CIS
CIS LAUNCH VEHICLE
CIS LAUNCH VEHICLES
In the former Soviet Union (now CIS), the development of long-range missiles provided the impetus for the
majority of space launch vehicles until the need for larger capacity rockets began to exceed missile
capabilities. A broad range of expendable launch vehicles, from the small COSMOS to the large PROTON
are now available. In 1987, a new class was added with the heavy-lift ENERGIA, which had a reusable
shuttle payload capacity. The development of a smaller version of this basic launcher, ENERGIA M, began in
1990 but has no longer support from government. All CIS launcher variants are given in the following table:
DOD
DESIGNATION
SL-3
SL-4
SL-6
SL-8
SL-11
SL-12
SL-13
SL-14
SL-16
SL-17
SL-18
SL-19
SL-20
-
SHELDON
DESIGNATION
A-1
A-2
A-2-e
C-1
F-1-m
D-1-e
D-1
F-2
J-1
K-1
L-1
M-1
L-2
-
NAME (USUAL)
VOSTOK(1)
SOYUZ
MOLNIYA
COSMOS
TSYKLON 2(2)
PROTON
PROTON
TSYKLON 3(2)
ZENIT(2)
ENERGIA(1)
START 1
ROCKOT
START
DNEPR(2)
YEAR OF
DEBUT
1959
1963
1961
1964
1966
1967
1968
1977
1985
1987
1993
1994
1995
1999
ANTECEDENT
(MISSILE)
SS-6 (ICBM)
SS-5 (IRBM)
SS-9 (ICBM)
None
SS-9 (ICBM)
None
None
SS-25
SS-19
SS-25
SS-18
(1) Out of service
(2) Ukraine
Since 1992, most of CIS launch vehicles are potentially available for commercialisation as they have been
modernized. Late 1993, the Russian Space Agency announced that it is funding upgrades of main launchers
such as SOYUZ and PROTON, principally improving the lower stage engines, adopting modern avionics and
adding larger fairings. Initiated by Russia's Defense Ministry in 1994, the only new serious project is the
ANGARA family with payloads ranging from 2 t to 30 t in LEO. At the end of the decade, Khrunichev is
planning to replace the PROTON with the ANGARA heavy-lift vehicle.
The Russian space industry has exploited the launch service market to its advantage. Although CIS
launchers were of relatively old design, they were reliable, inexpensive and performed adequately. Since
1992, most of these launch vehicles are regularly used for commercial purposes as they are upgraded.
The major CIS launch vehicle manufacturers have now teamed with their Western counterparts to sell launch
services:
¾ ILS (KHRUNICHEV wich LOCKHEED MARTIN) wich uses PROTON and last versions of ATLAS
enhanced by a Russian engine,
¾ STARSEM (TsSKB, RKA with EADS, ARIANESPACE) which uses SOYUZ,
¾ ROCKOT (KHRUNICHEV with EADS Germany) which uses ROCKOT,
¾ COSMOS International Gmbh (POLYOT - OHB System joint venture) which uses COSMOS 3M,
¾ SEA LAUNCH (YUZHNOYE/YUZHMASH, RSC ENERGIA with BOEING and KVAERNER) which uses
the Ukrainian ZENIT launcher.
A short background program review is given for each launch vehicle family hereafter; a comparative
presentation figure of all CIS launch vehicles follows.
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1. COSMOS FAMILY
COSMOS was originally designed by the Yangel Bureau in the Ukraine (now known as NPO YUZHNOYE): it
was a derivative of the SS-5 ("Skean") medium range ballistic missile. The motor of the SS-5 was used for
the first stage and a new restartable motor was added for the second stage.
The first COSMOS launch took place in 1964 from Tyuratam involving a triple payload of Cosmos navigation
satellites. Three versions of the launch vehicle have flown: the 63S1 (COSMOS 2), 11K65 (COSMOS 3) and
the present 11K65M (alphanumeric designator assigned by Russia). The latter version has been the
operational variant since May 1967 and has been specifically referred to as the COSMOS 3M ("SL-8" US
DOD designation). The COSMOS 3M is being produced at Omsk based NPO POLYOT.
This launch vehicle was made primarily for military missions by the former Soviet Union; it has also been
used in a number of bilateral international programs under the name of Intercosmos. A first commercial US
satellite was launched by a COSMOS 3M on January 23, 1995. Flights are offered at 12-14 M$ each by the
Russian Rosoboronexport arms-trade agency but so far, demand has been low.
