Cognition Recognition – What’s the brain got to do with it anyway?
Thinking Tools and Strategies in the High School Classrooms
Monika von Oppell
Clayfield College, Brisbane, Australia
[email protected]
Charles Rheault
Anglican Church Grammar School, Brisbane, Australia.
[email protected]
“The environment of learning and thinking we create within
our schools will transport our society to the realm of the
future”
Abstract
This paper describes the theoretical foundation and basis of a built-in Whole School Thinking Skills Curriculum.
The findings and experiences of five years of a formal implementation of this program will be workshopped in
two sessions during the Conference on Thinking: Cognition Recognition – knowledge of the brain and how this
new understanding may be used to support learning in the classroom, and, The implementation of Thinking Tools
and strategies in the Classroom.
The explicit teaching and modelling of the de Bono Thinking Tools coupled with other
thinking strategies and techniques is not a bolt-on production of an existing program but a
developed in-line programme drawing on current and ongoing educational research with
special reference to the organ of learning, the brain. The practitioners and authors of this
paper have consciously introduced teaching and learning practices to parallel how the brain
learns and reacts to situations it both creates and encounters. All aspects of the curriculum
design are an organised and deliberate use of knowledge to enhance and assist learning. Thus,
a number of theorists, detailed in Figure 1, have been drawn upon in order to integrate their
findings into the bigger learning and education picture.
It may be observed that within the education framework of curriculum development the
use of ‘integration of subject disciplines’, particularly within a junior or primary school
context, is common. However, insofar as teaching practice in particular is concerned, there
seems a paucity of knowledge and integration of brain and educational research with respect
to pedagogy and education practices in all areas of education. It has become popular recently
for schools to adopt a particular philosophy or theoretical perspective, thus creating de Bono
schools, Dimensions of learning schools, Marzano schools, or Habits of Mind schools.
However, it is our belief that education should consciously encompass and incorporate a far
bigger picture and holistic approach utilizing not only research and findings specifically
conducted for education but also incorporating what is successful for learning outside of the
classroom in business e.g. advertising and marketing findings.
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Integrated Theorists
Taxonomies
Bloom/Anderson Cognitive
Krathwohl
Affective
Simpson
Psychomotor
Fogarty
Learning and the brain
Transfer of learning
Sylwester
Levine
Jensen
Swartz
Buzan
Gardner
Multiple Intelligences Marzano
Dimensions of Learning
Perkins, Jay
-
Transfer of learning
De Bono- Tools + Thinking Language
Graphic Organisers
Mind mapping
Costa
Habits of Mind
Edwards
Quantum Physics
String Theory
M
Figure 1. Integrated Theorists.
Brain scanning was not available during the 1800’s or earlier and so an exact understanding
and comparison of the wiring and firing of the brain was unknown. However, current
research postulates that there is evolutionary change evident in the functioning and wiring of
today’s children’s brains (Nagel 2007). Adolescents’ brains of today are firing and wired
differently from those of previous generations. This understanding, both cognitively and
emotionally needs to be factored into the delivery of education programs in adapting to, and
to suit the needs of a knowledge-creating generation. The global economy and functioning is
a rapidly changing factor to consider, and while business has had to adapt in order to survive,
it may be questioned as to what adaptations are being made within most schools and
educational facilities to keep abreast with the development and explosion of knowledge which
they themselves are creating. Therefore it becomes inherently the added responsibility of
schools in preparation of today’s youth, who will slot into and function in tomorrow’s world.
Would it be considered acceptable to have an eighteenth century expert teach to today’s
youth? Most would agree that it would probably not be pertinent nor appropriate to
contemplate this notion. However, as the speed of change and progress in the world
accelerates, and the half life of knowledge becomes shorter, the evolutionary change of the
brain away from the rules-based, passive Industrial-era education requirements to the
kinaesthetic, visual, rapidly changing world of today, it may be worth reflecting on whether
the educational practices today are addressing yesterday’s basis of knowledge. The brains of
the youth of today are firing differently and quicker than from students of the past, as the
stimuli of technology and pace of emotional persuasion impose themselves on today’s
adolescents. This has to be factored into their educational needs and programs. Many
education mission statements today cite the need to develop responsible, independent learners.
