SPANISH FASHION
IN MOROCCO
Group 2:
Sebastian Fiedler
Carme Fonseca
Nusa Kutnjak
Parvana Mutallimova
Veronica Ochoa
Georges Taminiau
Index
1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Goal & Scope
4. Problem Statement
5. Results
5.1 Current marked Morocco
5.2 Sustainable companies
5.3 Why do they accept this work?
5.4 What is the price for sustainable clothing?
5.5 Which parties to work with?
5.6 Assessment Methods
6. Conclusion
7. References
1
2
3
3
3
7
8
8
10
10
12
13
1
1. Introduction
Nowadays one of the biggest challenges is to improve the living conditions of the population
and at the same time protect the environment, especially vulnerable sectors.
Recently, the Moroccan sector has undergone a recovery, in which Spanish companies have
played an important role both quantitatively, by becoming its largest customer in Spain, and
qualitatively, since the requirements of fast fashion from some Spanish companies encourage
to improve local production companies. In the final disposal of the said shares, Morocco was
forced to diversify their production and increase their efficiency, but the way used to make the
textile sector most competitive is through the fraudulent and exploitative practices under the
pretext that in emerging industries, maintaining an inflexible and hard-liner stance can only lead
to an exodus of investor.
Many thousands of jobs have been created in the textile and clothing industry but the living
conditions of the people doing this work are especially tough. Working weeks of up to 76 hours,
salaries below both the legal minimum and the survival threshold, an extremely high percentage
of female workers with no contracts or social protection whatsoever and unhealthy working
conditions.
This study contributes to several mechanisms and analysis of different theories to propose
options to improve the conditions of people in Morocco affected by labor exploitation,
environmental pollution and neglect of its authorities which only seeking sources of higher
foreign investment.
2. Methodology
The study is mainly based on literature and internet research. Databases used are the scientific
libraries of the relative universities as well as Google. The corresponding information was
collected and discussed among the group members and working packages were defined and
divided within the group.
This theoretical analysis, uses the selection and discussion of theoretical and descriptive
material, in context, and detailed comparison of theories in terms of their applicability. This
study has used useful concepts for understanding particular patterns of the Fashion in Morocco.
Here, the focus of attention is discover different ways to improve the situation in the textile
industry in Morocco, especially with the labor force, the clean clothes and the sustainability.
The following model shows the process used to develop the study, using different techniques to
obtain the information:
2
Research topics
•Marocco, currentmarked
•Marocco,
sustainable
companies
•How to control the company
fromSpain?
•Economics: what is the price
for sustainable clothing?
•Which parties to work with?
•Assesment tool, what to
asses?
Techniques
Mode
Opinion
•Inductive Mode
Strategy
•Deductive Mode
Group
Brainstorming
Primary
Content
analysis
Secundary
Content
analysis
Archival
Figure 1. Methodology model
3. Goal & Scope
The overall aim of this report is to point out the mechanisms of planning, operating and
evaluating the production of sustainable textiles, by assuming to be a small company that
intends to produce clothes in Morocco. In order to achieve this aim, the following goals have
been defined:
 Define the sustainability of textiles with all its dimensions
 Identify and characterize the stakeholders involved
 Explore mechanisms, underlying processes and indicators of sustainable clothing
production
4. Problem Statement
Morocco has had significant growth in the textile sector due to the investment of foreign
companies, currently a major is Spain, so it is crucial to analyze the negative effects that this
growth has caused, not only in the environmental field, because according to several studies,
the most affected area is the labor force, whose operation is ongoing and authorities have not
taken the necessary measures. To analyze the information we have raised the following issues:
 Current marked Morocco
 Sustainable companies
 How to control the company from Spain?
 What is the price for sustainable clothing?
 Which parties to work with?
