Is Cultural Imperialism
a Thing of the Past ?
‡.ULVW\1HOZDQ
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Is Cultural Imperialism
Imperialism a Thing of the Past
Pas ?
Kristy
Kris
Kr
isty
is
ty Nelwan
Un
Univ
iv
versita
taas Mu
Mul
ultimedia Nusantara
Universitas
Multimedia
[email protected]
[email protected]
ABSTRAK
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The
cultural
theory
he cu
ultural iimperialism
mperialissm the
heory
e y
emerged as a de
debate
among
scholars
ebate topicc am
mongg scho
ho
ola
l rss in
n
the early 19
1970
2000;
Christophers,
970 (Thussu, 200
00; C
hrissto
oph
p er
ers,
uggeesting
ngg that the syste
em wo
orked
2007). Suggesting
system
worked
ns byy that ti
tim
ime cou
uld lead,
d orr
d,
through nation
nations
time
could
probably did already, into serious cultural
articularly in the Third World countries,
damage particularly
mper
e iaali
lism
m ttheory
heorry ga
he
gain
ned aattention.
tten
tt
e tiion
on.
cultural imperialism
gained
heree we
w
re tthose
ho
ose w
ho aagreed
greed
d wi
with
t eexxThere
were
who
WKDWDQLPEDODQFHÀRZRILQIRUPDWLRQ
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enin
ng, w
ith ccultural
ulttur
u all ddamage
amagee as oone
ne ooff
was happening,
with
quenc
nces.
ess Furt
rthe
rt
herr rese
he
sseearrch aand
nd dis
i cussits consequences.
Further
research
discussions weree then performed to, in general, minipact. On
n th
he co
on
nttra
rary, th
here we
were
r
mize the imp
impact.
the
contrary,
there
ho aar
rgued
ed
d tthat
haat cu
h
ult
l ur
ural iimperialism
m erialiism
mp
m
then somee wh
who
argued
cultural
theory wass no longer relevant for many reasons,
ibl case studies.
t di
backed up bby sensible
One of the well known ways to
demonstrate the irrelevancy of cultural
9ROXPH,,,1RPRU‡'HVHPEHU
i peerialissm theory,
im
t eo
th
ory
ry popular
ry,
popullar under the term
imperialism
‘coun
nter cultural
cultu
uraal imperialism’,
im
mpe
p rialissm’, was through the
‘counter
OR
RFDOO ¿OP
¿OP
P LQGXVWU\
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GXVWU\
U\\ (Oliveira,
(O
Oliveirra, 1993;
1
ORFDO
Jin, 2007).
Neveertheeless advance
advan
nce studyy performed
pe
Nevertheless
by these
schoolars demonstrated
sc
dem
monstrated
d that
t at what
th
wha happened in the
scholars
t promising as
movie industry was not really that
¿JKWVDJDLQVWFXOWXUDOLPSHULDOLV
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anot
an
otherr shape
ot
shap
pe of cultural
cul
ulturaal imperialism.
im
mperi
another
othe
her popular
pop
po
opu
pula
ullaar opposition
o
The other
hypothesizes that the same issues and matters are now
disccussed not
n t under
no
u d
un
deer ‘cultural
‘ccul
ultural imperialism’ but
discussed
theo
th
e ry of
of ‘Globalisation’
‘Glo
lo
obali
lisati
li
tion
ti
o ’ (McQuail, 2005;
the theory
Tomlinson Cultural ImpeChristophers, 2007; Tomlinson,
riial
alis
issm, 2002;
200
0 2; Sakellaropoulos,
Sakellaro
ak
k rroopoulos 2009). Talked
rialism,
mo
ostly about
abo
b ut how
o distance
distaanc
nce is
nce
i now
no not a big probmostly
techno
lem anymore, thanks to technology
that has del d in
i brisk
b i k improvement,
i
t globalisation is
veloped
indeed mentioned in various kind of discipline.
([SHUWVRQHFRQRPLF¿QDQFHEXVLQHVVWHFKQR
71
Is Cultural Imperialism
a Thing of the Past ?
‡.ULVW\1HOZDQ
UMN
logy, communication,
ation, art and of cour
course,
rse
se, culture
lisation with their
irr own analysis
all discuss globalisation
and sentiments.
scourse anal
alys
al
y is, th
his ess
say w
ill
il
Using discourse
analysis,
this
essay
will
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sm and glo
loba
lo
b lisation the
eor
orie
iess to
to
cultural imperialism
globalisation
theories
mperialism iiss actually a thing
g off
see if cultural imperialism
the past, or not.
