ABSTRACT
THE
PROPAGNADA
MACHINE:
The Rise of Propaganda in World War II Germany
and England
A look into the mechanics of the propaganda
machine during World War II. Along with how
it was created and used in both England and
Germany.
Maggie Cooper
Senior Inquiry Art History 2015
Propaganda, as a form of art, underwent a radical development with the
advent of World War II. Propaganda encompasses a multitude of configurations, but
most importantly, with World War II, propaganda became an essential weapon to be
used as an enforcement technique to promulgate political doctrine on the citizens of
a country. This advancing art form, with the assistance of many new media, was
employed to brainwash the citizens in order to make them believe what the posters,
radio, and murals displayed. Propaganda in all its forms changed warfare forever
while emerging into a new art form. Artists from around the world used this
increasingly popular and effective medium to demonstrate their respective
country’s needs, opinions and general awareness of the war. Among the leaders to
employ a warfare of effective propaganda were Adolf Hitler and his chief
propagandist Joseph Goebbels, as well as British leaders for the Allied opposition
including previously German, now anti-Nazi propagandist, John Heartfield. No
matter where it was produced, this use of propaganda was revolutionary and aimed
to make a difference on the national and international political culture.
Before World War II, conventional wisdom defined the terms propaganda
and art as adversative yet the words became gradually intertwined between the end
of the Great War and that of World War II. 1 At the dawn of World War II, art was
defined as the, “highest expressions of the human spirit, free, and uncompromised
expressions opposed to the cult of immediate use-value.” 2 Art is molded by the
culture that surrounds it through media, opinions and influence from the preceding
Gabriella Belli, Carlo Bertelli, and Germano Celant, 1920-1945: The Artistic Culture
Between the Wars, (Skira,Milan, 2006), 171.
2 Belli, Bertelli, and Celant, 171.
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years. Propaganda, however, refers to the most influential communication—that is,
forms that are related to commercial advertising, whose drive is not art, but rather,
shaping the public’s opinion. 3 Until the political revolutions during the eighteenth
century, most famously the American and French Revolutions, shaping public
opinion was rarely a primary concern for rulers. From 1622 when Pope Gregory XV
founded the Congregation de Propaganda Fide (Congregation for the Propagation of
Faith) to today, the relationship between art and propaganda has been a synthetic
one because art has always served political causes and economic interests, while
artistic expression has always been vital to so-called propaganda—literally things
that must be spread to the public. 4 What was new, however, in the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries was not so much the pressure between instrumental and non-
instrumental conceptions of art’s purpose, as a foundational uncertainty regarding
the natural purpose and the practice within a democratized setting in which
communications media, from pamphlets, posters, broadsheets and magazines to
photography, film, radio and television had vastly expanded and diversified its
potential audiences. 5 World War II was a time when it all converged.
The war marked a key threshold in respect to the intermingling of political
advertising and art. 6 It soon became a war of information where the weapons
included visual and auditory messages. One of the strongest media used to
disseminate the messages during this era was the chromolithographic poster. 7 This
Belli, Bertelli, and Celant, 171.
Belli, Bertelli, and Celant, 171.
5 Belli, Bertelli, and Celant, 171.
6 Belli, Bertelli, and Celant, 171.
7 Belli, Bertelli, and Celant, 172.
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was not a new technique but its mass industrialization during the second half of the
nineteenth century so reduced production costs that color posters, whether
designed for display on walls or public transit, soon became the standard for the
masses. 8 The citizens could not always be relied upon to read the daily newspapers
or magazines yet their support was vital in order to promote war. These posters
demanded the collaboration of its citizens on the home front; they sought recruits
for the armies being decimated in the trenches and solicited the public’s investment
in national defense in the form of war bonds. 9 The illustrators and commercial
artists whose job was to design these bonds had the task of “melding communicative
strategies and visual imagination in the form of a painting or illustration to a
conventionally hortatory verbal typographical message”. 10 This medium would be
transformed later in the 1920s and 1930s into the photomontage through
typographical experimentation in posters and illustrated magazines based on
photography. 11
Artists during this period became engulfed in the war and were assigned
tasks of formulating new national cultures. Many countries that developed these
national culture renewal programs, such as Great Britain, used these artists’ work as
crucial instruments for the creation of symbols used to mobilize the people and
foster patriotic loyalty. 12 During World War II, artists who participated in these
Belli, Bertelli, and Celant, 172.
Belli, Bertelli, and Celant, 172.
10 Belli, Bertelli, and Celant, 173.
11 Belli, Bertelli, and Celant, 173.
12 Barbard McClosky, Artists of an Era: Artists of World War II, (Greenwood Press,
Westport, CT, 2005), 17.
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programs found their artwork spread widely through public distribution in the form
of postcards, films, and photographic reproductions. 13 Thus, art became harnessed
to the obligations of war and nationalist eagerness and the distinctions between art
and propaganda thus became harder and harder to differentiate. 14
While England had its own Ministry of Propaganda, on the other front,
Germany created the Party Propaganda Department (The PPD). The PPD was
created in 1932 and remained only a simple unit within the larger
organization of the National Socialist movement. 15 It is clear that the
membership in this organization was seen as more of a privileged
appointment for the German members than for the parallel members of the
Ministry of Propaganda in England. 16 Members regarded it as an honor to be
among this select few and the ambition was to foster the idea of the Party as
a political directive. 17 It is uncertain what proportion of the massive National
Socialist Movement party belonged just to the Party Propaganda. However, in
February 1934, out of 1,017,000 Party members who met in Munich, 14,000
were identified as propaganda officials and it is believed that the number of
personnel multiplied many times in the following years. 18
As tension rose before the Second World War, artists in numerous
countries prepared for the storm. After the devastation of World War I, many
13McClosky,
17.
McClosky, 17.
15 Derrick Sington and Arthur Weidenfeld, The Goebbels Experiment: A Study of the
Nazi Propaganda Machine, (Yale University Press, New Haven, CT., 1943), 30.