 Assessment Methods
5. Results
5.1 Current marked Morocco
The textile, clothing and leather sector is one of the traditional sectors in the Moroccan
economy. The GTAP (Global trade analysis project) baseline projections show that the most
represented sector is the leather sector with 44%, closely followed by the clothing sector with
41% and less represented textile sector with 15%.
3
Textiles, clothing and leather sector in
Morocco
Textiles
15%
leather
44%
clothing
41%
There are four main regions where clothing products are produced; around the cities of
Casablanca, Fes, Rabat, and Tangier. Each of these regions has specific characteristics in terms
of historical development, buyers, and sourcing models.
Historically, the city of Fes has been the heart of the Moroccan clothing industry.
Because of the competitive production in Fes, there are relatively low labor costs.
This shows in low skill level of the labor force, which stands in contrast to for example Rabat,
where employees tend to be more senior and high skilled. This has led to products from Rabat
having a high quality, and a work environment with relatively high social standards. In fact, such
consideration has been part of the general business strategy of companies located in the region.
Unsatisfying working conditions and low wages have caused a migration of workers from
primarily Fes to Casablanca and Tangier, where factory owners tend to be younger and foster a
more dynamic working environment including higher social standards. In Fes firms are by and
large focused on the production of traditional apparel items destined for the domestic market.
On the other hand, companies in Casablanca, Rabat, and Tangier have more modern production
facilities and infrastructure. These are typically the regions that are producing for the export
market.
Basically, there are three types of arrangements between Moroccan producers and European
suppliers in the industry. These types of arrangements differ by their degree of vertical
integration. Traditionally, firms operate under so-called "cut-make-trim" (CMT) agreements,
where fabric and other inputs are supplied by the client to the producer (contractor); this is the
lowest extent of integration along the value chain. However, there are also cases where clients
supply cut fabrics and the supplier only makes and trims the products. This is often arranged
through subcontracting. In 2010, it was estimated that 50% to 70% of all arrangement fall within
the CMT category. As such, Moroccan firms simply produce the goods without any value-added
services attached. There is also a third option and under this arrangement the supplier can
contribute to design additions or fabric suggestions. However, sourcing of inputs and the
associated financial risk remains the responsibility of the buying entity.
On the buying side, the EU has the biggest share in the Moroccan export market. Traditionally,
Morocco has very strong ties with the EU 15 countries, which accounted for an export share of
approximately 87% in 2009. The main markets are Spain, France, the UK, and Germany. French
and British buyers favor a continuous sourcing arrangement remaining in control of a larger part
of the value chain.
4
Figure 1: Top 5 exports to EU28 in 2012
Product Description
Product
Code
Trade value in Unit
Share in
EUR
value in EU imports
EUR/kg
Women's or girls' suits, ensembles, 6204
jackets, blazers, dresses, skirts, divided
skirts, trousers, bib and brace overalls,
breeches and shorts (other than
swimwear)
716,333,956
39.19
6,8 %
Men's or boys' suits, ensembles, jackets, 6203
blazers, trousers bib and brace overalls,
breeches and shorts (other than
swimwear)
300,044,496
30,87
3,7 %
T-shirts, singlet’s and other vests, knitted 6109
or crocheted
255,327,777
13,04
3%
Footwear with outer soles of rubber, 6403
plastics, leather or composition leather
and uppers of leather Sports footwear
202,537,366
38,37
2,8 %
Women's or girls' suits, ensembles, 6104
jackets, blazers, dresses, skirts, divided
skirts, trousers, bib and brace overalls,
breeches and shorts (other than swim
wear), knitted or crocheted
133,662,561
26,02
3%
The content in figure 1 presents the Top 5 export goods of the textile, leather, and clothing
sector to the EU in 2012. Four products fall within the clothing industry, whereas footwear
(6403) falls within the leather industry. Overall, the shares of the five products in EU imports are
relatively small, however, these shares differ significantly between Member States of the EU.
For example Spain has respective shares of 20% and 11% for women’s or girls suits (6204) and
men’s of boys’ suits (6203).
