Spain Park High School
Science Department
Pre-AP Biology
Laboratory &
Resource Manual
2012 - 2013
0
Concepts of a Controlled Experiment:
Follow this outline EACH time you analyze or design an experiment.
1. STATE THE PROBLEM: Identify the question or problem to be investigated. The PROBLEM should be
written:
The Effect of the ______________________ on the ______________________.
(independent variable)
(dependent variable)
2. RESEARCH: Find out as much about the topic as you can. List your observations using the five senses.
3. HYPOTHESIS: Make a prediction about the outcome. The hypothesis must be testable. How will the
independent variable affect the dependent variable? The HYPOTHESIS should be written as an IF/THEN
statement.
IF the_________________________ is ______________________________
(independent variable)
(describe how it changes)
THEN the ___________________________ will ____________________________.
(how dependent variable is measured) (predict the direction of the effect)
4. MATERIALS LIST FOR EXPERIMENT: List all materials to be used.
5. CONTROLLED EXPERIMENT: List the steps of your DETAILED procedure to test the hypothesis. Use the
back for more room! Identify these elements for your experiment:
 Independent Variable- the variable that is changed
 Dependent Variable- the variable that changes as a result of the independent variable (what you measure)
 Control- the standard of comparison in an experiment. This is chosen by the investigator or is considered
to be the normal situation.
 Constants/Controlled Variables- the items in an experiment that are kept the same for each tested group
6. RECORDING AND ANALYZING DATA: Organize the data into a data table, chart or graph for comparison.
The type of data determines the method for organization.
 Quantitative Data – numerical data with units
 Qualitative Data – data collected using the five senses
7. CONCLUSION: State whether the data supports the hypothesis or contradicts the hypothesis. Discuss possible
sources of error and possible modifications or extensions to the experiment.
8. REPEATED TRIALS: The experiment must be repeated several times or several test subjects must be used in
order for hypothesis and procedure to be valid.
Things to remember when completing your lab assignments:
a. Answer all questions in complete, logical, coherent sentences.
b. Write out all words, do NOT use abbreviations or symbols (w/, &, b/c).
c. Be mindful of your spelling and grammar, you are expected to turn in quality work!
1
Experimental Design Diagram
Title: The effect of
on
.
Hypothesis: If the
then the
will
Independent Variable (IV):
Levels of the IV:
.
 IV:

(Draw in one column for each level)
Identify which level is the control
Number of trials:

Dependent Variable (DV) with Units:

DV:
Constants (C):

C:
Experimental Design Diagram
Title: The effect of
on
.
Hypothesis: If the
then the
will
Independent Variable (IV):
Levels of the IV:
.
 IV:

(Draw in one column for each level)
Identify which level is the control
Number of trials:

Dependent Variable (DV) with Units:

DV:
Constants (C):

C:
2
Experimental Design Diagram
Title: The effect of
on
.
Hypothesis: If the
then the
will
Independent Variable (IV):
Levels of the IV:
.
 IV:

(Draw in one column for each level)
Identify which level is the control
Number of trials:

Dependent Variable (DV) with Units:

DV:
Constants (C):

C:
Experimental Design Diagram
Title: The effect of
on
.
Hypothesis: If the
then the
will
Independent Variable (IV):
Levels of the IV:
.
 IV:

(Draw in one column for each level)
Identify which level is the control
Number of trials:

Dependent Variable (DV) with Units:

DV:
Constants (C):

C:
3
4
DESIGN DETECTIVES ANSWER SHEET
Name
SCENARIO 1: COMPOST AND BEAN PLANTS
Title: The effect of
on
Hypothesis: If the
then the
will
Independent Variable (IV):
Levels of the IV:
 IV:

Identify which level is the control
Number of trials:

Dependent Variable (DV) with Units:

DV:
Constants (C) (at least 3):

C:
SCENARIO 2: METALS AND RUSTING IRON
Title: The effect of
on
Hypothesis: If the
then the
will
Independent Variable (IV):
Levels of the IV:
 IV:

Identify which level is the control
Number of trials:

Dependent Variable (DV) with Units:

DV:
Constants (C) (at least 3):

C:
SCENARIO 3: PERFUMES AND BEE’S BEHAVIOR
Title: The effect of
on
Hypothesis: If the
then the
will
Independent Variable (IV):
Levels of the IV:
 IV:

Identify which level is the control
Number of trials:

Dependent Variable (DV) with Units:

DV:
Constants (C) (at least 3):

C:
5
DESIGN DETECTIVES ANSWER SHEET (CONT)
Name
SCENARIO 4: FOSSILS AND CLIFF DEPTH
Title: The effect of
on
Hypothesis: If the
then the
will
Independent Variable (IV):
Levels of the IV:
 IV:

Identify which level is the control
Number of trials:

Dependent Variable (DV) with Units:

DV:
Constants (C) (at least 3):

C:
SCENARIO 5: ALOE VERA AND PLANARIA
Title: The effect of
on
Hypothesis: If the
then the
will
Independent Variable (IV):
Levels of the IV:
 IV:

Identify which level is the control
Number of trials:

Dependent Variable (DV) with Units:

DV:
Constants (C) (at least 3):