16 Sington and Weidenfeld, 30.
17 Sington and Weidenfeld, 30.
18 Sington and Weinfeld, 30.
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Germans seemed to search for a reason and meaning for the destruction they
had encountered. 19 Many, like Adolf Hitler, wanted someone or something on
which to place the blame. 20 This obsession would soon facilitate his rise to
power. 21 German, citizens were hurt deeply following the first war and thus
a sense of revolution was vibrating throughout Berlin and other German
cities. Citizens believed that a new beginning was needed and the Kaiser
therefore had to be disempowered. 22 On October 22nd, 1918, three hundred
employees went on strike at the Maybach Motor Works in Friedrichshafen
Wuttemberg chanting, “The Kaiser is a scoundrel!” and “Up with the German
Republic!” 23 In Berlin, tens of thousands of red-waving Berliners marched
down the Under den Linden displaying their frustration. 24 It was clear that
change was needed as citizens erupted with rage throughout Germany.
In England, there was a sense of exhaustion as well. After all, World
War I was the “war to end all wars.” 25 Before this, England had been the
imperial global powerhouse and although it had grown bigger than ever
territorially, Britain now was in debt to the United States for war loans,
Elaine S. Hochman, Bauhaus: Crucible of Modernism. (Fromm International, New
York, 1997), 24.
20 Hochman, 24.
21 Hochman, 24.
22 Hochman, 25.
23 Hochman, 25.
24 Hohcman, 25.
25 Rebecca Fraiser, Overview: Britain, 1918-1945,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwtwo/overview_britain_1918_1945_0
1.shtml (February 17, 2011)
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essentially wiping out any investments and thereby collapsing trade. 26
Additionally, by 1927, the British Empire had widespread suffrage for the
first period in history. 27 During a time of distress throughout the world,
peace was an idea everyone hoped for. In 1919, a peace conference was held
at Versailles. 28 Many countries were enthusiastic to represent themselves, as
U.S. President Woodrow Wilson promised to protect the right of small
nations intending for imperialism to disintegrate and tension to release. 29
Worldwide, nations agreed to reduce arms to the lowest point in order to
promise the world to be safer and to forget the troubled past. 30 The
Versailles Treaty had a large influence on Germany’s role in instigating World
War I. Many countries, such as France, were concerned about Germany’s
supremacy and pushed to disempower Germany against future attacks, and
were insistent that extra measures be taken. 31 To do so, the treaty displaced
four million German citizens in territorial transfers as well as a large amount
of their industrial wealth. 32 Before this, Germany had become the
26http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwtwo/overview_britain_1918_1945
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27http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwtwo/overview_britain_1918_1945
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28http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwtwo/overview_britain_1918_1945
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29http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwtwo/overview_britain_1918_1945
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30http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwtwo/overview_britain_1918_1945
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31http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwtwo/overview_britain_1918_1945
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32http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwtwo/overview_britain_1918_1945
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powerhouse of the European economy. 33 By removing much of their
industrial wealth, Germany suffered economic misery and was in search for
any form of a solution. 34 Soon, Hitler would rise to power and withdraw
from the League of Nations as well as instill a program to reverse the
Versailles Treaty. 35 As Germany began to withdraw its position, countries
around the world would begin to find their own perceived errors within the
treaty and hysteria would ensue. 36 The idea of universal peace and joint
security that was implemented by the treaty and League of Nations would
soon be dead.
Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party’s rise to power was rapid. When Hitler
entered the German Worker’s Party in 1921 he took over the Department of
Propaganda. 37 By doing so, he was able to gain power through this political
medium. 38 Over time, the Party was renamed to National-sozialistische Deutsche
Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist German Workers’ Party) and the Party grew
quickly in size making them the largest party in parliament. 39 Ultimately, it was
33http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwtwo/overview_britain_1918_1945
_01.shtml
34http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwtwo/overview_britain_1918_1945
_01.shtml
35http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwtwo/overview_britain_1918_1945
_01.shtml
36http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwtwo/overview_britain_1918_1945
_01.shtml
Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf. Translated by Ralph Manheim, Introduction by Abraham
Foxman (Houghton Mifflin Company, New York, 1999), 579.
38 Hitler, 579.
39 Alan Bullock and Baron Bullock, “Adolf Hitler: Dictator of Germany, Rise to
Power,” Britannica Encyclopedia , November 9, 2014,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/267992/Adolf-Hitler/10115/Riseto-power
37
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Hitler’s initial membership in the German Worker’s Party that enabled him to
swiftly rise to the helm of the Party. 40 Many members were hesitant and voiced their
concern over his power and aims for the Party, however, he threatened to resign if
opposed, which would ultimately lead to no financial support or publicity. 41 The
members quieted their concerns, which, allowed him to step up as the head of the
party. 42 The height of the growth of the Party was during the Munich Beer Hall
Putsch of November 1923. 43 Hitler and General Erich Lundendorff, with the help of
the marchers, attempted to force the leaders of the Bavarian government and local
army commander to proclaim a national revolution. 44 During the disruption, the
police and army fired at the marchers, injuring Hitler, killing a few of the marchers
and four policeman. 45 Hitler would be sentenced to five years in jail for treason, but
would only serve nine months through taking advantage of his publicity. 46 This
event would teach him to achieve power through legal means. 47 During his jail time,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/267992/AdolfHitler/10115/Rise-to-power
41 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/267992/AdolfHitler/10115/Rise-to-power
42 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/267992/AdolfHitler/10115/Rise-to-power
43 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/267992/AdolfHitler/10115/Rise-to-power
44 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/267992/AdolfHitler/10115/Rise-to-power
45 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/267992/AdolfHitler/10115/Rise-to-power
46 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/267992/AdolfHitler/10115/Rise-to-power
47 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/267992/AdolfHitler/10115/Rise-to-power
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Hitler wrote Mein Kampf which detailed inequality among races, propaganda, and
his vision of the removal of the Jews. 48
Upon his release Hitler was confronted with many difficulties, which he had
never dealt with before. Now, he was banned from making speeches across many
German states. 49 Despite this shortcoming, the party continued to grow and he was
able to reestablish his position within the group. 50 Economic distress allowed the
Nazi Party to gain power with their promise to renegotiate Germany’s payment of
war funds and rehabilitation. 51 As a result, the Party won the majority of votes in
the election of 1932. At this time, they were now the largest party in the German
parliament. 52 Soon after, Hitler would gain ultimate power in Germany.