In 2012, Morocco exported over € 700 million worth of these goods to the EU with an average
unit value of almost € 40 per kg. In total, the value of the top 5 export goods to the EU amounted
to €1.6 billion in 2012. With a total export value of € 3.3 billion of textile, leather, and clothing
goods to the EU the Top 5 products make up about half of the sector’s EU exports.
5
Figure 2: Top 5 export goods by Top 5 destinations
Figure 2 shows the top 5 destinations of the products presented in figure 1. Besides these five
export destinations Portugal, Belgium, as well as the Czech Republic are prominent markets for
the presented products. Overall, these export markets make up more than 90% of the total
exports in these product categories. This shows that Morocco is relatively dependent on a
relatively few number of export destinations.
By far the largest export market is Spain, particularly for women’s and girls’ suits (6204), of which
almost half of total exports is shipped to Spain. With a market share of over 40% Spain is also
the top export market for men’s or boys’ suits (6203).
Figure 3: Exports to EU 28 of top 5 products 2007-2012
Figure 3 shows developments of exports to the EU of the top 5 products between 2007 and
2012. It clearly demonstrates that the five goods were impacted differently by the economic
crisis starting in 2008. While there was no negative impact on export of shoes (6403) and knitted
women’s and girls’ suits (6104), exports of the other three products plummeted. In contrast to
women’s and girls’ suits (6204) and T-shirts (6109), export of men’s and boys’ suits (6203) do
not show any signs of recovery and remain significantly below pre-crisis levels.
6
The reason that Moroccan textile, leather and clothing export percentage so high is and so many
companies manufacture their products in Morocco is geographical proximity, flexibility, sourcing
skills and the multiple opportunities offered by Free Trade Agreements with the European
Union, United States and Turkey. Geographical proximity to the EU allows for good buyersupplier relationships as well as short lead times.
However, there are also weaknesses in this structure of Moroccan textile, leather and clothing
production sector. High dependency on the EU market, makes the sector rather vulnerable.
Private investment remains relatively low and fluctuate on a year-to-year basis. This might
hamper the process of switching to more modern and advanced machinery and equipment.
State-owned enterprises might lack the incentive structure to innovate. There is also a threat
from Asian competition, despite on-going adjustments in the business model.
5.2 Sustainable companies
In the report form ECORYS 2013 the following is put out: “Outward Processing Trade (OPT)
arrangements established in the mid-80s have integrated the Moroccan textile and clothing
industry into the EU market. Labor intensive production activities have been outsourced to
Morocco, which has developed into a crucial trading partner for the EU. In other words, within
the scope of the international trend of production fragmentation Morocco has become a part
of the EU production network. This was driven by the terms of the OPT arrangements, which
included preferential market access via reduced duties and higher quotas for finished products.
However, the capital intensive production of inputs for these products such as fabric or yarn still
took place in the EU, as these did not qualify for preferential access. The industry description
makes clear that the textiles, leather and clothing sector plays a significant role in terms of
employment. However, this is not an indicator for the quality of the work in this sector. Overall,
there is evidence that Morocco suffers from poor labor standards. This includes issues such as
working conditions and hours, use of temporary and casual labor, gender disparity, informality,
and wages (average labor costs are estimated at €1.53 in 2008). Moreover, it is estimated that
the informal sector hosts at least as many workers as the formal sector, whereas particularly the
share of women is higher in the informal sector compared to the formal sector. Unionization
rates are very low standing at 3%. Within the few unions active in the sector there is a clear
dominance of men. Considering that women account for approximately 85% of the workforce it
becomes clear that gender representation in these organizations is not proportional to the
gender composition in the workforce. Gender discrimination can also be observed in other fields
such as wage discrimination, reduced access to on-the-job training, long working hours, and
poorer working condition.