However, it may be worth reflecting how this may be achieved using the passive, rules-based,
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obedient-centred and anti-risk methodologies employed in many schools today reminiscent of
the Industrial-era education models.
The twelve brain-mind learning principles developed by Caine and Caine (1997) serve as
a solid basis and guideline to the functioning and learning of the brain. (Figure 2)
The twelve-brain/mind learning principles:
(as defined by Caine & Caine 1997)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
The brain is a complex adaptive system.
The brain is a social brain.
The search for meaning is innate.
The search for meaning occurs through patterning.
Emotions are critical to patterning.
Every brain simultaneously perceives and creates parts and wholes.
Learning involves both focused and peripheral attention.
Learning always involves conscious and unconscious processes.
We have at least two ways of organizing memory.
Learning is developmental.
Complex learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat.
Every brain is uniquely organized.
Figure 2: The twelve brain-mind principles. Caine & Caine: (1997)
Dispositional Change: Emotions govern all learning
Research indicates that one of the most critical areas governing ALL learning is that of the
emotions.
Skills
Strategies
Business
Learning
Support
Subject
Matter
Green Hat
Subject
Black Hat
Yellow
DISPOSITIONS
Academic
Subject
Matter
A.G.O
Forecasting
Content
CAF
Problem-Solving
Choosing
Content
P.M.I
Subject
Matter
Boarding
Subject
Matter
C&S
Content
Business
Subject
Matter
Red Hat
HABITS OF MIND
Content
Content
Voc. Ed
Subject
Matter
White Hat
Decision-Making
A.P.C
Subject
Matter
Content
Thinking Skills
O.P.V
Sport
Lateral Thinking
F.I.P
Pastoral
Care
Comparison
Subject
Matter
Content
Six Thinking 'Hats'
ESL
Subject
matter
Content
Sequencing
Personal
Development
Evaluating
Content
Planning Skills
Content
Graphic Organisers
Blue
ATTITUDES
The Limbic system, otherwise known as the emotional centre of the brain, governs all
learning. Adults usually process emotions using their frontal lobes, thereby controlling
untoward and ‘at-risk’ behaviour and reactions. In a learning situation, an adult may
rationalise the importance of attending even though the topic may be familiar or even boring.
However, adolescents have not developed the ability to use their frontal lobes to process their
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emotions and reactions; thus in such a situation, the adolescent simply ‘tunes-out’. The
adolescents’ frontal lobes are immature, sometimes almost non-existent; consequently their
behaviour is driven by the immediate reactions of the limbic system. It is thus imperative that
adolescents can see ‘the bigger picture’ of the material and how it is of value to them, in order
for them to attend and be engaged in a meaningful manner.
David Perkins, from Harvard University, has done much work with respect to the learner’s
disposition to learning. Disposition is not simply the learner’s attitude but also refers to their
inclination to use the learned material and their sensitivity as to where the learned material
may be used. Dispositions are thus critical to learning and to the transfer of learned material.
Dispositions therefore form the foundation for all learning and should underpin any
educational program, as shown in figure 3. Dispositions cannot be ‘learned’. However, they
can be modelled and therefore alter behavioural states to favour learning through a culture
created to allow for a safe environment for students to ‘experiment’ with their learning style
and strengths, as well as their desires. Eric Jensen’s research into how behavioural states may
be altered by the teacher to assist in this process shows how teachers may change the learner’s
dispositional state. One cannot change a person’s attitude but a teacher can positively affect
and alter the existing state of a student, through various techniques, to open them up to
learning.
Emotional understanding is critical for the engagement of today’s learners; thus simple
‘hooks’ such as the colour of handouts, graphic material, layout and presentation of material,
design and placement of visual material as well as the enjoyment the learner derives from the
activity all play important functions in the engagement of the learners. Wall space in
classrooms (high school too, not only junior schools) should be used more for learning, not
for decoration or semi motivational techniques but as tools to trigger and engage the learners.