C:
6
ORGANIZING DATA
Table Construction:
Always use a ruler and a pencil to create data tables. Always give your data table a descriptive title (see TITLE under
CONTROLLED EXPERIMENTS). The independent variable should be placed in the first vertical column. This
column should be labeled with the name of the independent variable. The dependent variable should be placed in the
second vertical column. If there are repeated trials, this column should be split to represent the trials. Units must be
indicated. If an average or other statistical value is computed from the different trials, this value should be placed in the
third vertical column.
Graph Construction: A graph is a useful way to communicate certain information. Throughout this course you will
be given graphs to analyze and will be asked to construct graphs from data. A graph can simplify otherwise
complicated information. A graph is a picture of what the data (experimental results) show. There are two types of
graphs we will work with in this course, BAR GRAPHS and LINE GRAPHS.
Bar Graph
Numerical scale
or Descriptor
Line Graph
Numerical scale
Line and bar graphs have a VERTICAL AXIS (Y axis) going up and down the page. The dependent variable data are
always plotted on the Y axis. The HORIZONTAL AXIS (X axis) goes across the page from left to right. The
independent variable data are always plotted on the X axis. If units of time make up part of the data, these units are
routinely placed on the horizontal axis. Always give your data table a descriptive title (see TITLE under
CONTROLLED EXPERIMENTS). Provide a key or legend on our graph when more than one set of data points is
plotted on the same graph.
When to use a Line Graph
A line graph is used to show continuous data. Continuous data is data that shows a trend when plotted against a
common scale. Usually this will be numerical data plotted against a specific range, such as time or concentration.
When to use a Bar Graph
A bar graph is an easy way to show comparisons between discrete sets of data or data that does not continuously
change. Discrete data is often non-numerical and shows a range of information for separate categories. Again, your
graph should have a title and the axes should be labeled as described in line graphs. Your data is plotted by drawing
thick bars from the x-axis up to an imaginary point where the y-axis would intersect the bar.
Guidelines:
 Always use even intervals when blocking off ranges on the X and Y axes. Number these intervals.
 Your graph should take up at least 75% of your paper. The larger the graph, the more accurate the representation
of data.
 If you are making your graph by hand, you must use graph paper, a ruler, and a pencil.
7
Organizing Data: Data Tables and Graphing Practice
Name
Students wanted to find out if plants grow better when they are planted close together or when they are spaced apart. In order to
investigate this problem, the students obtained 10 identical bean plants and 3 identical flower pots filled with soil. They labeled
the pots A, B, and C. In pot A they planted 1 bean plant; in pot B they planted 3 bean plants; and in pot C they planted 6 bean
plants. They noted that all the plants were 50 mm tall at the start of the experiment. Each pot was then placed by a sunny window
and given 50 mL of water every other day. Once a week for three weeks, the students measured how much the plants had grown.
They obtained the following results:
Week 1: Pot A Plant grew 21 mm; Pot B Plant grew 15 mm; Pot C Plant grew 5 mm
Week 2: Pot A Plant grew 15 mm; Pot B Plant grew 4 mm; Pot C Plant grew 3 mm
Week 3: Pot A Plant grew 19 mm; Pot B Plant grew 6 mm; Pot C Plant grew 2 mm
Create a data table in the space below.
1.
2.
3.
What is the independent variable in this experiment?
What is the dependent variable in this experiment?
What conclusion can you draw by analyzing the data?
4.
5.
Suppose you want to graph the data. What type of graph (bar or line) would you use to display the data?
What quantities should you plot along the X and Y axes?
No. Elk per sq. mile
The graph shows that there were about 16 elk per square mile in 1925. To verify this, find 1925 on the X axis and read up the like
and then over to the left to the vertical axis line and read the number. Note that 1925 is not actually printed on the time axis, but it
is the midpoint between 1920 and 1930.
60
54
48
42
36
30
24
18
12
6
0
Year
1.
How many elk were there per square mile in 1960?
2.
How many in 1970?
3.
At what year were there 60 elk?
4.
During the period from 1970 to 1980 the elk population
a. Increased in number
b. decreased in number
c. stayed the same in number
d. had their picture taken.
This condition, where there is no increase or decrease and the line remains level is called a period of equilibrium. This doesn’t
mean that no elk were born during the five years, but that the number born was equal to the number that died.
5.
During this time the population of elk leveled off at how many elk/mile?
6.
A forest fire occurred in this area during a certain year. What year did this probably happen?
Explain your answer.
7.
No hunting was allowed in this area for a few years due to the fire. What happened to the elk population in that period?
8
Examine the following graph: In this case, each dot represents a student. Each student’s absence record was compiled with his
grade point average (GPA) at the end of the first semester of sophomore year. Then a dot was placed on the graph for each
student.
8.
Student A had how many absences per semester and what GPA?
9.
Each dot is defined by two variables. What are they?
10. Write a statement that sums up what the data means. In other words, what interpretation can be made about the relationship
between GPA and school attendance?
Often data for 2 or more situations is paced on the same graph. These graphs are called multiple line graphs.
11. How many deer were there in 1955?
12. How many cougar were there in 1945?
13. How many frogs were there in 1968?
14. What is your guess as to why the number of deer dropped in 1935?
15. Graph lines that show this kind of relationship to each other usually mean that one is eating the other. Note that the lines for
deer and cougar cross again in 1962. From 1955 to 1965 what happened to the population of the deer and cougars? Since deer
don’t eat cougar, what is an explanation for the decrease in cougar and increase in deer during this period?
9
Use the following data to construct a graph on a separate sheet of graph paper. Follow all graphing rules. The following chart
shows the increase in population in a small western town in Wyoming called Longhorn.
Year
Number of People
1840
670
1850
774
1860
875
1880
1068
1890
1175
1900
1180
1910
1182
1930
1379
1950
1581
16. Predict what the population would be in 1960. (assume the growth rate since 1930)
17. Even though counts were not made, how many people would you say are in Longhorn in
1870?
1920?
1940?
