Marine Conservation Science and Policy Service
learning Program
Conservation is an ethic of resource use, allocation, and protection. Its primary focus is
upon maintaining the health of the natural world: its, fisheries, habitats, and biological
diversity. Secondary focus is on materials conservation and energy conservation, which
are seen as important to protect the natural world. Those who follow the conservation
ethic and, especially, those who advocate or work toward conservation goals are
termed conservationists. Stewardship is an ethic that embodies cooperative planning
and management of environmental resources with organizations, communities and
others to actively engage in the prevention of loss of habitat and facilitate its recovery in
the interest of long-term sustainability.
Module 5: Management, Conservation, Research
and actions
Section 5: Principles of Conservation
and Environmental Stewardship
Sunshine State Standards
SC.912.E.6.6, SC.912.L.17.17, SC.912.L.18.12
Objectives



Understand the concepts of conservation and
preservation
Learn the importance of Environmental
Stewardship
Practice environmental stewardships projects
in the community
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Vocabulary
Biomes- Are climatically and geographically defined as similar climatic conditions on
the Earth, such as communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms, and are often
referred to as ecosystems.
Conservation- is an ethic of resource use, allocation, and protection. Its primary focus
is upon maintaining the health of the natural world: its, fisheries, habitats, and biological
diversity. Secondary focus is on materials conservation and energy conservation, which
are seen as important to protect the natural world. Those who follow the conservation
ethic and, especially, those who advocate or work toward conservation goals are
termed conservationists.
Environment- is the symbiosis between the physical environment and the biological life
forms within the environment, and includes all variables that comprise the Earth's
biosphere.
Habitat- is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species
of animal, plant or other type of organism. It is the natural environment in which an
organism lives, or the physical environment that surrounds (influences and is utilized by)
a species population
Preservation- is to protect something that might include endangered animals, to keep
them safe or to preserve food, remaining fresh for longer periods of time.
Sustainability- is the capacity to endure. In ecology, the word describes how biological
systems remain diverse and productive over time. Long-lived and healthy wetlands and
forests are examples of sustainable biological systems. For humans, sustainability is the
potential for long-term maintenance of well being, which has environmental, economic,
and social dimensions.
Stewardship- is an ethic that embodies cooperative planning and management of
environmental resources with organizations, communities and others to actively engage
in the prevention of loss of habitat and facilitate its recovery in the interest of long-term
sustainability
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Background
Introduction
Biomes are defined as "the world's major communities, classified according to the
predominant vegetation and characterized by adaptations of organisms to that particular
environment" (Campbell 1996). The importance of biomes cannot be overestimated.
Biomes have changed and moved many times during the history of life on Earth. More
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recently, human activities have drastically altered these communities. Thus,
conservation and preservation of biomes should be a major concern to all.
Because we share the world with many other species of plants and animals, we must
consider the consequences of our actions. Over the past several decades, increasing
human activity has rapidly destroyed or polluted many ecological habitats throughout
the world. It is important to preserve all types of biomes as each houses many unique
forms of life. However, the continued heavy exploitation of certain biomes, such as the
forest, freshwater, and marine, may have more severe implications.
Forests are important as they are home to the most diverse biotic communties in the
world. Hidden within these biomes are potential medicines and many thousands of
unseen and undiscovered species. Also, forests have a global climate-buffering
capacity, so their destruction may cause large-scale changes in global climate.
Logging has depleted many old-growth temperate forests. The increased demand for
homes, paper, and other wood products have not allowed for much conservation. More
recently, people have begun to realize that logging has cleared much of these forests.
Wiser use of the forests and efforts to replant trees have helped to slow down the
depletion of these communities.
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Tropical forests have fallen victim to timber exploitation, slash and burn farming, and
clearfelling for industrial use or cattle ranching, particularly in Latin America. Our
increasing demand for meat products has spurred these events. For years, this
destruction was occuring at a rapid rate. Over half of the world's original tropical forests
are already gone. Public attention to this exploitation have helped to alleviate the
problem somewhat, though many challenges are still to be faced.
The freshwater and marine biomes are probably the most important of all the biomes.
Their medium, water, is a major natural resource. Water is the basis of life, it supports
life, and countless species live in it for all or part of their lives. Freshwater biomes
supply us with our drinking water and water for crop irrigation. The world's oceans have
an even greater effect on global climate than forests do. Water has a high capacity for
heat, and because the Earth is mostly covered with water, the temperature of the
atmosphere is kept fairly constant and able to support life. In addition to this climatebuffering capacity, the oceans contain several billion photosynthetic plankton which
account for most of the photosynthesis occurring on Earth. Without these, there might
not be enough oxygen to support such a large world population and complex animal life.
Freshwater biomes have suffered mainly from pollution. Runoff containing fertilizer and
other wastes and industrial dumpings enter into rivers, ponds, and lakes and tend to
promote abnormally rapid algae growth. When these algae die, dead organic matter
accumulates in the water. This makes the water unusable and it kills many of the
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organisms living in the habitat. Stricter laws have helped to slow down this thoughtless
pollution.
Overfishing and pollution have threatened to make oceans into ecological disaster
areas. Industrial pollutants that are dumped upstream of estuaries have rendered many
marine habitats unsuitable for life. Again, tighter regulations have been used to prevent
further destruction of the ocean biomes.
By educating people about the consequences of our actions, we can all gain a better
understanding of how to preserve the Earth's natural biomes. The areas that have been
destroyed the most will never regain their original forms, but conservation will help to
keep them from getting worse.
Conservation & Preservation
Those who are concerned with protecting
the environment often use the words
conservation and preservation. These two
terms are often confused and are used to
mean the same thing, although differences
exist.
Conservation is the sustainable use and
management of natural resources including
wildlife, water, air, and earth deposits.
Natural resources may be renewable or
non-renewable. The conservation of
renewable resources like trees involves
ensuring that they are not consumed faster
than they can be replaced. The
conservation of non-renewable resources
like fossil fuels involves ensuring that
sufficient quantities are maintained for future generations to utilise. Conservation of
natural resources usually focuses on the needs and interests of human beings, for
example the biological, economic, cultural and recreational values such resources have.
The rain forest for example, contains a wide range of biodiversity, providing food stocks
for local populations and a source of timber and medicines for other countries.
Conservationists accept that development is necessary for a better future, but only
when the changes take place in ways that are not wasteful. What the conservationist
opposes is not the harnessing of nature for mankind's progression, but the fact that all
too often the environment comes off the worse for wear.
Preservation, in contrast to conservation, attempts to maintain in their present condition
areas of the Earth that are so far untouched by humans. This is due to the concern that
mankind is encroaching onto the environment at such a rate that many untamed
landscapes are being given over to farming, industry, housing, tourism and other human
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developments, and that we our losing too much of what is 'natural'. Like
conservationists, some preservationists support the protection of nature for purely
human-centered reasons. Stronger advocates of preservation however, adopt a less
human-centered approach to environmental protection, placing a value on nature that
does not relate to the needs and interests of human beings. Deep green ecology argues
that ecosystems and individual species should be preserved whatever the cost,
regardless of their usefulness to humans, and even if their continued existence would
prove harmful to us. This follows from the belief that every living thing has a right to
exist and should be preserved.
Environmental Sustainability
Environmental sustainability has
been defined as meeting the
needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their needs.
This definition is the guiding
philosophy.
Organizations operate within an
environmental,
social
and
economic context. Environmental
sustainability is a part of this
operation and best achieved when
integrated with other components.
An environmentally sustainable
organization seeks to participate
within its community and seeks to
balance economy, society and environment within its operations. Through seeking
balance, an organization may better steward natural and economic resources taking
into account the needs of future generations.
In daily practice, many opportunities exist to consider environmental sustainability. The
following demonstrates possible environmentally sustainable practices.
• Manufacturing can target the use of less toxic materials and use of recycled
feedstock over virgin feedstock, implement pollution prevention practices in
various processes, use reusable and recyclable transport packaging, and set
energy and water efficiency goals.
• Suppliers can be targeted for assistance in reducing packaging of raw materials
and in searching for less toxic supplies and processes, and provision of “greener”
energy supplies.
• Product Impact can be examined for opportunities to increase end of life
recycling or reuse, and to reduce overall environmental impact.
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Office operations can reduce paper usage through double-sided copying and
printing, use of e-mail, beginning or expanding recycling programs for office
discards, and buying recycled office supplies.
Purchasing can seek to define and establish environmentally preferable
purchasing, procuring supplies that are nontoxic and made with recycled content,
specifying that purchased items be delivered in bulk or with minimal packaging,
and establishing environmental screening for all new purchases.
Transportation can include reducing employee car miles through
teleconferencing and trip consolidation, encouraging the use of carpooling and
mass transit by employees, considering alternative-fueled vehicles for motor
pools, and maximizing routing of product and raw material supply to minimize trip
miles.
Food Service can include encouraging energy and water efficiency in cooking
and water operations; providing washable, reusable dinnerware; implementing
recycling programs for cans, bottles and other discards; donating excess food to
area “food rescue” programs; and establishing composting programs for food
wastes that cannot be donated.
Facility Management and Housekeeping can include installing water-saving
devices such as low-flow toilets and aerators on sink fixtures; maximizing energy
efficiency in lighting, heating and cooling; using the least toxic cleaning materials;
and employing green building techniques in maintenance and renovation
practices.
Landscaping can include evaluating the use/application of fertilizers, pesticides
and herbicides; reducing or eliminating building and grounds landscape to
conserve water; monitor watering systems to use only when needed; and
establishing composting programs for organic wastes.
Interactions with the public can include informing the public and customers about
sustainability efforts and encouraging them to participate.
It is expected that organizations that are
recommended to become Environmental
Stewards show leadership in this area,
implementing and demonstrating examples
of environmentally sustainable practices.
Earth and Man
The Earth is unique in the solar system in
that, as far as we know, it is the only place
that sustains life. Some people even like to
view the Earth or Gaia after the Greek Earth
goddess, almost as a living thing itself. Life
on Earth has passed through many stages
of dynamic evolution. Human beings
represent just the latest snapshot in
evolutionary time. Humans, however,
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through pollution and over consumption, may now be beginning to threaten the
sustainability of Earth's life support systems. How we chose to respond will depend on
how we view our relationship with the environment.
Spaceship Earth
In the preparation for a long, deep
space voyage, the brains of a group of
astronauts were inadvertently altered.
These alterations had a very unfortunate
effect on the behavior of the crew, and
every time a member carried out a
spaceship maintenance operation, an
important wire leading to the life support
system was disconnected. The crew did
not realize the effects of these
operations and did not realize the
dangers of their behavior.
The spaceship had been designed with a great degree of durability and the damages
went undetected for some time. After a time, the damages became apparent; the
development of problems with on-board oxygen levels, contamination of drinking water
and odors from the faulty waste system alerted the crew to the problems on board.
Procedures were initiated to identify the problems and to find their causes. The
problems were discovered, but not their causes and the crew’s damaging behavior
along with the destruction of the spaceship's life support system continued.
In an attempt to control the damage, temporary patch-up repairs were initiated.
However, the crew found themselves unable to keep up with the damage, which
seemed to be growing worse with each day, along with their standard of living.
Eventually, the captain brought his crew together for an emergency meeting to assess
the damage and the future of the ship. There were many conflicting interests about what
should be done. Although it was clear that the emergency patch-up operations had not
worked, many believed that the emergency repair work could sustain the ship for a very
long time. The outcome of the meeting was that the patch-up repair work would
continue, and a detailed document called the "Agenda for Survival" was prepared,
describing the responsibilities of the crew in tending to those sub-systems of the ship
requiring attention.
This approach did not work for long and it was decided that the operations performed by
the crew should be checked and counter checked. After a time, the true cause of the
problems was traced to the minds of the crew on board and eventually to the surgical
operations performed before the mission. With the equipment available the medical
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team was able to rectify the minds of the majority of the crew and the rest of the crew
were kept under close observation.
The story of the spaceship provides a metaphor for mankind's environmental impact on
the Earth. As with the spaceship, the Earth is being polluted by its human residents, its
resources are being used up, and its climate is being rapidly changed. In 1992,
governments from around the world met at the Rio Earth Summit in Brazil to negotiate
the "Agenda for Survival", Agenda 21. Although providing a blueprint for sustainable
development and the environmental protection of the Earth, Agenda 21 has yet to really
bear the fruits of success. Populations continue to grow, the Earth continues to warm,
pollution is increasing and resources are consumed at an ever-increasing rate. Unlike
Spaceship Earth however, such problems with mankind's development cannot be
solved with a simple operation. Changes in behavior and the way we treat the
environment must come through changes in the way we value nature and the resources
it provides us.
Gaia
The Earth is our life support
system, evolving over billions
of years, presently providing
life forms with the atmosphere
and resources suitable for
survival. In the 1960s James
Lovelock considered that the
Earth was like a living
organism, itself engaged in a
self-regulation to support its
own "survival". His Gaia
hypothesis, as it has become
known, was defined by
Lovelock according to the
following idea.
"The chemical and physical
condition of the surface of the
Earth, of the atmosphere, and
of the oceans has been made
fit and is actively made fit and
comfortable by the presence
of life itself."