The Moroccan textile, leather, and clothing sector is one of the key industries of the Moroccan
economy creating ca. 250,000 jobs. Historically, trade relations with the EU have been strong
and well established. OPT arrangement in the mid-80s have facilitated the integration of the
Moroccan and EU textile and clothing industries, whereas production has been fragmented in a
way that led to capital-intensive textile production to be carried out in the EU, and more laborintensive activities to be performed in Morocco.
Activities in the clothing industry are very much dependent on the type of contractual
agreement as well as sourcing model of the EU buyer. Mostly, Moroccan suppliers are operating
under so-called CMT arrangements, which is considered to be among the lowest degree of
vertical integration. The two most prominent sourcing models are a continuous approach and a
more responsive type of supply chain management tailored to the demands particularly of the
7
fast fashion industry. As explained before, especially the latter approach leads to irregular
employment in some parts of the value-chain.
Social issues include low unionization rates in the whole sector. Even if such an organization is
present participation of women is very low. Considering that most of the workforce are women,
it indicates a clear underrepresentation. Other social issues are related to poor working
conditions and hours, use of temporary and casual labor, gender disparity, informality, and low
wages. Furthermore, given a fragmentation of production processes social upgrading might be
limited.
Environmental issues of the textile, leather, and clothing industry are mainly related to the
production of textiles and leather. It is associated with ca. 33% of the country’s hazardous and
16.5 million m^3 of the total liquid waste, respectively. Waste management programs are
primarily in place for industrial zones as for example in Fes. However, since for example leather
is often produced in small workshops it is questionable whether these programs have the
necessary reach.” (ECORYS, 2013)
5.3 Why do they accept this work?
The clothing industry is Morocco’s leading “Because of the long working days, women industrial
sector and over 70% of jobs are held can’t find time to look after their children and be with their
families. Many of them end up with depression and other illnesses. There are also cases of
miscarriages in factories as pregnant women work with the same intensity as the rest.
A cause of the acceptance of the precarious conditions in this field is the pressure exerted by
the families to offer a salary contribution to the family income. Products of the basic food basket
prices have increased in recent years and that the total amount received by their families is not
enough to make ends meet. The inability to improve the employment status within the sector
or labor mobility to other productive sectors is zero. Have no other option.
With regard to the domestic chores, and it’s the women, married or single, who are obliged
to do double working days, which, when we add on the overtime, mean an impossible
timetable to enjoy a personal life in which to plan future interests, such as carrying on studying
or being politically active in a trade union in favor of their corporate interests. Trade unionist
Fatimah Lamah, from textile sector in Tangier.
5.4 What is the price for sustainable clothing?
The garment industry in Morocco is well integrated in global production, after undergoing
radical changes geared toward export orientation since the mid-1980s. Sustained by Outward
Processing Trade (OPT) arrangements, which created the conditions for European Union
outsourcing of labor intensive production to its regional neighbors (Plank, Rossi, & Staritz, 2012),
and subsequently due to its Association Agreement with the European Union, Morocco has
become an important garment supplier for the European Union, with its main export partners
being Spain and France due to geographical proximity and historical ties. In the period 2003–07,
89.3% of garment production was directed to the export market, with almost 90% to the
European Union. These exports constituted 23.2% of total manufacturing exports. Apparel
exports are concentrated in woven products such as jeans, shirts, and T-shirts. Besides the
traditional “cut-make-trim” (CMT) production, firms operate a “co-traitance” production model,
8
which is an intermediate form between CMT and full-package supply. Under this arrangement
the supplier can be responsible for fabric suggestion or some design additions but the buyer is
still responsible for inputs sourcing and the associated financial risks. In 2010, the share of CMTlike contractual arrangements was estimated to range between 50% and 70%. Specifically, an
increasing portion of garment producers in Morocco has successfully entered the fast fashion
segment of the apparel industry, spearheaded by Spanish brands such as Inditex/Zara,
characterized by high responsiveness to the latest fashion trends and customers’ demands,
relatively high quality, and low cost. This shift in production has translated into an increase in
average unit values in EU-15 exports in the post-MFA period (Staritz & Frederick, 2012). This
particular mix of commercial requirements exerts intrinsic pressures on suppliers in terms of
flexibility, low cost, short lead times, and high quality and productivity (Plank et al., 2012; Tokatli,
2009; Tokatli & Kizilgun, 2010 ).
