1
American Politics and Foreign Policy Summaries
•
Post Cold War, foreign policy has become less predictable and more difficult to conduct
DECISION-MAKING THEORY
Overview
• R&S argue that FP policymaking involves 3 stages: agenda setting, policy formulation and policy
implementation
• Charles Maechling JR ! there is no master hand (i.e. FP making is a collective process involving
half a dozen agencies and hundreds of individuals)
Decision-making models (to explain decision-making in the executive)
• Rational actor
o Graham Allison
o Problems identified, goals are listed and ranked, all options evaluated, optimal policy is
chosen, that option is faithfully implemented and results are monitored and evaluated
o Assumes president is in charge
o Centralised and rational
o E.g. Cuban Missile Crisis
• Groupthink
o Irving Janis
o High cohesiveness often develops amongst a group especially when they have similar
backgrounds and views
o Under this, group develops a concurrence-seeking tendency
o Presumes a centralized decision-making structure under president
o Often non-rational
o More groupthink = more likely for failure
o E.g. Bush’s neocon, Reagan during Iran-Contra (policymaking circle was narrowed to those
who supported the initiative)
• Governmental politics
o Graham Allison
o Neither centralized under president or rational; but rather based on pluralistic policy-making
environment where power is diffused ! process revolves around competition
o President’s management style might reinforce this
o E.G. LBJ’s first SALT position (Strategic Arms Limitations Talks)
o E.g. Obama and Afghanistan
" Wanted to prevent groupthink
" Approved P’s request for 30,000 additional in Afghanistan; later said they wanted
40,000; released a report; White House felt manipulated
" Led to compromise ! political competition b/w White House and military
• Organisational politics
o Graham Allison
o Decentralised government where key actors are bureaucratic organisations and not the
president or group of policymakers
o Most helpful for areas that aren’t important enough to get president’s attention
o Emphasises subcultures and standard operating procedures
o E.g. Challenger in 1986
" NASA and DOD
" Resulted in two organisations ignoring warnings about deficiencies
o E.g. 9/11 happening!
" Result of subcultures between intelligence and enforcement agencies
2
Two other ways of understanding FP making (R&S)
• R&S argue that above models oversimplify the political messiness
• Presidential politics
o Operates when president becomes interested and active in an issue
o Very political
o Could be associated with groupthink
• Bureaucratic politics
o Prevails when the president and closest advisors remain relatively uninvolved or unable to
dominate the policymaking process
o Resembles organizational process
• Both types are heavily influenced by:
o Cognition
" Individuals make sense of their world by acquiring coherent systems of beliefs
" Rarely do individuals formulate decisions through an open intellectual process
o Personality
" LBJ ! rejection, desire to be loved, determination, always wanted to be in control
(thus personality affected his management style)
o Crises
" Produce emotional and psychological stress on policymakers ! intensifying
individual images and personality ! inhibits an open and rational decision-making
process
" E.g. Bush 9/11 (new presidential focus and mission revolving the threat of terrorism)
THE PRESIDENCY (AND ITS LIMITS)
•
•
•
•
Founders basically wanted a field commander ! Article 2 of the Constitution
o Head of State
o Chief Diplomat (e.g. Clinton led the delegation that attempted to bring a settlement to IsraeliPalestinian conflict)
o Commander in Chief (dictates use of American armed forces abroad)
o Chief Executive
o Chief Legislator (ability to both initiate and veto legislation)
But now the President dominates a lot of different areas and is the main FP actor (Imperial
Presidency)
However, R&S argue that while Americans have high expectations of presidential power, in reality
they are greatly constrained and face uncertainties
Generally they are stronger in terms of domestic policy
Historical overview of presidential power in FP
• Four stages
1. Great Depression and WWII: ‘model presidency’ under FDR
o Aaron Wildavsky ! two presidencies thesis
" Powerful president in FP but weak in domestic
2. Cold War: supreme power
3. Post-Vietnam: power has declined
o Overshoot and collapse of Nixon ! own difficulties but also didn’t understand the
limitations and constraints on his power generated by events like Vietnam
o Reagan – only president since Vietnam that has been able to overcome the presidential life
cycle; also able to survive Iran-Contra affair
4. Post-Cold War
3
o Paradox, life cycle and crisis of leadership have intensified
Presidential strengths in FP
• National Security Act 1947
o Sets the structure for FP in the executive branch up to present day
o Gave the US a real FP system that it did not have before
o During a crisis, the President gets a lot of power but when the crisis is over, the new power
isn’t necessarily reversed ! President gets more power every time
• Bully pulpit: term stems from President Roosevelt’s reference to the White House ! a terrific
platform from which to persuasively advocate an agenda
o This theory adheres to the power that the president does have in being the primary actor in
terms of foreign policy, while still being constrained by other actors
o FDR’s fireside radio chats indicate this power
" Roosevelt was effective at using the technology of his day to his advantage, pursuing
his agenda
" B/w 1933 and 1944
" He was able to quell rumors and explain his reasons for social change slowly and
comprehensibly
" E.g. ‘Arsenal of Democracy’ chat – 29 December, 1940 about Pearl Harbour
" Was he setting the agenda of US entry into war?
• Presidential leadership
o Presidents can maximize their power and success through their leadership skills
o Strong leaders are able to maximize their strengths and capabilities and minimize the
constraints that they face, force the uncertain elements to work better and longer in their
failure
o I.E. can help them get over or reduce the impact of presidential paradox/presidential life
cycle and thus crisis of leadership
o Richard Neustadt
" Three crucial elements to presidential leadership
• Professional reputation
• Public prestige
• Presidential choices
" President and his staff need to be skillful in three areas:
• Managing the executive branch and the decision-making process
• Building coalitions and politically interacting with other players
• Symbolically communicating priorities and preferences to American and
ROW
" Need to be active and not passive (‘just clerks’)
o Richard Pious
" He argues that the paradox of the presidency has become so constraining that a
president needs to exercise prerogative government if they want to govern and lead
their country
" By prerogative gov he means that presidents need to be active and arrive at decisions
that push their Constitutional limits
" When prerogative gov is used there are three political outcomes:
• Frontlash – president given more power during crisis (Bush and FDR) but then
after, Congress and domestic politics begins to reassert significance
• Backlash – e.g. Harry Truman’s seizure of steel mills in 1951 in the name of
national security, due to a strike during Korean War
o George W. Bush suffered backlash after invasion of Iraq
o After Democrats gained control of both chambers of Congress in 2006,
his presidency was effectively crippled