The idea of Gaia was formed
after mankind entered space
and
began
to
remotely
observe
and
understand
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features of planets using satellite technology. By observing Earth, Venus and Mars,
Lovelock proposed that for life to exist, a planet’s atmosphere must have a very different
composition to its surface, as with Earth. This assumption was based upon the idea that
a given planet would, without life, be in a state of equilibrium and its atmosphere and
surface would be very similar. Based upon this assumption, Lovelock suggested that life
must be required to maintain the state of imbalance between the atmosphere and
surface.
Lovelock went on to suggest that this imbalance is maintained by an active control
system. This active control system quite simply reacts to changes within the Earth’s
atmosphere, correcting these changes and allowing life to continue. This complex
system of planetary control became known as Gaia, after the Greek Earth goddess. The
active control system was life itself.
Gaia does not respond to environmental stresses in a simple way. Changes in the
amount of solar energy received by the Earth as its orbit varies over tens of thousands
of years, for example, have produced complex climatic fluctuations between cold Ice
Age episodes and warmer interglacial periods during the last 2 million years. Over the
much longer term, the gradual warming up of the Sun since the birth of the solar system
4½ billion years ago has, Lovelock believes, placed an increasing amount of stress on
Gaia. Consequently, as Gaia strains increasingly harder to maintain optimum conditions
suitable for life, short-term stresses could yield abrupt and significant responses.
Although neat and simple, there is little conclusive proof of the presence of an active
planetary control system on Earth. Unfortunately, geological evidence stretching back
through Earth history is too patchy to provide any reliable confirmation of the Gaia
hypothesis. Nevertheless, Gaia does illustrate how the Earth may respond to stresses
placed upon it. Until recently, Earth has had to adapt to natural changes. Now, it may
also have to respond to a significant impact from humans, through air pollution and a
man-made interference with the global climate.
Ecosystems
The term 'biosphere' is used to
describe the whole sum of living
things found on Earth. Usually we
think of the biosphere as existing
within upper layers of the nonbiotic components of the planet,
namely
the
atmosphere,
hydrosphere (oceans, rivers and
lakes), and soil component of the
lithosphere (the Earth's solid
material).
In
fact,
research
suggests that more biological mass
resides within the Earth's crust
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than in all the rest of the biosphere as described, largely consisting of bacteria and other
single-celled organisms living within tiny spaces between rock minerals. Furthermore,
some scientists and environmentalists speak of Earth or Gaia as a living organism in
itself, engaged in a self-regulation to support its own survival. Although many have cast
doubt on the merit of such an idea beyond a metaphorical application given the lack of
substantial scientific evidence to support it, such a concept does reinforce the view
inherent throughout sustainable development that all parts of the biosphere are
interdependent, belonging as they do to a web of life.
The biosphere is composed of many ecosystems. An ecosystem consists of a
community of living organisms and their local physical environment. The living and nonliving elements of an ecosystem are connected through flows of energy and the cycling
of chemical elements. In this context, no part of the biosphere that is smaller than an
ecosystem can sustain life.
Imagine placing a single green plant in a glass jar with air, water, soil, and light from the
sun. The plant could make its own food through photosynthesis (from water, carbon
dioxide, and light). But eventually the plant would die as it used up all of the nutrients in
the soil. It would die because it couldn't recycle the materials it needs to live; no green
plant can decompose its own products into the inorganic compounds necessary for
plant life. In fact, no single organism, population, or species is able to produce all of its
own food and recycle all of its metabolic products. Life requires the interaction of
several species in an environment that includes air and/or water to transport materials
and energy. This is one of the fundamental principles of ecology; sustained life is a
property of ecosystems, not organisms or species.
A forest is a common ecosystem. Forests consist of air, soil, water, nutrients, and
particular species of animals, birds, insects, micro-organisms, trees, and other plant life.
If too many of the trees are cut down (for example by mankind for wood or agricultural
land), each of the other elements will be affected. Animals and birds may lose their
habitats, soil may erode, nutrients may be displaced, and the flow of waterways may
change.
There are no absolute boundaries between ecosystems - really, the biosphere is one
big ecosystem in which everything is connected to everything else in some way or
another. Some ecosystem borders are, however, quite well defined. For example, there
is a relatively clear transition from a rocky ocean coast to the forest along its edge, or
from a pond to the wood that surrounds it. Other borders are much more vague, as is
the case with the gradual transition from deciduous woodland to coniferous forests in
some parts of the world.
Ecosystems change continuously over time according to certain recognizable,
repeatable patterns, and in response to environmental changed such as shifts in
climate. This is referred to as 'succession'.
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Evolution
Evolution is the process by
which life has developed on
Earth; the species that exist
today are the product of
evolution. It is a process that
continues today. Over the
course of the Earth's history,
millions of different species
have evolved, flourished, and
then become extinct. Human
beings are just once species
that has evolved during Earth
history,
representing
a
snapshot of evolutionary
time.
Evidence that species have
changed over the course of
the Earth's history is provided by the fossil record, by patterns of physiological and
biological similarity in organisms, and by laboratory experiments demonstrating the
ability of living things to gradually change through genetic mutation over the course of
generations.
Natural selection is the basic mechanism of evolution. All living organisms are adapted
to a specific set of environmental conditions within specific ecosystems. Within every
species, however, genetic variation leads to a degree of variation in physical
characteristics between different individuals. Some variations allow those who possess
them to function more effectively in their particular environment, giving them a greater
chance of living long enough and being healthy enough to produce offspring, to which
their genes are passed on. This is natural selection; genetic variations that improve the
adaptation of an organism to its environment have a better chance of being passed on
than variations that hinder adaptation, simply because better adapted organisms are
more likely to survive and reproduce.
Human beings in Africa are tall and thin. They have gradually evolved this way because
such a physiological shape is most beneficial to heat loss in hot climates. As modern
humans gradually migrated northwards, certain bodily characteristics have changed,
through natural selection, to be most suited to the cooler climates. Eskimos in
Greenland and Northern Canada, for example, are short and plump, and are well suited
to the cold conditions there, being more able to retain bodily heat for warmth.
A new species is born when a population of a species evolves sufficiently that
interbreeding with other populations of what used to be the same species becomes first
unusual then impossible. This is called speciation. One way this often happens is
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through geographic isolation. When a population becomes physically isolated from other
populations of the same species, adaptive variation particular to it and its environment
may in time lead to the development of two different species. Hominids migrated out of
Africa in two waves, the first as much as 2 million years ago and the second and more
recent wave perhaps only 150,000 years ago. During the course of the second
migration, the modern human (Homo sapiens or 'wise man') came into contact with the
Neanderthals, a completely different species of human living in Europe from between
130,000 and 30,000 years before the present, most likely an evolutionary offshoot from
the first hominid migration. Despite the Neanderthals' remarkable intelligence, Homo
sapiens seemed more readily able to adapt to the glacial conditions that prevailed in
Europe during last Ice Age. Today, Homo sapiens is the only species of hominid left on
Earth. The Neanderthals became extinct.
Extinction is the opposite of speciation; it is the process by which species die out. It is a
natural process, which has occurred throughout the history of the Earth at almost the
same rate as species have originated. In this sense evolution is dynamic. The incredible
variety of species that inhabit the Earth today represents a tiny fraction of the species
that have ever existed. There have, however, been a number of mass extinctions in the
Earth's history. These were relatively short periods of time wherein a great number of
species died. The most serious of these, 250 million years ago, killed off more than
three-quarters of the species in the oceans and had a significant effect on terrestrial life
as well. The most recent mass extinction occurred 65 million years ago, killing off the
last of the dinosaurs. Our own species was born during the period of the greatest
diversity of species in the Earth's history. Unfortunately, we may be beginning to
threaten this very diversity of life because of our over consumption, waste production
and pollution, and consequential changes that are occurring at an unprecedented rate
within the biosphere.
Humans
The Earth was formed about 4½
billion years ago, with the first
modern humans (Homo sapiens)
only evolving between 200,000 and
100,000 years ago. If the history of
the Earth was represented by one
year beginning on 1st January, the
appearance of modern humans did
not occur until about 20 minutes to
midnight on 31st December. In that
relatively short space of time
however, mankind has rapidly
evolved
from
simple
huntergatherers to highly sophisticated
space travellers.
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The evolutionary process can describe much of man’s development. Quite simply, those
humans which were able to adapt to new environments and had the most resources
available to them, were most likely to survive, and were therefore most likely to
reproduce. Mankind evolved at different rates across the globe, with some settlements
evolving faster than others. In fact many of today’s tribes, for example the Mequens in
Brazil, have hardly changed at all for thousands of years and still operate as huntergatherers. The following picture of human evolution is therefore only an insight into the
general history of mankind.
For the first hundred thousand years or so (in fact up until 12,000 years ago), mankind
relied upon what it could find within its immediate environment. Known as huntergatherers, early mankind did just that, hunting for wild animals and gathering fruit and
vegetation. The survival of the group was based upon the availability of resources in the
immediate environment. By hunting to excess or by destroying too much vegetation, the
group threatened their supply of resources and chances of survival.
During this more gradual evolutionary period of humans, mankind slowly gained
knowledge of its environment and began to treat its environment differently. Such
knowledge during the last 10,000 years led to a much more rapid development away
from hunter-gathering towards agriculture and eventually civilization and
industrialization. This rapid development has been assisted by the discoveries of new
technologies and the consumption of raw materials and energy.
With these developments, mankind’s relationship with the Earth changed. Where once
mankind relied on the Earth for survival and sustenance, it now regularly attempts to
control and exploit it, often without recognizing the environmental consequences.
Agriculture
Sometime after the end of the
last Ice Age, between 8,000
and 10,000 years ago,
humans began to construct
settlements and develop a
livelihood that did not require
a constant migration to new
food areas. Where mankind
had previously relied on
making simple tools for
hunting, it now became more
advanced and started to
domesticate animals and
vegetation. This rather rapid change from hunter-gathering towards an agricultural and
farming existence involved a greater intensification of output and gave mankind a
greater chance of prosperity and survival.
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On a small scale, the environmental impacts of the first agricultural processes would
have been negligible. However, for populations to prosper and grow it became
necessary to increase agricultural output, which in turn required the conversion of
natural systems. Forests, for example, were felled to make way for crops. The
environmental repercussions of this may well have been serious. Where woodlands
were cleared, soil erosion would have occurred leading to flooding. Regular harvesting
of crops would have led to the depletion of soil nutrients. The conversion of land for
agriculture involved the destruction of natural ecosystems. Loss of ecosystems,
especially those supporting rare and sensitive species, would have resulted in a loss of
species diversity and richness.
More recently, a revolution in agricultural practices in the Western world has
accelerated the development of mankind and increased the stresses placed upon the
environment. During the 18th and 19th centuries modern farming machinery began to
replace hand tools, whilst improved farming methods, for example crop rotation and the
use of hybrid crops, led to a substantial increase in agricultural output. This rapid
development of agriculture coincided with the Industrial Revolution.
Industrial
Revolution
The
Industrial
Revolution began
in the late 18th and
early 19th centuries
in Britain, before
spreading around
the world. Coal, oil
and
gas
(collectively termed
fossil fuels) offered
levels of energy
production
previously
undreamed
of,
leading to shifts towards factory-based systems and the mass production of goods such
as cotton. Fossil fuels, principally coal at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, were
primarily used to generate steam power and electricity, but their applications were vast,
with many industries becoming automated, hence increasing their output. In the search
for a better standard of living, many people moved from the countryside to the cities to
find work in the new factories. The burning of fossil fuels led to a massive increase in
urban air pollution, although most people felt that such a disadvantage was not
significant in the context of their new found prosperity.
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In addition to urban air pollution however, other impacts of industrialization were felt.
There were drastic changes to land use with the construction of new buildings, including
factories and houses for employees, and transport facilities, including new roads and
rail tracks. Areas of countryside were destroyed and replaced by industrial
developments. In order to make best use of the remaining land, agricultural machinery
was modernized to make the production of food more efficient.
Today, industrialization continues in the less well developed areas of the world like
Africa and parts of Asia. We have gradually become aware that there are many
environmental impacts as a consequence of industrialization, and that we have the
ability to take the appropriate action. The main impacts of concern are pollution,
resource consumption (including energy resources) and population growth.
Population
Agricultural advances caused
the world's population to
grow from 170 million during
the Roman period 2,000
years ago to 900 million in
1800.
By
1900
the
industrialization of large parts
of the world had led to a
trebling of
the world’s
population in only 100 years.
This growth in population has
increased the stresses on the
environment.
Larger
populations required more
resources, which involved a
greater intensification of farming and industry. In addition, the rapid population growth
associated with industrialization during the last two centuries has led to considerable
depletion of raw materials (most notably fossil fuels, metals and stone) extracted from
the Earth. Furthermore, as we consume more and more resources, we are
accumulating waste at an alarming pace.
Today, the world's population stands at 6 billion. This is expected to almost double
within the next 50 years. Most of this increase is due to occur in the developing world.
One in five people alive today are desperately poor and each year 40 million die from
malnutrition and diseases related to poverty (more than 100,000 per day).