In Morocco, the garment industry has strategic importance for the competitiveness of the
country as a whole. 3 As of 2011, there were approximately 1,600 garment factories in the
country, employing close to 175,000 workers (AMITH, 2012 ). The industry constitutes a primary
source of employment in the economy, especially for women (who accounted for 86% of the
labor force in 2007) and young unskilled workers. In terms of workers’ rights, there is significant
evidence on the poor labor standards in the Moroccan garment sector with emphasis on working
conditions and working hours, informality, use of temporary and casual labor, gender disparity,
and wages (Amri, 2005; Arco, 2008; Belghazi &Baden, 2002; Clean Clothes Campaign, 2003;
Intermon Oxfam, 2004; Joekes, 1985. Compliance to labor standards has become a prominent
is- sue in the Moroccan garment industry due to its insertion in European buyer-led GPNs, and
even more so after the introduction in 2003 of a sector-led code of conduct and related label,
called Fibre Citoyenne (FC),designed and implemented by the Moroccan garment industry
association (AMITH) (Rossi, 2013 ).
The empirical data presented in this paper was collected from January to June 2008 through 30
firm-level interviews with general managers and human resource managers and through 11
focus group discussions with workers in 19 factories in Casablanca, Rabat-Sale´, Fes, and Tangier.
The sample was selected according to three criteria: geographical location, the type of sourcing
model employed by the factory’s main buyer, and the factory’s adherence to the FC. The choice
of the four field work locations of Casablanca, Fes, Rabat, and Tangier was driven by their
relevance for the garment sector in terms of employment, production, and exports. Currently,
Casablanca and Tangier are the main export and employment hubs because of their ports. In
particular, as the fastest growing port in Morocco, Tangier has witnessed a dramatic expansion
in recent years as an emerging export hub, due to the creation of industrial zones in the vicinity
of the port and to the strategic shift of the Moroccan garment industry toward fast fashion
buyers from Spain (Cammett, 2007 ), as discussed further below. The Moroccan textile and
clothing industry however traditionally originated in Fes, and has a strong presence in the capital
Rabat. There are considerable differences among the four locations on the basis of historical and
cultural factors, internal migration patterns, and the characteristics of local labor markets. In
Fes, a city characterized by an imperial past and by an elite of few families that controlled trade
in textiles and clothing, competitive advantage was built upon low labor costs and there is a
strong cultural and social divide between factory owners and workers. Due to low wages and
shrinking business opportunities, many workers migrate from Fes to coastal locations such as
Casablanca and Tangier. Here, factory owners are on average younger and foreign-educated,
and have a more dynamic approach to human resource management than in Fes. In Rabat, the
labor force is more senior and higher skilled. This area has a strong reputation in terms of high
9
quality and respect of social standards, which have been an integral part of its business strategy
since the 1990s.
5.5 Which parties to work with?
Spain is the country with the most productive foreign presence in the Moroccan textile sector,
with a share of foreign capital invested, for this reason is important that this country works
actively with the improve of life conditions in Morocco. The main actors to do it are showed in
figure 4:
Awareness
among
Spanish
companies
Government
policy:
Morocco
Final
consumer
awareness
Sustainability:
improve
economic,
social and
environmental
situation
Morocco
industries
policy
ONG’s control
Figure 4. Main Actors
The correct interplay of these actors can generate large positive changes it means a better life
for citizens, starting with correct laws that protect the worker sector, with a Spanish industry to
recognize the need for greater investment to ensure better working conditions, customers that
require the products they buy are manufactured in an environment of fair trade, with Moroccan
industries that meet all obligations to its employees and generally provide the appropriate
working conditions, with NGO's that are active participants in the control, regulation and
support this country. Finally all actors show real commitment to generate a profound change in
the care the environment.