Students’ work and ‘work in progress’
should be visible, not just pretty
posters and pictures as decoration, but
walls that talk and teach! These must
be changed with great regularity. The
learners of today inhabit an ever
changing visible and audible world.
They are able to physically and
emotionally tune out and change
channels when something no longer
interests them. This is the reality of
their world and thus as teachers, if we
are to have a greater effect, we need to
understand this and use this knowledge
to our and the students’ advantage.
The Thinking Tools and strategies
described in this paper have been
found to enhance the dispositional
aspects of the individual. Thus, subtly
working in conjunction with the ability
and cognitive level of the students, this
additional aspect contributes positively
in affecting his/her self-esteem and
confidence levels with regards
Figure 4. Dispositional Poster – Make Time for Thinking
to the metacognition of their
own learning and their outlook
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on learning. Dispositional posters, (Figure 4), regularly changed, remind students of habits
they should engage in, and tools they can use to assist them.
The dispositional level of each student affects not only the students’ temperament or
attitude to learning but also their inclination to use the learned material, as well as their
sensitivity and intuitive nature, as to where the information can or may be exploited to suit
their individual learning requirements. Figure 5 illustrates the relationship between
dispositions and emotions and how the dispositional aspects influence the individual’s ability
to transfer the information (after Perkins & Tishman). It is the individual’s disposition that
would seem to play a large role in his/her ability to create and recreate useable knowledge, as
it is strongly and closely coupled with the brain’s emotional centre.
Figure 5. Dispositions and learning
It is interesting to note that it is in the area of dispositional and perceptional change that the
marketing world successfully operates (Figure 6). Products today are created and developed
which are not really needed, yet the need and thus the desire of these are created within the
market and so the consumers’ perceptions of what they thought they did not need, is changed!
It is therefore with this in mind that the educator’s main role lies if there is to be transfer and
understanding of content. The use of Thinking Tools and strategies assists in changing the
learners’ perception by creating greater autonomy over their learning. Having a sense of
control over one’s learning and knowledge thereby making it a pleasurable experience for the
teacher and the student, serves as a catalyst for further learning. Emotions are thus central to
focusing, engaging and keeping students, particularly adolescents, on task in the learning
process.
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Brain Maturation: the adolescent,
immature brain:
It is now understood that the adolescent
brain undergoes a severe pruning of
neurons at the onset of puberty; thus the
adolescent brain is an immature one, in
particularly and especially the frontal
lobe area. CAT scans show the lack of
hardware in these regions early during
this developmental stage. While the
young student may physically resemble
an adult, their frontal lobes are only
beginning to mature and develop, thus
their reasoning; decision-making and
problem-solving abilities are exceedingly
Figure 6. Experience and Perception
immature and emotionally driven.
governs attitude and behaviour
However, the need for success drives
many to resort to memory and replications of facts and data retention in order to perform well
in standardised tests. In focussing a student on a P.M.I (evaluation) or perhaps a C&S
(prediction) empowers the student to broaden and deepen his/her thinking, enabling him/her
to be provided with the necessary tools to do better thinking. This has proven to be so much
more valuable in teaching than telling students to ‘think or work harder’ or to find more
information! Learning is essentially about knowledge creation. “We used tools in the past to
leverage our muscles; we need tools today to leverage our mind.” (Bill Gates).
During the junior phase of learning
(prep to about year 6), students are, in the
words of Fogarty, ‘learning to be human!‘
(Figure 7) They are learning many basic
and necessary skills such as how to read,
spell, feed themselves, tie their shoelaces,
memorise information, ride a bicycle,
greet other people, socialise, etc. Once
mastered, these tasks are stored as default
patterns of thinking and used with little
thought, when necessary. During these
years, the parent or adult does the complex
thinking and makes the important
decisions for the child. The transition to
the senior phase of learning relies on and
uses many of these basic skills. However,
Figure 7. Comparison of Frontal and Rear
the mode of assessment, responsibilities
functions of brain. (after Fogarty)
and expectations change and so too, the
way students react, learn and process information. Oftentimes students are not involved in the
explanation of this change-process which needs to take place within their own learning. This
short-sightedness within the current learning process often fails to explain to students and
their parents, their heavy reliance upon known default learning patterns which have thus far
served them well! Up until this time, students have used memorisation techniques
successfully and for many, this is the only learning technique they know. While students may
be successfully ‘walked through’ the requirements of a task, students who have a repertoire of
E x p e r ie n c e in flu e n c e s o u r p e r c e p t io n w h ic h c o n t r o ls
o u r e x p e c ta tio n s .