Such a large population can be sustained only as long as food resources are properly
managed and distributed, and the environmental impacts of agriculture and housing are
minimized. By being prepared, population growth and development can be sustained by
using sensible planning and suitable modern technology.
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Pollution
The environmental impact of
human beings has grown in
scale, become more rapid,
and changed in character.
Whereas
we
once
transformed
locales
or
regions, today we can be
said to be transforming the
Earth on a global scale.
Changes which once took
decades or centuries are
now taking place over the
course of a few years. And
whereas we once changed
the Earth in relatively small
ways (for example by
clearing a field of forest
cover), we are now able to
substantially alter the flows
of elements and energy that
constitute the planet's basic
life-support systems.
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Through burning fossil fuels and industrial processes, we are releasing many pollutants
into the atmosphere. Some of these reduce air quality, whilst others are most probably
causing a change in the Earth's climate. Other wastes from the consumption of natural
resources can pollute soil and water environments as well.
Transport
Since human beings transformed
their lifestyles from hunter gathering
to an agricultural and domesticated
existence, they have searched for
ways to move around other than on
foot. Early forms of transport
included boats and horses. It was
not until the Industrial Revolution
however, that transport really took
off, with the development of steam
power and the train in the 18th and
19th centuries, and the combustion
engine and road transport in the
20th century. The use of fossil fuels
to power transport made longdistance
travel
much
more
accessible.
Most forms of transport involve the combustion of fossil fuels, which adds to the
problem of air pollution. Air pollution problems are most intense where the traffic is most
dense, around city centers and airports, for example. Over the years, as transport has
been used more widely, legislation has been introduced to reduce the amounts of
pollutants released, and in modern society vehicles are becoming increasingly
environmentally friendly. However, this positive effect is offset by the increasing number
of vehicles.
In addition to the pollution issues, traffic (especially road traffic) and associated
construction work also contributes to issues such as congestion, noise pollution and the
disruption of ecosystems.
Energy
In one form or another, energy is constantly flowing through and around us. By 'energy'
we mean the ability to induce change (to move something or to heat something, for
example). Energy is an inherent characteristic of any physical system; everywhere there
is change, there is a transformation of energy. Without energy, life would be impossible.
18
There are different forms of energy. Potential energy is energy that is stored
somewhere. A raised ball, for example, has potential energy by virtue of its position
relative to the Earth. When the ball is dropped, the potential energy is transformed into
kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is energy associated with motion. Similarly, there is
potential energy in a piece of wood or a lump of coal. When burned, the potential
energy present in the chemical bonds between the molecules which make up these
fuels is converted into heat - kinetic energy associated with the vibration of atoms.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can move from one location to another,
and can change in its form. Energy is in fact constantly being converted from one form
to another. For example, solar energy in the form of radiation is converted into chemical
energy through photosynthesis by green plants. Likewise, when we metabolize food, the
chemical energy in what we eat is converted into thermal energy (heat) and kinetic
energy (motion).
The Sun is the primary energy source upon which almost all life depends. The Earth
receives energy from the Sun in the form of radiation. This energy undergoes many
changes, affecting the planet in many ways, and is eventually re-emitted as heat back
into space. Virtually all of the energy available at the Earth's surface comes from the
Sun. Even the energy locked away as potential energy in fossil fuels buried
underground once came from the Sun. Over millions of years, plants which once
19
photosynthesized sunlight into energy for growth die, and under certain conditions
become buried, compressed and turned into coal or oil. All renewable energy like wind
power and wave power comes from the Sun.
Energy is essential for all life. Life is based upon the conversion, utilization, storage, and
transfer of energy. Through photosynthesis, plants convert solar energy into chemical
energy used in growth and propagation. Some plants are eaten by animals, which may
themselves be eaten by carnivorous animals. At each stage of this process, some of the
chemical energy stored in plant or animal tissue is used for growth and propagation,
while most of it (more than 90% of it, in fact) is dissipated as heat.
Human beings, like no other species before it, have learnt how to convert energy from
once form into other, more useful forms, for warmth and transportation. Although some
of this energy comes from renewable resources, most today is obtained by burning
fossil fuels. Unfortunately, burning fossil fuels releases by-products as well as useful
energy, many of which are harmful to the surface biosphere, through air pollution and
climate change.
Resources
Natural resources are derived either
from the air, soil, water, and organisms
of the biosphere, or from the
subterranean areas of the Earth.
Resources of the first type come from
more usual parts of ecosystems, and
are labeled 'renewable'. Resources of
the second type are labeled 'nonrenewable'.
Since
non-renewable
resources are derived from beneath the
Earth's crust, the Earth's ecosystems
have largely evolved in absence of
them. In a sense, many non-renewable resources are 'foreign' to the surface biosphere;
often they can be harmful to organisms and disrupt ecosystems. Levels of these
materials in the biosphere have increased over the past 200 years as a result of human
activities.
The Earth contains limited supplies of non-renewable fossil fuels, metals and other
materials that will eventually run out. At present the amount of natural resources
consumed by humans is increasing at approximately 5% each year. Mankind’s demand
on the Earth’s resources doubles every 13 years. It is worth noting that up until the last
century, the Earth’s resource base was perceived as almost infinite. Society today has
had to give up that idea (often reluctantly) and favor processes such as recycling.
Even many of the so-called renewable resources are being depleted. On one third of
the Earth’s cropland, the topsoil, is eroding away faster than it is being produced and in
20
some areas this has already led to desertification. In addition to this, Atlantic fish
reserves are down one third since 1970 and widespread deforestation is leading to the
loss of natural climate regulators and their accompanying species diversity. As
renewable and non-renewable resources become less available, we will be faced with
shortages and conflicts over what remains.
Tragedy of the Commons
How do we manage resources that seem to belong to everyone? Natural food reserves,
energy resources like fossil fuels, a clean environment, with clean air, water and soil
belong to everyone and yet are protected by no one. Today, protecting such commonpool resources has become a challenge, not only on the local scale but on national and
global ones as well.
In the 1960s, ecologist Garrett Hardin invoked the analogy of a "commons" in support of
his thesis that as human populations increased, there would be increasing pressure on
finite resources at both the local and particularly the global levels, with the inevitable
result of overexploitation and ruin. He termed this phenomenon the "tragedy of the
21
commons." More specifically, this phrase means that an increase in human population
creates an increased strain on limited resources, which jeopardizes sustainability.
The tragedy of the commons develops in this way. Picture a pasture open to all. It is to
be expected that each herdsman will try to keep as many cattle as possible on the
commons. Such an arrangement may work reasonably satisfactorily for centuries
because tribal wars, poaching, and disease keep the numbers of both man and beast
well below the carrying capacity of the land. Finally, however, comes the day of
reckoning, that is, the day when the long-desired goal of social stability becomes a
reality. At this point, the inherent logic of the commons remorselessly generates
tragedy.
As a rational being, each herdsman seeks to maximize his gain. Explicitly or implicitly,
more or less consciously, he asks, "What is the utility to me of adding one more animal
to my herd?" This utility has one negative and one positive component.
The positive component is a function of the increment of one animal. Since the
herdsman receives all the proceeds from the sale of the additional animal, the positive
utility is nearly + 1.
The negative component is a function of the additional overgrazing created by one more
animal. Since, however, the effects of overgrazing are shared by all the herdsmen, the
negative utility for any particular decision-making herdsman is only a fraction of - 1.
Adding together the component partial utilities, the rational herdsman concludes that the
only sensible course for him to pursue is to add another animal to his herd. And
another.... But this is the conclusion reached by each and every rational herdsman
sharing a commons. Therein is the tragedy. Each man is locked into a system that
compels him to increase his herd without limit - in a world that is limited. Freedom in a
commons brings ruin to all.
In a reverse way, the tragedy of the commons reappears in problems of pollution. Here
it is not a question of taking something out of the commons, but of putting something in sewage, or chemical, radioactive, and heat wastes into water; noxious and dangerous
fumes into the air. The calculations of utility are much the same as before. The rational
man finds that his share of the cost of the wastes he discharges into the commons is
less than the cost of purifying his wastes before releasing them. Since this is true for
everyone, we are locked into a system of "fouling our own nest," so long as we behave
only as independent, rational, free enterprisers.
The tragedy of the commons as a food basket may partially be averted by private
property, or something formally like it. But the air and waters surrounding us cannot
readily be fenced, and so the tragedy of the commons as a cesspool must be prevented
by different means, by coercive laws or taxing devices that make it cheaper for the
polluter to treat his pollutants than to discharge them untreated. Unfortunately, the
owner of a factory on the bank of a stream - whose property extends to the middle of
the stream - often has difficulty seeing why it is not his natural right to muddy the waters
22
flowing past his door. The law, always behind the times, requires elaborate stitching and
fitting to adapt it to this newly perceived aspect of the commons. The pollution problem
is a consequence of population. As population has become denser, the natural chemical
and biological recycling processes have become overloaded, calling for a redefinition of
property rights.
Environment
The environment is
our
life
support
system. It includes
everything that we
rely on during our
lifetime such as air,
water, metals, soil,
rock and other living
organisms.
It
is
important
to
remember that the
state
of
our
environment
is
influenced by our
behavior and that we
have the opportunity
to either nurture or
mistreat it.
For society to continue developing in the way it has done in the past, we need to pay
more attention to our environment. How this is best achieved is often a matter of opinion
rather than fact, dependent upon different perspectives of the environment and views of
nature. Recently, a concept has emerged that has attempted to bring together the best
aspects of these different viewpoints, and to harmonized the development of mankind
with the protection of nature. This is the concept of "Sustainable Development".
Sustainable development involves maintaining our current rate of development whilst
leaving suitable resources behind for later generations to continue to develop. In this
context then, environmental problems must be tackled by considering their relationship
with the state of the economy and the wellbeing of society. In fact, the environment, the
economy and society taken together, include everything that we need to consider for a
healthy, prosperous and stable life.
Although sustainable development is about integrating the environment, society and
economy, the economy, and in turn society exist within the wider context of the
environment. The economy exists entirely within society, because all parts of the human
economy require interaction among people. However, society is much more than just
23
the economy. Happiness, pleasure and well being to not stem solely from financial
growth. Friends and families, culture, religion and ethics are important elements of
society, that are not primarily based on exchanging goods and services, but contribute
to the overall quality of life. Society, in turn, exists entirely within the environment. Our
basic requirements - air, food and water - come from the environment, as do the energy
and natural resources for housing, transportation and the products we depend on.
Protection of the environment, therefore, resides at the core of Sustainable
Development.
In the 1980s, increasing concern about the effects of economic development on health,
natural resources and the environment led the United Nations to release the Brundtland
Report. This defines sustainable development as 'development which meets the needs
of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs.'
Securing economic development, social equity and justice, and environmental
protection is the goal of sustainable development. Although these three factors can
work in harmony, they are often found to conflict with one another. During the latter half
of the 20th century economic development for a better standard of living has been
instrumental in damaging the environment. We are now in a position whereby we are
consuming more resources than ever, and polluting the Earth with waste products. More
recently, society has grown to realize that we cannot live in a healthy society or
economy with so much poverty and environmental degradation. Economic growth will
remain the basis for human development, but it must change and become less
environmentally destructive. The challenge of sustainable development is to put this
understanding into practice, changing our unsustainable ways into more sustainable
ones.
The aim of sustainable development is to balance our economic, environmental and
social needs, allowing prosperity for now and future generations. Sustainable
development consists of a long-term, integrated approach to developing and achieving
a healthy community by jointly addressing economic, environmental, and social issues,
whilst avoiding the over consumption of key natural resources.
Sustainable development encourages us to conserve and enhance our resource base,
by gradually changing the ways in which we develop and use technologies. Countries
must be allowed to meet their basic needs of employment, food, energy, water and
sanitation. If this is to be done in a sustainable manner, then there is a definite need for
a sustainable level of population. Economic growth should be supported and developing
nations should be allowed a growth of equal quality to the developed nations.
Interdependence
One of the key concepts of sustainable development is the interdependence of society,
economy and the natural environment. Early human cultures were aware from the
24
beginning of the carrying capacity of
their environments, that their
existence was dependent upon
utilizing
the
environment
for
resources, but respecting that there
are limits to what nature can provide
without being damaged. More
recently, biology and ecology has
revealed that all living things,
including humans, depend upon
each other, and are interconnected
through
natural
cycles
and
ecological systems. Such cycles
and systems are naturally and
continually subjected to change that
can harm or enhance the ability of different species to survive and flourish.
Unfortunately, mankind, through unsustainable patterns of resource consumption,
seems now to be increasing the rate of change and consequently the levels of stress
experienced within the environment.
Interdependence exists across both time as well as space. Past, present and future are
inextricably connected. We are directly linked back in time by the oldest members of the
community and forward nearly a century by those born today. It is important to
appreciate that both continuity and change have fundamental influences during the
courses of our lives. Understanding the concept of interdependence will assist us in
recognizing our responsibilities for the future.
Quality of Life
Sustainability is related to the quality of life in a population or community - whether the
economic, social and environmental systems that make up the community are providing
a healthy, productive, meaningful life for all community residents, present and future.
Whilst not all people and cultures value quality of life in the same way, some of the
basic issues to consider when determining quality of life include the availability of
employment, levels of homelessness and crime, and the presence of environmental
pollution.