18. How many people were in Longhorn in 1845?
Graphs can be used to predict the future by extending the graph line and reading the graph in the usual way. Use this concept to
analyze the following graph on gasoline pricing.
In 1977, gasoline prices began to rise very rapidly and steadily. By 1980 the price of a gallon of gas had tripled. We were all
wondering what gasoline prices might be like in the 1980’s. Use the graph above to determine he answers to the remaining
questions, assuming that gas prices continue to rise at the same rate as they did between 1978 and 1980.
19. Gasoline would have been $
20. Gasoline would have been $
21. Gasoline would have been $
/gallon in the summer of 1981.
/gallon in the summer of 1983.
/gallon in the summer of 1985.
Using the data tables below, construct a graph for each. Use a separate sheet of graph paper for each graph. Determine if the
data is better presented in a bar or in a line graph.
Average Temperature of West Coast Cities
Average Rainfall in
Williamette Valley
Time
Rainfall
(months)
(°mL)
1
15
2
21
3
28
4
24
5
16
6
8
7
2
8
1
9
2
10
3
11
5
12
10
The Effect of Altitude
on Barometric Pressure
Altitude Barometric
Pressure
(mm Hg)
0
760
5,000
650
10,000
525
15,000
420
20,000
330
25,000
280
30,000
220
Time
(Days)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Los Angeles
28
29
22
27
26
27
29
31
30
24
Temperature (°C)
San Francisco
18
22
20
17
21
21
20
18
21
19
Portland
11
10
14
13
15
16
15
11
19
17
Average Weight Loss of Overweight Mice
Group of Mice
Average Weight Loss (g)
A
15
B
6
C
12
10
SHARK DICHOTOMOUS KEY
Name
Shark
11
Overview of the Three Domains and Six Kingdoms
Instructions- Read pages 457-461 and appendix E (pages 1066-1071) in your textbook and fill in the following pieces of information.
Domain
Kingdom
Archaea
Bacteria
ARCHAEBACTERIA
EUBACTERIA
Formerly MONERA
Eukarya
PROTISTA
FUNGI
PLANTAE
ANIMALIA
Cell Type
(prokaryotic or
eukaryotic)
Cellular
Organization
(unicellular,
multicellular, or both)
Mode of
Nutrition
(autotrophic,
heterotrophic, or both)
Cell Wall
(if yes, write what it is
made of)
Habitat
(aquatic, terrestrial,
or both)
Examples
12
Name
Period
NAME THAT ANIMAL! Match the animals’ common names from the first column to their proper scientific
names found in the second column. Use the Latin and Greek roots at the bottom of your sheet for some
hints!
1.
Golden Jackal
A. Dendrohyrax arboreus
2.
Marine Toad
B. Glaucomys volans
3.
Hippo
C. Millepora squarrosa
4.
Flying Squirrel
D. Echinoprocta rufescens
5.
Golden Cat
E. Hippocampus erectus
6.
Nine-banded Armadillo
F. Rhinoceros unicornis
7.
Tree hyrax
G. Dasypus novemcinctus
8.
Indian rhino
H. Hippopotamus amphibious
9.
square stinging coral
I.
10.
Lined seahorse
11.
Upper Amazonian Porcupine
12.
Green Tree Frog
13.
Six-lined racerunner
LATIN AND GREEK ROOTS
NUMBERS
bi, di- two
diplo- twice
hemi- half
mon- one
multi- many
novem- nine
poly- many
tri- three
uni- one
COLORS
aureus- golden
leuco- white
melano- black
ANIMAL TERMS
anceps- two headed
avi- bird
bufo- toad
campus- sea monster
Aspidoscelis sexlineata
J. Hyla cinera
K. Canis aureus
L. Bufo marinus
M. Felis aurata
BODY PARTS
caudata- tail
cephalus- head
cornis- horn
dactyl- finger
dentate- toothed
derm- skin
pede- leg
penni- feather
poda- foot
ptera- wing
pus- face
rhino- nose
stoma- mouth
uros- tail
DESCRIPTIVE
annuli- ringed
bates- climber
brevis- short
cinctus- girdle
curvi- curved
dasy- shaggy
dendro- tree
echino- spiny
erectus- upright
hydro- water
hylo, hyla- tree
lati- broad
lineatus- lined
macr- large
platy- wide, flat
porus- with holes
punctata- dotted
sphere- globe
volans- flying
13
KINGDOM ASSESSMENT REVIEW SHEET
Name
For each item in Column A, write the letter of the matching item in Column B.
Column A
___ 1. Grouping objects or information based on similarities
___ 2. Naming system that gives each organism a two-word name
___ 3. Developed the first system of classification
___ 4. Branch of biology that groups and names organisms
___ 5. Created a system of classifying organisms based on their physical and structural similarities
___ 6. Consists of a group of similar species
Column B
a. Aristotle
b. Linnaeus
c. genus
d. classification
e. taxonomy
f. binomial
nomenclature
Determine if the statement is true. If it is not, rewrite the italicized part to make it true.
7. The scientific name of a species consists of a family name and a descriptive name. ____________________
8. The scientific names of organisms can be misleading. ____________________
9. A dichotomous key always has three choices per step. ____________________
Fill in the Blank:
10. In general, which taxon includes the most specific characteristics? _______________________________________
11. In general, which taxon includes the broadest characteristics? __________________________________________
12. In general, which taxon includes only organisms that can successfully interbreed? _________________________
13. In general, if two organisms belong to the same family, what other taxonomic groups do the organisms have in common?
__________________________________________________
14. What are the eight characteristics of life?
Examine the table showing the classification of four organisms. Then answer the questions.
TAXON
KINGDOM
PHYLUM
CLASS
ORDER
FAMILY
GENUS
SPECIES
GREEN FROG
Animalia
Chordata
Amphibia
Anura
Ranidae
Rana
clamitans
MOUNTAIN LION
Animalia
Chordata
Mammalia
Carnivora
Felidae
Felis
concolor
DOMESTIC DOG
Animalia
Chordata
Mammalia
Carnivora
Canidae
Canis
familiaris
HUMAN
Animalia
Chordata
Mammalia
Primata
Hominidae
Homo
sapien
15. Using the information in the chart, write the scientific name for the domestic dog.
16. Which two organisms in the chart are most closely related?
17. Using the information in the chart, to which taxa do all four organisms belong?
18. Using the information in the chart, what is the order, family, and genus of a human?
Determine if the statement is true. If it is not, rewrite the italicized part to make it true.
19. Prokaryotic cells contain a nucleus. ____________________
20. All protists, fungi, plants, and animals belong to the domain Eukarya. ____________________
21. All fungi, protists, and animals are heterotrophic. ____________________
22. Members of Kingdom Eubacteria contain cell walls without peptidoglycan. ____________________
23. All fungi, plants, and animals are multicellular.
24. Members of Kingdom Archaebacteria live in extreme habitats.
On the back of this sheet, create a Venn diagram to represent the following groups: All Organisms, Domain Eukarya,
Kingdom Protista, Kingdom Animalia, Class Aves (Birds), Eagle, Streptococcus
Be sure to know ALL of your Classification Notes, Characteristics of Life, and Overview of Kingdoms Chart.
14
Name
THE EFFECT OF HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS ON BACTERIA
DATA SHEET
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN DIAGRAM
Title:
Hypothesis:
Independent Variable (IV):
Levels of the IV:
 IV:

(Draw in one column for each level)
Identify which level is the control
Number of trials:

Dependent Variable (DV) with Units:

DV:
Constants (C) (at least 3):

C:
DATA TABLE
SKETCH OF RESULTS
15
NAME: _________________________________________________
Microscope Introduction
Possibly the most important instrument used by biologists is the microscope. A microscope aids scientists by allowing them to
observe worlds and organisms that otherwise are too small to be seen.
1. Study the microscope diagram on page 1070. Read pp. 1070 & 1071 (items 1 – 12) regarding the use and care
of the microscope. Label the parts of the microscope that are left blank in the diagram below. For the items
that you labeled, briefly DESCRIBE the FUNCTION of each part in the space provided.
2. The total magnification of a microscope is found by multiplying the magnification of the eyepiece by the
magnification of the objective lens. Calculate the total magnification of the following lens combinations:
EYEPIECE LENS
A. 10 X
B. 10 X
C. 10X
OBJECTIVE LENS
4X
10 X
40 X
TOTAL MAGNIFICATION
3. The greater the total magnification, the smaller the field of view, or area that you can see. The lower the total
magnification, the larger the field of view.
With which combination of lenses in the previous table (A, B, or C) would you be able to see the largest
area of a specimen?
_____________
the smallest area?
_____________
the greatest detail?
_____________
4. In general, the eyepiece typically magnifies 10 times. The magnification of the objective lenses is written on
each lens. In our microscopes, the low-power objective lens magnifies 4 times (4 X), the medium-power
objective magnifies 10 times (10 X), and the high-power objective lens magnifies 40 times (40 X).
What would the total magnification be for a slide under the lowest power? __________________
What would the total magnification be for a slide under the highest power? __________________
16
PROTIST WEBQUEST
What is a Protist? (Use your Kingdom Chart)
1. What domain do the protists belong to?
2. What are the kingdom characteristics of protists?
Name
What kingdom?
Go to www.microbeworld.org and click “About Microbiology” at the top left of the screen. Next Click “What is a
Microbe” from the left menu and then “Types of Microbes” and then “Protista”
Animal-Like Protists (Click “PROTOZOA” on the left side bar)
3. What does this word “protozoa” mean?
4. Why are these protists considered to be animal-like?
5. Animal-like protists are classified by the way they move. Describe the method of movement in the protozoans
below and draw a picture.
1) Ciliates
2) Amoeba
3) Flagellates
Plant-Like Protists
6. Why are these protists considered to be plant-like? (Click “GREEN ALGAE” on the left side bar)
7. How much of the oxygen in our atmosphere is produced by algae?
8. What is another ecological importance of algae?
(Click “ALGAE” on the left side bar)
9. What products are algae found in?
10. What are diatoms? What are the cell walls made of?
11. What are products diatoms are commonly used for?
12. Protists called Dinoflagellates cause red tides. What is a red tide? (Click “DINOFLAGELLATES” on the left side bar)
Fungus-Like Protists
13. Why are these protists not classified as fungi? (Click “SLIME MOLDS” on the left side bar)
14. Why are these protists classified as fungi? (Click “WATER MOLDS” on the left side bar)
15. A water mold caused the Great Potato Famine in Ireland in 1846–1847. Describe what happened and why the
potato crop was vulnerable to this organism.
16. List 3 diseases caused by Protists (Information can be found in several sections, especially “PROTOZOA”)
17
Comparative Observations of Protists
Name:
Identify and label each protist as plant-like, fungus-like, or animal-like. Label cilia, flagella, nucleus, and chloroplast if
applicable.
1. Stentor
4. Euglena
2. Amoeba
5. Volvox
3. Vorticella
6. Dinoflagellate
7. Describe two differences you can see between the animal-like and plant-like protists.
8. Describe two similarities you can see between the animal-like and plant-like protists.
9. The Vorticella and amoeba can survive in the dark, but the Spirogyra cannot. Explain why.
10. Euglena are plant-like protists, but can survive equally as well in the light and the dark. Why do you think this is so?
18
BACTERIA AND VIRUS REVIEW SHEET
Name
Study your notes on bacteria, viruses, and protists and also taxonomy, characteristics of life, and experimental design. You are responsible
for learning and retaining this information! Look over any activity/lab that we completed for this unit.
1.
In the following chart, fill in the six kingdoms and their basic characteristics.
KINGDOM
Cell Type
Cellular
Nutrition
Organization
Cell Wall
Examples
2.
3.
4.
The eyepiece magnifies an object 10x. The objective lens magnifies an object 4x. What is the total magnification? _____
If the objective above is swapped for a 10x objective, what is the new magnification? _______
Label the parts of the microscope below and briefly describe what each does.
5.
Draw and describe the three common shapes and four arrangements of bacterial cells.
6.
On the back of this sheet, make a chart listing the positive and negative contributions of bacteria to ecosystems.
7.
What is the major difference(s) between Archaebacteria and Eubacteria?
8.
Explain how the cell type in prokaryotes differs from that in eukaryotes.
9.
Why are viruses considered nonliving?
10. What are the two major components of a viral particle?
11. Explain why certain viruses can only infect certain, specific types of host cells.
12. What is a protist?
13. On the back of this sheet, make a chart listing the positive and negative contributions of Protists to ecosystems.