RAL IMPERIALISM
IMPERIA
ALI
LISM
SM
M
CULTURAL
elopmeent of cinema and televi-The development
mportan
nt role in raising
g concern
sion played an important
out cultu
ural matters. A
cQuils
from scholars about
cultural
Ass Mc
McQuils
experience tthat
hatt us
ha
sed to
pointed out, the cultural ex
used
o tact, religious ceon
be “mediated by personal ccontact,
blic performa
anc
n e” is now
w “proremonies and public
performance”
ajor industries…
…ev
e en wh
hen it
duced by the major
industries…even
when
an languand
appears in local or national variants an
14). Through movies and
d te
elages” (2005, p.114).
telmes formed by The First World
evision programmes
countries in one place, with a traditional, passive
he poorest areas in the Third
audience, even the
ett in
iinformation
formatio
on ab
about wh
w
hatt
World, were ablee to gget
what
n an
notheer place (W
Wund
derliich &
was happening in
another
(Wunderlich
att, id
deally, sho
ould be ssomeomeeWarrier, 2007). That
That,
ideally,
should
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ween both sides.
ately
y, wh
w
h
hat
hhappened
appeened wa
as
Unfortunately,
what
was
ce. Ex
E
xpe
perts qu
pe
qquickly
icckly sp
ick
pot
o teed
far from balance.
Experts
spotted
the imbalance condition right away with its
effects, and that was when the discussion about
alism
m sstarted.
tart
rtted
ed. Ba
B
asica
callly th
ca
he
cultural imperialism
Basically
the
ut hhow
ow
w in man
ma
any pplaces
lacees in tthe
he
he
theory talks about
many
rld countries in particular, there
world, Third World
de
epeenden
ncy eemerging.
meerging. T
his
were new forms of d
dependency
This
ut fr
rom
m tthe
he ffact
act tth
ac
hat aaudience
uddie
i ncce all
argument grew out
from
that
rom different cultures and backover the world, from
atch
hiin
ng tele
evision
o pprogrammes
rogr
rogr
ro
g amme
mess
me
ground, were watching
television
y sev
verral
a cou
unt
ntri
r es.
produced by only
several
countries.
Motives of these producer countries,
il bl on this
hi subject,
bj
according to texts available
vary
IURP SUR¿W WR SRZHU 2QH VFKRODU DGGUHVVHG
clear opinion on “The United States cultural
I.
72
ls” was Petras (1993
imperialism goal
goals”
(1993; cited in
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two m
ajor constrains are
ree economic
two
major
economic—that is
“to cap
pture markets for its ccultural
ultural ccommodi“to
capture
ish
s hege
ties”, and political—“to establi
establish
hegemony by
shaping popular consciousness”.
orted not just
These goals were suppo
supported
y the ggovernment
overnment and tools inv
vente by the
by
invented
co
ountry, but also by the huge ma
country,
market that
nd oon spreadsimultaneously operates hand in han
hand
nint
ing products, instruments and, un
unintentionally
or hidden, ideology. Information from outside
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more rapidly, building worriess for ssome who
uch as Sc
realized the further impacts, su
such
Schiller who
scholaars to write about and
became one of early scholars
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his book; 0DVV
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(PSLUH(1
( 96
(1
969;; ci
ited in Christophers, 20
(PSLUH(1969;
cited
2007, p.1).
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pressured,
pr
ressured
d, forced
forrced and
an
nd sometimes
sometitimes
i s bribed
brib into
VKDSLQJVRFLDOLQVWLWXWLRQVWRFRUUHVSRQGWRRU
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19
976,, citedd in
in Thussu
T usssu 2000,
Th
2
p.61)
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seecond eedition
dition ooff 0DVV &RPPXQLFD
di
second
&RPPXQLFDWLRQ DQG
$PHULFDQ (PSLUHH that was published in 1992.
Seeei
S
e ng
n tthe
hee cha
hang
gess tthat
h t ha
ha
hhappened,
pppen
ened
e ,S
ed
Seeing
changes
Schiller no
llo
ong
ger
e tthinks
h nk
hi
nks tthat
hat tthe
he tterm
erm
er
m “c
cul
ultu
tu
ural imperiallonger
“cultural
LVP´SURYLGHVDVXI¿FHH[SODQDWLRQIR
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happening
worldwide.