Equity
In the context of sustainability, the term equity has to do with fairness - whether all
people have similar rights and opportunities, basic needs to maintain an acceptable
quality of life. Equity, in this context, refers to the idea that all people throughout a
community, whether a village, town, city, country or the entire world, have these same
basic needs that must be taken into consideration. This concept is often referred to as
intra-generational equity, meaning equity among the present population.
25
Equity is not just relevant to all people alive today. Inter-generational equity is
concerned with fairness between current and future generations. This means striking a
reasonable balance between satisfying our needs now and setting aside enough to
provide for needs of our children and grandchildren in the future.
Citizenship
Everyone is part of today's environmental problems. We all consume energy and
material goods to make our standard of living better, but such consumption produces
pollution which gives rise to poorer air quality, acid rain, ozone depletion and very
probably global warming. However, we can all equally be part of the solution.
Sustainable development encourages people to share their responsibility for this Earth,
and empowers people to take action to overcome some of the difficulties society as a
whole faces in trying to secure a cleaner future whilst maintaining a stable economy.
Sustainable development encourages a sense of responsible citizenship - a world
citizenship - through which we can all learn to do our bit.
These resources will be freed up only as the peoples of the world develop a profound
sense of responsibility for the fate of the planet - a global ethic. Such a sense of global
responsibility stems from the recognition of the interdependence of the Earth's
ecosystems and the way in which our society and economy interact with them. The
concept of citizenship includes:
 social and economic justice
 consensus-building;
 cultural harmony and tolerance;
 the willingness to contribute for the common good;
 acquiring a better understanding of the environment;
 Translating knowledge into responsible environmental action and the
empowerment of others.
26
Diversity
There exists an
obvious
relationship
between
the
diversity
of
natural
systems
(biodiversity)
and
the
diversity,
health
and
sustainability of
human
systems
cultural, social
and economic.
Social
and
economic
capital
is
ultimately
created from
natural capital,
and
its
protection
should
be
recognized as
a fundamental
principle of sustainable development.
Whilst sustainable development also promotes interdependence and a sense of world
citizenship, social and cultural diversity need not be a source of conflict. Rather,
recognizing the importance of diversity can help one to focus on humanity's capacity to
work together to meet the enormous environmental and social challenges facing it. We
should learn to celebrate unity in diversity.
Carrying Capacity
In ecological terms, the carrying capacity of an ecosystem is the size of the population
or community that can be supported indefinitely upon the available resources and
services of that ecosystem. Living within the limits of an ecosystem depends on three
factors:
•
•
the amount of resources available in the ecosystem;
the size of the population or community; and
27
•
the amount of resources each individual within the community is consuming.
The
concept
of
carrying capacity is
closely related to the
idea of "capital". The
term "capital" is most
commonly used to
refer to money and
material
goods.
However,
in
the
context
of
sustainability,
communities
have
several different types
of capital that need to
be
considered
natural, human, social,
and
built
capital.
Together, these types of capital are referred to as community capital. All four types of
capital are necessary for communities to function. All four types of capital need to be
managed by a community. All four types of capital need to be cared for, nurtured and
improved over time. A community that is living off the interest of its community capital is
living within the carrying capacity. A community that is degrading or destroying the
ecosystem on which it depends is using up its community capital and is living
unsustainably. Carrying capacity is much harder to measure for human, social and built
capital than for natural capital but the basic concept is the same - are the different types
of capital being used up faster than they are being replenished?
For example:
A community that allows its children to be poorly educated, undernourished, and poorly
housed is eroding its human capital.
A community that allows the quality of its social interactions to decline through lack of
trust, respect, and tolerance is eroding its social capital.
A community that allows its buildings, roads, parks, power facilities, water facilities, and
waste processing capability to decay is eroding its built capital. Additionally, a
community that is creating built capital without considering the future maintenance of
that capital is setting itself up for eventual decay.
So, in the context of sustainability, carrying capacity is the size of the population that
can be supported indefinitely upon the available resources and services of supporting
natural, social, human, and built capital.
Future Generations
28
A traditional definition of sustainable development is development that meets our own
needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.
Implicit in this definition is the recognition of rights of future generation - the right to
achieve a sustainable level of development and the right to be able to utilize natural
resources.
Although some philosophers maintain that future generations cannot have anything until
the future becomes the present, many environmental economists and lawyers
increasingly recognize the rights of future generations. Whether future generations
possess rights or not, it is certainly accepted that those presently alive today should at
the very least take account of the interests that future generations will have and of the
way that our present actions will affect those interests. Arguably, no generation should
inherit less human and natural wealth than the one that preceded it.
Precaution
Most of us would accept that it is wise to prevent
potential adversity, even if we are not yet sure
how serious (or benign) such adversity may turn
out to be. This is the essence of the
Precautionary Principle, and defines much of the
way we are beginning to respond to the
challenges
of
sustainable
development,
particularly within the environmental context.
The Precautionary Principle urges a willingness
to take action in advance of scientific proof of
evidence of the need for the proposed action on
the grounds that further delay could prove
ultimately most costly to society and nature, and,
in the longer term, selfish and unfair to future
generations. Central to the application of the
Precautionary Principle is the concept of
proportionality
or
cost-effectiveness.
Will
environmental benefits of precautionary action
outweigh the economic and societal costs?
Policies to reduce the threat of future climate
change, for example, may need to include radical shifts in travel and energy-use
behavior, shifts which to many will appear rather unpalatable. The best precautionary
action will be that which follows a "no regrets" policy, where the action will have other
benefits, regardless of whether or not it helps to reduce the environmental threat in
question. In the case of climate change, reducing energy consumption will lower our fuel
bills, whilst walking or riding a bike instead of taking the car for a short journey can
improve our health and air quality.
29
The Precautionary Principle was incorporated into the 1992 Rio Declaration on
Environment and Development, stating that, "Where there are threats of serious or
irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for
postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation." According
to the Wingspread Statement on the Precautionary Principle, formulated by an
international group of scientists, government officials, lawyers, and environmental
activists in January 1998 at Wingspread in Racine, Wisconsin, USA, the principle of
precautionary action has 4 parts:
 People have a duty to take anticipatory action to prevent harm.
 The burden of proof of harmlessness of a new technology, process, activity, or
chemical lies with the proponents, not with the general public.
 Before using a new technology, process, or chemical, or starting a new activity,
people have an obligation to examine "a full range of alternatives" including the
alternative of doing nothing.
 Decisions applying the precautionary principle must be "open, informed, and
democratic" and "must include affected parties."
Polluter Pays
One
of
the
core
principles of sustainable
development is the
"Polluter
Pays"
Principle.
This
recognizes that the
polluter should pay for
any
environmental
damage created, and
that the burden of proof
in demonstrating that a
particular
technology,
practice or product is
safe should lie with the
developer, not the general public. Unfortunately, when and how much the polluter
should pay is often unclear.
One way to adequately implement the polluter pays principle in the real world makes
use of what are known as assurance bonds. Money put up by the "polluter" to insure
against a worst case environmental impact, the bond would be recovered only if after
sufficient time it had been demonstrated that the technology, process or product in
question had been deemed to be safe as was reasonably acceptable. Alternatively, if
damage occurred, the bond would be used for environmental restoration, and to pay
damages to anyone who had been harmed. By allowing the bond to accrue interest, the
"polluter" receives an incentive to ensure that best environmental practice is followed,
and to demonstrate that the technology, process or product is as safe as is practicably
possible, without involving excessive cost.
30
Preferable Futures
Prefera
ble
futures
are
those
we
positive
ly hope
for and
work to
create.
Such
desirab
le
futures
are
based
on our
hopes,
aspirati
ons
and
dreams
. They
embod
y our
notions
of what a better world might be like. Some of the criteria available for constructing
images of preferable futures are related to commonalities of human experience:
sustainability, health, peace, justice, and so on.
In the context of sustainable development, a preferable future will hopefully include a
cleaner environment, a sustained level of economic development but not involving
excessive waste and pollution, and the protection of natural resources and biodiversity.
Within society, we may wish to develop a sense of involvement or citizenship in the
sustainable development process, through the delivery of quality education, a
reappraisal of our core values systems and the empowerment of communities to make
their own decisions regarding the futures that they want to see. Ultimately, it is up to us
to decide the future that we which to have for ourselves and our children.
31
Climate Change
A number of gases in the atmosphere are known as greenhouse gases. This is because
they trap heat from the sun that is normally reflected back into space from the Earth’s
surface. By doing this they act like the glass panels in a greenhouse, which let light in
and keep heat inside. Without them the world would be a lot colder, but recently, levels
of some greenhouse gases have begun to increase. In the last 20 years, concern has
grown that the increase of greenhouse gases and global climate change or global
warming are, at least in part, associated with each other, which could have detrimental
effects such as rising sea levels and the extinction of plant and animal species that
cannot cope with the change. It is known today that the Earth has warmed up by about
0.6°C in the last 100 years.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an important greenhouse gas, and levels of it are slowly
increasing. This occurs as a result of the burning of fossil fuels, which release a great
deal of carbon dioxide into the air. Reducing carbon dioxide emissions is an important
part of the United Nations Sustainable Development Programs.
Air Pollution
One of Earth's most important natural resources is its atmosphere. The atmosphere
contains air without which plants and animals could not survive. It contains greenhouse
gases which keep the planet naturally warmer than it would be otherwise, maintaining
an average global temperature above freezing that allows water to exist in its liquid
state, a necessary condition for most life. If mankind is to protect and preserve this
unique natural resource for future generations as well as other ecosystems, it must
32
continue to address the problem of air pollution which affects the atmosphere from the
local to the global scale.
Air Pollution and concern about air quality are not new. Complaints were recorded in the
13th century when coal was first used in London. Since the middle of the 19 th century,
the atmosphere of the major British cities was regularly polluted by coal smoke in
winter, giving rise to an infamous mixture of fog and smoke known as smog.
In the 1970s the trans boundary effects of industrial air pollution become known as acid
rain. Acid rain is a widespread term used to describe all forms of acid precipitation such
as rain and snow. Atmospheric pollutants, particularly oxides of sulphur and nitrogen
react with water in the atmosphere to form sulphuric and nitric acid, causing
precipitation to become more acidic when converted to sulphuric and nitric acids, hence
the term acid rain. Acid deposition, acid rain and acid precipitation all relate to the
chemistry of air pollution and moisture in the atmosphere. Scientists generally use the
term acid deposition but all three terms relate to the same issue.
Ozone Depletion
Ozone is a form of
oxygen.
In
the
stratosphere, around
25 km above the
Earth's surface, there
is a layer of ozone
that absorbs ultraviolet light from the
Sun. Ultra-violet light
is known to cause
skin
cancer
in
humans,
and
to
damage plants. The
ozone layer forms a
protective
shield
around the Earth,
and without it most
life on Earth would
not be likely to
survive.
In the 1970s scientists realized that a hole was appearing in the ozone layer over
Antarctica during the spring. They realised that this was due to the build-up of
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - chemicals used in aerosol sprays, packaging and air
conditioning systems. One molecule of CFC can remove up to 100,000 ozone
molecules, and the widespread use of CFCs before the damage was noticed has
produced a serious problem. Life on the planet will not be sustainable if the ozone layer
33
is destroyed, because damage caused to plants will severely reduce the global food
supply.
Oceans
Covering
about
70% of the earth’s
surface,
the
oceans are a
highly productive
system
which
continuously
recycles
chemicals,
nutrients
and
water through the
"hydrological
cycle",
which
powers
climate
and weather, and
which
regulates
global
temperature
by
acting as a giant
heat
reservoir
from the sun.
About two-thirds
of the world's
population
live
within
60
kilometers of the
coast, and almost
half of the world’s
cities with more
than one billion
people are sited
in and around the
tide-washed river
mouths known as estuaries. From a human point of view, oceans are also a major
source of food and employment, provide natural routes for communication,
transportation and trade.
The benefits from oceans and seas granted to the humanity have been underestimated,
and are vulnerable because of the degree of pollution, degradation and overexploitation,
which can ultimately threat the coastal human community, their economy and society in
general.
34
Foremost, care, management and use of oceans and seas and their natural resources
is a common responsibility, demanding the maximum effort from all countries in order
for it to be achieved sustainably.
Freshwater
Lakes are one of the planet's most important freshwater resources providing water for
domestic, agricultural and industrial uses for much of the world's population. We are all
familiar with the image of Earth as the "blue planet" when seen from space. It gives the
impression that water is plentiful and indeed it is. However, pictures can be deceiving.
Freshwater only accounts for 2% of all the Earth's water. But even that percentage is
deceiving because 99% of all surface freshwater is locked away in continental ice.
Freshwater resources are vital for meeting basic human needs and inadequate
protection of the quality and the supply of freshwater can set important limits to
sustainable development.
Freshwater pollution can be divided into two main categories: non-persistent and
persistent. Non-persistent pollutants are degradable; they can be broken down by
chemical reactions or by natural bacteria into simple, non-polluting substances such as
carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Organic waste is an example of a non-persistent pollutant.