14. What are the three types of protists? How are they grouped into these categories?
15. Draw and list an example of a protist with cilia, flagella, and a pseudopod.
19
Characteristics of Fungi
Name
1. Name the examples of fungi that are shown on the paper at your lab table. They all can be found in Chapter 21 of the book.
2.
Complete the chart below. You should not need your book or notes to complete this!
Kingdom
Cell Type
Cellular Organization
Nutrition
Cell Wall
Monera
Habitat
Protista
FUNGI
3.
Plantae
Eukaryotic
All Multicellular
Autotrophic
Yes, cellulose
Terrestrial
Animalia
Eukaryotic
All Multicellular
Heterotrophic
Absent
Aquatic & Terr.
Using the information above, what is a primary difference between the Fungi and the Protists? Fungi and the Plants? Fungi
and the Animals?
Common Molds
1. Molds are good examples of decomposers. What is a decomposer?
Sketch of Rhizopus slide
2.
Observe the prepared slide of bread mold under the microscope. Sketch the image in
the box to the right. Notice the “fuzzy” appearance of the bread mold (Rhizopus).
What are these thin filaments that make up multicellular fungi called? (pg. 530)
3.
The round knoblike structures that you see are sporangia (spore cases). If you were
to brush the bread mold, tiny dust-like reproductive cells would be released. What
are the reproductive cells of a fungus called? (pg. 529)
4.
On a clear day, a few liters of fresh air may contain hundreds of fungi spores. Why is there not an over-abundance of
fungi?
Fungus Structure (page 528)
1. Most of the body of a mushroom is actually underground. What is the function of
the hyphae and mycelium found in the soil?
2.
What is the portion of the mushroom seen above ground called? What is the
function of the part of the mushroom seen above ground?
3.
Why is it an advantage for the fruiting body to be above ground?
4.
Draw a mushroom in the box to the right. Label the fruiting body, hyphae and
mycelium (pg. 528) and the stalk, cap and gills (pg. 534)
External anatomy of mushroom
20
Other Fungi: Make a wet mount of the yeast mixture and observe it under low, medium, and high power of the microscope.
1. Draw the yeast seen in high power in the circle below. How does the cellular organization of
yeasts differ from the cellular organization of molds and mushrooms? (pg. 533)
2.
What are two common uses of yeasts?
3.
Why are yeasts used for these processes?
4.
What are some other positive contributions of the fungi kingdom? List at least two examples.
Fungal Diseases
1. Name two common human diseases caused by fungus. (pg. 539)
The shaded regions have been colonized by bacteria. Study the illustrations and answer the questions that follow.
A
B
C
Bacteria
Fungus
2.
An antibiotic is a substance that inhibits bacterial growth. What fungus was used to produce the first antibiotic? (pg. 536)
3.
Which petri dish contains the fungus with the greatest bacterial killing effect? How can you tell?
A scientist added different solutions of a fungus to bacterial cultures to determine its possible antibiotic effect. The number of
bacteria remaining after 24 hours is shown in the table below
Percent Solution
Number of bacteria per cm3
10%
111.5 X 103
50%
38.5 X 103
90%
5.5 X 103
0.3
100%
X 103
4.
Based on the data above, what was the independent variable in this experiment?
5.
Based on the data above, what was the dependent variable in this experiment?
6.
Is the fungus an antibiotic? Explain.
Symbiotic Relationships (pg. 540)
1. Describe mutualism in lichen. What are the two organisms involved? How does each organism benefit the other?
2.
Why are lichen called “pioneer species”?
3.
Describe mutualism in mycorrhizae. What are the two organisms involved? How does each organism benefit the other?
21
22
Plant Structure and Function Lab
Name _______________________________________
At each station, answer the questions on page 27 of your BRM. Write all answers on this sheet.
Plant Characteristics
1. What are the kingdom characteristics of plants? Use the Kingdom Chart in your BRM.
2.
What are the four basic needs of plants? (Page 552)
3.
List the four groups of plants in order based on evolutionary history. Which group of organisms do scientists think plants
evolved from?
Complete the chart comparing the four groups of plants. Put a check in the box for the characteristics each group contains.
CHARACTERISTICS
Dependent on Contains
Has true
Reproduces
Produces
Reproduces
Produces
Water for
Vascular
roots, stems,
using Spores
Pollen
using Seeds
Flowers
Reproduction
Tissue
and leaves
and
Fruits
Mosses
Ferns
Gymnosperms
Angiosperms
Stems and Vascular Tissue (page 560)
1. List the three main functions of the stem.
2.
What is vascular tissue?
3.
Which groups of plants contain vascular tissue?
4.
Observe the water uptake of the celery. What type of vascular tissue is involved in water transport in plants?
5.
What type of vascular tissue transports nutrients and carbohydrates in plants?
Roots (pages 584-588)
1. What are the two main functions of roots?
2. Roots are classified according to their branching patterns. Fill in the following chart on the different root systems.
Type of Root System
Description of Root System
Taproot System
Fibrous Root System
3.
Examine the pictures of roots
provided and identify each root
as being fibrous or taproot.
4. As glucose is made in excess in some plants during photosynthesis, often the sugar made must be stored. What type of
root from the chart above is best suited for starch storage? Give examples of roots that you eat that are stored starch
reserves for the plant.
Leaves and Stems (Pages 595-598)
1. What is the main function of leaves?
2.