When Hitler was appointed as German Chancellor in 1933, the status of art in
Europe would soon be forever changed. 53 Beginning in France, Hitler decided which
art was deemed worthy, throwing aside any avant-garde art that he labeled
“degenerate.” 54 On June 23, 1940 one day after the armistice was signed, Hitler
visited Paris and the Nazis moved immediately to control the French artistic
patrimony and their art world. 55 All public and private art collections in France
Hitler, 178.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/267992/AdolfHitler/10115/Rise-to-power
50 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/267992/AdolfHitler/10115/Rise-to-power
51 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/267992/AdolfHitler/10115/Rise-to-power
52 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. “Hitler Comes to Power,” Holocaust
Encyclopedia.
http://www.ushmm.org/outreach/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007671
53 McClosky, 18.
54 McClosky, 17.
55 McClosky, 18.
48
49
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were placed under the control of Germany. 56 The following month, Nazis would
confiscate galleries of leading Jewish art dealers and forbid any of their work to be
shown in public exhibitions. 57 France was the first to lose artwork to the Nazi Party
who would soon oversee any cultural activity in the occupied zone as well as art
exhibitions. 58 Troops stripped museums, public and private collections of tens of
thousands of artworks. 59 Many of the artworks were packed onto trains and were to
be delivered to the homes of German leadership. 60 Hitler would later elect Hermann
Goring to inspect for any redeemable art that was looted from various countries to
build a private collection for his museum. 61 This museum was located in Hitler’s
childhood hometown of Linz, Austria, which would showcase the cultural spoils of
the Nazi party’s successful conquests. 62
With Hitler in power, his attention to propaganda and art became the key to
his rule. On March 13, 1933 a week after the Reichstag elections that left Hitler
triumphant, Joseph Goebbels was appointed to the German government allowing
him to be a member of the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda. 63
Goebbels was now in control of all written or spoken word throughout Germany. 64
He was able to direct each and every medium of expression, allowing him to
McClosky, 18.
McClosky, 18.
58 McClosky, 18.
59 McClosky, 17.
60 McClosky, 17.
61 McClosky, 18.
62 McClosky, 17.
63 Anthony Rhodes, Propaganda: The Art of Persuasion, WWII (The Wellfleet Press,
Secaucus, NJ 1987), 11.
64 Rhodes, 11.
56
57
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advertise German economic and political activities at home and around the world. 65
Goebbels would become one of history’s greatest political propagandists. Hitler’s
use of propaganda was, without a doubt, his most efficient defense. 66 This is due to
Goebbels’ masterly direction that succeeded in persuading the citizens of Germany
that the Nazi Party would restore their country to greatness. 67
Goebbels and Hitler met in 1926 where Hitler quickly was impressed by
Goebbels. 68 He understood the great power Goebbels had with persuasion through
his artwork and speeches. 69 Goebbels had studied the methods that various Fascists
in Italy had used to construct such courageous images of Mussolini, which he would
later apply to Hitler’s image. 70 He obtained numerous scholarships to universities
where he received his doctorate in philosophy. 71 The modern dictator had to not
only be a superman but a man of the people, wise yet simple, aware of his height and
power yet ready to mix with the crowd. 72 Because of his vast knowledge, Goebbels
was able to manipulate the public’s mind through various propaganda forms. 73
Goebbels understood that in order for Hitler to achieve immense success, he had to
impress the masses.
Rhodes, 11.
Rhodes, 11.
67 Rhodes, 11.
68 Rhodes, 13.
69 Rhodes, 13.
70 Rhodes, 13.
71 Andrés Mario Zervigón, John Heartfield and the Agitated Image (University of
Chicago Press, 2012), 7.
72 Rhodes, 13.
73 Rhodes, 13.
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66
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The Nazi Party soon began to display the propaganda in various ways. Not
only through designs, but also through censorship. Their first act was when Joseph
Goebbels and Storm Troops (SA) disrupted the premiere of “All Quiet on the
Western Front,” a film based on the novel by Erich Maria Remarque. 74 This novel
struck a nerve with the Nazi Party, who believed that this novel was “un-German”
due to its depiction of cruelty of the war. 75 To show their dissatisfaction with the
film, Nazi protestors threw smoke bombs as well as sneezing powder into the
audience. 76 The SA beat any members who attempted to protest, later banning the
film and revoking the author’s citizenship. 77 Three years later, once again, they
would display their anger through censorship.78
On May 10, 1933 Goebbels used his power to
speak at a book burning in Berlin. 79 Forty thousand
people gathered to hear the propaganda minister
speak and condemn books written by Jews. 80 This
Figure 1: Opernplatz, Berlin, Germany, May 1933.
“Book Burning”, Holocaust Encyclopedia, United
States Holocaust Museum,
http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleI
d=10005852
was still before the war had begun as the Nazi Party
was rapidly gaining power. Any books written by
Jews, liberals, leftists, pacifists, foreigners and others
“Nazi Propaganda and Censorship,” The Holocaust : A Learning Site for Students,
US Holocaust Museum,
http://www.ushmm.org/outreach/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007677.
75 http://www.ushmm.org/outreach/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007677
76 http://www.ushmm.org/outreach/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007677
77 http://www.ushmm.org/outreach/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007677
78 http://www.ushmm.org/outreach/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007677
79 http://www.ushmm.org/outreach/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007677
80 http://www.ushmm.org/outreach/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007677
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were condemned. 81 Nazi students began to burn books as he spoke and soon after,
libraries across Germany were rid of these censored books. Goebbels, during his
speech, described the act as a, “cleansing of the German spirit. 82 By effectively
censoring the masses, the Nazi Party was able to gain control rather quickly. With
Goebbels in charge as the perfect propagandist, the group worked to brainwash
their followers.