Instead,
suggested that
haapp
p ening
en
n wo
w
r dw
rl
wid
dee.. Ins
ste
t ad, he
h sugg
those
blame
were
narrowed
th
hosse to
to bla
ame wer
er no
ere
nnow
w narr
rowed
ow
we to “transnational corporation” who he believed are “continuing
heavy
favour
media
tiinuin
nu
ui g he
heav
avy fa
av
avo
v ur ooff US
U m
e ia kknow-how
ed
deri
de
riv
ri
ved fr
from llong
ong
on
g ex
xpe
peri
riencee w
ri
ith m
derived
experience
with
marketing
d entertainment skil
lls
l and practic
i es” (Schiller,
and
skills
practices”
1992 pp
1992,
pp. 14-15)
14-15).
When communication processes become
too intense, it would not be wise to see it as a
'HVHPEHU‡9ROXPH,,,1RPRU
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Is Cultural Imperialism
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normal condition,
ondition, especially in
n rregards
egards on how
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997). Amin dem
mon
onst
s rated how “inten
nsi(Amin, 1997).
demonstrated
“intensi¿FDWLRQRIFRPPXQLFDWLRQ´UXQE\WKLV³FDSLWDOLVW
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system” would nott be
be a “liberating
“li
lib
beratin
ng or democrademocratizing factor”
giving
or” by gi
ivin
ing example aabout
bout
bo
ut ““observer
observer
who does not see W
Western
estern life on a ddaily
ail
ily bbasis
asis
is always struck
incredible
brain-washing
k bby
y th
the
h in
ncr
c ed
edib
ib
ble
l brai
in-wasshin
ng
of the dominant
(Amin,
1997,
17).
minan
nt media”” (Ami
in, 199
97, p. 17
7).
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bility tthat
hat a product wou
uld be aaccepted
ccepted
high possibility
would
y by peo
eople in different soci
eo
iety bbecause
ecause
differently
people
society
they were also fac
facing
different
problems
accing differen
nt prob
blems (Amin,
1997, p. 22). Enco
Encoding-decoding
theory
odi
d ng-decod
din
ing
g th
heory by StuDUW +DOO DOVR
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OVR KLJKOLJK
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that it is not just the ma
matter
producer
att
t er of how
w the pr
roducer
framed some
also
me information but
bu it is al
bu
lso about how
the audience
(1974/1980;
nce accept it (1974/1
/198
/1
19
98
80; cited in McQuils, 2005,
05, p.112)
7U\LQJ
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New World
rld Information and Communication
Order (NWICO)
WICO) became noticeable in the early
1970s claiming
World
countries
aimiing tthat
hat the Fi
Firstt Worl
r d cou
rl
untries
un
n
were “conditioning
masses
the
interest
nditiionin
ng the mas
sses to th
he int
n ereest of
nt
those powers”
and
people
the
Third
wers”” an
nd it caused
d peo
ople in th
he Th
hird
d
World countries
becoming
ounttries
tr
into bec
comin
ng ““the
the vvictims
ictiims
ms
of dominations
information”.
Several
atio
ons iin
n informa
ation
n”. Sev
veraal kkey
ey
areas spotted
these
meetings
order
ted th
tthrough
hroug
uggh thes
ese me
es
eeting
gs in
n ord
der to
minimize harmf
harmful
imperialism
mfful iimpact
mp
pact of
of ccultural
ulturall im
imp
perial
alism
al
m
ZHUHQHZVÀRZWHOHYLVLRQÀRZDGYHUWLVLQJDQG
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communication
1997).
cation technology
g (R
((Roach,
oach,, 1997)
).
In 19
1980
MacBride
Commission
980
0 the
hee M
accBrid
id
de Co
omm
mmissi
siion
submitted an
another
report
matter
not
othe
her re
epo
ort
rt oon
n this
iss mat
tte
terr to
t tthe
he
8QLWHG1DWLRQ(GXFDWLRQDO6FLHQWL¿FDQG&XODWLRQ(GXFDWLRQDO6FLHQWL¿FDQG&XOtural Organization
(UNESCO).
aniza
zaati
t on
on (UN
UNES
UN
E CO
O). It em
eemphasized
mphas
a ized
ed
d
the support
UNESCO
movert gi
ggiven
ive
ven
ve
n from
mU
NESC
NES
SCO to
SCO
o the m
oveement and challenged the accused (First World)
countries to ggive
soft
responses.
ive ssome
iv
ome
mee sof
oft to hhard
arrd resp
po
on
nses..
