouse/RCA)andtheTelephoneGroup,werestrained.Earlier(July1926)
SarnoffhadsuccessfullyremovedtheAmericanTelephone&TelegraphCompanyfrom
radiobroadcastingandhecertainlydidnotwantthemtohavetheleadintelevision
research.SarnoffimmediatelyorderedbothGeneralElectricandWestinghouseElectricto
doubletheirresearcheffortstomatchthoseoftheTelephoneGroup.
InSanFrancisco,California,anewcomertothefieldoftelevision,PhiloT.Farnsworth,
appliedforapatent(7January1927)onacompletelydifferentelec‐
‐23‐
trictelevisionsystem.Hiscameratubewasan'imagedissector'thathadaphotoelectric
plateuponwhichthelightfromthescenewasconvertedintoelectricity.Thiscreatedan
electronimagethatwaspassedenmassebyscanningcoilssequentiallytoanelectrode
whereitbecamethetelevisionsignal.
FarnsworthhadstartedworkonhissysteminMay1926.Hehadobtainedfinancingand
wasconstructingallofhisequipmentinasmalllaboratoryinLosAngeles.Hesoonmoved
toSanFrancisco,wherehecontinuedhisexperiments.Itwasclaimedthatby7September
1927,hewasabletotransmitlinesofvariouswidthsinonedirection,onacathoderay
tube,sothatanymovementatrightwidthsangleswaseasilyrecognizable.
Farnsworthcontinuedtoimprovehissystem.InJanuary1929,hehiredayoungengineer,
HarryLubcke,toworkinhislaboratoryandbyJuly1929,LubckeandFarnsworthhad
devisedandbuiltanall‐electricscanningandsynchronizingpulsegenerator.Withit
installed,PhiloFarnsworthwasnowoperatingthefirstall‐electrictelevisionsysteminthe
world.Itconsistedofhiscameratube(the'imagedissector')andhismagneticallyfocused
picturetube(the'oscillite').Therewereabsolutelynomechanicalpartsintheentire
system.
On13January1928,GeneralElectricgaveatelevisiondemonstrationfromitslabsin
Schenectady,NewYork.ThiswasunderthedirectionofDrErnstF.W.Alexanderson.Itwas
ademonstrationofa48‐linepictureat16framespersecondof'live'imagesusingtheflying
spotsystemofDrFrankGray.Theimageswerereceivedonthreereceiverslocatedinthe
Schenectadyarea.
InApril1928,RCAappliedforapermitforatelevisionstationtobeconstructedinNew
YorkCity.ItwastobeoperatedbytheResearchandTestDeptofRCAatVanCordandPark
underthedirectionofDrAlfredN.Goldsmith.ThisstationW2X3Swaspartofaplanby
DavidSarnofftohaveatelevisionstationoperatingbytheendoftheyear.
On8August1928,WestinghouseElectricgaveatelevisiondemonstrationof'radio‐movies'
fromtheirradiostationKDKAinEastPittsburgh.Itwasatransmissionof35mmmotion
picturefilmof60‐linepicturesat16framespersecond.Thepicturesweretransmittedby
land‐line(wire)tothetransmitterandbackbyradio(wireless)tospecialreceiversatthe
laboratory.WestinghousegaveradioengineerFrankConradcreditforthisdemonstration.
Conspicuouslymissingfrom,thisdemonstrationwasDrV.K.Zworykin.Truetoitsword,
Westinghousehadnotallowedhimtoparticipateinit.SometimelateinNovember1928,on
Daw'dSarnoff'sorders,hewassenttoEuropetoinspectthevariouslaboratoriesthathad
commercialagreementswiththeRadioGroup(GE/Westinghouse/RCA),takinginGermany,
Hungary,andFrance.InParishevisitedthelaboratoriesofÉtablissementsBelinandwas
shownalloftheirworkinprogress.HerehemetÉdouardBelin,founder;FernandHolweck,
chiefscientist;GregoryN.Ogloblinsky,chiefengineer;andonePierreE.L.Chevallier,
consultingengineer.
Hewasshownanadvancedversionofthe'BelinandHolweck'television
‐24‐
system.Ithadanewpicturetubethatfeatured'electrostaticfocus'.Thiswasaccomplished
bycarefullycontrollingthevoltagesintwodiaphragmsthatwereinthepathofthebeam.