Perhaps the first time that Nazi propaganda was displayed to foreign
countries was the Olympic Games of 1936 in Berlin. 83 Never before had
broadcasting to such an extent taken place during previous games. 84 The German
anti-Semitics were changing the use of broadcasting as it was known throughout the
world. Goebbels personally managed the propaganda arrangements and produced
an image of cheerful people filled with vigor.85 At this point, anti-Semitic regulations
such as “Jews not admitted” were being posted at hotels and restaurants, but in
order to convince other countries across the world, all such displays were
removed. 86 By removing various propaganda images during the games, countries
across the world were convinced that Germany was a strong and happy country. 87
More importantly, Goebbels was able to convince the world that Hitler was a
graceful and powerful dictator. Two years prior, after the president Paul von
Hindenburg had died, Hitler gained power and merged chancellor and presidential
http://www.ushmm.org/outreach/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007677
http://www.ushmm.org/outreach/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007677
83 Rhodes, 20.
84 Rhodes, 20.
85 Rhodes, 20.
86 Rhodes, 20.
87 Rhodes, 20.
81
82
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roles shown all displayed through the radio broadcasts. 88 The two positions were
separate before as the president could veto, sign laws and appoint a chancellor to
the lower house of parliament, the Bundestag (Lower House of German
Parliament). 89 The chancellor, however, holds power of the federal government and
ultimately lays down the guidelines of government policy. 90 This authority allows
the Federal Chancellor a wide array of tools of leadership. 91 By merging the two
positions, Hitler was given ultimate power.
The years 1940 to 1942 were Goebbels’ and Hitler’s golden years of
propaganda. 92 Murals were revived and soon became one of the most important
features of Nazi art. 93 The Nazis coordinated all the arts in their public buildings,
particularly advancing propaganda even through architecture and mural
decoration. 94 These mural and fresco paintings provided work for thousands of
artists on various surfaces. 95 The propaganda value of these huge paintings, which
forced visitors to look when entering buildings, public halls and schools, which
housed them, was considerable. 96 They were reproduced in newspapers and
Rhodes, 20.
“Political System,” Facts about Germany: The Federal Chancellor and the
Government, http://www.tatsachen-ueber-deutschland.de/en/politicalsystem/main-content-04/the-federal-chancellor-and-the-government.html
90 http://www.tatsachen-ueber-deutschland.de/en/political-system/main-content04/the-federal-chancellor-and-the-government.html
91 http://www.tatsachen-ueber-deutschland.de/en/political-system/main-content04/the-federal-chancellor-and-the-government.html
92 S.L. Mayer, Introduction to Signal Years of Triumph (1940-42); Hitler’s Wartime
Picture Magazine , (Prentice Hall Inc., Eaglewood, NJ, 1978).
93 Rhodes, 25.
94 Rhodes, 25.
95 Rhodes, 25.
96 Rhodes, 25.
88
89
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magazines all over the country. 97 These murals had little artistic influence, which
didn’t matter because it was moreso about the content. 98 The streets of cities across
Germany were being transformed into propaganda. 99 The same subjects that were
being taught in schools were being presented in these murals. 100 Injustice to which
the Nazis believe that the Germans had been subjected since 1919, the romance of
war, the superiority of the physical of the intellectual was being reinforced through
the propaganda pictures and being pressed into the minds of the impressionable
youth of Germany. 101 Propaganda had become a mind game, brainwashing citizens
across Germany to believe what those in power wanted.
As Hitler’s forces spread in the spring of 1940 and overran most of Western
Europe, the first issues of the Nazi Party’s magazine Signal appeared. 102 Signal
recorded only Germany’s greatest triumphs captured by the photographers who
were sent with the troops. 103 The German Propaganda Kompanie Einheitein
(Propaganda Company Units/PK Units) initials were on all of the war reports,
articles and pictures as they were published. 104 The PK were treated equally to
soldiers and were allowed on the front lines receiving the same rate of pay as
Rhodes, 25.
Rhodes, 25.
99 Rhodes, 26.
100 Rhodes, 25.
101 Rhodes, 25.
102 S.L. Mayer, Introduction.
103 S.L. Mayer, Blitzkreig-North.
104 S.L. Mayer, Blitzkreig-North.
97
98
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well. 105 Clearly, Hitler and Goebbels understood the importance of the PK units as
they were given almost an equal responsibility as a soldier. 106
The units were a living and vivid part of the war from day to day as they
captured the triumphs of their country. 107 After the Germans finished their
campaign in the west from May 10 to June 1940, Signal turned its attention to
political indoctrination and cultural news. 108 One of the first principal purposes of
Signal was to convince their audience that the war was not only won but over. 109
Their aim was to show the good that their nation was doing while other countries
such as England and the United States were the enemy that could only bring harm.
All of the European populations that were now under the control of the swastika or
at least its influence as in Spain, Switzerland and Sweden, had to be convinced that
the victorious Reich was the legitimate center of culture and the recipient of the
center of European civilization. 110
Hitler as well as Goebbels, recognized not only the necessity of winning the
war but publicizing Germany’s victories to the full. 111 Although, as time progressed
the magazine became the least effective instrument of Goebbel’s propaganda, it still
portrayed many important images. 112 The magazine exhibited many propaganda
images from maps of warfare movement to typical propaganda images which where
S.L. Mayer, Blitzkreig-North.
S.L. Mayer, Blitzkreig-North.
107 S.L. Mayer, The New Order.
108 S.L. Mayer, Introduction.
109 S.L. Mayer, Introduction.
110 S.L. Mayer, The New Order.
111 S.L. Mayer, Blitzkreig-North.
112 S.L. Mayer, Introduction.
105
106
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all overseen by Goebbels, Hitler and Wehrmacht (German Army). 113 Many images of
the Wehrmacht’s progress were included in Signal, which included spreads of
soldiers pushing the front and securing land. 114 However, it seemed to only display
and discussed the positives, stating that these areas, such as Britain, were under
better control than before. One spread presented the Battle of Britain showing the
German army hard at work protecting their country. The pilots were captured in
photographs with captions that read, “All machines on their way back from London
undamaged, boys.” 115
Only positive words were used to show the prosperity
that the army was going to restore. The magazine also
included layouts with images of the art museum that Hitler
had created envisioned. It showed Goebbels hard at work
giving a speech at the opening of the “House of German
Figure 2: “In the House of
German Art In Munich”, S.L.