The flight rate has been declining gradually since the early 1980s. As a result, production of the COSMOS
3M was halted in 1995, though additional vehicles can be produced if demand grows in the future.
An improved version of COSMOS increasing the vehicle's performance by up to 20% is under study
according to POLYOT although the manifest estimates 2 to 3 launches per year until 2010.
2. DNEPR
The DNEPR launch vehicle is a decommissioned SS-18 (R-36M2) ICBM with modifications allowing it to
launch payloads into LEO. The R-36M2 was fueled with storable N2O4/UDMH propellant and was designed
and built by NPO YUZHNOYE. Russia stopped production of SS-18 missiles in 1992 while START-1
negotiations were taking place.
In 1997, the Russian Space Agency and the National Space Agency of Ukraine formed a joint venture
company called KOSMOSTRAS to commercially market the DNEPR. An American company, THIOKOL, was
given authority to market the launcher outside Russia and Ukraine. KOSMOSTRAS was successful in
signing up its first Western customer (United Kingdom) for the launch of a 350 kg experimental satellite
which was orbited in April 1999. DNEPR performed successfully a second launch from Plesetsk in
September 2000.
According to KOSMOSTRAS, as many as 25 DNEPR could be launch per year if market demand would call
for it… The joint venture company has until 2007 to profit from 150 converted SS-18 missiles. The DNEPR-1
is currently available with a flight rate of 1 to 2 per year. A DNEPR-M with an upgraded post-boost stage
could be implemented if required.
3. ENERGIA FAMILY
The ENERGIA/BURAN program started in the 1970s as a part of an effort to develop a standardised family
of modular heavy-lift vehicles for a variety of missions including a manned orbiter. The program was placed
under the juridiction of NPO Energia organization headed by Valentin GLUSHKO. The principal designer of
the giant rocket was Boris GUBANOV. The ENERGIA was designed with four strap-on liquid
oxygen/kerosene propellant boosters around a large diameter core capable of delivering up to 105 t to LEO
with a kick stage.
The BURAN orbiter was developed to transport crews and supplies to space stations as well as for
deployment, maintenance and recovery of satellites and other payloads. It was designed so that main
propulsion was located on ENERGIA with only a modest orbit manœuvring stage to achieve orbit and
deorbit.
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In 1985, the ZENIT successful maiden launch was significant for ENERGIA since its four boosters was
based on the ZENIT first stage. On May 15, 1987, the first launch of ENERGIA was conducted from
Baïkonur: the first stage landed in Soviet territory as planned but a malfunction resulted in the payload failing
to reach orbit. Next year, the ENERGIA was launched with the BURAN unmanned orbiter as payload
on November 15, 1988. BURAN returned to Earth after two orbits and landed automatically.
Although ENERGIA and BURAN did eventually fly successfully, the changing political climate gradually
undermined this costly program which was at first "mothballed" and then cancelled.
A scaled down version designated ENERGIA M was developed and, as early as 1990, a mock-up was built
and rolled out to the pad of Baïkonur. By late 1993, government funding for ENERGIA M was stopped, with
Russian Space Agency officials stating there was no demand for this vehicle on the market.
4. PROTON FAMILY
PROTON development began in the early 1960s in the Vladimir CHEMOLEI Design Bureau as a two-stage
vehicle (8K2 or "D" version) capable of delivering 12.2 t into LEO. The PROTON has the distinction of being
the Soviet's first space launcher that did not begin as a military ballistic missile although the design
originated from the UR500 ICBM project which was dropped.
The first space launch was conducted on July 1965. After four test launches, the two-stage version was
superseded by the three-stage PROTON K (D-1, SL-13) model and the four-stage PROTON K/Block DM (D1-e, SL-12) model, both of which are currently in use. The PROTON's first task was then to launch manned
circumlunar missions as precursors to lunar landing attempt. This program called LK-1 received approval in
early 1965: the plan was to send Zond spacecraft as first unmanned mission, then later manned flights. The
initial success rate of PROTON was very poor and following the success of US APOLLO program, the
Russian lunar program was abandoned.
Production began in 1966 at a rate of approximately five vehicles per year; in the 1980s, it averaged 13 per
year but in 1989 this rate slowed to about 8 units annually. By the mid 1970s, the PROTON achieved a
reliability level similar to other launch vehicles and became the primary heavy launch vehicle in the Soviet
Union. PROTON has launched all Russian space stations including MIR in 1986.