Leaves take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen during photosynthesis. What structures allow the exchange of gases in
leaves? Why are these structures not open all of the time?
3.
The leaves of pine trees have adaptations to avoid water loss. List some of these adaptations. Why must a pine tree be
more adapted to hold water than other types of trees?
23
Types of Angiosperms: Monocots and Dicots
Monocot
a) Veins of Leaves
Dicot
b) Seeds
c) Roots
d) Flower Parts
Using the above tables,
determine which of the
following structures represent
a monocot and which
represent a dicot. Label the
monocots with an M and the
dicots with a D.
Angiosperms: Flowers and Fruits
1. Why are angiosperms the most successful plants? Give both reasons.
2.
Label the flower to the right. Why are flowers an evolutionary advantage to
angiosperms?
3.
Identify the fruits at your station. What is the advantage of angiosperms
producing fruit?
24
Name:
Flower Dissection Laboratory Data Sheet
Observations
Data Table
Flower Name
Number
of Sepals
Reproductive Structures of a Flower
Color of
Sepals
Number
of Petals
Color of
Petals
Number of
Stamen
Number of
Pistils
Number
of Ovules
Flower Stamen
Flower Ovary Cross Section
Ovule
Pollen Grains
Magnification ____________
Magnification ___________
25
Pre-Lab Questions
1.
What purposes do the petals serve?
2.
List the function of each of the following flower parts and note whether the parts comprise the pistil or the stamen.
Flower Part
Anther
Function
Male or Female
Filament
Ovary
Ovule
Pollen
Stigma
Style
3.
What part of the flower becomes the seed?
4.
What part of the flower becomes the fruit?
Critical Thinking and Application
1.
The flower parts of monocot flowers usually occur in multiples of three. The venation of their leaves is parallel. The
flower parts of dicot flowers usually occur in multiples of four or five. The venation of their leaves is branched. From this
information, identify the flower that you dissected as a monocot or a dicot.
2.
Describe the texture of the stigma’s tip. How is this an adaptation for obtaining pollen.
3.
Why does a flower have more pollen grains than ovules?
4.
Explain why a heavy rainfall on a fruit orchard in the spring might result in a poor fruit yield in the fall.
5.
For what biological reason do farmers object to people picking apple blossoms during the apple blossom season?
6.
Flowers that are pollinated by the wind have smaller petals and sepals than flowers that are pollinated by insects or
animals. Why are small petals and sepals an advantage to these flowers?
7.
Why do flowers that are pollinated by insects have large, brightly colored petals?
26
FUNGUS AND PLANT REVIEW SHEET
Name
Study your notes on bacteria, viruses, and protists and also taxonomy, characteristics of life, and experimental design. You are responsible
for learning and retaining this information! Look over any activity/lab that we completed for this unit.
1.
2.
In the following chart, fill in the six kingdoms and their basic characteristics.
KINGDOM
Cell Type
Cellular
Nutrition
Organization
Cell Wall
Complete the crossword below for fungi.
Examples
1
Across
2. disease-causing
3. Genus name of the fungus that was the first antibiotic
6. Cell wall component
8. thread-like filaments that make up the body of fungi
9. the part of a mushroom seen above ground (2 words)
13. Parasitic fungi found in locker rooms
14. reproductive cells
4
15. Cell type of fungi
2
3
5
6
Down
1. purpose of spores
8
3. Name given to lichen for their ability
to inhabit barren areas
4. hyphae secrete this to break down food
5. symbiotic relationship between fungi and algae
7. breaking down organic matter
10. The mode of nutrition for fungi
11. unicellular fungus
11
12. type of fungus that grows horizontal to
food source
7
9
10
12
13
14
15
EclipseCrossword.com
3.
Make a chart listing the positive and negative contributions of Fungi to ecosystems.
4.
What are the major contributions of plants to ecosystems?
5.
Name the four major groups of plants from simplest to complex and give the distinguishing characteristics of each and an
example of each.
27
6.
Why is reproduction in ferns and mosses dependent on water?
7.
What is vascular tissue? Which vascular tissue transports water? Which vascular tissue transports carbohydrates? What
two advantages do these tissues give plants?
8.
Explain why gymnosperms and angiosperms are the dominant forms of plants on earth today.
9.
What is pollination? How does pollination occur in Gymnosperms? In Angiosperms?
10. Draw and label all flower parts seen in the flower dissection. Identify and label the male and female parts.
11. What is the purpose of the flower in Angiosperms? The fruit?
12. List the differences between monocots and dicots.
28
Invertebrate Characteristics
Phylum and
Examples
Porifera
Distinguishing
Characteristics
Symmetry
Body Plan/
Skeletal System
Reproduction
Feeding
Locomotion
Nervous
Response/ Defense
Cnidaria
Platyhelminthes
Nematoda
29
Invertebrate Characteristics
Phylum and
Examples
Annelida
Distinguishing
Characteristics
Symmetry
Body Plan/
Skeletal System
Reproduction
Feeding
Locomotion
Nervous
Response/ Defense
Mollusca
Arthropoda
Echinodermata
30
Name
Phylum Porifera- Anatomy of a Sponge
Sponges make up the phylum Porifera, which means “pore bearing”. The phylum is named for the many pores that
cover the body of a sponge. They are the simplest of all animals. Sponges have no true tissue or organs, no
digestive tract and no nervous system. Their bodies are loosely organized into two cell layers. Support comes from
hard, glass-like structures called spicules and from flexible material called spongin.
Pre-Lab
Using page 665 in your book, draw the external structure of a simple marine sponge.