The breakdown of organic waste can lead to low oxygen levels and 'eutrophication' (a
process of nutrient enrichment), but the damage is reversible. Organic waste may also
contain microorganisms which are the waterborne agents of diseases such as cholera,
typhoid, and dysentery. Sources of non-persistent pollution include domestic sewage,
fertilisers, some household cleaners, and some industrial wastes.
Freshwater acidification is another environmental problem. Natural acidification of
freshwater environments has been taking place since the last Ice Age. However, the
recent rapid acidification of many of lakes throughout the world cannot be attributed to
35
natural causes, but instead to the effects of acidic pollution from the burning of fossil
fuels by mankind. Lakes and streams that are generally regarded as acidified contain
very nutrient-poor water.
Groundwater is water found in the tiny spaces between soil particles or in cracks in
bedrock, much like the water in a sponge. The underground areas of soil or rock where
substantial quantities of water are found are called 'aquifers'. These aquifers are the
source of wells and springs. It is the top of the water in these aquifers that form the
'water table'.
Groundwater can also be also polluted by the inflow of agricultural pesticides. Sewage
from poorly maintained septic tanks and leachate from older landfill sites are also
causes for concern. Because groundwater flows so slowly, contaminants are not carried
away and diluted as rapidly as they are in rivers or oceans. It also purifies itself very
slowly since the microbes that normally break down organic pollutants require oxygen,
and groundwater is cut off from the atmosphere. For these reasons, polluted
groundwater may remain contaminated for centuries.
Wildlife
Wildlife
and
wildlife habitats
are
increasingly
under
threat
from
the
environmental
consequences
of
mankind’s
unsustainable
activities.
Global warming, acid rain and air pollution all pose serious threats to many faunal and
floral species, in additions to the problems they face as a result of deforestation and
other land-use changes for agriculture and urbanization. It is believed by many
scientists that global biodiversity is diminishing as a result of mankind's impacts.
Freshwater acidification can be directly harmful to many species of fish, amphibians and
water-dwelling invertebrates, with indirect consequences for many mammals and birds.
Air pollutants can also be harmful to wildlife directly regardless of the effects of acid
rain. Species particularly at risk include soft-bodied invertebrates like worms, moist
skinned amphibians and various types of vegetation. Perhaps the most threatening of
environmental impacts to wildlife is climate change. Global average surface
temperatures are projected to rise by 2 to 3°C by the end of the 21st century, or 0.2 to
0.3°C per decade. It is currently believed that most ecosystems can withstand at most a
0.1°C global temperature change per decade, before experiencing severe ecological
stresses, leading in some cases to species extinction.
36
Wildlife protection has often focused on special reserves which contain habitats and
species which must be maintained. But there is a risk that populations become smaller,
fragmented and vulnerable to extinction. Their long-term survival, and overall
enhancement of wildlife, depends on action in cities, towns and the countryside as a
whole.
Soil
Soil is an integral part of the environment. It is essential for the production of food and
other crops, for maintaining biodiversity, for the landscape. It contains much
archaeological evidence of our history.
Minimizing the loss of soils to new development and land use presents a particular
challenge. In the past, soil protection has received less attention than the protection of
air and water.
Land Use
Sustainability requires the balancing of the needs for land for development with the
amount of land available. Large populations place significant stresses on available land,
with natural habitats frequently given over to agriculture and urban development. In
37
modern times the introduction of the motor car has allowed populations to slowly spread
outwards from existing urban centers. Dispersal has occurred as people looked for
cleaner environments to live and work in, away from busy town centers. As cars
became more affordable, people were able to travel out of town easily. This in turn led
to an increase in the length of journey that people made, and an increase in the number
of cars on the road.
To relieve the pressure of transport on society and the environment, emphasis now
needs to be placed on reversing the trend of population dispersal outwards from urban
areas. By effective land use planning, activities including work, shopping and leisure are
brought closer together. This would reduce journey distance to a level where travel on
foot and by bicycle becomes more popular. To facilitate this, urban centers need to be
made more attractive and the quality of urban living improved.
Waste
At the moment, the
amount
of
waste
produced
in
the
developed world is not
sustainable.
For
example, 99% of the
materials
used
to
make goods in the
USA becomes waste
within 6 weeks of sale,
including the goods
themselves.
Most
waste
is
buried
underground in landfill
sites; in the UK only
around
7%
of
household waste is
recycled.
It is estimated that every year each person throws out the equivalent of:
 Over 100 glass bottles;
 70 plastic bottles;
 300 cans;
 150 newspapers and magazines;
 Over 60 kg of food scraps and kitchen waste.
All of these types of waste can be easily recycled, which saves resources and energy.
38
Radioactivity
Although it has often received bad publicity, many people argue that nuclear power has
a significant part to play in maintaining a balanced energy policy. Nuclear power
generation does not contribute to air pollution and can therefore help to reduce acid rain
and global warming.
Unfortunately, waste generated by the nuclear industry is radioactive and must
therefore be disposed of with extreme care. The waste must be managed to present no
hazard to humans or the environment. The radioactivity of waste however, will decay
over time.
Radioactive waste resulting from practices involving radioactive substances is
discharged into the environment from nuclear licensed sites and non-nuclear operators
such as universities and hospitals. Discharges may be in the form of gases, mists and
dusts or liquids.
It is arguable whether nuclear power can form part of a sustainable energy policy. In
many respects it is undeniably cleaner than fossil fuel generated power, and can be
produced in significant quantities from a single location in comparison to renewable
forms of electricity production. However, concerns about the radioactive by-products of
nuclear power will always remain. Some environmental economists also believe that if
the decommissioning costs of nuclear power stations were truly represented, the
technology would simply be too uneconomic to run. At the very least, however, if it is to
play a part in a future sustainable energy policy, priority should be given to the
minimization and proper disposal of radioactive waste.
Noise Pollution
Noise
pollution
is
an
increasing source of misery
to many people in our
society. Noise can be defined
as unwanted sound. It is a
source of irritation and stress
for many people and can
even damage our hearing if it
is loud enough. Many of us
are exposed to stressful
levels of noise at home and
at work. Noise nuisance can
interfere with the individual's
right to peace and quiet at
home. Commonly four types
of noise are recognized
39




Noise in the Street - Types of street noise include vehicle noise from repairs and
alarms, loudspeakers and burglar alarms. Traffic noise, noise made by military
forces, or from campaigning demonstrations is excluded.
Construction Site Noise - This covers building works, roadworks, demolition work
and dredging.
Noise at Work
Transport Noise - Includes road traffic, aircraft and railway noise.
The local environmental health department is responsible for ensuring that noise levels
are kept to a minimum and for dealing with complaints from members of the public.
Noise is one form of pollution on which the efforts of the individual can have a direct
effect. Although the amount of noise made by any one person or household may seem
negligible, it can make a real difference to the comfort of neighbors and even other
members of the household. The following simple measures can be taken:
 Site noisy household equipment (e.g. washing machines) away from partition
walls.
 When buying a new household appliance, ask how noisy it is. If people opt for
quiet appliances, manufacturers will make them!
 Perform noisy DIY jobs during normal waking hours.
 Apologize to neighbors in advance for disturbance caused by DIY.
 Keep the volume of TV, radio and music as low as possible, especially late at
night. If you want to turn the volume up, use headphones (but be careful not to
deafen yourself!).
 If your dog barks when left alone, arrange to leave it with a friend.
 If you have an old or faulty burglar alarm, replace it with one complying with
British Standard BS 4737.
 If you have a party, tell your neighbors in advance, and keep the noise to a
minimum.
Light Pollution
40
In recent years the increasing amount of lighting, including street, security and
advertising lighting, has meant that a dark sky has become a rarity, particularly in urban
areas. This is of concern to astronomers and the general public because the sight of the
stars is one of Nature's wonders. No one wishes to deny our children the opportunity of
viewing this wonder.
The need for lighting is not disputed. Lights are needed for our safety and security.
Outdoor lighting is also needed to floodlight nighttime sporting events, and for security
around our homes and in public areas such as car parks. But often this lighting is
excessive. Lights which are too bright leave areas of dark shadow and temporarily ruin
our ability to see in the dark (our 'dark adaption').
Although light pollution is not new, it has increased significantly in the last 40 years.
Light pollution occurs when too much artificial illumination enters the night sky and
reflects off of airborne water droplets and dust particles causing a condition known as
skyglow. Much of this light originates from improperly aimed and unshielded light
fixtures.
In addition to robbing us of the wonders of the night's sky, light pollution affects
everyone's quality of life in other ways too, and many of us do not even realize it.
Significantly, light pollution robs us of our right to privacy and fair legal use of our land
when glaring unshielded lights shine artificial illumination onto our property at night. It is
an unwelcome violation of our space. Light pollution can also disturb our sleep.
At an individual level the cure for this needless waste of electricity and extra light
spillage is relatively simple to achieve. Some easy solutions include:
 Use the right amount of light.
 Shield the light so that is goes down, not up or sideways.
 Use light timer controls whenever possible.
 Avoid using round globe lights unless they are properly shielded.
 Educate other people about the adverse effects of inappropriate lighting.
Unfortunately, the reduction of light pollution from widespread street lighting may prove
more difficult to achieve.
Renewables
Renewable energy refers to power generated
by a renewable source. When the energy is
generated, the resource is not depleted or
used up. They are naturally replenished, and
can either be managed so that they last
forever, or their supply is so enormous humans
can never meaningfully deplete them. Unlike
fossil fuels, most renewable energy sources do
not release carbon dioxide and other air
pollutants as by-products into the atmosphere.
As the amount of fossil fuel resources on Earth
41
decreases, it is becoming increasingly important to find and utilize alternative fuels.
Examples of renewable resources include:
 wind power;
 solar power;
 biofuels;
 hydro-electric power (HEP);
 geothermal energy;
 tidal power; and
 wave energy.
If Renewable energy technology improves, the cost of these more sustainable forms for
energy production will become much more competitive.
Livestock
Livestock production usually forms an integrated part of complex farming systems.
Therefore, sustainable development should take account of the role of livestock in the
farming and household systems. In the Netherlands livestock is only kept for the
production of meat, milk or eggs. In the tropics it is usually much more diverse and other
roles may be much more important. The precise role varies between regions and may
be strongly affected by higher level systems of the village or region, and village, regional
and government policies. Livestock, therefore, can be seen as a subsystem within a
farming and agriculture system.
Forestry
Forests
are
an
important resource,
both as a source of
wood
for
fuel,
building and paper
and as habitats for
a variety of wildlife.
Forestry practices
in much of the
developed
world
are
almost
sustainable - felled
trees are replanted
and the wildlife
found
in
most
commercial forests
has been improved
by the addition of other plants which make the forest resemble a more natural habitat.
42
Throughout much of the developing world however, forests are often not well managed
and are threatened by agricultural expansion, commercial logging, forest fires and
overgrazing. As well as the extinction of wildlife species, the loss of a forest an also lead
to soil erosion. Such mismanagement, in the extreme, can lead to deforestation and the
loss of an important natural resource. Trees utilize carbon dioxide during photosynthesis
and can help "soak up" some of the excess carbon dioxide released into the
atmosphere by mankind that is causing global warming.
Sustainable forestry can be achieved by correctly managing forest resources through
replanting, conservation and protection from fire, disease and pollution. Commercial
forests should not be made up of only one tree species - there should be a variety of
trees and a layer of smaller plants to provide refuges for wildlife.
Biodiversity
Biodiversity has been
defined
by
the
International Committee
for Bird Preservation as
'the total variety of life on
Earth.' [It can mean the
range of species at a
site, the size of the gene
pool, or the number of
different ecosystems on
the planet.] It is important
for
sustainable
development because it
represents the wealth of
biological
resources
available to us and future generations for food, clothing, medicine and housing.
Currently biodiversity is being reduced by habitat destruction, pollution and the
introduction of foreign plants and animals (e.g. in Britain, where American grey squirrels
are replacing the local red squirrels.)
Reducing natural habitat destruction and promoting co-operation between countries are
good ways of safeguarding the biodiversity that remains. Also, in order to maintain the
Earth's biodiversity, we need to integrate concerns into economic policies and take
measures to protect areas, habitats and species.
Water Resources
Sustainable development requires suitable supplies of clean water for drinking and
cleaning. The main world-wide use of water (70-80%) is for irrigation schemes which
provide water to allow crops to be grown in dry areas. A great deal of water is lost in
these schemes through evaporation, and so countries which are downstream often
43
have very little water to use, which can lead to disputes. Other uses of inland water
include hydroelectric schemes and recreational activities.
Groundwater is just that - fresh water beneath the ground. In many countries it is used
for industrial and drinking water supplies. When groundwater is over-exploited it can
become contaminated with salt water which makes it unsuitable for use.
The water that is available in rivers and lakes is sometimes polluted, making it harmful
to plants, animals and people. The cost of providing treatment works is usually much
cheaper than the cost of dealing with disease and illness. This should make water
treatment a more sustainable option, especially in the developing world where up to
80% of all diseases and a third of deaths are caused by drinking contaminated water.
Proper sanitation requires a good quality water supply - a lot of pollution in water comes
from human waste. The rapid growth in the populations of towns and cities in the
developing world is putting pressure on governments to set up sustainable sanitation
schemes to cope with large numbers of people.