Thetwo‐piecetubewasmetallic,continuouslypumped(aHolweckspeciality)witha
glowingcathodethatdisplayed33‐linepicturesatioframespersecond.Itwasrather
crude,and,whilequitesharp,couldnotdisplaypictureswithanymorebrightnessthanthe
usualBrauntubesusingeithermagneticorgasfocus.
APracticalTelevisionSystem
DrZworykinwaselatedbythisdisclosure.Heknewthatbymakingseveralimportant
changestothistubehehadtheanswertotheproblemofapracticaltelevisionsystem.He
madearrangementswithBelintopurchaseaHolweckcathoderaytubeandaHolweck
vacuumpumpandbringthembackwithhim.HealsomadeplanstohireOgloblinskyatan
earlydate.
ZworykinarrivedbackinWestinghouselateinDecember1928andrelatedhisfindingto
SamuelKintner,hissuperioratWestinghouse.Kintnershowedverylittleinterestinitand
suggestedthatZworykingotoNewYorkandseeDavidSarnoffpersonallyashehadgoneto
EuropeonRCAs(notWestinghouse's)behalf.
ThisresultedinthefamousmeetingbetweenDrZworkyinandDavidSarnoffandtheiroft‐
quotedconversation.ZworykinconvincedSarnoffthathehadthesolutiontoapractical
televisionreceiver‐‐towit,onethatneedednomaintenance,hadnomovingparts,couldbe
viewedinasemi‐darkroom,andoperatedbytheaveragemaninhishome.Hetoldhimthat
hehadthebasicdeviceworkinginhislaboratory.Thiswastrue:hehadconvertedthe
Holweckcathoderaytubetoconformtohisnewideas.Whenaskedhowmuchitwould
cost,Zworykinstated,'some$100,000',aconsiderableunderstatement.ButSarnoff,who
wasquiteeagertogiveRCAtheleadintelevisionresearch,gladlygavehisconsentand
ZworykinwassetupinhisownlaboratoryatEastPittsburghandprovidedfinancingand
manpowertobuildapracticaltelevisionsystembasedonhisrevolutionarypicturetube.
InFebruary1929,ZworykinorderedthirteenglassbulbsfromtheCorningGlassCompany
andbeganworkonhisnewsystem.ThefirstusabletubewasassembledinApril.A
modified35mmfilmprojector(Zworykinhadnocameratubeatthetime)wastobeused
asasourceofpicturesignals.SeveraltopengineersfromWestinghousewereassignedto
theproject.TheyincludedHarleylams,JohnBatchelor,ArthurVance,RandallBallard,and
W.D.Wright,anopticalengineer.
Theprojectwentverywell.On9May1929,ademonstrationwasgivenofmotionpicture
filmusingthreesetsofelectricalcircuits.Finally,on17August1929,ademonstrationwas
givenbyradiotoagroupofRCAandGeneralElec‐tricengineers.
‐25‐
Thereceiverswereall‐electric,withnomovingparts.Theseven‐inchpicturetubes,now
called('kineo'tomove,'scope'tosee)couldeasilybeviewedinadimlylitroom.Seven
receiverswereinstalled,edatvariouslocationsinEastPittsburgh(includingonein
Zworykinshome).ZworykinwasallowedtousetheKDKAConradshort‐waveradio
transmitterlateatnightforhisexperiments.
Zworykinfiledforapatentonthekinescopeon16November1929,andrevealeditina
speechbeforetheEnstituteofRadioEngineerson19November1929.Hispaperwasan
oralpresentationonly,nodemonstrationwasgiven.Thespeechwasfeaturedinpapers,
magazines,andjournalsallovertheworld.Hisdevelopmentofthekinescopewasthesingle
mostimportanteventinthehistoryoftelevision.Itmadetelevisionasweknowittoday
possible.
AtWestinghouse,Zworykinwasnotcontenttorestonhislaurelswiththekinescope.With
thearrivalofOglobinskyfromParisin,July1929,hewenttoworktoperfectatelevision
cameratube.TheyusedthesamedemountableHolweckcathoderaytubeasthebasisof
theirexperiments.Whileonlyproducing12‐linepictures,itprovedthatacameratubewith
'chargestorage'waspossible.