Mayer, Signal Magazine, 194042; Hitler’s Wartime Picture
Magazine , (Prentice Hall Inc.,
Eaglewood, NJ, 1978)
Art.” 116 The captions detail his speech and the works that dealt
with creative art during the war. 117 These were works that the
Nazis truly believed represented Germany during this era
filled with power, strength and a determination to fight for a
better future. 118 The magazine instilled in the minds of Germany that their troops
S.L. Mayer, Blitzkreig-North.
S.L. Mayer, Blitzkreig-North.
115 S.L Mayer, The War with Britain.
116 S.L. Mayer, In the “House of German Art” in Munich.
117 S.L. Mayer, In the “House of German Art” in Munich.
118 S.L. Mayer, In the “House of German Art” in Munich.
113
114
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would banish war from the continent. 119 This idea brought hope to citizens during a
short age of prosperity. This time was filled with happiness but would be short-lived
as the mood and health of the country declined as war progressed.
Film and posters were the most common propaganda tool of the Nazi Party.
Posters were typically represented in the Word of the Week. 120 This series of posters
were placed on walls throughout the streets of Germany. 121 Nazi propagandists
drew on mass reproduction of photos in the press to add face to the names and
arrows of influence that had adorned the popular wall newspapers first created
during the second week of December 1941. 122 These posters began to show the
international Jewish conspiracy more as a group of actual people than an abstract
thought. 123 The posters pointed an accusing finger at the Jews as the party guilty for
every German death and injury. 124 Image and text paired in these posters offered a
compelling explanation of how the Jews, so few in number, could have been so
successful in plotting against Germany. 125 These posters impressed passersby with
specific names and graphic illustrations done with expertise. 126
For those who were immersed in the Nazi context, it also was convincing
with the impression of a complex, well-researched and compelling casual
S.L. Mayer, 1940 European Decision: Germany banished the war from the
Continent.
120 Jeffrey Herf, The Jewish Enemy: Nazi Propaganda During World War II and the
Holocaust, (The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge,
Massachusetts), 274.
121 Herf, 130.
122 Herf, 130.
123 Herf, 131.
124 Herf, 133.
125 Herf, 130.
126 Herf, 130.
119
18
explanation of why three of the most powerful countries in the world were
declaring war with Germany. 127 The more the allies joined together against the
German armed forces, the more Goebbels and his propagandists asserted that the
Jews were guilty and would soon pay for their crimes. 128 Posters were becoming
more popular during these years and as the Wannsee Conference approached, a
plan was set 129. On January 20, 1942, Reinhard Heydrich, a high-ranking official,
presented the Nazi Party’s plans for murdering eleven million European Jews to
officials representing government ministries whose cooperation would be
required. 130 None of this information was leaked to
the press—or if it was, nothing appeared in
print. 131Following this some months later, the
Propaganda Ministry would create a Word of the
Figure 3: Everyone knows that whoever wears
this is an enemy of our people,
“Photo Archives,” United States Holocaust
Museum,
http://digitalassets.ushmm.org/photoarchives
/detail.aspx?id=1155552&search=star&index=
72
Week on July 1, 2942. 132 In bold type alongside a
yellow Star of David with Jew printed in the poster,
“Everyone knows that whoever wears this is an
enemy of our people.” 133 The ruthless slogans began
filling the posters to alert the masses.
Herf, 130.
Herf, 133.
129 Herf, 139.
130 Herf, 139.
131 Herf, 139.
132 Herf, 151.
133 Herf, 151.
127
128
19
Many of the posters manipulated the enemy, twisting their words to show
what a catastrophe it would be if the Germans
lost the war. 134 For example, during the
summer of 1941, after the British-Soviet
alliance, the Propaganda Ministry published
“Juden Kemplo gegen Europa” (Jewish
Conspiracy against Europe). 135 This poster
depicted the stereotypical image of a Soviet
commissar shaking hands with an overweight
Figure 4: Jewish Conspiracy Against Europe,
“Juden Komplott Gegen Europa! [Jewish Plot Against
Europe”], Imperial War Museums,
http://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/37
British bourgeois in a striking
multicolored poster. 136 The two are
standing on a map that places their
handshake directly over Germany as they look down from high above the earth. 137
Above them, safely away from the action on the ground, is a caricature of a Jewish
head shown with an approving smile as the two finalize the scheme. 138 The male
figure looking down has a beard, nose and lips that was intended to suggest a
stereotypical disembodied Jew. 139 This imagery of the Jew would soon be depicted
everywhere on propaganda. It showed the hatred behind every Jew and their plot
with all enemy’s to destroy Germany. 140 No enemy of Germany was safe from the
Herf, 146.
Herf, 143.
136 Herf, 143.
137 Herf, 143.
138 Herf, 143.
139 Herf, 143.
140 Herf, 143.
134
135
20
Propaganda Ministry’s propaganda. Many wall newspaper’s attacked the British as
an agent to the Jewish. 141 The wall newspaper, as a Word of the Week, manipulated
a quotation describing Nazi propaganda about British war aims into one where
Roosevelt himself supposedly advocated those aims. 142 These manipulations
visualized what would happen if Germany lost.
Film was the strongest medium of propaganda
after the poster. The most famous of the Propaganda
Ministry’s films was Jew Suss (Suss the Jew). 143 This
was a different form of propaganda than ever
before. 144 Released in 1936, the film was a disgusting
Figure 5: Suss the Jew,
“The Second World War: Art and
Culture, The film ‘Jud Suess’”,
Lebendiges Museum Online,
https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/de
r-zweite-weltkrieg/kunst-undkultur/film-jud-suess.html
anti-Semitic film set in the Middle Ages. 145 It depicted
a repulsive, crook-nosed Jew who threatens a German
woman that if she does not let him rape her, he will
have her fiancé broken on the wheel. 146 After the
rape, the heroine, like a good German commits suicide. 147 The hanging of the Jew at
the end was described by a German critic, “a joyous crescendo.” 148 This imagery was
typical in these repulsive films created by Goebbels and his team. Another important
film to this division of the Propaganda Ministry was Der ewige Jude (The Eternal or
Herf, 146.