Roach
(1997)
these
responsoach
h (1
(19
997)
7)) rreviewed
ev we
ev
eviewe
wed
d thes
esse re
espon
o son
es, and sharply
harply demonstrated how the reaction
grew as the
These
h movement bbecome visible.
i ibl Th
countries’ reaction to cultural imperialism discourse reached its peak when The United States
9ROXPH,,,1RPRU‡'HVHPEHU
(in 1984)) an
and
d The United Kin
Kingdom (in 1985)
U
ESCO (Un
withdrew from UN
UNESCO
(Unesco.org, 2006),
ganization w
ga
accusing that the orga
organization
was trying “to prevent freedom of spee
speech
freedom of press”
ecch
h and fr
(Margaret Thatcher to th
Associated Press, 21
the Asso
November 1984; cited in R
Roach,
oach 1997).
Fortunately for thee cult
cultural imperialism
warriors,
warriors, that tough reaction
reactio
on drew even more
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oham
the theory. Sreberny-Mo
Sreberny-Mohammadi
strongly
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concept and suggested another
anot
other bbetter-constructed
ot
notion to address pproblems
roblem caused by
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First and Third Worl
World
countries. What Srebernyrlld countries
Mohammadi thought
thou
ou
ught is “more nnarrowly focused”
was the notion
(Sreberneynoti
tiion of media imperialism
imperia
Mohammadi,
actually related to John
Mooha
h mmadi, 1997), which actua
Tomlinson’s work earlier in 1991.
199
In arguing
cultural imperialism
r
how cultu
actually worked, Tomlinson in &XOWXUDO
,PSH
SHHULDOLV
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LV
V
captured th
he te
,PSHULDOLVP
captured
the
term from four
d fferrent angl
di
les
es; Cu
ulturaal Imperialism as
different
angles;
Cultural
m diia im
me
mperi
rial
ri
a ism
m, cu
ulturral iimperialism as a
media
imperialism,
cultural
disco
oursee ofn
atio
ionali
io
liity
ty,
y ccultural
ultu
ural iimperialism as the
discourse
of nnationality,
critiq
que of glob
bal
a ccapitalism,
apitaalism and cultural
critique
global
im
mpeerialissm aass the ccritique
r tique of m
ri
imperialism
modernity. Media
as “t
the m
ostt commo
on fo
ocus ffor discussion of
as
“the
most
common
focus
cultural imperialism” (p.23), lled Tomlinson to
p opose two ways to centred ccultural imperialpr
propose
ism on
n the m
ediaa: “eith
ther
th
er as tthe dominance of
ism
media:
“either
onee cult
on
ltt s me
lture’s
edi
d a oover
verr aanother;
n the or as the global
no
one
culture’s
media
spread of ‘mass-culture’ as such
such” (p.22).
e llately
a elly wh
at
hen man
Even
when
many countries that
d tto
o bee “te
t leviision
te
n pro
rogram
ro
used
“television
programmes
importers”
became able to produce their own series that
th
hen dom
min
in d tthe
inated
he aud
he
die
ienc
n e’s attention, many
then
dominated
audience’s
sccholars
rs suc
ucceed
e ed
d in
n pr
prov
o ing that it did not
ov
scholars
succeeded
proving
cultural/me imperialism.
signify the death of cultural/media
I 1993 Oli
i started
d with
i h very convincing
In
Oliveira
VWDWLVWLFDO GDWD WKDW VD\V /DWLQ $PHULFD¶V ¿OP
industry was free from imperialism for they did
73
Is Cultural Imperialism
a Thing of the Past ?
‡.ULVW\1HOZDQ
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not just produce their
heir own programme
programmes,
es,
s, bbut
ut they
ese self-made so
soap
o operas to
also exported these
WULHV +RZHYHU
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evealed thee hidden
n trut
th ab
abou
ouut
developed and revealed
truth
about
aracters in
n Br
raz
azil
iliian
il
ian soap
p opera
as
images of the characters
Brazilian
operas
wit
ith
it
h the ones inn AmeriAmer
Am
eri
rithat were pretty similar with
razilian faces. T
h
he
can’s soap opera, only with B
Brazilian
The
h seem
med
d origina
nall
na
lly
ll
y lo
ocal, aafter
fter
story lines which
seemed
originally
local,
on tur
rned out tto
o be A
meric
i an
closer observation
turned
American
ts tran
nslated to
o llocal
ocal
oc
al lan
nguagee
soap opera scripts
translated
language
ng ch
hanges (Oliveira, 1993).