'Chargestorage'wasalong‐sought‐aftergoal.Itmeantthatacameratubewould
accumulateanelectricalchargeoneachelementthatwouldcontinuetobuildupuntil
scannedbytheelectronbeam.Assuchthetubewouldhavemoresensitivitythanatube
withoutit,suchasFarnsworth's'imagedissector'.InJanuary1930allRCAtelevision
researchwastakenoverbyZworykin,whomovedhislaboratorytothehugeVictorPlantin
Camden,NewJersey.HereheandOglobinskyproducedmanytwo‐sidedcameratubes.But
theywerehardtobuild(theywerefullofelectricalandmechanicaldefects)andthe
resultingpicturesleftmuchtobedesired.
FinallybyJuly1931,ZworykinandOgloblinsky,whohadbeenjoinedbyHarleyIams,
ArthurVance,SanfordEssig,andLesFlory,haddecidedtotakeanewapproach.They
proposedtobuildacameratubewithasingle‐sidedtarget,thatis,oneinwhichtheelectron
beamandthelightfromthesubjectimpingedonthesamesurface.Manyvariationsofthe
single‐sideddesignwerebuiltandtested.On9November1931,thefirsttubedisplaying
tubedisplaying'good'pictureswastested.Zworykinnownamedthistubethe'iconoscope'
('iconforimageand'scope'tosee).Apatentcoveringthisnewdesignwasfiledon13
November1931.AtlastZworykinandDavidSarnoffhadacameratubethathadthesame
potentialasthekinescope.Buttheiconoscopewasnotrevealedfortwomoreyearstothe
public.
Infact,thekinescopewasnowsobrightthatitwascausingconsiderableflickeratthe24
framespersecondrateinuse.Thiswasbasedon35mmsoundfilmspeed.On19July1932,
RandallC.BallardoftheRCAZworykinlaboratoriesappliedforapatentfor'interlaced'
scanning.Thissolvedtheproblemsofbothflickerandlimitedbandwidth.Whilenotanew
idea(ithadbeen
‐26‐
VladimirK.Zworykinandadisplayofhistelevisiontubes.
donewithNipkowdiscs)thiswasthefirsttimeithadbeenappliedtoacathoderaytube.
Eachframewasdividedintotwofields(48fieldspersecond)andthenintermeshedsothat
itprovidedacontinuous24framespersecondpicture.Anoddnumberoflines(81atthe
time)wasnecessarytomakethissystemwork.Thisimportantpatentwassoon
incorporatedintotheRCA(andlatertheEMI)patentstructure.Atfirstitwasdonewitha
mechanicalscanningdisc,butby1935anall‐electricinterlacedscanninggeneratorwas
finallydesignedandoperated.
InApril1931,itwasannouncedinEnglandthatanewholdingcompany,Electricand
MusicalindustriesLtd.(EMI),hadbeenformedbymergingtheHMVGramophoneCompany
withtheColumbiaGraphaphoneCompanyLtd.Asthebusinessdepressionwasnowworld‐
wide,itwasdecidedthatbycombiningfacilities,theycouldbringaboutcertaineconomies
ofoperations.AsilentpartnerwasRCA,whichowned27percentofthenewcompany.
DavidSarnoffsatontheEMIBoardofDirectors.
EMI'sfirsttelevisionprojectwastoperfectatelevisionsystemforthetransmissionoffilm
basedontheRCA/Zworykinkinescope.EMI'sengineersfromHMVincludedWilliamF.
Tedham(whowasinchargeoftheproject),C.O.Browne,R.B.Morgan,J.Hardwick,andW.
D.Wright,formerlyofWestinghouse.FromColumbiaGraphaphonecameIsaacShoenberg,
AllanBlumlein,P.W.Willans,andothers.SarnoffsenttheEMIlaboratoriesatHayes,
Middlesex,
‐27‐
severalkinescopesforexperimentalpurposes.RCAnowhadapowerfulallyinitsracefor
dominationofthenewtelevisionindustry.
TheEMIlaboratorieswerealsoprivytotheZworykinexperimentswith.anelectriccamera
tubeatCamden.Sometimeinthesummerof1932,WilliamTedhamandDrJosephD.McGee
(whohadcometoworkforEMIinJanuary1932)tookituponthemselvestobuildan
electriccameratube.AccordingtoMcGee,itworkedquitewellforashortperiodoftime.Dr
McGeeclaimedthatasitwasnotan'official'(sanctioned)projectitwasnotreportedtothe
DirectorofResearch,whowasnowIsaacShoerbergy.Atanyrate,itwasthefirstworking
cameratubebuiltinEngland.Apatentforitwasfiledon25August1932.