E x p e c t a t io n s s h a p e
o u r a t t it u d e w h ic h th e n d e t e r m in e s o u r b e h a v io u r
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Thinking and Learning Skills and strategies are able to function more independently and
broadly in their discovery and creation of knowledge. This alone fills the student with
confidence, thus encouraging the emotional aspect of growth with the individual and
consequently allows for the exponential confidence escalation to take hold. Equipping
students with an understanding of their brain development and functioning, identification of
default patterns of thinking and study strategies, provides them with an understanding of the
need and desire for change and new learning techniques, and as a result, reinforces the
knowledge that they have control over their own learning processes and that this is separate
from their innate intelligence. All too often students who have done well in the primary
phases and whose grades have dropped substantially in the senior phase will lose heart and
self-esteem explaining this phenomenon as being linked to their ‘lack of intelligence’ and
being referred to as being challenged or not as clever as their peers. This is also all too often
encountered in second and third year university students who have never had to develop more
suitable study and learning methodologies but relied upon good memory, who now suddenly
begin to encounter problems mainly due to the volume of material that needs to be digested.
They falter and rather than revise and consider a change of process immediately jump to the
conclusion that they are not clever or smart enough for a particular course of study! Sax
(2005 in Nagel) states that “academic stress has been shown to be a common pathway to
substance abuse among high school and tertiary students”.
Working on the premise that a goal within education is to create responsible, life-long,
independent learners, it would seem then a duty of the educator to equip their students with a
healthy repertoire of Thinking Tools and strategies that would enable them to control and
have control over their own thinking, learning, problem-solving and decision-making
processes. Hattie (2005) has shown through extensive research how this teaching is one of the
top factors in improving student’s results.
It is interesting to note that there are many institutions that limit the teaching of Thinking
Skills and strategies, particularly the de Bono tools, within the primary school phase of
learning only. However, there are very few senior school institutions where these tools are
included as part of the learning programme strategy. The general premise seems to be that
having been taught these in the primary phase of learning, there is no need for repetition
during the senior phases of learning and as such, students will transfer these thinking skills
into the new environment. It is our experience that there are few students who have been
exposed to these tools in their junior school years who have shown an initiative on their own
to use them and continue to do so during their senior school years without modelling and
reinforcing taking place. A number of factors are probably responsible:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The immature brain lacks the reasoning component to transfer these tools
Students simply forget these tools are available
“It’s not cool”
Thinking tools and strategies are seen as a ‘primary school thing’
A lack of teacher modelling
Lack of teacher understanding of types of thinking and therefore types of
tools
It is also the teacher/school’s thrust to engage students in a type of
education learning related to a heavy emphasis in a memory-based content
driven assessment structure. This type of focus within schools requires that
a majority of pedagogy time be dedicated for the most part to teaching
which is void of reflection and creative problem solving as well as
authentic assessment.
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The teaching of complex Thinking Skills and thus frontal lobe inclusion within the process of
learning often becomes the victim of subject-specific content-driven assessment and
evaluation procedures and therefore it is not surprising that students do not bring these tools
with them into the senior phases of learning. To overcome this apparent problem within a
content-driven environment, students need to be exposed to a high degree of the modelling of
thinking tools and a learning language that surrounds them. In particular, schools need to
place the teaching of the tools and practice of transference of tools into a variety of settings,
reinforce the use of dispositions and allow for the building of the foundation of complex
thinking. The global educational tendency in most middle and high schools in separating
learning into a plethora of disciplines not only violates the way the brain works (moving from
whole to parts) but hinders the interdisciplinary transfer of learning. Constant reminding
such as modelling, as well as knowing and constantly using the tools, assists learners in
‘picking up’ the appropriate strategies that will assist them in creating a broad, balanced and
multi-perspective view of thinking!