with some setting
changes
ned to cinema indu
ne
dustry iin
n
The same thing happen
happened
industry
ndia (Raj, 22004)
004) w
here
Korea (Jin, 2007)) and IIndia
where
cal indus
str
t ies appa
are
rent
ntly
ly
y were
the successful local
industries
apparently
pl
layer by repackagjust echoing the previous p
player
u er shell (M
ut
Morley,
ing same ideas in more local oouter
(Morley,
s, 2005).
1997; in McQuils,
pp
peeared in
Cultural imperialism also ap
appeared
b rn
rney
e ey
a very neutral form: Education (Srebe
(Sreberney97). Speaking about imperialMohammadi, 1997).
ulture, Ali Mazrui (1975, cited
ism in African culture,
hammadi, 1997) commented
in Sreberny-Mohammadi,
he si
ingle mostt sop
phisticcated
d
on university as “th
“the
single
sophisticated
ultu
ural dependen
ncy”. Cu
ultural
a
instrument of cultural
dependency”.
Cultural
tter could
d affe
ect aass far
arr
imperialism on this mat
matter
affect
ss of
of Third
Third World
Wo
orld developdev
velop
pas ineffectiveness
y tha
at mapped
d by S
reberny
yment plans, in a way
that
Srebernyollow
ws.
Mohammadi as follows.
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(Sreberny-Mohammadi,
ernyy Mo
Mohamm
mmad
mm
a i, 1997,
199
997
7, p.
p. 59))
Another critique came from Garofalo
(1993, p.18) who said that cultural imperialism
74
tes external determin
theory “overstat
“overstates
determinants and
nal
a dynamics, not least
undervalues the intern
internal
those ooff resistance within ddependent
ependent ssocieties”.
those
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uite a challenge
form like education, it would bee qquite
l peo
ld
to sees it as a threat. Little would
people think
hey aare offered
about cultural imperialism when th
they
oppportunnities to study abroad. Theree is oonly small
opportunities
ch
hance ffor
or them to reject the offer us
sual formed
chance
usually
dw
as ‘scholarship’, because they would
want to take
os scholarit. They would not even ask ‘why m
most
andi
ship needed to make sure that ca
candidates
will
cou
untry after they
un
be going back to their home country
SURJUDDP¶ OHW
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hey woul
realize the possibility of ‘so th
they
would become
mperialism to be the
one instrument of cultural iimperialism’
question
n. This “ability to affect
answer for that question.
e w
es
ant” was what N
what other countries
want”
Nye (1990;
chil
ch
i le
ler, 1992) meant by 6RIW3RZHU
6RIW3
cited in S
Schiller,
that
dominan powers
illustrates how skilled these dominant
are in the art of manipulation.
sc
From movie industries to scholarship,
m manuf
uffactu
ure iindustries
nd
n
dustries tto
o m
any kind of
from
manufacture
many
‘aid’’; tha
h t iiss ju
ust how
w ‘creat
tive’ a ppart could
‘aid’;
that
just
‘creative’
n de
ddeveloping
velo
oping
g itss ddomination,
om
minatiion, and also how
be iin
wid
wi
de aand
nd ppuzzling
uzzliing ccultural
ult
lt al im
lt
ltural
mperrialis theory
wide
imperialism
iss. So
ome sc
cholaars ssuggested
uggees
ested
d the Thi
is.
Some
scholars
Third World
counntriees bee mo
ore aaware
ware of
o thes
se ooffers that,
countries
more
these
acco
co
cordin
o ng to
o the
ese
s sscholars’
cholars’ aanalysis,
n ly
na
ysis, aare hiding
according
these
the real truth about “continued Weste
Western exploitation of the Third World under the gguise of so
c lle
ca
llled ‘modernization’”
‘mo
modern
rnizattion’” (R
(Roa
ach
ch,, 199
called
(Roach,
1997) +RZe err, to
ev
o ssee
eee it as
a “th
he sp
pre
r ad
d off mo
m
mod
odern
ever,
“the
spread
modernity”
is the
most suggested way by Tomlinson (19
(1991, p.173)
rd
der
e to m
mi
ini
n mize
z cconfusion
onfu
usionn iin
n discu
inn oorder
minimize
discussing cultu
ura
ral im
mperi
rial
rial
alis
i m be
bbefore
fore cconcluding
fo
oncl
ccllud
din
ing hhis writing
tural
imperialism
replac “impewith the sharp statement: What replaces
rial
ri
a iissm”” iiss ““globalisation”.
globa
b li
ba
l satiion”.