Earlyin1933,EMIproposedtotheGeneralPostOfficethatitbeallowedtogoaheadwitha
televisionservice.TheysuggestedthatwithafewminororchangesintheBBC'sultra‐
short‐waveradiotransmitterinLondonitcouldgoaheadandproducereceivingsetsbythe
autumnof1933.
BairdTelevisionLtd.,whichhadbeenrunninganexperimentallow‐definition(30linesat
12.5framespersecond)televisionservicefortheBBCinLondonsinceSeptember1929,
wasquiteupsetbythisanddemandedthattherebeacompetitionforsuchaservice.A
demonstrationtotheGeneralPostOfficeinApril1933provedthatEMI'ssystemwasfar
superiortothatofBaird's.InMay1933,Capt.A.G.D.Westbecametechnicaldirectorof
BairdTelevisionLtd.andimmediatelystartedacrashprogrammeintocathoderaytube
reception.
OnMonday,26June1933,attheEighthAnnualConventionoftheInstituteofRadio
EngineersinChicago,Illinois,DrV.K.Zworykinpresentedapaper,'TheIconoscope:ANew
VersionoftheElectricEye'.InthispaperherevealedtheexistenceofthenewRCAcamera
tube,theiconoscope.Hemademuchofthefactthatitused'chargestorage',whichmadeit
quitesensitive.However,justaswiththekinescopein1929,itwasneitherpublicly
exhibitednordemonstrated.ZworykinthenwenttoEuropeinthesummerof1933and
revealedtheplansfortheiconoscopetoIsaacShoenbergofEMIinEnglandandFritzShöter
ofTelefunkeninGermany.AcameratubelaboratorywassetupatEMIatHayeswithDrJ.
D.McGeeincharge.By24January1934,thefirstEMIcameratubeswereproducingfair
pictures.EMIraiseditstelevisionstandardto240linesat25frames.On12May1934,Hans
G.LubszynskiandSydneyRoddaofEMIappliedforthefirstpatentonanew,improved
iconoscopecameratube.ThisnewtubewascalledtheSuper‐Emitron.
TherivalrybetweenBairdTelevisionLtd.andEMIledtheBBCandGeneralPostOfficeto
setupacommitteetosettletheirdifferences.ThiswasunderthechairmanshipofLord
Selsdon.ItsentdelegationsabroadtostudythestateoftheartintheUnitedStatesand
Germany.
On24May1934,'TheMarconiWirelessTelegraphCompanyandEMILtd.mergedtoform
Marconi‐EMILtd.ThispowerfulcartellefttheBairdTelevisionCompanywithFernsehAG
andthe(English)GeneralElectricCompanyasitsonlyallies.GEwasdevelopingpicture
tubes.Fernsehwasdevelopingbothan
‐28‐
intermediatefilmsystem(usingfilmthatwasspeedilydevelopedandprojected)andthe
Farnsworth'electroncamera'.
Inthesummerof1934,PhiloFarnsworthgavethefirstpublicdemonstrationofall‐electric
televisionbyademonstrationunitattheFranklinInstituteinPhiladelphia.Hissystem
consistedofhisimagedissectortube,anall‐electronicscanningandsyncgenerator,andhis
magneticallyfocusedpicturetube.Theentertainmentconsistedofvaudevilletalent,athletic
events,andappearancesofvariouspoliticians.Eachprogrammewasoffifteenminutes'
duration.
TheFirstTelevisionServices
On14January1935,theSelsdonCommitteemadeitsrecommendationstoSirKingsley
Wood.Itstatedthatahigh‐definitiontelevisionserviceshouldbestartedinLondonwith
twocompanies,BairdTelevisionLtd.andMarconi‐EMILtd.furnishingthetechnical
apparatus.Thetransmissionstandardwastobeatleast240linesat25framespersecond.
On22March1935,theGermanPostOffice(DRP)openedwhatwascalleda'regular'
medium‐definition(180linesat25framespersecond)servicefromBerlin.Itconsisted
primarilyoftheprojectionofmotionpicturefilm;nolivecoverage.Itwasnotasuccess.The
picturequalitywasquitepoor.Notelevisionreceiverswereeversold,programmingwas
sporadic,andasaresultofadisastrousfireitwentofftheairon19August1935.