Herf, 146.
143 Rhodes, 20.
144 Rhodes, 20.
145 Rhodes, 20.
146 Rhodes, 20.
147 Rhodes, 20.
148 Rhodes, 20.
141
142
21
Wandering Jew). Although it was heavily and properly promoted by Goebbels, the
film was a failure in the box office. 149
Regardless, the Nazi Party believed it delivered an important message as the,
“first film that not only gives a full picture of Jewry, but provides a broad treatment
of the life and effects of this parasitic race using genuine material taken from real
life. It also shows why healthy peoples in every age
have responded to the Jews with disgust and
loathing, often enough expressing their feelings
though deeds.” 150 Along with the film, the poster
advertised with it, portrayed the stereotypical Jew
looking hauntingly out at the viewer instilling fear. 151
The film compares the Jewish race to rats explaining
Figure 6: Der Jude: The Eternal or
Wandering Jew film poster, “State of
Deception: The Power of Nazi Propaganda:
Der Ewige Jude (The Eternal or Wandering
Jew), United States Holocaust Museum,
http://www.ushmm.org/information/press
/press-kits/traveling-exhibitions/state-ofdeception/der-ewige-jude-the-eternal-orwandering-jew
how they have infected the lives of many. 152 Films
and posters worked together to bring, what the
“Der ewige Jude (The Eternal or Wandering Jew)The Holocaust : A Learning Site
for Students, US Holocaust Museum,
http://www.ushmm.org/information/press/press-kits/traveling-exhibitions/state-ofdeception/der-ewige-jude-the-eternal-or-wandering-jew
150 “The Eternal Jew: The Film of a 2000-Year Rat Migration”, Calvin College: German
Propaganda Archive, http://research.calvin.edu/german-propagandaarchive/ewig.htm
151 http://www.ushmm.org/information/press/press-kits/travelingexhibitions/state-of-deception/der-ewige-jude-the-eternal-or-wandering-jew
152 http://www.ushmm.org/information/press/press-kits/travelingexhibitions/state-of-deception/der-ewige-jude-the-eternal-or-wandering-jew
149
22
Nazi Party believed, important messages to the citizens of Germany and the rest of
the world. 153
There were also propagandists working against Germany while inside the
powerhouse. One of the most iconic of the group was John Heartfield (formerly
Helmut Herzfeld). He changed his name to John Heartfield in protest of the German
military slogan, “May God punish England”. 154 By changing his name to a
quintessentially English-sounding name in 1916 he showed his alliance with
Germany’s enemy. 155 A Dada artist before the war, he was a pioneer in the use of
the poster and art as a political weapon. 156 Not only that, but he was the so-called
father of photomontage. 157 Working in Germany, unlike the Games and the German
Ministry, he did not work for the state. Instead, he was a member of many artists’
groups that protested the Nazis being in power. The most significant groups that
Heartfield joined were the Workers Illustrated Newspaper (Arbeiter-Illustierte-
Zeitung/AIZ) as well as the Communist Party of Germany. 158 He made some of his
most daring photomontages after his initial membership to the AIZ. 159
Heartfield, along with the group, sought to discredit the idea of Nazis as
representative of everyday working people. 160 His photomontages were composed
http://www.ushmm.org/information/press/press-kits/travelingexhibitions/state-of-deception/der-ewige-jude-the-eternal-or-wandering-jew
154 Stephen J. Eskilson, Graphic Design: A New History, Second Edition, (Yale
University Press, New Haven, CT, 2012), 136.
155 Eskilson, 136.
156 Belli, Bertelli, and Celant, 132.
157 Belli, Bertelli, and Celant 132.
158 Zervigón, 275.
159 Zervigón, 275.
160 Zervigón, 275.
153
23
of gruesome photo-fragments with slogans slapped across
in protest of anything Nazi related, especially Hitler. 161
Typically the text remained simplistic through the use of
elementary typographic bands in black and white against a
red or white backdrop. 162 The photo-fragments came from
Figure 7: Adolf the Superman:
Swallows Gold and Spouts
Junk.
“Agitated Images: John
Heartfield & German
Photomontage, 1920-1938,”
The J. Paul Getty Museum,
http://www.getty.edu/art/ex
hibitions/heartfield/
found photographs, which he recycled to create a powerful
political effect. 163 He chose recognizable press photographs
of politicians or events from the mainstream illustrated
press. 164 This allowed him to create loaded and politically
contentious images. 165 His most famous image was of Adolf
Hitler. Titled Adolf the Superman: Swallows Gold and Spouts Junk, the image was
created as a political poster for use in the 1932 elections. 166 It was used to
undermine the politician’s public speaking ability through caricature. 167 The poster
was an artful combination of Hitler, an x-rayed torso, and a cascade of gold coins. 168
Heartfield aimed to call attention to the wealthy industrialists who funded
the Nazi party. 169 Throughout all of his photomontage, he aimed at fulfilling
photography’s potential as a weapon of political struggle. 170 He radicalized
161
Zervigón, 275.
Belli, Bertelli, and Celant, 132.
163 “Agitated Images: John Heartfield & German Photomontage, 1920-1938” The J.
Paul Getty Museum, www.getty.edu/art/exhibitions/heartfield/
164 www.getty.edu/art/exhibitions/heartfield/
165 www.getty.edu/art/exhibitions/heartfield
166 Zervigón, 275.
167 Zervigón, 275.
168 Eskilson, 275.
169 Zervigón, 275.
170 Belli, Bertelli, and Celant, 172-173.
162
24
mechanical processes such as photography, airbrushing, photogravure and
photolithography by going beyond illustration techniques. 171 Heartfield himself
summed up his intent by saying, “The poster must become a new, powerful weapon
of socialist propaganda with the objective of influencing the broadest popular
masses.” 172 Heartfield fled to Czeschoslovakia and settled in Britain after Hitler
consolidated power in 1933. 173
The SS (Nazi Party’s Schutzstaffel/Protective Squadron) broke into his
apartment, aware of his posters and their intent. 174 Heartfield created a bridge
between Germany and England through his propaganda. He, along with other
propagandists, was conscious of the weapon of propaganda being used in each
country. He continued to work in England after he fled from the Nazis, joining the
enemy of the Nazi Party. 175
While Germany was producing propaganda to instill fear of defeat in their
citizens, other countries created propaganda to spread the truth of Germany’s
actions as well as to boost their citizenry’s morale. Several other countries created
organizations to function as Ministries of Propaganda as World War II
approached. 176 Never before, in previous wars, had such committees or any
comparable organizations existed. 177 Great Britain saw the need to create divisions
Belli, Bertelli, and Celant, 172-173.