Planning, a frontal lobe activity, is difficult for many adults but particularly so for the
growing brains of adolescents. Experience shows that few students out of choice commit
their plans to paper. Simply having the planning process explained does not encourage its
use. Our experience demonstrates that using the thinking tools (A.G.O (Aims, Goals and
Objectives) together with appropriately generated graphic organisers, assists learners in
downloading their thinking, thus making their learning and thinking process visible to
themselves and their teachers. This assists the learners to create new habits of thinking and
time management, thus moving beyond the realm of repeating old learning habits.
Figure 8, a Semester planner, is a most effective tool in creating a visual time frame. A
general comment from students when using this framework is: “wow! I didn’t realise I only
had a few days that I could work on it. It seemed so far away!”
As with all tools at this
stage of learning, students
need to be encouraged and
reminded over and over
again to use such tools.
Doing it once with a class
will not create a permanent
usage!
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Figure 8. Semester Planner (time management)
Figure 9 is an example of a Planner used for the preparation of a written assessment task.
Students must write their understanding of the question in their own words, not a simple
paraphrasing of that set in the task sheet, which is how most students begin. This
immediately reveals to the teacher the student’s understanding of what is required. Space is
provided for the jotting down of points to better understand their argument (body of the text),
as well as to see the appropriateness of their introduction and of their conclusion. Students
are also invited to consider the grade they are working towards, by placing this at the top of
the form. This assists with their disposition, self-esteem and belief and focuses them on their
work.
On the reverse side of the sheet, students are reminded to reflect on the criteria or
conditions for the task e.g. word length, format etc. Students often miss many of these finer
details in a superficial reading of the task. A CAF (Consider All Factors) wheel is provided
where students are encouraged to note all the factors they know that will contribute or detract
value from their task should they not attend to these prior to submission e.g. spelling,
grammar, vocabulary, staying on task, format, editing, font size etc. Although students know
that these elements of criteria exist as part of the exercise, they too often rely on teachers to
remind and tell them what to do through a teacher generated checklist.
Figure 9. Essay Planner
The CAF used in this format encourages students to do their own thinking and planning,
being proactive and not rely on the teacher to tell them what to do. This transition from
teacher led to student driven helps create independent learners. The various stages of thinking,
planning, understanding and compilation of the task are made evident using such a plan. The
student becomes a more active participant in the learning and review process, rather than a
passive listener and receiver of instructions! Being able to see where more detail, facts, data,
supportive material etc. is required, enables the student to move forward with greater
confidence than trying to assimilate a number of suggestions or instructions and replicating
these in a pleasing format. It is through this process of thinking, planning, reflection and
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discussion that dendrites are created and grown in the brain. This is learning! This is
knowledge creation and understanding. Replication, cut-and-paste, copying and trying to
repeat what may receive good marks is using old default patterns of thinking and in the words
of Nagel “tests and worksheets don’t grow dendrites”.
From the perspective of the affective learning domain, the students in contributing and
allowing for the development of their own involvement within the learning sequence will
have demonstrated they have matured to the phase of willingly accepting the responsibility for
their own learning. These changes in disposition within themselves, lead to discovery,
responsibility and learning, and hold them in a critical growth pattern along the pathway
towards independence in their own learning. The use again of Thinking Tools in assisting
students acquire the skills and confidence in reaching this juncture starts early in the primary
phase of their learning and is developed further in the adolescent years of education. These
are modelled further within the middle schooling years and actualise themselves as part of the
learning self as developing seniors prior to their progression into the post secondary phase of
their education.
The sequence planner, Figure 10, is a tool that assists the learner in becoming more
confident in understanding logic and sequence in learning and planning. This tool assists both
the student and teacher in a variety of sequence-related tasks.
The strength of the organisers and the thinking tools lies in their simplicity and versatility.
Graphic organisers need to be located in all learning areas and be openly displayed in all
teaching locations providing ready access for both teacher and/or students.