ThecompetitionbetweenBairdTelevisionLtd.andMarconi‐EMIwasfraughtwith
difficulties.Thetwocompanieswouldnotexchangeanyinformationandwouldnotco‐
operateinanyway.AttheAlexandraPalace,EMIplannedtousea'live'studioequipped
withfourEmitroncamerasalongwitha35mmfilmprojectionunit.BairdTelevisionLtd.
reliedonastudioequippedwithaflyingspotscanner,an'intermediatefilm'(ahigh‐speed
filmdevelopingprocess)system,a240‐linetelecineNipkowdiscfilmtransmitter,andthe
Farnsworth'electroncamera'.WhileBairdTelevisionreliedonthe240‐linesequential
scanningstandard,Marconi‐EMIproposedtouseanewhigh‐definition405linesat25
framespersecondinterlaced(theBallardmethod)televisionsystem.
TheEleventhOlympicGameswereheldinJuly‐August1936,inBerlin,Germanyandwere
shownbytelevision.ThecoveragewasbytheGermanPostOffice(DRP),whichwasusing
iconoscopecamerasfurnishedbyTelefunken,intermediatefilmvansforoutdoorevents,
andtheFernseh(Farnsworth)electroncamera.MostviewingwasdoneintheOlympic
Villageandinselectedtheatresthroughoutthecity.Sadly,thetransmittedpictureswere
quiteunsatisfactoryTheywereunstable,havinglowimagedetail,andsufferedfromsevere
flicker.
Bycontrast,theopeningoftheLondonTelevisionServiceinLondoninNovember1936was
atremendoussuccess.BoththeBairdandMarconi‐EMIsystemsweredemonstratedandit
wasobviousfromthestartthattheMarconi‐
‐29‐
EMIhigh‐definition405‐lineinterlacedpicturewasfarsuperiortothatofBaird's240lines,
atributetoIsaacShoenbergandhisstaff.
Theprogramming,underCecilMadden,includedgameshows,musicalnumbers,drama,
andavarietyof'outsidebroadcasts'thatcoveredeverythingfromtheCoronationtocricket
matches,boxing,andexhibitions.AsteadystreamofvisitorsfromtheUnitedStates(and
elsewhere)wereamazedattheuniformlyhighqualityofthepictures,theregularly
scheduledprogrammes,andthecoverageofremotes(outsidebroadcasts).
TheMarconi‐EMI405‐lineinterlaced25‐framestandardwaschoseninFebruary1937.This
markedthebeginningofmoderntelevisionbroadcastingasweknowittoday.Theonly
problemwasthehighcostofthereceivers.TheseweremanufacturedbyBaird,Cosser,
Ferranti,GEC,HMV,Marconi,Ecko,andseveralothers.Costingfrom37to170guineas,less
than3,000setsfoundtheirwayintohomesinLondon.BairdTelevisionturnedtolarge‐
screencinematelevision.
On30September1938,theLondonTelevisionServicetelecastthearrivalofBritishPrime
MinisterNevilleChamberlainfromMunich('PeaceinourTime')atHestonAerodromeby
meansofits'outsidebroadcast'unit.ThiswascoveredbythreeEmitroncamerasand
relayed'live'totheAlexandraPalacewereitwasrebroadcastwhileactuallyhappening.
Thiswasthefirstactualbroadcastbytelevisionofamajornewseventasitoccurred.
WiththesuccessoftheLondonTelevisionService,DavidSarnoffdecided,inOctober1938,
tostartatelevisionserviceintheUnitedStates.Thiswastobeginwiththeopeningofthe
NewYorkWorld'sFairinApril1939.SixAmericansetmanufacturerspromisedtohave
receiversreadyforsale.
Televisionmadeitssemi‐formaldebutintheUnitedStateson30April1939.Therewasa
speechbyPresidentFranklinDelanoRooseveltandshotsoftheFair'sactivities.However,
DavidSarnoffhad'jumpedthegun'andaweekearlier(20April1939)hadmadeatelecast
dedicatingtheRCAExhibitBuilding.Whiletherewasmuchenthusiasmforthenew
Americansystem,fewtelevisionreceiversweresoldtotheAmericanpublic.TheNational
BroadcastingCompany/RCAsystemwasnotabletoprovideahigh‐qualityservicesimilar
tothatoftheLondonTelevisionService.
On7June1939,HarleyIamsandDrAlbertRoseoftheRCALaboratoriesannounceddetails
ofanewcameratubecalledthe'orthicon'('orth'forlinearand'icon'fromiconoscope)
whichusedalow‐velocityelectronscanningbeam.Itwasconsideredagreatimprovement
overtheZworykiniconoscope,whichusedahigh‐velocityscanningbeam.Picture
resolutionwasbetween400and700linesanditwassupposedtobe10‐20timesmore
sensitivethantheiconoscope.Workonthisnewtubehadbegunin1937,whenDrAlbert
RosehadjoinedHarleyIamsatRCA.