Belli, Bertelli, and Celant, 172-173.
173 Zervigón, 275.
174 Zervigón, 275.
175 Zervigón, 275.
176 Ian McLaine, Ministry of Morale: Home Front Morale and the Ministry of
Information in World War II (Allen & Unwin, London, 1979), 12.
177 McLaine, 12.
171
172
25
in a subcommittee to prepare for any pre-war legislative and executive measures
that might be necessary. 178 In October 1935, a subcommittee of the Committee of
Imperial Defense was created for the purpose of preparing broad guidelines for the
establishment of a Ministry of Information ahead of the outbreak of a war. 179
According to author Ian McLaine, the function the Ministry would be to:
…present the national case to the public at home and abroad in time of
war. To achieve this end it is not only necessary to provide for the
preparation and issue of National Propaganda, but also for the issue of
‘news’ and for such control of information issued to the public as may
be demanded by the needs of security. 180
Great Britain sought to inform its citizens in many ways through five
principle divisions of the Ministry that were created to spread information:
including News, Control (censorship), Publicity, Collecting (Intelligence) and
Administration. 181 The Home Office directed affairs including overseeing the
planning of each division. 182
British propaganda in visual form was created by the Home Publicity
Subcommittee, which was responsible for investigating ways in which
domestic propaganda should be conducted. 183 The Subcommittee clearly
stated its objectives with a strong focus on the public’s well-being and the
collaborative importance of Britain’s allies. 184 The Subcommittee directed its
efforts on performing a service for the public while simultaneously
McLaine, 12.
McLaine, 12.
180 McLaine, 12.
181 McLaine,12.
182 McLaine, 12.
183 McLaine, 18-19.
184 McLaine, 18-19.
178
179
26
countering any enemy propaganda. 185 By doing so, they believed that the
public could be kept “in good heart” and prepared for any new measures that
were to be taken by the Government. 186
Propaganda policy was deliberated in two committees. The first
committee was the Policy Committee, comprised of the Minister and his chief
executive officers. 187 Their assignment was to formulate and approve the
departmental policy over the whole range of the Ministry’s domestic and
overseas functions. 188 A subordinate of the Policy Committee was the
Planning Committee, whose task was to formulate the means for carrying out
domestic policy and to recommend courses of action to maintain civilian
morale. 189 The Ministry of Morale worked with all divisions of propaganda as
well as the morale of the home front. 190
Despite the Ministry’s claim of concern for the public during this time
of war, it was apparent as the war progressed, there seemed to be a marked
progression of more interest in attacking the enemy. 191 Anti-German
propaganda began to rapidly appear and the ministry saw it as a prime duty
on the home front that, “by the dissemination of the truth to attack the
enemy in the minds of public, it became clear as it progressed that
statements made about the enemy represented a deliberate attempt to
McLaine,18-19.
McLaine,18-19.
187 McLaine, 138.
188 McLaine, 138.
189 McLaine, 138.
190 McLaine, 137.
191 McLaine, 137.
185
186
27
manipulate public opinion and attitude.” 192 As propaganda took shape in the
ministry, it was evident that the truth represented by the committee’s
propaganda was presented to the public to serve specific ends for the
Ministry’s mission.193 As psychologist E.H. Henderson explains, the aim of a
propagandist is to indoctrinate a certain attitude by the means, which
prevent critical thinking. 194 Put simply, that is, propaganda only reflects what
the government wants the public to believe, which, in this instance,
continuously included that the home forces were successfully defending the
public while the opposing forces were determined to cause utter destruction
to Britain’s way of life.
England had developed a system of propaganda similar to Germany. England
enlisted various artists deemed as the “Official War Artists.” 195 These artists would
urge Britons to do whatever they could to support the war funds and soldiers
fighting the battle. 196 The most common medium of propaganda was, of course, the
poster. Artists such as Abram Games created visually striking juxtapositions of
illustration and typography. 197
Games designed more than one hundred posters that were unlike any other
poster created before. 198 Some of his work was believed to be too striking for having
McLaine,137.
McLaine, 137.
194 McLaine, 137-138.
195 P. Rennie, “Review: Abram Games Graphic Designer: Maximum Meaning,
Minimum Means.” Journal of Design History 17.3 (2004), 1.
196 Rennie, 1.
197 Rennie, 1.
198 Rennie, 1.
192
193
28
seductive models and in some posters incorporating
arresting images of war. 199 One of Games’ most notorious
posters was what he titled, “Your Talk May Kill
Comrades” done in 1942 around the same time as the
release of the German Word of the Week. 200 Spiraling
forms flow out of the soldier’s mouth that rapidly turn
Figure 8: Your Talk May Kill Your
Comrades. Victoria and Albert
Museum,
http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item
/O76697/your-talk-may-killyour-poster-games-abram/
into a blood-red bayonet that kills three of the soldier’s
comrades. This poster, however, was simplistic in its
design.
Games believed in the idea of “maximum gains
from minimum means.” He tended to stick with simple forms illuminated by strong
colors to get the meaning across to the viewers. 201 This poster, along with his others,
were part of a British war campaign. 202 Similar to how Goebbels oversaw all
propaganda, Britain set up a committee to do the task. 203
The War Artists Advisory Committee (WAAC) required hired artists to
produce a style that was readily accessible to the public through images that would
create patriotic defense of the nation. 204 This group of artists needed to able to
record the war at home and abroad in cooperation with the rest of the Ministry. 205
Rennie, 1.
Rennie, 1.