Figure 10. Sequence planner
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Colour and Format:
The use of colour is subtly reinforced with all graphic organisers. The choice of the colours
coincides with de Bono’s Six Thinking HATS; i.e;
Blue = planning, organising, summarising
White = information
Yellow = plus thinking, value, benefits, CAF
Green = creative thinking, ideas, CAF.
Students soon associate the different types of thinking with the colours being used thereby
using this additional sense in assisting their thinking recall and planning process, as well as
allowing for transference of cognitive functions to take place. Not only does the use of
language reflect the type of thinking needed e.g. “some Blue Hat thinking is needed” but also
by this simple engagement of colour, it reinforces the importance of a multi-stimuli approach
which occurs within in the learning process. Students are often overheard stating ‘use the
blue planning sheets’. Blue is a colour which becomes synonymous with planning.
The format for the CAF organiser (Consider All Factors) is important (see figure 11).
This is usually printed on either yellow or green paper. Unlike a blank sheet of white paper
Figure 11. CAF organiser
that may be somewhat disconcerting for many unconfident students, this coloured organiser
encourages students to contribute their ideas. Again, this organiser may be used in a variety
of ways. Figure 11 has been used during a year 11 geography lesson where students were
asked to consider all the economic factors they could think of influencing a particular region.
Using this thinking tool and organiser engages the learners in the thinking process rather than
reinforcing a passive, reception of facts. Such an organiser also invites the foreign language
students and challenged learners to download their thinking. In the past it was observed that
such learners tended to take a backseat, waiting for information to be given to them or the
questions answered by the ‘bright students’.
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The use of movement is an important factor with respect to using this graphic organiser.
Most kinaesthetic learners benefit from being able to move the object with which they are
engaging within the learning process. The necessity of having to physically move the paper
around exposes the thinker each time to a new perspective and horizon and assists with the
development of a unique pattern of thought. This act of movement coupled with the design
and colour of the paper assists in stimulating a fuller range of senses and allowing our
thinking the opportunity of creating a pattern of distinctive interconnected thoughts built
around a central theme or idea. Many learners today are tactile and increasingly kinaesthetic.
Memory is not only stored in the brain, but research shows, memory receptors are found in
different part of the body too. Witness many people today trying to recall a telephone
number, to no avail, but, provided with a phone, the same people unhesitatingly dial the
number! The hand recalls the kinaesthetic memory of the number pattern. Furthermore,
being kinaesthetically involved in the learning, assists in retaining the learners’ attention and
focus, particularly girls, who, because of the greater degree of message transfer from each
brain hemisphere, are more likely to become distracted and unfocused. The objective of the
thinking is written in the cloud in the centre of the CAF organiser, to assist in focus and refocus during this thinking stage.
This multi-modal approach engages the learner more comprehensively within their own
strength of learning style. What this also does is to reinforce within each pattern a joined
coloration of design, colour and patterning each of which reinforces the other in developing a
rewarding learning experience. This contributes towards the foundation for future desire on
the part of the student to become engaged with the process of self-reward as they witness how
they have contributed to their own desired learning and outcome.
A further advantage of this organiser is that it is a precursor to the mind-mapping process
and assists learners to move away from the learnt acceptability of having to write neatly, in
linear fashion on white paper! Girls, in particular seem to be prone to losing focus of the
thinking task in order to keep the work neat and tidy and so are distracted by erasers and
white-out. Sometimes, to alleviate this and to keep students on task, concepts may be typed
onto cards, which may then be manipulated into categories and parts without affecting the
neatness and tidiness of the paper. Figure 12 shows senior students exploring categories,
meaning and definitions using this strategy.
Figure 12. Use of movement in learning and
understanding.
Identification of Types of Thinking:
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Much has been written about Higher and Lower Order Thinking during the emergence of
awareness for the teaching of Thinking. These terms were often coupled with BoomAnderson’s Hierarchical Taxonomy, thus Synthesis and Evaluation (numbers 6 and 7) were
deemed to be higher order levels while knowledge and comprehension were lower order
thinking types. The problem with this identification is that there is no clear understanding or
definition of synthesis as a type of thinking process. How does one synthesize? What does it
involve? Tools have been developed, created and used by man because they fulfil a function
e.g. one writes with a pen, carves with a knife, irons with an iron etc. While many people
have been exposed to the various de Bono Thinking Tools, few have been taught explicitly
what type of thinking purpose these serve. Consequently these tools are often forgotten
chiefly because of the insecurity of the user as to how and where their use is most beneficial.