TheLondonTelevisionServicewasnowagreatsuccess.Over500setsaweekwerebeing
sold.BySeptember1939over20,000setswereinuseintheLondonarea.However,with
theinvasionofPolandbyNaziGermanyandthestartof
‐30‐
WorldWarII,thestationwasshutdownwithnoadvancenoticeon1September1939.This
wasasifactualwarconditionswerebeingobserved.Thetransmitterwasturnedoffandall
ofthecamerasandotherequipmentwerecarefullypackedandstoredawayforthe
duration.
TelevisionprogresswaslaggingintheUnitedStates.NBC'sexperimentalprogrammingwas
sporadicandofverypoorquality.Veryfewsetswerebeingsoldduetotheirhighprices
andtherewasverylittlepublicinterest.Inordertoovercomethisapathy,theFederal
CommunicationsCommission(FCC)statedthatacommercialservicecouldbeginonor
after1September1940.RCAimmediatelyannouncedagreatsaleofreceiversatreduced
prices.Thisupsettherestoftheradioindustry(Philco,Zenith,andtheDuMont
Laboratories).Theyfeared,asinradio,thattheNBC/RCAtelevisiontransmissionstandards
wouldbecometheofficialUSAstandardgivingRCAanothermonopoly.
Asaresult,aNationalTelevisionSystemsCommittee(NTSC)wasformedinJuly1940,to
produceonesetofuniversalstandardsagreeabletotheentireindustry.Itwouldnotdofor
theUnitedStatestohavemorethanonesetoftransmissionstandards.Asingle'lockand
key'situationwasneededinorderthatallreceiverscouldreceivethesamepictures.
TheNTSCsubmittedareporttotheFCCinJanuary1941.Itproposedanewsetoftechnical
standardsforAmericantelevision.Amongthemwasanew525linestandardandtheuseof
FMfortheaudioportion.InMay1941,theFCCagreedtothesestandardsandannounced
thatcommercial(saleofprogrammes)televisioncouldstartintheUSAonorafter1July
1941.Theissueofcolourwastobetakenuplater.
On1July1941,commercialtelevisionprogrammingbeganintheUSA.However,itwasa
lukewarmaffair.OnlyNBC/RCAhadpaid,sponsoredprogramming.CBSandDuMont,beset
bytechnicalproblems,offeredonlylimitedfare.Fortherestoftheyear,therewasonly
minortelevisionprogramming.Outoftwenty‐twolicensees,onlysevenwereactually
broadcasting.
ThebombingofPearlHarborbytheJapaneseon7December1941quicklyputahaltto
mostprogrammingintheUnitedStatesfortherestofthewar.Televisionreturnedtothe
laboratory,whereitwastobecomeatoolforguidedmissilesandlong‐range
reconnaissance.
AtfirstthiswarworkdependedonthenewlydevelopedRCAorthiconcamera.Butithad
manydefectsandwasnotassuccessfulaspromised.Itswaruseinguidedmissilesandfor
reconnaissancewaslimited.TheRCALaboratoriesdecidedtoimproveitsperformance.The
resultwasthedevelopmentofthenewhighlysensitivetubecalledtheimageorthiconin
1944.
ThistubewasdevelopedbyDrAlbertRose,PaulK.Weimer,andHaroldB.LawoftheRCA
Laboratories.Asaresult,RCAcameoutofthewarwithatubesosensitivethatitcouldbe
usedinnormalroomlight.Itwasfirstdemonstratedon25October1945,attheWaldorf‐
AstoriaHotel.Theoriginalimageorthiconcamerawasequippedwithasinglelens,butsoon
itwasfurnishedwithafour
‐31‐
lensturretandanelectronicviewfinder.ThistubeassuredRCAsupremacyinthe
developmentofpost‐wartelevisionallovertheworld.
Withthewarover,theBBCreadiedtheAlexandraPalacefortheresumptionoftelecasting.
On7June1946itreturnedtotheair.Althoughtheyhadachancetochangetheirstandards
theydecidedtogoalongwiththeoriginal405‐linestandard.