201 Rennie, 1.
202 Rennie, 1.
203 McClosky, 69.
204 McClosky, 69.
205 McClosky, 69.
199
200
29
Abram Games’ work was acquired by the committee which contributed to the WAAC
idea of creating avant-garde art, not merely propaganda. 206
Art and its wartime presence, transformed the defense of British culture into
a matter of urgent importance not solely for the country, but also for the future of a
world civilization threatened by the spread of dictatorship and war. 207 Working
under the WAAC, Games was able to create lithographs of striking images that
would remain memorable as iconic posters of World War II. 208 Games and the entire
ministry strove to provide truth and support for its citizens as well as reassurance
of the end of the war. 209 Both Games and Heartfield created politically charged
posters that changed propaganda forever. The two used styles and techniques never
used before and were iconic. Despite their differences, it is clear that both impacted
propaganda forever.
Psychologically, propaganda was a mind game. No matter which country was
producing it during World War II, it always had a similar objective: to control public
opinion and win the public over through the continuation of propaganda. Clearly,
victory was on the minds of every country despite their differences in approach to
propaganda. For Hitler, who devoted two entire chapters in his autobiographical
manifesto to the topic, he believed that propaganda was the most important
department of a group. 210 He stated in the manifesto, “Propaganda tries to force a
Rennie, 1.
McClosky, 69.
208 Rennie, 1.
209 McClosky, 69.
210 Zervigón, 12.
206
207
30
doctrine on the whole people…the victory of an idea will be possible the
sooner…propaganda has prepared people as a whole…” 211
Hitler completely understood the importance of propaganda even though he
would later admit defeat to the enemy’s posters and general propaganda. 212 The
Allies (Britain, US and Soviet Union) were determined to fight through the use of
propaganda even if it meant unconditional surrender. 213 Germany especially
enforced the doctrine of propaganda by only showing their idea of truth throughout
the war. 214 While, England enforced that their propaganda was for the morale of the
soldiers, homeland and to emulate the Nazis. 215 Each country was aware of the
other’s use of propaganda and attempted to surpass it. The two during this time
were clearly two of the greatest propagandists, each using new techniques through
art and psychology.
Once the premise of art as a psychological and artistic weapon is accepted, it
is straightforward to view it through the theoretical framework of Marxism.
Marxism combines with this idea in the accessibility of art, class and production of
propaganda. 216 Propaganda and art, in a theoretical framework of Marxism, are
readily created by every individual as well as being part of economic production. 217
Hitler reinstated this idea that everyone can be artist. He himself was an active artist
Hitler, 582.
Herf, 231.
213 Herf, 238.
214 Herf, 216.
215 McLaine, 138.
216 Anne D’Alleva, Methods and Theories of Art History, (Laurence King Publishing
LTD, London, UK, 2012), 51.
217 D’Alleva, 53.
211
212
31
and took over the management of propaganda upon his entrance into the German
Worker’s Party after the First World War. 218
This relates to Goebbels’ focus on art overwhelming the masses. 219 He saw
that, in order for the Nazi campaign to be successful, it had to be accessible, readily
produced, as well as present to all citizens. 220 Marxism also pushes the mindset of
art being a division of labor. 221 This can applied to the example of Ministries of
Propaganda in every country. England and Germany both set up organizations,
although extremely different in purpose and organization, which divided labor
amongst various artists, publicists, and other positions. 222 England set up their
Ministry of Propaganda that had various sections related to the distribution of
propaganda no matter the form. 223 Each assigned a task to ensure victory. Germany
also created their own version of the Ministry of Propaganda and distributed the
efforts, although the main focus seemed to rather be on propaganda than morale as
was England’s professed focus. 224
The final aspect in the relationship of Marxism and propaganda is the way in
which art creates social relationships. 225 It is similar to the idea of its relation to
economic production, however, this viewpoint explains that art enriches these
social relationships. 226 Art relates both to the person or subject being depicted as
Hiler, 579.
Rhodes, 13.
220 Rhodes, 13.
221 D’Alleva, 51.
222 McLaine, 12.
223 McLaine, 30.
224 Herf, 127.
225 D’Alleva, 52.
226 D’Alleva, 52.
218
219
32
well as commenting on the human condition. 227 In World War II, this can be applied
to the subjects being shown and the condition of the country during the war. For
example, Germany frequently depicted its prosperous soldiers in posters and
magazines while at the height of the war, their country was suffering. 228It was
difficult to hide their predicted defeat in the propaganda that was distributed
towards the end of the war. 229 Everything would be rationed amongst civilians as
they were forced to show continued support to the Nazi Party and the soldiers. 230
While propaganda showed nothing but a prosperous future, it ended up
being the opposite in the homeland. England on the other hand, was rather
regulated throughout the war. 231 There was a constant concern of attack on the
country after the Blitz and similar to Germany, rations were distributed. 232Public
awareness was heightened while propaganda focused on the morale of the country
and support of troops. 233 Marxism shows how propaganda was able to be rapidly
produced almost to the extent of a machine and created a connection and awareness
of it as an art form and its connection to each country.
Propaganda was rarely used before World War II, and even in the case where
it was, it was nowhere as significant as the weapon that was created during this era.
D’Alleva, 52.
Walter Taub, “Report on the German People,” Collier’s Magazine (October 16,
1943), 19.
229 Herf, 214.
230 Taub, 19.
231 Museum of London, “What was Life Like in London during World War II?”, 1,
http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/files/8413/7052/6622/WhatwaslifelikeinLo
ndonduringWorldWarII.pdf
232 McClosky, 69.
233 Museum of London, 4.
227
228
33
It was not only an art form but also was psychological. New techniques were used to
rapidly produce and distribute the various forms of propaganda. Artists were
enlisted to create vibrant typographical posters and murals, which were never seen
before. Psychologically, propaganda was able to essentially brainwash citizens to
believe their country was winning and the enemy was doing harm, while in
Germany’s case it was quite the opposite.
Nevertheless, before this significant war, propaganda was nowhere near as
instrumental and effective as it grew to be. As an art form, it forever changed the
world, both in the way art was produced and how propaganda was used. The artists
who designed these various posters knew the power their art held. By using
compositional techniques that were new, they were able to disempower the enemy
and support their countries. Art and propaganda became one during the war thus
creating a powerhouse in political culture.
34
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