”.
”.
rialism”
This on
ne fr
ffrom
fro
romTomlinson
Tom
mlinsson
on aand
n m
nd
This
one
many other
questio among
similar claims stimulated new questions
h scholars
h l who
h follow
f ll
h theory’s
h
other
the
development: Is cultural imperialism a thing of the
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past? Should
ould we than movee on
on and discuss
tion theory for a change?
Globalisation
LOBALIS
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rying to bbee mo
more
re ccareful
areful aand
ar
nd not
no
ot too opTrying
if not pessimistic,
pesssim
i istic, in discussing
diisc
scus
ussi
sin
ing “motimistic—if
“globaalisation”, Lull (2000)
(20
2000
00)) saw
dernity” and “globalisation”,
ust as “stages
“stages
t
worl
wo
rld
rl
d history
histo
ory but also
alsso
them not just
inn world
tive, irreversible
irreversiblle developments
deveelopments driven
driveen
as destructive,
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me senti
timents that seem fa
ti
familiarr and resense some
sentiments
em
motions in previous discussions:
di
mind us off the emotions
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ion, Lull drew
d ew attention
dr
atten
nti
tion
on to
to the fact that
globalisation,
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exploitationn”.
it is “a world
II.
htly different tone come
mes
me
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A slightly
comes
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pp.64)
64))
64
oland
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obber
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19992
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pp.8)
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Roland
Robertson
(1992,
comQWHQ
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isation. There is also similar opinof globalisation.
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edness”. All tthese
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hes
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Scholars
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eco
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ddifferen
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ens, 200
ferent purposes (Gidde
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and questions on globali
globalisation
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th
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muni
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question
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then, they questioned
differeences of what we have
What are the differences
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002, p. 1)? Does th
Thompson,, 2
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o
has been going on since the 19th century?
sation
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start even a lot earSome argue
that it started
th
h
ex
the hislier than the 19 century. In explaining
tory of globalisation (1992; cite
cited in Wunderlich
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11750
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75 as tthe
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happened
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technology
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rttson
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Robertson
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Monetery
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world’s
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The last phase is still going on until today, with
rapid
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h iin iinformation
f
i and communication technology which “have increased the speed
75
Is Cultural Imperialism
a Thing of the Past ?
‡.ULVW\1HOZDQ
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and volume of the
he circulation of goods
goods,
ds, capital,
ds
nd people”.
services, ideas, and
alisation becam
me popular,
r the
As globalisation
became
er how broa
ad the co
oncep
pt is tthat
haat
fact became clearer
broad
concept
es like R
ober
erttson
tson did hhelped
elped a
to see it by phases
Robertson
ing the tterm.
erm.
er
m Appaduraii lot in understanding
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pes,
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mediascapes,
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d as ssomething
omething too wid
de and
d
are often viewed
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ohane aand
nd Nye (2003;; ci
ited
d iin
n
complicated. Keohane
cited
ferred tto
o diWundrlich and Warrier, 2007) pref
preferred
nto thin aand
n thick gl
nd
lobalissation.
vide its process into
globalisation.
n is what hhappened
a pened a long time
ap
Thin globalisation
ntt nation stat
n
tes did
ago when people from different
states
T
at wass still,
trading through the Silk Route. Th
That
hane and Nye (2003
3),
), a process
according to Keohane
(2003),
hat involved limited amoun
un
nt of
of globalisation that
amount
ll number of people. Contrasttrade and a small
alisation is what we are expeingly, thick globalisation
ys which has “created a dense
riencing nowadays
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social, cultural and
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nterd
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ivin
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n
the notion of ‘interdependencies’
ut gl
lobal
alisation.
l
W
hatt real
lly iiss
explanation about
globalisation.
What
really
ding
g to Lull
Lu
ull (2000,
(2000
0 , p.226)
00
p..226) is
is the
th
he
happening, according
World coun
ntrie
trrie
ies who,
o fo
o,
or
exploitation of Third Wo
countries
for
ountries were nothing more than
the First World countries
rces and future markets” that are
“cheap labor sources
act ccapital”
apiital”” oonly
n y to
nl
o bee in
incl
nc ud
ded
ed
“desperate to attract
included
tem. As
As thee res
essult iiss one
nee con
ndi
diiin the global system.
result
condiything from food to sex to relition where “everything
ore an
nd mo
m
re ccommercialized
om
mmeercialized
d on
gion becomes more
and
more
a global scale”.