IntheUnitedStatessomefifteentelevisionstationswentbackontheair.Theywerestill
usingtheiroldiconoscopeandorthiconcameras,whichwereslowlyreplacedwiththenew
RCAimageorthicon.WiththerapidgrowthoftelevisionintheUSAintheearly1950s,the
needforprogrammematerialtofillexpandingscheduleswastremendous.Asinradio,the
bigproductioncentreswereinNewYork,Chicago,andLosAngeles.SincetheUnitedStates
wasdividedintothreedifferenttimezones,amajorproblemwasbroadcastingthesame
programmeatthesamehouracrossthecountry.Inradio,thiswasdonebymeansof
magneticrecordingoftheaudioprogrammes.
RecordersandCameras
Intelevision,thisproblemwastemporarilysolvedbyABC,N.C.andDuMontwiththeco‐
operationofEastmanKodakbytheintroductionofasystemoftelevisionfilmrecording
called'kinescoperecording'.Thiswasaccomplishedwithaspecialmotionpicturefilm
camerathatphotographedthetelevisionimageonthefaceofaspecialpicturetube.This
filmrecordcouldeitherbequicklyprocessedandshownwithinafewhours,ormorelikely
wasprocessedandshownatalater,moreconvenienttime.Thiswasmainlydoneon16mm
film.Theaccompanyingsoundwaseitherrecordeddirectlyonthefilmorforbetterquality
insomeinstanceswasrecordedseparatelyonamagnetictrack.(Similarrecording
techniqueswerealsostartedinGreatBritainforbasicallythesamereasons.)By1953,it
wasreportedthat100millionfeetoffilmwouldberequiredeachyearfortelevision
recordingintheUSA.
However,thiswasanexpensive,wastefulmethod.Itwasevidentthatamoreefficient,less
costlysystemoftelevisionrecordingwasneeded.Theobviousalternativewastorecordthe
pictureonmagnetictape,aswasdonewithaudio.Butbecauseofthewiderbandwidthused
byatelevisionpicturethispresentedsomeformidableproblems.Thefirstefforttosolve
thisproblemwasbyJohnT.Mullin,whowasassociatedwithBingCrosbyEnterprisesinLos
Angeles.HealteredastandardaudiorecorderfromtheAmpexElectricCorporationofSan
Carlos,California,andgavethefirstdemonstrationofvideosignalsrecordedonmagnetic
tapeon11November1951.Inordertogetthiswide‐bandsignalontomagnetictape,he
rantherecorderathighvelocitypaststationaryheads.Helaterusedamultitrackhigh‐
speedapproachthatconsumedanenormousamountoftape.Similarhigh‐speedprojects
werebeingundertakenbyRCA,theBBCResearchLaboratories,andothers.
‐32‐
TheAmpexCorporation,nowinRedwoodCity,decidedtosolvethevideorecording
problemusingarotatingheadapproach.Thiswouldallowthemtorunthemagnetictapeat
anormalspeedof15inchespersecond.InDecember1951,CharlesGinsburgwashiredto
buildsuchadevice.Hewasjoinedbyastudentengineer,RayDolby,andbyJune1953they
wereabletodemonstrateverycrudepictures.TheprojectcontinuedinSeptember1954,
withtheadditionofCharlesEAnderson,AlexMaxey,FredPfost,andShelbyHenderson.
Thisingeniousteamproducedarevolutionarytransverserecorderthatwasdemonstrated
attheNationalAssociationofRadioandTelevisionBroadcastersConventioninChicagoin
April1956.Itwasamachinewitharotatingfour‐headdrumthatusedtwo‐inchmagnetic
taperunningat15inchespersecond.Inadditiontothepicture,itincludedbothacueand
audiotrack.Thepicturequalitywasquitegood(betterthananykinescoperecording)and
theresolutionwasover320lines.Playbackofpictureandaudiowasinstantaneous,no
processingwasnecessary.
Thisnewrecordercompletelychangedalltelevisionprogramming.Nolongerwasalocal
stationforcedtoshowaprogrammeasitcameoffthenetworkfeed.Itcouldbeplayedat
anyconvenienttime.ThefirstvideotapednetworkbroadcastwasmadebyCBSTVwith
DougEdwardsandtheNewsfromTelevisionCityinHollywoodon30November1956.
'Timeshifting'oftelevisionmaterialhadbegun.TheAmpexrevolutionwasunderway.
InSeptember1959,adifferentkindofvideorecorderwasintroducedbyNorikazu
SawasakioftheToshibaCorporationofJapan.Italsousedarotatingheadsystem.However,
themagnetictapewasscannedbyasingleheadina'hehcal‐scan'(slant‐track)machine.