Educational papers and literature further confuse the issue by adding more complex terms
such as complex-thinking, critical-thinking, decision-making, and problem solving into an
already crowded jargon-infested industry. None of these concepts are single entity thinking
processes but consist of a number of different types of thinking in order to arrive at a decision,
much like cooking – a number of different tools and steps are involved in the process.
Decision-making therefore, may involve Considering All the Factors (CAF) involved,
identifying the stakeholders, clarifying the viewpoint of the stakeholders, (O.P.V) prioritising
aspects (FIP), considering alternatives and possibilities (A.P.C), clarifying the purpose or
problem and evaluating a number of options (P.M.I) before either making a decision or
suspending judgement due to more information being needed! When educators and students
begin to understand the process and steps involved in their own thinking, they are more able
to confidently identify the thinking tools necessary for the task and then to use the appropriate
Tools and supporting organisers available to them. Figure 13 illustrates a range of thinking
types identified by Jamie Mackenzie. Superimposed over this range are the de Bono tools
thereby showing their link with types of thinking and therefore, where they would be most
suitable in assisting in the thinking processes.
Monika von Oppell - Clayfield College, Australia
Charles Rheault, ACGS, Brisbane, Australia
Figure 13. Types of Thinking and Thinking Tools
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Knowing what type of thinking is required and understanding the processes involved assists
learners and knowledge-creators to best use the tools at their disposal. It is often stated that
teachers teach thinking whether they use thinking tools or not. This is not debated as anyone
posing questions is indeed provoking the thinking of the other. However, given a repertoire of
thinking tools and strategies accelerates, empowers and exacerbates the thinking processes
creating greater independence, efficiency and esteem. Figure 14 shows how the thinking
tools have been superimposed over the Inquiry Process to assist students in their thinking and
allowing them to be the fore-runners of their own destiny.
Thinking is for tomorrow,
Living is for today,
Remembering was for yesterday!
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THE INQUIRY PROCESS
Mechanistic Elements
Cognitive
Thinking
Pupils’ needs, i.e. what they
are going to get out of it.
Where to look?
What does it mean?
Is it valuable information?
Where else to find information?
Creative thinking
Learn process of brainstorming:
= non-judgmental
= freeing brain to let go of prejudices
= allow creativity
= freedom
Critical thinking.
Linking knowledge.
Evaluate needs and
specifications.
Seeing new patterns for ideas
and evaluate.
Communicate reasons for an
idea.
Think of why it is suitable or
unsuitable.
Practical
Evaluation
Thinking critically
Application of knowledge from
other areas, e.g.maths (scale)
Reality
Planning sequences
Overcoming obstacles in
construction / implementation
Evaluation of modeling process
BRIEF
Creates
direction
IDENTIFICATION
OF NEEDS
INVESTIGATION
IDEAS
BRAINSTORMING
EVALUATION
Reality Testing
Needs of project to be done
Why make ....
Who needs .....
General needs ....
Collect information on topic
1 ......
2 ......
3 .....
4 .....
5 .....
6 .....
7 .....
Do designs fit
specifications?
Which is most suitable?
Cost implications?
Further investigation?
More brainstorming?
DEVELOPING
DESIGNING
MODELLING
PLANNING
REALISATION
TESTING
Evaluate humanistic elements of
the process. Problem areas?
Most difficult areas, e.g. conflict,
application of knowledge,
sequencing, communications, ....
Materials to use
Processes to use
Methods to use
Neat drawings
Technical proposals
Implementation plan
Building
Doing
Making
Constructing
Does it work?
How well does it work?
How does it satisfy the brief?
How can it be improved?
How did I tackle the problem?
Figure 14. Inquiry Process with Thinking Tools.
Figure 14. Inquiry Process with Thinking Tools.
15
Inquiry Process (after von Oppell, 1997)
© M von Oppell
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