Stronger critiques came from Michael
ed in
in L
ull, 200
00, pp.226)
.2
.22
226) wh
ho
Marx (2000; cited
Lull,
2000,
who
balissatio
ion
io
n in
n tthe
he end
nd iiss ju
ust
st a
argued that globalisation
just
conspiracy to make every part of the world
lt
d bbussines,
i
ith t
sell American culture
and
without
paying attention to possibility that it might lead
to major cultural damage and “environmental
76
mila
mi
lar concern came ffrom antila
destruction”. Simi
Similar
g obalisation moveme
gl
ent
n s who set ttheir goal
globalisation
movements
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culturees and the degrada
daation of nature”
cultures
degradation
07,
7 p. 333)
(Wunderlich and Warrier, 200
2007,
III.
IMPERIAL
LISM VS
CULTURAL IMPERIALISM
GLOBALISATION
GLOBALISATION
Three phases in international
internation
nal communic
Three
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are happy optimism, cultural imp
peria
imperialism,
and
globalisation. It was obvious that fo
or Go
or
for
Golding and
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are two different theories in two
o differ
different times.
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both theories tried to minim
miz
i e the con
minimize
confusion we
would begin to spot some
me similarities.
me
Tomlinson
T
n ((1991)
1991) suggested that we
approach ccultural
u tural
ul
tu
u imperialism with fo
four different ways: cultural imperialism as media
me
imperialism, cultural imperialism as a dis
discourse of
nationality, cultural imperialism as the
critiq
que ooff glob
o all capitalism
ob
m, and cultural
critique
global
capitalism,
impe
eriallism
m as tthe
he cri
riti
ri
t que ooff m
oder
imperialism
critique
modernity.
The
sam
me m
ethood wa
as ap
ppl
p ieed by A
pp
padu (1996)
same
method
was
applied
Appadurai
who uses
wh
uss eth
hnosccapees, m
ed
dia
iasccapess, tec
ethnoscapes,
mediascapes,
tecnoscapes,
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two
o poin
nts ffrom
rom
m ea
eeach
ch scholarr thatt wer
ch
points
were actually
talking about similar issues
discus
First, what was discussed
by
T
To
m in
ml
nso
son
en
he
seees
se
Tomlinson
when
he
sees
cultural
impe
im
peerial
alis
im
is
mediaa
im
imperialism
ass
media
imperialism
is how to placed media in the notion;
notion if media
wa
as dr
ddriving
ivin
ng th
the
h cch
han
nge
g s or if
if m
edia was just
was
changes
media
fo
ollow
owin
i g. It
in
It ha
hhass no
not
ot that
a big
big
i difference
dif
i fere
following.
with
Appadurai’s explanation on how media works as
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pprocess.
roc
o ess. Second,
oc
Secon
ond
on
d, cultural
cultu
turaal imperialism
im
mpe
periial
a ism as the
critique of global capitalism from Tomlinson
T
OG O
O W W G L WL E W ¿
FRXOGDOVRUHODWHWRGHVFULSWLRQDERXW¿QDQFHVFDSH
(Appadurai, 1996, p. 34) where Appadurai also
addressed critic to global capitalism
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Is Cultural Imperialism
a Thing of the Past ?
UMN
The
he previous paragra
paragraph
aph
h demonstrates
der different te
erm
r s, scholars were
how under
terms,
imi
mila
lar problems. T
he
actually discussing si
similar
The
mpr
p essio
on” (Waters,
(W
Wat
ater
erss, 2000)
0)) in
concept off “time com
compression”
ion was bbasically
asiica
call
lly
ll
y expla
aining ““intensiintensiglobalisation
explaining
IFRPPXQLF
LFDWLRQ´LQFXO
XOOWXUD
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LPSHULDO¿FDWLRQRIFRPPXQLFDWLRQ´LQFXOWXUDOLPSHULDOher and less offen
ndi
ding w
ay.
ism only in a smooth
smoother
offending
way.
ntigllobaliz
b zat
atio
io
on mo
m
vem
ments were
werre
NWICO and An
Antiglobalization
movements
g the same order,
ord
der, onlyy under different
dif
iffferen
nt
demanding
differeent terms.