In 1992, LOCKHEED Corporation (now LOCKHEED MARTIN) joined KHRUNICHEV to market the PROTON
for commercial satellites launches. Under terms of agreement, LKI (LOCKHEED KRUNICHEV International)
was formed. In April 1993, NPO ENERGIA, which produces the launcher's fourth stage, joined the
partnership which is now called ILS (International Launch Services). As a result, PROTON has become a
mainstream option in the launch services market.
In April 2001, an improved version called PROTON M was successfully launched incorporating changes to
the first three stages as well as a new storable propellant BREEZE M upper stage. KHRUNICHEV has also
been considering a variant of the PROTON M which would use a liquid oxygen, liquid hydrogen KB Salyut
KVRB cryogenic upper stage capable of launching 4 500 kg to GEO. Formal plans for this variant were never
made.
Figure shows the major variants of the PROTON family.
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5. ROCKOT
The ROCKOT launch vehicle is an adaptation of the SS-19 ICBM which was decommissioned under the
START 2 treaty. This missile provides the first two ROCKOT stages. The SS-19 was developed between
1964 and 1975 by the CHELOMEI Design Bureau which later evolved into the Khrunichev State Research
and Production Space Center; it has a flight record of 141 success out of 144 launches.
A restartable and highly manœuvrable third stage BREEZE had been developed by KHRUNICHEV to make
the launcher suitable for orbit injection. Three successful silo test launches of the ROCKOT vehicle with
BREEZE have been conducted from Baïkonur between 1990 and 1994, of which two were suborbital and
one orbital.
On March 23, 1995, KHRUNICHEV and DAIMLER-BENZ AEROSPACE (DASA) (now ASTRIUM Gmbh)
announced the formation of their EUROCKOT joint venture to market the launcher worldwide. Under this
joint venture, KHRUNICHEV provides the launcher, launch site and launch operations. EUROCKOT has
since signed contracts for several launches beginning in May 2000. A new BREEZE KM structurally modified
stage providing more payload space was successfully carried out on this flight.
A minimum of 45 SS-19 have been committed by the Russian government to the ROCKOT project and as
many as 160 (all deployed SS-19 ICBM) could be made available if the need arose; however, it seems
unlikely that this number of launches will ever be needed.
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6. SOYUZ FAMILY
The SOYUZ, also known by the US DOD designation SL-4, together with the VOSTOK (SL-3) and MOLNIYA
(SL-6) launch vehicles are the direct descendants of the SL-1 launcher which placed the first SPUTNIK 1
into orbit on October 4, 1957. They are derived from the SS-6 Sapwood ICBM which was first launched in
August 1957.
The original vehicle consisted of a central core with four strap-on boosters. The Russian class this as a twostage assembly with the engines of the strap-on and the central sustainer igniting simultaneously at lift-off:
this parallel staging is often called a "one-and-one-half-stage" configuration. The MOLNIYA variant
incorporated two new core stages to the basic vehicle resulting in a four-stage launcher.
Since October 1966, the SOYUZ/MOLNIYA family has been the space launcher workhorse of the USSR RUSSIA. The SOYUZ and its variants have launched every Soviet/CIS manned spacecraft and has also
placed photoreconnaissance, remote sensing and PROGRESS/MIR space station ferry capsules into LEO.
Vehicles in this family have followed a conservative evolutionary path of development and have been in
continuous and uninterrupted production and flight for more than 40 years.
Although the SOYUZ/MOLNIYA-class boosters have remained essentially unchanged in external
appearance since their inception, their systems have been subjected to a constant stream of modifications
over the years. In addition, subtle differences exist between superficially identical components. For example,
the basic core stage and strap-on boosters may vary slightly from vehicle to vehicle in such details as
propellant loading and main engine thrust, depending on the vehicle version and mission application. Also,
the third stages used by SOYUZ and MOLNIYA, although very similar to one another in propellant capacity
and engine performance, differ in the upper-stage control system, which resides on the third stage for the
SOYUZ and on the fourth stage for MOLNIYA. SOYUZ can also employ a number of different payload
fairings depending on the mission at hand. The SOYUZ/MOLNIYA-class launch vehicles, until recently, have
exclusively used LOX and kerosene propellants in all stages. However, this is changing with the recent
introduction of the IKAR and, soon, FREGAT upper stages, both of which use UDMH/N2O4 propellant.
The main historical developments are summarized with a short description in the following table.
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NAME
ARTICLE
NUMBER
SPUTNIK
8K71O
8K71PS
SPUTNIK
SHELDON
DOD
NAME
DESIGNATION
DESCRIPTION
or A
SL-1
First space launch vehicle. Essentially a
test configuration of the R-7 ICBM. Used
for 2 flights, carrying SPUTNIK 1 and 2.