The United Nations claims that the sustainable use of the world’s water resources will
be achieved through co-operation between countries which share a source of water,
efficient water use, and a reduction in pollution and contamination.
Fisheries
Fish are the
main source of
animal protein
for
about
a
quarter of the
world’s
population. The
farming of the
sea (sometimes
known
as
'aquaculture')
provides a large
number of jobs.
However,
the
fishing industry
can
have
negative
impacts on the
environment.
Some
fish
stocks are being
over-exploited at
unsustainable
44
levels, and other species (e.g. dolphins and seabirds) are affected by problems caused
by fishing, such as discarded nets which can trap them underwater. Over-fishing can
also affect the rest of the marine ecosystem by disturbing the natural balances that exist
between different aquatic species. Pollution also has a significant impact on the aquatic
environment. 70% of sea pollution has come from activities on the land, and some fish
stocks are being damaged, especially shellfish.
Minerals
Minerals are a vital resource on which construction, manufacturing and energy
industries depend. Aggregates dominate in tonnage and value but other minerals are
also important, for instance:
 silica sand, fluorspar, potash, salt, and special clays in the glass, ceramics,
electronics, chemical and fertilizer industries;
 cement raw materials, brick clay and gypsum for construction;
 Deep-mined and opencast coal for energy.
The demand for minerals needs to be met as far as practicable at the least
environmental cost and, as far as possible, without exporting environmental damage to
other countries. It is important to identify where extraction will have least effect on
landscape, environment, and quality of life of local communities.
Society
Sustainable Development
is as much about society
as it is about the
environment.
Thriving
regions,
cities,
towns,
villages
and
neighborhoods
are
fundamental to quality of
life. We need to achieve a
sense of social cohesion,
cultural
inclusion
and
people
empowerment.
Building
sustainable
communities
is
about
improvements
to
the
places where people live
and work, and giving them
the chance to play their
part in shaping change for
a preferable future.
45
Health
Poor health is very often linked to poverty - the world's poorest people are often in the
poorest state of health owing to disease, malnutrition or starvation. Commonly in
developing countries public health suffers from a lack of sanitation from dirty drinking
water, and from a lack of food. However, over-consumption and unhealthy lifestyles in
western societies can also damage health through heart disease and obesity. Other
factors leading to poor health include pollution, unemployment, poor housing, and low
educational attainment.
A healthy society requires the construction of planning systems that concentrate on the
prevention of disease. An important need for many people is vaccination against
contagious diseases. Sickness prevention is a more sustainable option than illness
treatment and cure, mainly because the costs are much lower.
An increasing cause of health problems, both in the developed and developing world,
are those related to air pollution. Poor air quality can lead to breathing and other
respiratory difficulties. Asthma is now much more common than it used to be, although
air pollution is probably not the only explanation for this. Changes in climate as a result
of greenhouse gas pollution may increase heat-related stress and cardio-vascular
problems. In addition, the spread of vector-borne diseases such as malaria in a warmer
world will probably increase. Ozone depletion at higher altitudes in the atmosphere will
increase the incidence of skin cancers and eye disorders.
Poverty
Poverty is an international problem, but it requires specific programs to tackle poverty in
different countries. More than 1 billion people, or about one sixth of the world’s
population, live under conditions of extreme poverty, and the eradication of poverty has
long been on the international agenda. The task however, is not made easier by the fact
that population growth is fastest among the poorest and in the poorest countries. Some
strategies include giving local and community groups more authority and control over
their resources and providing the poor with access to fresh water, sanitation and
primary education. Allowing the world's poor to create their own wealth is more
sustainable than simply providing aid at
times of crisis. Wealth needs to be
distributed equally around the world. At
the moment a small number of people in
the developed world control a vast amount
of the world’s wealth and resources.
Communities
Healthy and prosperous communities do
not just happen. The quality and nature of
a community are determined by the
choices people make over a number of
46
generations. Ideally, the choices a community makes are knowledgeable and
deliberate. But that is not always the case.
One of the first things we learn about communities is that everything and everyone is
linked in one way or another, as part of a living system. Like nature, communities are
held together by a network of relationships, some of which extend beyond the
community. The more communities understand these interactions, the better informed
their choices will be.
The three dynamics of a community, economy, ecology and equity, are at the heart of a
process called sustainable community development. Sustainable community
development is a process and a capacity to make decisions that consider the long-term
economy, ecology and equity of all communities. The goal of sustainable community
development is to build sustainable communities: communities with the ability to remain
healthy and successful over the long term.
The first dynamic, economy, is the management and use of resources to meet
household and community needs. Economy implies efficient and prudent use of
resources. Healthy local economies must meet certain general community
requirements. These include the need for jobs and earnings, affordable land and
housing, access to credit, affordable child care, public transport and roads, clean air and
water, waste disposal, parks and leisure, emergency services, good schools and health
care.
Ecology, another dynamic of the community, is the pattern of relationships between
living things and their environment. By consuming natural resources and producing
waste, every community leaves an ecological mark. Nearly every decision a community
makes affects the environment in some way. Understanding our relationship with the
environment involves a close look at how our actions affect it. Communities that desire
long-term prosperity consider which actions will protect and develop natural resources
for future generations.
A third dynamic of a community is equity, or fairness. Ideally everyone in a community
shares in its interests. If the community is successful, they benefit; if it is not, they suffer.
Equity is the fairness of relationships between people, groups of people and
generations of people. Where there is equity, decisions are based on equality and
everyone (regardless of race, income, sex, age or disability) has opportunity and is
treated with dignity. Equitable communities provide opportunities for everyone to
participate in all activities, benefits and decisions. They consider not only how their
choices affect current residents but also how they will affect the choices available to
future generations.
Housing
Home design and maintenance can promote and model more sustainable lifestyles. We
need housing which better meets people's changing needs and which - in its
47
construction and
over its whole life
- is more energy
efficient,
uses
fewer resources
and creates less
waste.
That
requires action to
address both new
and
existing
housing.
The potential is
considerable.
Savings from low
energy
lighting,
better insulation,
cavity walls, and
condensing
boilers outweigh
costs over a few
years. Wider use
of
simple
measures such as
low volume flush
toilets
would
quickly
reduce
water use. Delivering improvements involves:
 Changing consumer behavior
 Action by business
 Government action
Over the next 10-25 years, there is further scope for benefits through changes such as:
 'Intelligent' buildings, with improved control systems integrating different services
systems and taking account of occupant behavior patterns and external climate
changes.
 Energy efficient homes with more dynamic insulation, heat recovery systems and
excellent air tightness (although adequate ventilation should be included to
minimize poor indoor air quality). Incorporation of photovoltaics, active solar
panels, ground source heat pumps, and Combined Heat and Power for grouped
housing.
 Greater use of sustainable construction materials and prefabrication. Timber from
sustainable sources, recycled alternatives such as plastic from other industries
and recycled construction waste, and composite materials which recycle lowgrade substances such as agricultural waste fibre or low quality plastics would all
reduce the burden on primary aggregates.
48
Travel
During the last quarter of a century there has been a
significant increase in the proportion of journeys
travelled by car and the distance that people travel.
Associated with these rising figures has been an
increase in the pressures due to transport placed upon
the environment and society.
Travel is becoming an increasing source of air pollution.
The transport related problems experienced now are
likely to worsen according to the projected increase in
traffic. Individually, a vehicle engine is not a particularly
important source of pollution. Collectively however,
vehicles represent a major source of air pollution
throughout the world. Air pollution from travel can be harmful to human health. Common
complaints that may be associated with pollution for vehicles include asthma and other
bronchial diseases. Congestion due to high levels of road traffic is also a major cause of
stress.
If we are to minimize the impacts of transport on society, we need to adopt a more
sustainable transport strategy, and one that integrates all modes of transport rather than
being over-reliant on the motor car. There exist a number of solutions to today's
transport problem, including public transport, cycling and walking, park and ride, cleaner
fuels and parking charges.
Crime
Everyone has a right to live in a community that is safe. Crime reinforces social
exclusion and decline. It makes people reluctant to walk or to take public transport. It
imposes economic costs. Much acquisitive crime, such as shoplifting and burglary, is
committed by drug misusing offenders to feed their habits. Fear of crime is common,
particularly among women - over a quarter are very worried about physical attack.
Overall policies on regeneration, planning, transport and social exclusion will all play a
part in reducing crime.
Recreation
Tourism is the world’s largest industry, affecting the lives of millions of people. While it
can bring benefits, these are seldom spread evenly. Sustainable recreation is an
environmentally and socially responsible form of tourism which focuses on the intrinsic
attractions of the natural and cultural environment and minimizes the impacts on
ecosystems and the human community, while providing economic benefits to local
residents on sustained rather than seasonal or short-term basis. Recreation such as
49
arts and sport makes a significant contribution to quality of life and should be accessible
to everyone. Recreation can also contribute significantly to regeneration and bring
communities together.
Consumption
The United Nations claims that current
patterns
of
consumption
are
unsustainable. Consumption places a
strain on natural resources and can lead
to
increased
waste
production.
Consumption can involve anything from
packaged foods to transport, leisure and
tourism, and as we increase our demand
for these products and services, we are
using up valuable resources. Developed
countries usually consume a great deal
more resources than countries in the
developing world, where basic needs for
food, healthcare and education are often
not met.
Food Safety
Achieving sustainable development means producing affordable and good quality food
and drink in accordance with high environmental and animal welfare standards. One
aspect of food safety of particular concern is pesticides. These are subject to strict
regulatory control to ensure that any residues in food are at acceptable levels. All
pesticides are subject to rigorous scientific evaluation before approval for use is given.
The approvals system is backed up by a wide-ranging surveillance programs designed
to check that both domestically produced and imported food complies with statutory
maximum residue levels.
Stress
Stress is becoming an increasing problem in our society today for a variety of reasons,
not least because of the time constraints individuals are facing throughout their daily
lives. High levels of stress, particularly in the workplace are detrimental to an efficient
and sustainable economy, and can place unnecessary burdens on health care systems.
Stress has been described as the state we experience when the demands that are
made upon us cannot be counter-balanced by our abilities to deal with them. We all
need some pressure in our lives, but when the pressure becomes too much to bear, we
experience stress.
One common manifestation of stress occurs during periods of traffic congestion, which
take place for example to and from work. The release of such stress has sometimes
50
been described as "road rage", and has become an increasing social problem. It has
been the cause of many attacks on car drivers and has even resulted in several deaths.
Employment
Everybody has the right to a good standard of living, with better job opportunities.
Economic prosperity is required if our country is to prosper and our businesses must
therefore offer a high standard of products that consumers throughout the world want, at
the prices they are prepared to pay. For this, we need a workforce equipped with
suitable skills and education within a framework to support them.
To meet the challenges of sustainable development, we need a skilled and adaptable
labor force and a flexible labor market. To promote jobs and employment, better
education and
training
are
essential. In a
world which is
changing
rapidly, people
need the skills
to adapt, and
opportunities to
update
them
throughout
their lives.
At the same
time,
goods
and
services
should
be
produced
in
ways
which
reward work,
and
treat
employees
fairly.
We
cannot
base
our economy
on low wages
and long hours
for workers. To
do so risks
damaging
family life and
limiting
people's ability
to
become
involved
in
51
their own communities.
Investment, Competition and Stability
Social and economic investment is essential to achieving sustainable development.
Much existing infrastructure and many existing practices are unsustainable, and
investment will be needed to replace them. Investment in a sustainable future requires
the development of skills needed for a productive workforce and competitive economy,
and increased participation in lifelong learning across society, in addition to the
protection of our natural resources and natural environments.
Progressively reducing pressures on the environment and natural resources is part of
the competitiveness challenge. Business needs to create more value with less impact:
seizing opportunities to innovate and to enhance competitiveness through better use of
physical, human and financial resources, while meeting growing customer demand for
more environmentally and socially acceptable goods and services. The term 'ecoefficiency' is sometimes applied to such an approach. The World Business Council for
Sustainable Development has identified key elements of eco-efficiency, including
reducing the materials intensity of goods and services, enhancing recyclability and
durability of goods and reducing dispersion of toxic substances.
Education & Skills
Education, including
formal
education,
public
awareness
and training should
be recognized as a
process by which
human beings and
societies can reach
their fullest potential.
Education is critical
for
promoting
sustainable
development
and
improving
the
capacity
of
the
people to address
environment
and
development issues.
Defining the type of
education that is
necessary to support
the move to a more
52
sustainable society is no easy task. Good earth-keeping describes education for
sustainability as a process which:
 enables people to understand the interdependence of all life, and the
repercussions of their actions and decisions, now and in the future, globally as
well as locally;
 increases people's awareness of the economic, political, social, cultural,
technological and environmental forces which foster or impede sustainable
development;
 develops people's awareness, competence, attitudes and values, enabling them
to be effectively involved in sustainable development at local, national and
international level, and to work towards a more equitable and sustainable future.
To be effective, environment and development education should deal with the dynamics
of both the physical, biological and socio-economic environment and human
development, should be integrated in all disciplines, and should employ formal and nonformal methods and effective means of communication.