Label the osculum, pore cell and choanocyte.

Draw arrows that trace the flow of water into and then out of the sponge
Observation
Observe the prepared slide of the longitudinal
section of Grantia. Note the “loose” arrangement
of the cells. Draw the cellular arrangement below.
Watch as your teacher uses a scalpel to cut a small
piece from the Grantia specimen. The Grantia will
be placed on a slide and chlorine bleach will be
added to the sponge. In the appropriate place below,
sketch several spicules.
Magnification: _________________
Magnification: ______________
1.
What is the function of spicules?
2.
What was the purpose of adding bleach to the sponge?
3.
Sponges are sessile. How do they get their food?
4.
How do choanocytes help in food getting?
5.
Why shouldn’t Grantia sponge be used to wash cars?
6. Aristotle said of sponges, “In the sea
there are things which it is hard to label as
either animal or vegetable.” Why do you
think he was perplexed?
31
Name
Phylum Cnidaria- Hydra Activity
Cnidarians, unlike sponges, have true tissues. Their body consists of two layers- an outer epidermis and an inner
gastrodermis. Each cnidarian also has a body cavity where food is digested. Cnidarians have a simple nervous system
that allows them to respond to stimuli. They are equipped with stinging cells that are called cnidocytes (which contain
poison-filled, stinging structures called nematocysts) to aid them in their collection of food and defense. These
stinging structures can be released by touch or when stimulated by certain chemicals.
Pre-Lab:
Draw the polyp and medusa forms of a Cnidarian found on page 670 of the textbook. Label the mouth/anus,
tentacles, and gastrovascular cavity. Label the basal disk at the posterior end of the polyp, with which the Cnidarian
attaches itself to surfaces.
Polyp
Medusa
Observation
1. Look at the hydra on display at the front of the room. The microscope is focused on the tentacles and
nematocytsts of a hydra. Draw a picture of the nematocyst before it discharges. Observe your teacher place a
drop of vinegar (or add a Daphnia- small aquatic crustacean). Either of these scenarios should stimulate the
release of the hydra’s nematocysts. Draw a picture of a nematocyst after discharge.
Prior to discharge
Magnification: _________________
After Discharge
Magnification: ________________
32
2. Hydra can reproduce sexually and asexually. The most common method of asexual reproduction is called
budding- an outgrowth of a new organism from the parent’s body. Obtain a prepared slide of budding hydra.
Observe it on low power and draw your observations. Label the bud.
Magnification: _______________
3. Observe the prepared slide of another Cnidaria, Obelia. During its lifetime it exhibits both the polyp and
medusa body forms. Draw your observations.
Polyp
Magnification: _______________
Medusa
Magnification: ___________________
4. Compare the sponge and the hydra in terms of body symmetry and tissue structure.
5. Animals that cannot pursue prey, such as hydra, are often equipped with toxins. Why is this important to their
survival?
6. “Cnid” is the Greek word for nett, or stinging hair. Is the phylum name Cnidaria appropriate for the group of
organisms such as hydra and jellyfish? Explain your answers.
33
OBSERVATION OF A LIVE PLANARIAN
Name
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
1. Name the kingdom and phylum for the Dugesia, a flatworm.
2. List 3 other examples of flatworms.
3. List 3 characteristics of flatworms.
4. What type of symmetry does this worm have?
5. Where do planarians live?
6. Planarians are hermaphrodites. Define hermaphrodite
7. Planarians can also reproduce by regeneration. Define regeneration.
8. Is this method of reproduction sexual or asexual?
9. What is the name of the tube used for feeding in the planarian?
10. Label the following parts on the diagram of the planarian: eyespots, pharynx, mouth, (use page 685 in your
textbook for help)
PROCEDURE AND LAB DATA SHEET
1. Observe the planarian for five minutes. How does it move? Does it swim or creep? Where in the dish does it
spend most of its time? Make a current in the water with a pipette. How does the planarian react?
Description
Movement
Worm location
Reaction to current
2. Place three or four pebbles on one side of the petri dish. Gently, place the planarian in the center of the dish using
the probe at your station. Start timing for 3 minutes. Record the amount of time the worm spent on each side of the
dish. Record data and response as (+) or (-) in the table on the next page. Remove the pebbles.
3. Place the petri dish so that half is one white paper and half is on black paper. Gently, place the planarian in the
center of the dish using the probe at your station. Record the amount of time the worm spent on each side of the
dish. Record data and response as (+) or (-) in the table below. Remove the paper.
34
4. Place a test tube containing ice water on the inside edge of one side of the petri dish and a heated test tube on the
opposite side. Place the planarian in the center of the dish. Record the amount of time the worm spent on each side
of the dish. Record data and response as (+) or (-) in the table below. Remove the test tubes.
Stimulus
Time Spent
Response ( + or - )
Pebbles
No Pebbles
Black Paper
White Paper
Ice
Heat
Which environmental stimulus did the planarian prefer?
How does this instinctive preference of a planarian help it survive in its habitat?
5. Planarians actually display a "handedness" being right or left handed. You can discover whether your worm is
right or left handed by flipping the planarian over on its dorsal (back) and seeing which way it recovers. If it rolls
to the right, it is right handed, if it rolls to the left, it is left-handed. Do five trials to determine the handedness of
your planarian. Fill out the data table:
Which way does it turn (left or right)
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Trial 4
Trial 5
6. Drop a piece of food into the petri dish with the planarian. Observe the planarian's reactions. It may take a few
minutes. How does it eat the food? Where is its mouth?
7. Make sure your planarian has finished eating entirely and its pharynx is withdrawn, if it gets too close to the end of
the hour, ask your teacher for a different planarian. Pour out some of the water, so that the planarian is mostly unsubmerged. When it stretches out, use a razor blade to cut it cleanly in half. Replace the water and put the lid on it.
Observe the two pieces of the planarian under the dissecting scope. Label the lid with your name and period.
Fill out the table below.
Movement (observations)
Anterior End
Posterior End
How long do you think (in days) will it take for your planarian to completely regenerate?
35
Name: _________________________
Starfish (Sea Star) Dissection Pre-Lab Questions
Using the following word bank and diagram, label the internal anatomy of a starfish.
Word Bank
Ampullae
Anus
Eyespot
Gonad
Intestines
Madreporite
Mouth
Radial Canal
Ring Canal
Spine
Stomach
Stone Canal
Tube Feet
1. ________________________
8. ______________________
2. ________________________
9. ______________________
3. ________________________
10. ______________________
4. ________________________
11. ______________________
5. ________________________
12. ______________________
6. ________________________
13. ______________________
7. ________________________
14. In what kingdom and phylum are starfish found?
15. What does echinoderm mean in Greek? Why is this a good name for this group?
16. What is the habitat for starfish?
17. Which of the structures above comprise the water vascular system of a starfish? What is the overall function of
the system?
36
SEA STAR (STARFISH) DISSECTION
Name: _____________________
External Anatomy
Doral (Aboral) Side
Type of symmetry: ____________
Number of arms/rays: __________
Figure 1
1. Locate the small, round, button-like plate called the madreporite on top of the central disc. Look closely to see the
many tiny holes in it. These holes allow water to enter into the water vascular system. You should also be able to
find a small opening, the anus, on the dorsal side. Label the central disc, arms, madreporite, and anus on
Figure 1.