Consisted of one core stage plus 4 strapon-boosters
8A91
A
SL-2
Upgraded version of the 8K71 designed
specifically for space launches. This
launcher had improved engines
VOSTOK,
LUNA
8K72
A-1
SL-3
Upgraded launcher with new Block E
3rd stage. The LUNA version had a short
fairing for launching the Soviet Union's first
lunar probes
MOLNIYA
8K78
A-2-e
SL-6
Derivative of the VOSTOK launcher with a
larger Block 1 third stage, replacing the
Block E. Fitted with a new Block L fourth
stage
MOLNIYA M 8K78M
A-2-e
SL-6
Upgraded version of the MOLNIYA.
Available with versions of the Block L
upper stage designated ML or 2BL
VOSKHOD
11A57
A-2
SL-4
Used for upgraded VOSKHOD manned
launches and military spacecraft
SOYUZ
11A511
A-2
SL-4
Similar to the MOLNIYA but without the
Block L stage
SOYUZ U
11A511U
A-2
SL-4
Modern variation of the SOYUZ
SOYUZ U2
11A511U2
A-2
SL-4
Variation of the SOYUZ U with upgraded
2nd stage engine. Used for manned flights
until 1995
SOYUZ U
IKAR
11A511U?
None
SL-4
SOYUZ U with added IKAR 4th stage used
for injection into higher orbits
SOYUZ U
FREGAT
11A511U?
None
None to date
SOYUZ U with a new FREGAT 4th stage
based on planetary spacecraft propulsion
system
SOYUZ ST
or FG
None
date
to
None
None to date
Upgrade of the SOYUZ U with improved
engines and a new digital avionics. The
SOYUZ ST is for commercial missions.
The SOYUZ FG will support International
Space Stations flights
SOYUZ
None
ST/FREGAT date
to
None
None to date
SOYUZ ST with FREGAT upper stage
In 1996, TsSKB-Progress, the Russian Space Agency (RKA), AEROSPATIALE (now EADS) and
ARIANESPACE entered into a joint venture named STARSEM to market the SOYUZ launch vehicles
commercially to customers other than the Russian government. STARSEM is involved in the next generation
SOYUZ ST under development with an enlarged ARIANE 4 - type payload fairing. In addition to SOYUZ ST,
the so-called SOYUZ 2 (also referred as "RUS") is scheduled to be completed in the next year or two: it will
include upgraded stages with FREGAT as an upper stage, a new flight control system and a larger payload
fairing.
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Figure below shows a chronology of most significant versions in the SOYUZ family.
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7. START FAMILY
In 1991, the Moscow Institute of Thermal Technology (MTT) set up the joint stock company (STC
KOMPLEX) to develop the START launch vehicle family from the SS-20 and SS-25 ICBM formerly built by
MTT. The development of the START launchers has been a quasi-commercial project with private
investment and bank loans used for funding the project.
Following a two year conversion program, a first four-stage START 1 rocket was successfully launched from
Plesetsk on March 25, 1993. The first test launch of the larger START configuration was conducted in 1995
but failed and probably scared away some prospective customers.
The first commercial contract for START 1 launch services of a primary payload was signed in early 1997
and this launch took place with a US payload on December 24, 1997. A large but unknown number of SS-25
missiles is available for conversion into road mobile START launch vehicles which could be performed from
any launch facility in the world without requiring a new vehicle specific infrastructure. Manifest shows that
even with the elimination of Russian launch quotas in the United States , START 1 will most likely maintain
an average of only one launch per year.
8. TSYKLON FAMILY
In the early 1960s, the Yangel Design Bureau (now YUZHNOYE, Ukraine) proposed development of the
TSYKLON (also known as TSIKLON and CYCLONE) family of space launchers deriving them from the
former Soviet Union's SS-9 ICBM. The first two-stage TSYKLON vehicle, designated SL-11 or F-1 was
launched in 1966. There were two variants : the F-1-r and the F-1-m.
The F-1-r military variant was employed in the Fractional Orbital Bombardment System (FOBS) which, later,
has been dismantled under the SALT 2 treaty. The F-1 m with an upper manoeuvrable payload stage
entered in service on October 27, 1967 and was used primarily for military purposes.