5.6 Assessment Methods
Since the production of clothes is usually done by local subcontractors, producers are not
affected by western legislations, but only by the local laws. For this reason, the trading company
has to assess and evaluate the production circumstances at the production site by their own. In
order to monitor and control the processes of subcontractors, an assessment methodology is
needed. Considering the problem statement and the definition of sustainability, it can be stated
that the assessment of sustainable textile production is rather complex because of its many
facets. These facets require different indicators and assessment tools among the whole value
chain that cover both major dimensions of impact; the environmental burden and the socialeconomic circumstances. This can be done by using an individual self-developed methodology
or stipulating certain certificates in the contract. However, such a contract does not necessarily
10
include further contractors of the subcontractor, such as suppliers. As a work basis, the 10
principles of sustainable business defined by the United Nations should be considered, as shown
below.
Figure 5: Principles of the Global Compact. Source: Unglobalcompact.org, 2014.
To establish and ensure the accordance with these principles, it is recommended to work with
third parties that are specialized on process certification. Different governmental and nongovernmental labels provide the possibility to evaluate and certify the sustainable production
of clothes. Regarding the environmental agreeability, the given organizations are offering the
certification of materials, production process and/or end-of-life treatment (Koszewska, 2011).
 Oeko-Tex
 GOTS
 Bluesign
 Better Cotton Initiative
 Cradle to Cradle
The social-economical sustainability includes especially the workers’ rights in general, forced or
child labor, working conditions, wage and average working time. Labels are generally either
applied to products, or to companies and their processes. Common labels that are applied to
products are (Koszewska, 2011):
 Fair Trade
 Rugmark
 GOTS
 Care & Fair
At the company level, the following certificates are worth mentioning (Koszewska, 2011):
 Fair Trade Organization
 EFTA
 Clean Clothes Campaign
 Fair Wear Foundation
11
In order to quantify the sustainability of textile production in detail, several methods are
available to both, calculate the sustainability of the company or a specific product. These
methods usually require a lot of internal data, a high amount of effort and thus costs and at
some points provide the possibility to cheat. They are nevertheless quite useful to estimate
and compare the grade of sustainability of different products or companies.
By executing lifecycle assessments in accordance with ISO 14040, the environmental impact of
the product or a production process can be calculated. In these calculations, all relevant flows
of chemicals, matter and energy among the lifecycle are considered, including their
environmental consequences, which are expressed in so called impact categories. These
categories aim on quantifying the environmental impact, such as Global Warming Potential.
Relevant impact categories for the assessment of clothes are for example the cumulative
resource demand with a special focus on water, as well as the assessment of impacts caused
by chemicals used, such as eco-toxicity and the use of land. Moreover, the end-of-life
treatment is relevant, as a high resource efficiency preserves the environment (Finnveden &
Moberg, 2001).
To quantify the grade of social sustainability, social LCA’s can be used. Likewise to the classical
lifecycle assessment approach, social LCAs consider all impacts caused by the production of a
product in several categories, which have to be defined before calculating the SLCA, depending
on the specific setting of the product. The identification of stakeholder groups and their
individual needs is thus considered to be the most relevant step. The final impact indicators
recommend to use are for example: salary of workers/month, Living wage, Percentage of child
labor, social security paid or number of working hours/month. The results of the SLCA provide
a deep insight into the social circumstances of the company. (UNEP, 2009)
Besides the calculation and certification of sustainability on side of suppliers, a framework for
reporting is needed in order to ensure transparency. To ensure a fair competition and
comparability, centralized guidelines are needed that define the process of reporting as clearly
as possible. (Stuart, 2014)
6. Conclusion
Sustainable development is a framework to generate adequate conditions for economic and
social growth, protecting the environment and the overexploitation of resources, but its
application requires a set of rules, regulations and laws, therefore it is essential that
international agencies, national and local governments work together to develop regulations to
the progressive implementation of sustainability in all areas.
