A Brave New Climate
A Brave New Climate
Edward I. Maxwell
The Earth’s mean (average) surface temperature is rising. Whether that rise in temperature is
part of the planet’s natural cycle of warming and cooling periods (remember the Ice Age?), due
to increased human production of greenhouse gases, or a dangerous combination of both, the
planet is getting warmer and humans will need to adjust. These adjustments will range from
personal lifestyle decisions to massive engineering overhauls of modern infrastructure assets.
Historically, cities were built next to bodies of water for a host of reasons. A river or stream
could be a food rich ecosystem for nearby populations and could also provide fresh water for
drinking and provide power for mills. One of the most important reasons for building population
centers alongside these bodies of water rivers, streams, harbors and oceans was that they
provided outlets for transportation. Water allowed cities to stay connected for purposes of
trade, politics and general communication. For this reason, cities such as Boston, New York,
Philadelphia and Baltimore grew to become centers of commerce, power and culture along the
east coast of the United States. As of 2000, the combined metropolitan sprawl of Boston, New
York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washington, D.C. supported 49.6 million people (17% of
the U.S. population). This region is popularly referred to as a megalopolis.
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A Brave New Climate
These historically beneficial ocean side locations may prove detrimental to the future growth
and viability of these cities in a warmer world. Higher sea levels and climate change have
combined dramatically to create historic hurricanes that have peppered the East Coast. Harbors
that have been bustling ports for centuries, with booming growth during the post industrial 20th
century, may need dramatic fortification against surges, super storms and rising tides.
This argument was made with breathtaking directness by Hurricane Sandy in the Fall of 2012.
Storm surges pushed great waves from the Hudson River and New York Harbor over the lower
tip of Manhattan. Whole neighborhoods in Brooklyn and Staten Island were flooded. The
Rockaways, a neighborhood in the southernmost section of Queens, saw devastation wrought
upon its classic beachfronts. The Rockaway boardwalk, an iconic fixture of New York City
summers, was casually brushed aside by waves and winds. Transformers blew in Manhattan,
sending the global economic center into darkness for days on end. Trees were upended all
across Long Island, plunging a record number of households into darkness for weeks. Businesses
shuttered, homes without heat, people without homes, and several lives lost to the storm, the
eastern seaboard had been laid low.
Local, state and federal governments set about to rebuild and salvage. Almost immediately,
however, thoughts turned to preparation for similar storms that might crash land with
increasing frequency. There was the pervading sense that hurricanes like Sandy might not be
entirely exceptional events. Businesses, homeowners, and governments began grappling with
questions of how we might better invest our energies to secure our livelihoods against a
destabilized climate. All manners of people are beginning to ask the question, “What do we
need to change?”
One of the most basic strategies for protecting New York City’s infrastructure assets against
future storm surges has to do with subway grates. During Hurricane Sandy, subway stations in
southern Manhattan and parts of Brooklyn were quickly overwhelmed by water because the
surging waves flowed over the streets and quickly drained through sidewalk grates. These grates
are now being raised as part of concrete fixtures in the sidewalk, so that even if a foot of water
accumulates, it will still not be high enough to spill through the grates. Flooded subway tunnels
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A Brave New Climate
and stations left the mass transit system in New York City crippled and whole neighborhoods
isolated. Preventing water from spilling into those stations and tunnels again is the surest way
to prevent a similar shutdown.
A common solution discussed to prevent massive damage to New York City, Long Island and
New Jersey coastlines in the future is the construction of various physical shields. Whether
considering sand dunes, concrete barriers or metal jetties, the idea is to create a physical
formation that will absorb the brunt of a storm’s force. While these new formations may not be
the most attractive additions for a beachfront view, it was the previously unobstructed nature
of those views that indicates just how exposed communities like Long Beach, Long Island were.
Perhaps if concrete barriers had been in place, flooding would not have reached beach
residences and apartment complexes so easily. These barriers are meant to mimic formations
found naturally in nature, such as rock jetties, floodplains, brush, marshlands and trees. These
features have been polished away by residents and developers hoping to create a more pristine
living space right next to the ocean.
Residences and subways are not the only assets requiring protection against storm surges, winds
and waves, however. Electric power grids, generators, and substations also need protection
against future severe weather events. In New York specifically, plans have been discussed to
install floodwalls and other artificial protections against incredibly corrosive salt water.
The great trouble with water is that it flows and pools indiscriminately. Rainier seasons for
farmers and higher sea levels for coastlines ultimately mean greater issues with water flow and
pooling. During Hurricane Sandy the issue became much more acute, considering the water
already pooling underneath the city. New York City has a vast network of sewer tunnels that
flow to different treatment facilities across the five boroughs. Sidewalks and asphalt covered
streets do not absorb water the way a grassy field does. Therefore, the runoff is swift and
relentless. Sewer drains and tunnels were quickly backed up in the deluge. Unfortunately, water
mixes just as well as it flows. The water that backed up on certain streets was mixed with
untreated sewer water. The hurricane had inundated the system far too quickly and the
infrastructure had no time to adequately absorb the excess water.