The TSYKLON 3 (SL-14, F-2) which is the TSYKLON 2 with a restartable third-stage was introduced on
June 24, 1977. A large number of missions previously flown on COSMOS and VOSTOK launchers have
migrated to TSYKLON 3. These include communications, meteorology, remote sensing, electronic
intelligence and minor military missions. The TSYKLON 3 has only been launched at Plesetsk from highly
automated launch complex into orbits at inclination of 73.5° and 82.5°. In October 1987, the Soviet Union's
Glavcosmos organization offered the TSYKLON 3 for commercial services.
In July 1996, ROCKWELL International's Space Systems Div. (now BOEING Space Systems Div.) signed an
agreement with YUZHNOYE to market and sell TSYKLON and ZENIT launch services worldwide. On
January 16, 2002, Brazil and Ukraine signed a space cooperation agreement on jointly developing
TSYKLON 4 vehicles to be launched from Alcantara facility.
TSYKLON production appears to have halted, but the Russians have hinted that some of SS-9 strategic
stockpile may be converted into TSYKLON if need be.
9. ZENIT FAMILY
ZENIT 2
The design work on the ZENIT 2 began in December 1974 following the request for proposals for a mediumlift launch vehicle. Official government go-ahead for the development was given in March 1976. The ZENIT
2, also called SL-16, was designed by YUZHNOYE (UKRAINE) and has its roots in the liquid strap-on
boosters of the ENERGIA heavy-lift launcher.
The ZENIT first-stage shares its propulsion system and basic structural design with the large liquid strap-on
boosters. Using a new second stage and payload fairing of its own, ZENIT serves as a medium-lift space
launch system in its own right with a payload capability between SOYUZ and PROTON.
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The two-stage ZENIT 2 underwent its maiden suborbital test launch in April 1985, a full two years before
ENERGIA's first launch. Since its introduction in 1985, ZENIT 2 has been used primarily as a military
launcher. During the period 1985 to date (December 2002), there have been 35 ZENIT 2 launches with 6
failures. ZENIT 2 was intended to become one of the primary Soviet launch systems but following the
collapse of USSR, it is in the awkward position of being the main Ukrainian launcher while its principal user
has been the Russian government which now prefers domestically built vehicles such as SOYUZ and
PROTON.
ZENIT 3SL / SEA LAUNCH
BOEING initiated the SEA LAUNCH joint venture in 1994 for three-stage ZENIT launch vehicles to be
shipped to the US, assembled and then transported into international waters for near-Equator launches. In
1995, a consortium called SEA LAUNCH was formed by BOEING (40% share) with the Norvegian
shipbuilding group KVAERNER (20%), RCS ENERGIA of Russia (25%) and YUZHNOYE of Ukraine (15%)
to offer commercial ZENIT 3 launch services to GTO. Operating from a homeport in California, SEA
LAUNCH uses a ship as command centre and a semi-submersible oil-drilling platform ("ODYSSEY") as a
floating launch pad.
The ZENIT 3 SL is a three-stage liquid propellant launch vehicle employing the first and second stages from
ZENIT 2 with a Russian restartable Block DM third-stage. The first demonstration launch was successfully
carried out in March 1999. Since then 8 commercial launches took place with one failure on March 12, 2000
caused by a simple ground software logic error. According to forecast, 2 to 4 launches per year should be
implemented until 2010.
ZENIT 2SLB-3SLB / LAND LAUNCH
In addition to its sea-based launches, Sea Launch announced in October 2003 its intention to offer
commercial launch services with its new launcher system, named Land Launch, from the Baikonur
Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan.
There are two Land Launch configurations:
• The Zenit-3SLB (“B” for Baikonur), a three-stage launch vehicle closely derived from the Sea Launch Zenit3SL, is suited for delivering payloads to medium and high, circular and elliptical Earth orbits, including GTO
and GEO, as well as escape trajectories.
• The Zenit-2SLB, a two-stage launch vehicle based on the first two stages of the Sea Launch Zenit-3SL, is
designed for delivering payloads to inclined low Earth circular and elliptical orbits.
Launch services will be managed by SIS (Space International Services based in Moscow) via a subcontract
from Sea Launch.
The initial launch is scheduled for the end of 2006.
10. DATA SOURCE REFERENCES
1
-
Jane's Space Directory 2001 - 2002
2
-
Forecast International/DMS - Aerospace systems - S.J. ISAKOWITZ - AIAA - 1999
3
-
Airclaims - The Space Review - Data sheets - 2002
4
-
World Space Systems Briefings - Teal Group Corp - 2002
5
-
Proton Launch Mission Planner's Guide - ILS - Revision 5, December 2001
6
-
SOYUZ user's manual - STARSEM - Issue 3, revision 0 - April 2001
7
-
Open sources - EADS LV files
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