time and different
: FDQ
FDQ
Q VHH WKDW FRQÀLFWV
FRQÀLFFWV LQ VRFLHW\
:H
much
h. The
nowadays have not changed that much.
ld coun
ntries still dominate
doominatee the system,
First World
countries
couunt
n ries are still
sti
till
ll the
thee victim. This
as Third World countries
m critics against the system
fact can bee seen from
whaat the names
that was operating, noo matter what
imp
mp
per
e ialism
m and globaliglobaliwere; in both cultural imperialism
mw
as always First
sation the dominant spectrum
was
untries caused same trouble
troubl
blee for
bl
for Third
World countries
untries.
World countries.
ROGLQJ DQG +DUULV SRLQWHG RXW
*ROGLQJ
that if we look behind all those critiques on culeriallis
i m theory and
nd the
the
h emerging
em
mergin
ing
in
g of a
tural imperialism
thaat made
maade “the dynamic
dynaamic of imperialimp
m erialnew term that
beccomee complexx andd inconsistent”,
inco
onsis
isstentt”, itt
ism have become
notiice that
th
hat “the old
olld forms
forrms of
of inequality
in
nequ
q al
alit
l ty
is easy to notice
acitty that
thaat lay behind
behin
nd them
th
hem still
still remain”.
rem
main”
n”.
n”
and mendacity
Eiith
ther
e way,
er
y therefore I would suggest
Either
imper
that the notion of cultural imperialism
still exists
th of the past’.
and is not yet to bee called ‘a thing
maake
k s appearances
appea
The term itself still makes
in discusbu
ut moreover
more
sion on related topics, but
the effect of
awa from gone. As
cultural imperialism is farr away
arg
r ue the so-called
Sakellaropoulos (2009) argued,
“ttransition to the new scale
scaale
l of
o capitalism” is
“transition
nothing else but “imperialism
“imperiallism in its modern
nothing
phase”.
unde what term we
After all it is not under
awa are we of the
discuss the issue, but how aware
goi
o ng on.
oi
o Changes are
real condition that is going
towar the better end.
happening, but not reallyy toward
becom
me more complicated;
c
The system has become
The
beautif
ifful pictures of the world out
media paints beautiful
there and makess us believe in it, yet exploitatak
ak
kes
es place, and majority
majo
tion still takes
of people in
Th
T
hir
ird World countries do not realize how
thee Third
*R
they have been victimized *ROGLQJDQG+DUULV
L UHJDUGV WR WKLV
1997; Lull, 2000) +RZHYHU LQ
solutio in sight” (Lull,
“paradox with no happy solution
2000
20
000), Am
min ((1997)
1 97) tried
19
d to
o bbee m
2000),
Amin
more optimistic by
s yin
sa
ng th
hat ther
erre is sstill
till “alt
saying
that
there
“alternatives to this
b eak
bl
k futu
ure” nnamely
ameely “t
th sstruggle
the
trug for a socialist
bleak
future”
“the
altern
nativee at aall
ll llevels,
e ells,
ev
s, nnational
ation
nal aand international”.
alternative
ONCLU
LU
USIONS
S&
CONCLUSIONS
UGGESTIONS
SUGGESTIONS
J JOREDOLVDWLRQ
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2) mentioned
men
ntion
on
ned
ed “the
“th
th
he compression
comp
co
m reess
ssio
ion off
io
son (1992)
whi
hich
cch
h according
accorrding
ng to Waters
Wateers
rs (2000)
(200
00)
the world”” which
referred to the “increasing level of
ndenc
nce between
bet
etweeen national
et
nationaal systems
syystem
ms
interdependence
ttrra
rade, military
militar
ary alliance
ar
ary
alli
liiance and
nd
d
by way off trade,
dominationn and cultural imperialism” (Wa0). Ba
B
aseed on
o this
this demonstration
d mo
de
m nstr
trraattion we
we
ters, 2000).
Based
en conclude
conc
on
ncludde that
th cultural
cul
ultu
turaal imperialim
mperi
riallri
could then
ism theoryy is therefore a part of the globalihi h should
h ld be
b translated
l d
sation concept, which
carefully otherwise it would only make both
concepts even more complicated and impossible.
BIBL
LIOGR
GRAPHY
GR
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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L]]DWLR
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PPX
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$QWLJOREDOL]DWLRQ
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QWHU
QW
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ede
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