Sustainable education should teach several concepts:
 an understanding of the interdependence of major systems: such as the
relationship between mankind and the environment, the need for sustainable
natural, social and economic systems to secure sustainable development;
 an understanding of the needs and right of future generations: for instance the
legacy of the past in relation to current levels of social, economic and
environmental sustainability;
 an understanding of the value of diversity: for example the reasons for the loss of
diversity and the urgent need to protect biodiversity;
 an understanding of the quality of life, equity and justice issues associated with
the sustainable development process: such as the reasons for and effects of
inequality, exclusion and injustice within and between societies;
 an awareness the Earth’s carrying capacity: key resources, valuable to people,
currently being depleted or degraded;
 an appreciation of the need for precaution: the uncertain nature of knowledge in
relation to sustainable development.
While basic education provides the underpinning for any environmental and
development education, the latter needs to be incorporated as an essential part of
learning. Both formal and non-formal education are indispensable to changing people’s
attitudes so that they have the capacity to assess and address their sustainable
development concerns. It is also critical for achieving environmental and ethical
awareness, values and attitudes, skills and behavior consistent with sustainable
development and for effective public participation in decision-making.
Business & Industry
Business and Industry, including multinational companies, have a huge role to play in
promoting and achieving world-wide sustainable development. They can play a major
part in reducing impacts on the environment and resources by using more efficient
53
manufacturing processes and producing less waste. Businesses can also promote fair
employment.
The United Nations is pressing for companies to introduce systems in which the prices
of goods and services partly reflect the environmental costs of their production, use and
disposal. This would mean that less harmful goods would be cheaper than those that
caused more environmental damage. Such an 'environment tax' might provide funds for
restoring habitats and cleaning up pollution caused during the lifetimes of certain
products.
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Trade
For the past 50 years, the volume of world trade has grown an average six per cent
every year. It is now 14 times the level it was in 1950, due in large part to the elimination
of trade barriers such as import tariffs, quotas and other restrictions.
During the same period, biodiversity has declined, pollution has increased and many of
the world's natural resources have been seriously depleted. It is estimated that since
1970, some 30% of the planet's natural wealth has been lost, due to trends such as
increasing greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation, soil erosion and overfishing. At the
same time the gap between the poorest fifth of the world population and the richest fifth
has widened dramatically.
Thus, the world has created an open global market, but not one that is yet producing
sustainable outcomes for the world's environment, or for many of its poorest
communities. As international commerce becomes an increasingly important force
shaping our lives, how we trade and invest across borders has profound implications for
the health of our planet.
While trade is a necessary part of many people's livelihoods, it can also cause
environmental destruction, deplete natural resources and result in the inequitable
distribution of wealth and power. The challenge in the future will be to define rules to
ensure that trade and trade liberalization not only broadly benefit people and the planet,
but also support sustainable development
Tourism
Tourism is one of the biggest and fastest-growing economic sectors in the global
economy and has significant environmental, cultural, social, and economic effects, both
positive and negative. Tourism has been noted as the world's largest and fastestgrowing industry. In 1998, it represents over 10% of all countries' gross national
products (GNP) and directly or indirectly for 200 million jobs worldwide. In the same
year the world's GNP grew by 2.4% and 625 million people visited a foreign country,
bringing receipts from
international tourism to about
310 billion.
Because tourism is essentially dependent on an unspoilt, natural or unpolluted
environment, and on environmental services, it follows that tourism has both a
responsibility for, and a need to, invest in the maintenance of the natural environment. If
undertaken sustainably, tourism can be a positive force for conservation and
environmental protection, and can provide unique opportunities for awareness raising
and enhancing support for conservation. It can also be developed in more
environmentally sustainable ways than can many alternative economic activities.
55
Tourism can be an important part in the sustainable development of many local
communities, provided that the community is actively involved in it, that economic
benefits are equitably shared, and that it is part of a diversified local economy and does
not undermine local culture and existing local sustainable economic activity. Tourism
can also boost cultural and historical traditions which often contribute to conservation
and
the
sustainable
management
of
natural
resources.
However, tourism can and often does have destructive effects on biodiversity and
pristine environments, and can result in the misuse of natural resources such as
freshwater, forests, and coral reefs. For example, in a number of areas, the
development of tourism has resulted in serious water shortages affecting local
communities and the tourism industry; forests have been depleted through wood
collection for fuel; and coral reefs have been damaged by sewage, sedimentation,
divers, snorklers, and boats. In order to avoid such impacts, tourism should be planned,
managed and carried out in a way that is environmentally sustainable, socially
beneficial,
and
economically
viable.
It is important that tourists understand both the negative and positive aspects of tourism
56
so they can contribute to a sustainable future for the tourism industry. Conservation
organizations should use the opportunities tourism provides to raise awareness of the
issues, to provide other significant benefits such as income and investment for natural
resource management, and to ensure implementation of key measures, such as the
protection of fragile areas.
Doing Our Bit
We can all do our bit for sustainable development. Using the car less for unnecessary
journeys, walking, cycling, using public transport, being more energy conscious and
recycling waste can all help make the environment a cleaner place. Being fit and
healthy, through a good diet and adequate exercise, is also beneficial to our society and
our economy.
Cars
Over the past century, the car has become a part of everyday life, a symbol of freedom
for many. Unfortunately, because of poor public transport and bad planning decisions,
the car is all too often the only way of getting around. As a result, our towns and cities
57
are becoming increasingly congested and polluted, whilst the countryside remains
under threat from further road building, with many communities being divided by busy
roads.
Transport pollution is emitted at ground level from a mobile source, and is therefore a
larger problem than other pollution sources. As an alternative to driving the car, walking,
cycling or using public transport where it is suitable and safe to do so is a better option,
particularly for short trips where using the car is not really necessary and alternatives
exist. Where walking or cycling is impractical, people can consider taking public
transport if it is available and convenient to use. A bus full of passengers is more than
twice as fuel-efficient as a family car. In addition, car sharing is an option to consider if
you and your friends drive to work along similar routes.
Public Transport
Public transport offers alternative modes of transport to the private motor car. Public
transport, including trains, trams and buses, can relieve traffic congestion and reduce
air pollution from road transport. The use of public transport must be encouraged if a
sustainable transport policy is to be developed.
Railways are efficient forms of transport that use existing tracks, and therefore use less
land than roads. One commuter train may hold hundreds of passengers which may
otherwise have travelled to work by car. Although trains can reduce road congestion, it
is important to remember that they still contribute to air pollution both directly and
indirectly. Diesel engines produce a large amount of particulates. Electric trains do not
release air pollutants directly, but their electricity produced "upstream" by power stations
can contribute to acid rain and global warming if they use fossil fuels.
Buses are generally recognized as an environmentally friendly form of transport,
particularly in relation to the number of car journeys needed to carry the same number
of passengers. A double-decker bus carries the same number of people as 20 fully
occupied cars. Currently, however, buses and coaches account for only 1% of the total
vehicle mileage on Britain's roads. A bus uses less fuel per person carried, and hence
less fuel than the number of cars needed to replace it. However, buses do contribute to
air quality problems, particularly in cities.
There has been a resurgence in the use of transport such as trams and light railway,
which have a lower environmental impact than buses. Trams use smaller vehicles and
tighter rail tracks than conventional trains, which enables them to be constructed within
existing built-up areas. They also run at a lower cost than trains, and they can easily be
expanded to accommodate increases in passengers.
Public transport should form part of a wider integrated sustainable transport strategy.
However, the cost and convenience of use of public transport needs to be lowered to
encourage people to use this as an alternative to personal vehicles.
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Cycling and Walking
Cycling is often the
quickest way to make
short journeys. It also has
the advantage that it
does not release air
pollution
to
the
atmosphere,
unlike
motorized
forms
of
transport. Cycling has
been popular in many
European countries with
excellent cycle lanes
segregated from main
road traffic routes.
The provision of cycle and pedestrian routes, segregated from road networks, may
encourage an increase in the number of short journeys being made by bike or foot. This
could be assisted by improving cycle parking facilities at convenient locations and
improving pedestrian access to and within public transport facilities.
Walking is a sustainable mode of transport that is available to all at no cost. The safer
the walking environment the better, and hence the introduction of pedestranisation to
city centers has increased the number of people that travel on foot. Walking and cycling
are also extremely healthy modes of transport, as they increase physical fitness.
A 10% increase in the number of people cycling regularly would lead to a 4% reduction
in the number of people with heart disease, saving 200 million a year. Cycling or
walking briskly for half an hour a day can halve the risk of heart disease...that is as little
as a 2 mile walk or 5 mile bike ride.
Energy Efficiency
The individual has little influence on how his/her energy is produced, for example by
coal or gas fired power stations, or alternatively by wind or solar power. However, the
individual does have control on how he or she uses that available energy. Through the
implementation of simple measures we can all effectively bring about a reduction in
energy consumption. Using less energy also means savings on fuel bills.
Recycling
The limits to renewable resources are identified by estimating sustainable yield while
also ensuring that other functions of the ecosystem are protected. In the case of wood,
for example forests play an important role in protecting watersheds, soil stability and
biodiversity.
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The limits to the use of non-renewable resources are not, as previously thought, the
danger of the resources simply running out. Instead, limits have more to do with the
environmental impacts of mining and processing resources. Another concern regarding
the consumption and use of non-renewable resources is the health impacts associated
with their build-up in the environment. This is especially true with metals such as
mercury.
Recycling helps the environment because it saves space in landfill sites, and it can
reduce pollution substantially, along with innumerable other benefits. We also know that
recycling saves energy and raw materials. Recycling aluminium cans, for instance,
saves the tropical rainforests from further devastation because these areas are often
mined for bauxite (the ore used to make aluminum). Most scientists believe that
recycling will go a long way to slowing down global warming. So you can be confident
that any recycling you initiate will play a vital role in preserving the Earth's natural
resources.
We can help to reduce the consumption of energy and raw materials used in
manufacturing, by reducing the amount of waste we produce, re-using products, and
recycling them where possible. At present, consumers in the UK produce about 16
million tons of domestic rubbish each year. That's about 300 kilograms for every person
in the country. Currently most of this waste is dumped into landfill sites. Landfilled waste
produces the second most important greenhouse gas, methane. The Government is
trying to increase the amount of waste that is recycled to 25%. Examples of materials
that can be recycled include paper, glass, plastics, clothing, aluminum cans and organic
materials such as waste food for composting. There are many council sites which
currently collect waste for recycling, and the number is likely to increase in the future.
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Diet
You are what you eat. There is much
truth in this proverb. Increasingly in
today's society poor diet is leading to
elevated levels of obesity and poor
health, with consequential increases in
depression
and
stress,
reduced
performance at work, and elevated
health care costs. None of this is
advantageous to a sustainable society.
Obesity is a growing problem and at
present 45% of men and 34% of women
are overweight. A further 16% of men
and 18% of women are obese. Weight is
gained when more energy is taken in than is used up. Weight reduction methods tend to
focus on achieving a well balanced, reduced energy diet together with increasing
general activity. Activity is also important for the maintenance of healthy bones.
On average the diet of adults provides more than enough of most nutrients. However
the percentage of energy derived from total fat and saturated fatty acids is higher than
recommended. A healthy well balanced diet is one which contains plenty of starchy
foods and fruit and vegetables, moderate amounts of meat or its alternatives, milk and
milk products and only small amounts of foods and drinks containing fat and sugar.
Eating a balanced diet containing plenty of fruit and vegetables, not smoking, keeping
physically active, drinking alcohol in moderation only and keeping body weight within
the healthy range for height are all factors which are though to play a part in reducing
the risk of certain diseases such as coronary heart disease and some cancers.
Eating is an important part of everyone's lives. Food should be enjoyable as well as
nutritious. All foods provide some nutrients and contribute to the taste, smell, color,
texture and enjoyment of the whole meal. Sharing a meal with friends or family is an
important part of enjoying your food. Choosing foods for a healthy balanced diet doesn't
have to mean giving up all your favorites. It's the overall balance that counts. No food
need be excluded from the diet except occasionally for special medical reasons. In
striking a healthy balance, the following points are worth considering.







Eat a variety of different foods.
Eat the right amount to be a healthy weight.
Eat plenty of foods rich in starch and fiber.
Eat plenty of fruits and vegetables.
Don't eat too many foods that contain a lot of fat.
Don't have sugary food and drinks too often.
Don't eat too much salt.
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Exercise
Lack of physical activity or exercise, like a poor diet, can lead to a range of health and
other social problems, which if prevalent amongst large sections of society are not
beneficial to a sustainable future.
Regular physical activity is an important part of effective weight loss and weight
maintenance. It also can help prevent several diseases and improve your overall health.
It does not matter what type of physical activity you perform - sports, planned exercise,
household chores, yard work, or work-related tasks - all are beneficial. Research
consistently shows that regular physical activity, combined with a healthy diet, is the
most efficient way to maintain a healthy lifestyle.
Physical activity helps to control your weight by using excess calories that otherwise
would be stored as fat. In addition, regular physical activity can reduce your risk for
several diseases and health ailments including coronary heart disease and stroke, high
blood pressure, obesity, back pain and osteoporosis. Research has shown that daily
aerobic exercise (such as brisk walking or cycling) of as little as 30 minutes can halve
the risk of coronary heart disease and early heart attack.