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A Brave New Climate
This trouble with run off has sparked conversations about the possibility of increasing green
spaces and establishing green roofs in New York City. Green simply means areas that are seeded
with plant life, whether trees or grasses. Increasing the number of green roofs would have a
particularly dramatic effect on how New York City absorbs rain. As of 2013, little more than a
severe thunderstorm could overwhelm the city’s sewer drains it does not need to be a
hurricane. All that water flows quickly over glass, brick, tiled and tarred roofs to the streets
below. But if there was a lawn of drought resistant grass on the roof, rainwater would have little
means by which to escape. Green roofs are a significant investment because the building must
be engineered to accommodate the extra weight of the plant life, as well as the water absorbed.
Previously, roofs were constructed to facilitate faster run off and whisk away any standing
water, so they were not designed to bear much weight. The goal of a green roof to absorb water
and create a robust ecosystem on top of a building brings new design concerns to the table.
People must begin to consider a change in climate when making personal decisions as well.
Hurricane Sandy demonstrated just how lacking personal preparedness was across the New
York metropolitan area. Several people discounted the probability of incredible damage. Some
even refused to evacuate zones designated by state officials as severely at risk of flooding. First
responders were tasked with rescuing individuals who ignored warnings and remained with
their properties or businesses. In the future, more people may reconsider the wisdom of
investing in a beachfront property or business. Those who do still buy such properties might
plant brush and trees instead of clearing away all greenery in favor of panoramic views. Home
and business owners might also consider the benefit of different types of flood insurance to
protect their financial livelihoods.
The world is changing. That much is certain. Populations are being forced to endure events,
weather patterns and temperatures that could not have been imagined previously. Only by
embracing adjustments on national, state, local and personal levels will individuals be truly
equipped to survive and thrive in a warmer world. Humanity has always been capable of
adapting to changes through experimentation and learning. It is important in the coming years
to keep an open mind and not hold on to previous beliefs and expectations of how things should
be. By grounding expectations in what has come before, we leave ourselves exposed to a more
chaotic, unimagined future.
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Questions: A Brave New Climate
Name:
Date:
1. What is happening to the temperature on Earth?
A
B
C
D
It
It
It
It
is
is
is
is
remaining constant.
decreasing.
rising.
changing constantly.
2. The effect of storms like Hurricane Sandy can be devastating. According to the article,
what might be the cause of these storms?
A
B
C
D
too much development on oceanfront properties
a highly populated area referred to as a megalopolis
higher sea levels and climate change
flooded subway systems
3. People settled near the water of the east coast because of the economic benefits.
Which evidence from the text best supports this conclusion?
A
B
C
D
Harbors and oceans provide transportation outlets needed for trade.
There are unobstructed, panoramic views of the ocean.
Waves from the Hudson River have the ability to flood whole neighborhoods.
High sea levels can cause issues with water flow and pooling.
4. Based on the passage, why do cities like New York need to create more green spaces
and establish more green roofs?
A
B
C
D
More plants would help to lower the temperatures in cities like New York.
There is a lot of public support in cities like New York to create more green spaces.
More plants would absorb less rain and decrease the damage caused by run-off.
More plants would absorb more rain and decrease the damage caused by runoff.
5. What is the passage mainly about?
A
B
C
D
how to evacuate during a hurricane
Superstorm Sandy
climate change and how cities must prepare for its effects
climate change and how it has impacted population growth in cities
1
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Questions: A Brave New Climate
6. Read the following sentences: “Residences and subways are not the only assets
requiring protection against storm surges, winds and waves, however. Electric power grids,
generators, and substations also need protection against future severe weather events.”
Why does the author end the first sentence with the word, “however”?
A to signal that other types of assets will not be discussed in the second sentence
B to signal that other types of assets will be discussed in the second sentence
C to suggest that the assets discussed in the first sentence are the same as the
assets discussed in the second sentence
D to signal that the passage is about to end
7. Choose the answer that best completes the sentence below.
Hurricane Sandy flooded the New York subway system. ________, New Yorkers are
raising subway grates to prevent it from happening again.
A
B
C
D
In Contrast
Before
Especially
As a result
8. Describe one of the strategies for protecting New York City’s infrastructure assets
against future storm surges.
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Questions: A Brave New Climate
9. How might the personal decisions people make about their lives be impacted when they
consider the change in climate? Use information from the passage to support your answer.
______________________________________________________________________
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10. The author states that “only by embracing adjustments on national, state, local and
personal levels will individuals be truly equipped to survive and thrive in a warmer world.”
Explain which adjustments the author is referring to and how they may help people
survive in a warmer world. Use information from the passage to support your answer.
______________________________________________________________________
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3
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