Thishadmanyadvantagesasitcouldberunforwardorbackward,atvariousspeedsandbe
still‐framedforstopmotion.(TheAmpexCorporationalsohadahelicalmachineintheir
laboratoriesin1959,buthaddecidednottorevealitinordertoprotectitsoriginal
transversemachines.)Thisnewhelicalformat(butwithtwoheads)slowlysupersededthe
originalAmpexmachinesandlaterbecametheindustrystandard.
By1961,Ampexaddedahostoffeaturestothebasicmachine.Thisincluded'Intersync',
Amtec','Color‐Tec',andarudimentaryElectronicEditor.Finally,inApril1963,Ampex
introducedEDITEC,thefirstelectronicvideotapeassemblydevice.Notonlydidthe
videotaperecorderenable'timeshifting',itmadeeditingofprogrammematerialaseasyas
pushingabutton.
IntheUSA,thebattleforacompatiblecoloursystemcontinued.CBShadperfectedits
'mechanical'coloursystemanditwasadoptedbytheFCCinSeptember1950.However,
thisrequiredadifferentsetoftransmissionstandards.ButDavidSarnoffandRCAwere
determinedthatonlyacoloursystemthatcouldbefitted(electricallycompatible)intothe
regular6MHzmonochromeFCCUSAchannelshouldbeadopted.Asaresultasecond
NationalTelevisionSystemsCommitteewasformedin1950.Throughtheeffortsofthe
majorradiomanufacturers,includingHazeltine,GeneralElectric,Zenith,andPhilco,anew
‐33‐
setoftransmissionstandardswasagreeduponandwasadoptedon17December1953.
Thismeshedacoloursystemintotheexistingstandardsandwasthebasisforeverynew
coloursystemlateradoptedthroughouttheworld.
Therewasmucheffortmadetoimprovetheperformanceofandreducethesizeandweight
ofnewvideorecordersandcameras.InJune1962,KurtMacheinofMach‐TronicsInc.of
MountainView,California,introducedtheMVR‐10,thefirstone‐inchhelicalrecorder.In
1964,fortheBBC,theAmpexCorporationintroducedtheVR2000,thefirst'high‐band'
(higherrecordingstandard)videorecorderwithexcellentcolourquality.InJuly1965,the
MVRCorporationofPaloAlto,California,demonstratedthefirstsingle‐framevideodisc
recorder.Itcouldbeusedfor'instantplayback',includingstillframes.InApril1966,the
WestelCompanyofSanMateo,CaliforniaintroducedtheWestelWRC‐150,thefirst
selfcontainedone‐inchportabletelevisioncamerawithavideorecorder.InApril1967the
AmpexCorporationintroducedthefirstbattery‐operatedportablecolourvideorecorder,
theVR3000.
In1964theN.V.PhilipsCompanyoftheNetherlandsintroducedthe'plumbicon'(lead
oxide)cameratubeforcolourtelevision.Itproducedsuchexcellentpicturequalitythatit
quicklymadeobsoletebothoftheRCAwork‐horses,theimageorthiconandridicontubes.
Lessthanthreeyearslater,someofthefirsttubelesscameraswithsolidstatesensorswere
announcedbyFairchildandRCA(1967),Westinghouse(1968),andtheBellTelephone
LaboratorieswiththeirCCDs(chargecoupleddevices)in1970.
Thecombinationoflightweightcamerasandportablevideorecorderssoonmadeanimpact
onnewsreelcoverage.Thenewartofelectronicnewsgathering(ENG)beganandallfilm
wasrenderedobsolete.Newsandspecialeventscouldbecoveredbythesecameraswith
portablemicrowaveinstallationsandbymeansofsatellitecommunicationscouldbeseen
instantaneouslyallovertheworld.Theintroductionin1978ofa1,125‐line,high‐definition
televisionbyNHKinJapanwasjustonemorestepintherelentlesspaceforvideo
perfection.Notonlywastelevisionprovidingthefastestmeansofcommunicationallover
theworld,butitwasdoingitwithsuperbpicturequality.Thedesiretoseeoverthehorizon
hasmanifesteditselfinarevolutionthathasencompassednotonlytelevision,butmotion
picturefilmandcomputergraphicsaswell,whilethedetailpicturesfromsatellites
exploringtheplanetsandouterspaceisaharbingerofthingstocome.