Sustainable clothing is just one area of activity within the many on which we must work hard to
obtain favorable results for society and the environment, Morocco with all the growth of the
industry, is not contemplating the needs of population (application of basic conditions for the
labor force) and the environment, the indiscriminate use chemicals that affect the environment
and even the health of consumers. Authorities who have the power in their hands to change the
current situation must act thinking about the welfare of the entire population, especially the
vulnerable.
It was seen from the given report that an approach for a more sustainable clothing industry
represents a difficult challenge that requires the inclusion and contribution of many different
stakeholders. This contribution is not only to plan, but also to execute and evaluate the
12
sustainable success. A change can not be expected to come from the producing country, but
rather from the wealthy western world. Assuming to be a small start-up enterprise, the possible
influence on the big business might be limited but is able to star a bigger movement. A strong
consumer demand, public attention and a legislative framework can contribute significantly to
this development.
7. List of References
Baskaran, V., Nachiappan, S., & Rahman, S. (2012). Indian textile suppliers’ sustainability
evaluation using the grey approach. International Journal of Production Economics,
135(2), 647–658. doi:10.1016/j.ijpe.2011.06.012
Brugulat-Guiteras, P., Tresserras-Gaju, R., de la Puente-Martorell, M. L., & Constante-Beitia, C.
(2011). [Introduction]. Medicina Clínica, 137 Suppl , 1–2. doi:10.1016/S00257753(11)70020-3
Commission, E. (2013). Trade Sustainability Impact Assessment in support of negotiations of a
DCFTA between the EU and Morocco (p. 235).
Finnveden, G. and Moberg, Å. 2005. Environmental systems analysis tools--an overview.
Journal of Cleaner Production, 13 (12), pp. 1165--1173.
Giorgetti, L., Talouizte, H., Merzouki, M., Caltavuturo, L., Geri, C., & Frassinetti, S. (2011).
Genotoxicity evaluation of effluents from textile industries of the region Fez-Boulmane,
Morocco: a case study. Ecotoxicology and environmental safety (Vol. 74, pp. 2275–83).
doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2011.08.002
Koszewska, M. (2011). Social and eco-labelling of textile and clothing goods as means of
communication and product differentiation. Fibres \& Textiles in Eastern Europe, 19(4), p.87.
Martínez, E. L. (2007). El sector textil y de confección en Marruecos: el papel de las empresas
españolas. … Comercial Española, (1), 53–60. Retrieved from
http://europa.sim.ucm.es/compludoc/AA?articuloId=617536
Negocios, C. De. (2015). Oportunidades de inversión, 2–5.
Niinim\"aki, K. and Hassi, L. (2011). Emerging design strategies in sustainable production and
consumption of textiles and clothing. Journal of Cleaner Production, 19(16), pp.1876--1883.
Rossi, A. (2013). Does Economic Upgrading Lead to Social Upgrading in Global Production
Networks? Evidence from Morocco. World Development, 46, 223–233.
doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.02.002
Stuart, I. (2014). Strategy and Tools for Sustainable Textile Product Development.
Stuart, I. (2014). Strategy and Tools for Sustainable Textile Product Development. Retrieved
from http://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/handle/10161/8528
13
UNEP. (2009). Guidelines for Social Life Cycle Assessment of Products. [online] Available at:
http://www.unep.fr/shared/publications/pdf/DTIx1164xPA-guidelines_sLCA.pdf
[Accessed 27 May. 2014].
Unglobalcompact.org, (2014). United Nations Global Compact. [online] Available at:
http://www.unglobalcompact.org/index.html [Accessed 27 May. 2014].
14