Taking regular exercise needn't be boring. Activities like swimming, dancing and
rollerblading are ways of increasing your activity and having fun with your friends at the
same time. Such exercise will also help you unwind from your work or studies and
relieve stress and tension. Other ways to increase physical activity require only small
changes to your everyday routine, such as walking or cycling to school or work, or
taking the stairs instead of the elevator.
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Education
Education is essential to establish an understanding of the importance of sustainable
development. Education can give people an environmental and ethical awareness; it
can develop the values and attitudes, the skills and behavior needed for sustainable
development. To achieve this, education needs to explain not only the physical and
biological environment but also the socio-economic implications and human
development. Make environment and development education available to people of all
ages developing programs like:
 introduce environment and development concepts, including those of population,
into all programs, with assessment of major causes and issues. Decision makers
need special attention.
 involve schoolchildren and communities in local and regional studies on
environmental health, including safe drinking water, sanitation, food and the
environmental and economic impacts of resource use.
 encourage all sectors of the society including industry, universities, governments
and community organizations to cooperate in training people in environmental
management.

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We can all try to learn a bit more about our environment and about the way our society
interacts with it. There are many sources of environmental learning and education,
including this encyclopedia and the Internet links which it contains.
Water
We often take the availability of water for granted. Water is a renewable resource, but
its availability in a form readily usable for drinking and other domestic and industrial
purposes is being placed under increasing stress as we use more and more. During
periods of drought in particular, groundwater and reservoirs supplies can become
significantly diminished. Running the tap can use 10-14 liters of water a minute - which
would give enough for a small bath in just 5 minutes.





Make sure you mend any dripping taps, and turn off taps when not in use.
Turn off the tap when brushing your teeth.
Take showers, not baths and save enough water each week for 1000 cups of
tea.
A garden sprinkler uses 1,000 liters of water an hour - that's nearly one pint for
every 2 seconds it is in operation.
Once a week is all the water your lawn needs even in the hottest weather. Overwatering can weaken your lawn by encouraging roots to seek the surface.
64
Activity: Marine life Research and Persuasive
Conservation Pamphlet
Duration: 2 weeks:
1. Allow one day to introduce the assignment.
2. Allow 2 days for students to research information, consult with peers and
teacher, or work on their project in some way during the duration of the
assignment.
3. Allow another in class day as required if students are struggling with the
assignment. Once the students get started on the assignment, most students
should have little difficulty completing the remainder of the work outside of class
time.
Objectives
1. The overall objective of this lesson is for students to understand different
points of view people have about environmental issues to help students
develop an understanding of tradeoffs in solutions to problems.
2. After completing the readings and research, students will have a better
understanding of the reasons for population decline of species, land/water
resources use and misuse, changes in biodiversity, shared environments, and
the global nature of local habitat issues.
3. Students will be able to demonstrate an understanding that events (causes)
occurring in one sphere affect processes and organisms in that and/or other
spheres through this assignment: also what factors affect population size and
what effect human activities have on organisms.
4. Demonstrate an understanding that a local action can result in global effects.
5. Students will propose conservation measures, MPA’s, cleanup, or
recommended restoration methods for organisms that are under stress from
human activities.
6. Students will also recognize and assess the tradeoffs of their proposed
solution.
Materials






Smartboard
Computer lab
Access to the internet
Suggested web sites
List of species to research
Student created data sheet
65
Background Idea
“Stimulating an interest in conservation of organisms”
It is important to educate, excite and recruit support for marine or other conservation
measures. Students will be introduced to a lesson on conservation and the concept of
MPA’s. Students will research either Atlantic salmon, Cod, or Haddock, which are
currently under environmental stress. They will analyze collected research data and
draw conclusions and recommendations for a conservation model. This lesson is
intended to stimulate students’ interest and provide a method to gain public support for
conservation measures to protect marine organism’s or other organisms. Education of
our younger population is key to species survival and conservation of many of our
marine organisms. This will be the theme for the lesson and project. This assignment
follows lessons on Ecology, Food Chains, Food Webs, and methods to modern
ecological research using three basic approaches: observing, experimenting, and
modeling. All of these methods are based on the application of scientific methods to
guide ecological inquiry. Students will use the internet to seek data gained from studies
based on sound ecological reasearch models, develop a conservation plan and promote
their plan in a conservation pamphlet.
Theme
Design A Persuasive Marine Conservation Pamphlet Lesson:
Implementation of the theme will require students to create an educational pamphlet
geared to educating the public about the importance of preserving areas for
conservation of marine organisms. Their marine conservation pamphlets are intended to
move people to action in an attempt to persuade the public, and our legislators, to make
decisions serving the best interests of our marine wildlife. The lesson pamphlet is
geared to marine organisms, (Haddock, Cod, and Atlantic Salmon) but can be modified
to allow students flexibility of interest.
Relevant Vocabulary
1. Biodiversity- the sum total of the variety of organisms in the biosphere.
2. Carrying capacity- the largest number of individuals of a population that a given
environment can support.
3. Conservation- The wise management of natural resources, including the
preservation of habitat and wildlife.
4. Deforestation- To cut down and clear away an extended area of trees or forests.
5. Endangered species- specie in danger of becoming extinct in the near future.
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6. Environment- The circumstances or conditions that surround one; surroundings.
7. Habitat fragmentation- (http://www.bio.bris.ac.uk/research/community/
habitatfragmentation.html) A key factor in the loss of biodiversity and while numerous
studies have quantified declining species number and abundance in fragmented
habitats, the fate of the interactions among species remains largely unknown.
8. Habitats- The area or environment where an organism or ecological community
normally lives or occurs.
9. Invasive species- Plants and animals that have migrated to places where they are
not native and are able to thrive.
10. Limiting factor- factor that cause the growth of a population to decrease.
11. MPA- A marine protect area identified by established boundaries.
12. Native species- Species that have naturally evolved in an area.
13. Pollution- The act or process of polluting or the state of being polluted, especially
the contamination of soil, water, or the atmosphere by the discharge of harmful
substances.
14. Preservation Viewpoint- The belief that all parts of the environment are equally
important, no matter how useful they are to humans.
15. Spillover- The overflow of organisms from a protected area to adjacent areas
because of increased density within the protected area.
Pre Lesson Discussion
The instructor should introduce the concept of MPA’s, Conservation and Preservation
Viewpoints and facilitate a discussion on the lesson vocabulary to insure students
understand concepts being presented. If available the instructor should utilize a
smartboard to project and present information on MPA’s and Conservation issues. Upon
completion of the Pre-lesson students will Students will understand the impact of habitat
fragmentation, pollution, overfishing, lack of regulations and other concepts associated
with depletion of natural resources. The instructor should query the following sites using
smart board in class to review conservation issues with students.
Discuss Conservation issues
Check
the
latest
issue
of
“Ocean
Conservancy”
http://www.oceanconservancy.org/site/PageServer?pagename=home
at:
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The Nation Coalition of Marine Conservation www.savethefish.org/
Marine Conservation and Biology at: http://marinebio.org/Oceans/Conservation/
Nature Conservancy at: http://www.nature.org/initiatives/marine/
Discuss MPA’s and review pertinent related vocabulary at:
http://mpa.gov/glossary.html
http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/management/welcome.html
http://www.dfg.ca.gov/mlpa/
Procedures
Day 1:
1. Inform students that you will be assigning a marine conservation project and today is
to be used to explore general information on conservation and Cod, Haddock and
Salmon fisheries. Details of the assignment will follow
2. All students go to the Maine Nature Conservancy web site and watch video “Can We
Save
Maines
Fisheries?”
http://www.nature.org/wherewework/northamerica/states/maine/
3. All students read the article about the Penobscot River Model and watch the video.
http://www.nature.org/wherewework/northamerica/states/maine/features/art26
645.html and slide show http://www.nature.org/popups/misc/art26686.html#
4. Students review video of Bottom Trawl Fishing for Cod, Haddock and Flatfish
http://www.oceanfootage.com/video_clips/FG38_033
5. Students begin searching the Internet to research the selected species.
6. Students conduct research and determine the following: environmental causes and
threats to their organisms’ declining population, the organisms’ habitat, current
population status, current regulations or protection status, breeding and feeding
requirements, connect-corridors and habitat loss.
7. Students should also think about possible solutions for the problems that they are
identifying and document any groups involved in enacting conservation measures.
8. Students create a data table and record proposed solutions for further discussion.
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9. Students must indicate in the solution statement the trade-offs involved in
implementing their plan.
10. Students will compare data and share data collected in a teacher facilitated
discussion
Day 2:
1. Introduce the Pamphlet Project to students.
2. Identify the required components of the project, rubrics that will be used to assess
their final project.
3. Discuss the content, format and layout of the pamphlet. Show students an exemplar.
4. Indicate to students the available resources and sources for assistance to them as
they complete their assignment.
5. Teacher should introduce Publisher S/W and how to develop the pamphlet.
6. Show students the appropriate format for citing references
Day 3:
1. Students can begin working in the computer lab on their pamphlet. Provide students
with time to locate pictures, graphics and begin typing their pamphlets.
2. Inform students that the balance of the project is assigned as homework.
Ideas for Persuasive Pamphlet Message
1) Students will consider some of the following points to research and include in their
pamphlets:
2) What are the threats to marine or other organisms?
3) Why should certain organisms be protected?
4) What arguments about the ecological role of marine organisms could you write about
to effectively persuade the public or your representative to support the protection of a
particular marine species or other organism.
5) What conservation measures would help?
6) What would it take to truly protect an area?
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7) Funding?
8) Programming?
9) What is needed to make your argument strong, pointed and undeniable?
10) What information should you research and include in order to make your argument
as strong as possible? (Students should look for powerful, real facts to share.)
Post Project Reflection
Students should be posed questions about:
1) What did you enjoy about this assignment in regards to research, content and
logistics of working together?
2) What challenges did you encounter in regards to research, content and logistics of
working together?
3) What did you learn about conservation?
4) What did you learn about the value of small and large organisms alike?
Websites
Gulf of Maine Findings Presentation
http://www.rnrf.org/2004cong/GoMpp.ppt
Information on Anadromous Atlantic Salmon
http://restoration.gulfofmaine.org/projectplanning/anadromousfishhabitat.php
http://www.fws.gov/northeast/gulfofmaine/maps_data/index.htm
http://www.fws.gov/northeast/gulfofmaine/publications/index.htm
http://pressherald.mainetoday.com/news/state/070401fishfarms.html
http://www.mass.gov/dfwele/dmf/programsandprojects/anadrom.htm#anadromous
http://www.outdoorcentral.com/fishing/saltwater-fishing/federal-agencies-to-proposeexpandinggulf-of-maine-atlantic-salmon-population-protected-by-endangered-specieslisting
http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/fish/atlanticsalmon.htm
70
http://www.krisweb.com/krissheepscot/krisdb/html/krisweb/aqualife/fishpop_maine.htm
http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=236
http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/
http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/news/press_releases/atlantic-salmon-10-04-2007.htm
http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/swcbd/SPECIES/atlanticsalmon/index.html
Information on Haddock and Cod Fisheries
http://www.gma.org/fogm/Melanogrammus_aeglefinus.htm
http://www.gulfofmaine.org/times/winter2002/scientists.htm
http://www.fishermensvoice.com/archives/0107fishersknowledge.html
http://www.ccchfa.org/pages/15/
http://www.gulfofmaine.org/times/fallwinter2008/fishtag.php
http://www.mass.gov/dfwele/dmf/recreationalfishing/haddock.htm
http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/InNews/stonington2004.htm
http://www.clf.org/programs/projects.asp?id=144
http://law.dal.ca/Files/MEL_Institute/Canada
USA_Bilateral_Fisheries_Management_GOM.pdf
http://www.gloucestertimes.com/puopinion/local_story_085204052.html
http://www.gloucestertimes.com/punews/local_story_090223127.html?keyword=topstor
y
http://www.gloucestertimes.com/punews/local_story_086231221.html
http://www.gmri.org/science/index.asp
http://www.mass.gov/dfwele/dmf/programsandprojects/ccz.htm
http://www.nero.noaa.gov/nero/outreach/NECoopResearch.pdf
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Name: __________________________________________Date: ____________
Assessment Rubric for Persuasive Pamphlet
Self-Evaluation:_____________ Student Project Assessment: _________________
How does this Pamphlet connect with what I’ve learned?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Sources:
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
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Resources
http://www.usc.edu/org/coseewest/LessonPlans/MLPA%20lesson%20plans/Greg%20Watkevich_Marine%20Researc
h%20and%20Conservation%20Pamphlet.pdf
http://www.clarkson.edu/highschool/k12/project/documents/energysystems/7Household-Conservation-Efficiency.pdf
https://dnet01.ode.state.oh.us/ims.itemdetails/lessondetail.aspx?id=0907f84c80530a08
http://learningtogive.org/lessons/unit321/lesson1.html
http://www.p2pays.org/ref/38/37967.pdf
http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/sustainability/Older/Conservation_and_Preservation.htm
lhttp://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/
http://www.sustainable-environment.org.uk/index.php
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