2. Feel the upper surface of the starfish. Spines protrude through the skin all over the dorsal surface of the starfish.
They protect the starfish and are part of their internal skeleton. Label the spines on Figure 1.
3. Look at the tip of each arm and find the eyespot. The eyespot is used to sense light and dark. Label the eyespots
on Figure 1.
Ventral Side: Turn the starfish over onto its ventral (oral) surface.
Figure 2
4. Locate the mouth in the center of the central disc.
Label the mouth and ring of oral spines
surrounding the mouth on Figure 2.
5. Find the ambulacral groove that extends from the
mouth down the underside of each arm. Label the
ambulacral groove on Figure 2.
6. Feel the numerous, soft tube feet inside each groove.
These are part of the water vascular system & aid in
movement and feeding. Label the tube feet on Figure
2.
Estimate how many tube feet your starfish has._____
Internal Anatomy
Figure 3
7. With the starfish's dorsal side facing you, use scissors to cut off the tip of one ray
approximately 1 inch from its end (See Figure 3). Then insert the scissors into this
opening and cut along the sides of the arm up to the central disc. Be careful not to
cut too deep so that you do not damage any of the internal organs.
8. Now cut around the edges of the central disc, as in Figure 4. Try to cut inside of
the madreporite, leaving it in place. Snip the connection of the anus to the
intestines and remove the top of the central disc and arm without pulling out any
internal organs.
Figure 4
37
9. The organ that you see on top of the central
disc is the stomach. Notice that it is
connected to two long digestive glands called
the pyloric caeca in each arm. These make
enzymes to digest food in the stomach.
During feeding, the stomach of most
echinoderms is extended outside of the mouth.
This allows the sea star to digest organisms
much larger than itself. Label the stomach
and pyloric caeca in Figure 5.
10. Remove the pyloric caeca from the dissected
ray. This will reveal the gonads (testes or
ovaries) underneath near where the arm
meets the central disc. There are two gonads
per arm. These may be small if the starfish is
not in breeding season. Label the gonads on
Figure 5.
11. Covering the outside of the starfish is a thin
epidermis. Below it is a thick layer called the
dermis that produces the endoskeleton. Look
at the inside of the arm. The plates that make
up the endoskeleton are visible are called
ossicles. Touch them with the probe to see
how hard they are. Label the ossicles in
Figure 5.
Figure 5
12. Look at the cross section of the cut arm to observe the parts of the tube feet. Find the zipper-like ridge that extends
the length of the ray. The tube feet are attached to these. Locate the bulb-like top of a tube foot called the ampullae.
This sac works like the top of an eyedropper to create suction. At the bottom of the tube foot is a sucker. Squeeze
the ampullae with the forceps and watch what happens to the tube feet. Label the ampullae, sucker, and tube
foot in Figure 5.
13. Remove the stomach and the gonads to see the rest
of the water vascular system. Find the
madreporite. The stone canal connects the
madreporite to the ring canal, which loops around
the central disk. Find the radial canals that radiate
out from the ring canal down each arm. Along the
radial canals are soft ampullae. Label the
madreporite, stone canal, ring canal and the
radial canals in Figure 6.
14. Study the series of arrows on Figure 6 that trace
the path that water takes when it enters and moves
through the starfish.
15. The only part of the nervous system that is easily
visible is the radial nerve that appears as a thin
white thread running parallel to the radial canal.
There are radial nerves on each side of the radial
canal in each arm. All are connected to a nerve
ring that surrounds the mouth. It is difficult to
find.
Figure 6
38
STARFISH DISSECTION
Name
POST-LAB QUESTIONS:
1. On which surface (ventral or dorsal) are these parts of a starfish visible:
a. Mouth –
b. Madreporite –
c. Tube Feet –
d. Eyespots –
e. Ambulcaral groove –
2. Using complete sentences, describe the path water takes through the water vascular system.
3. What does echinoderm mean in Greek? Why is this a good name for this group?
4. What type of skeleton, endoskeleton or exoskeleton, does the starfish have? What bony plates make up its skeleton?
5. Sea Star Vocabulary: (List the functions of the following):
Madreporite ______________________________________________________
Spines ___________________________________________________________
Pyloric caeca______________________________________________________
Tube feet _________________________________________________________
Gonads __________________________________________________________
Eyespots _________________________________________________________
39
Invertebrate DLC
Name
Label the osculum, pore, and choanocytes
 Porifera means “
“
 Simplest animals, because they only have
 Filter feed using
 ______________________ Symmetry
 ____________________ , which means non-moving
 Sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction through
Label the medusa and polyp
Label the gastrovascular cavity, basal disk, and tentacles
 Cnidaria means “
“
 Have cells arranged into
 _________________ Symmetry
 Have stinging structures called ____________________ inside cells called
 Sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction through
Label the eyespot, ganglia, and pharynx
 Platyhelminthes means “
 First to have
“
and
 __________________Symmetry
 Hermaphroditic -
________________
Label the mouth and anus
 Nematoda means “
“
 First to have a separate_____________and
 _________________Symmetry
40
Label the mouth, anus, and segment
 Annedlida means “
 First to have
“
and
 ______________________Symmetry
 Move using hairs called
 _______________________used for reproduction
Label Gastropoda, Cephalopoda, and Bivalvia
 Mollusca means “
“
 Most have hard
 _______________________is highly intelligent
 ______________________Symmetry
Label the members of Class Insecta, Crustacea, and Arachnida
 Arthropoda means “
“
 Largest Phylum
 Exoskeleton made out of
 _________________________Symmetry
Label the spines, arms, madreporite, and eyespot.
 Echinodermata means “
“
 ___________________habitat
 ___________________Symmetry
41
Investigating Cells Response Sheet
Name
Make a detailed and colored (if applicable) illustration of each of the cells that you observed.
Paramecium
Magnification_____________
Elodea
Magnification_____________
Human Cheek Cell
Anabeana
Magnification________________
Euglena
Magnification________________
Teacher to initial before viewing
__________
Magnification_____________
Analysis
1.
Of the cells above, which are eukaryotic cells? Support your answer with data from above.
2.
Of the cells above, which are prokaryotic cells? Support your answer with data from above.
3.
Based on cellular structure alone, determine to which kingdom each organism that you observed belongs. Support EACH of
your answers with data from above and with your knowledge of the six kingdoms (you do not have to differentiate between
archeabacteria and eubacteria).
42
CELL PART
PLANT/ ANIMAL?
EUKARYOTIC CELL PARTS
STRUCTURE: [Sketch.]
FUNCTION: [What job does it perform.]
ANALOGY:
Plasma Membrane
Cell Wall
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Ribosomes
Cytoplasm
43
CELL PART
PLANT/ ANIMAL?
STRUCTURE: [Sketch.]
FUNCTION: [What job does it perform.]
ANALOGY:
Centrioles
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Golgi Body
Vacuole
Lysosomes
Mitochondria
Chloroplast
Flagella and Cilia
44
45
46
47
Cell Structure Venn Diagrams
Name
Fill the Venn diagram with the terms listed below. Some terms may only go in one of the cell types, and some may go in all three!
� Square or rectangular
� Cell membrane
� Endoplasmic
� Lysosome
shape
Reticulum
� Cell walls
� Mitochondria
� Circular shape
� Cytoplasm
� Golgi Body
� Chloroplasts
� Chromatin
� Large vacuole
� Ribosomes
� Centrioles
� Nucleus
� Small vacuoles
Plant Cells
Animal Cells
� Membrane covered organelles
� Organelles have no membrane
� DNA in the nucleus
� DNA spread throughout the cell
� Cell membrane
� Cytoplasm
� Animal
� Plant
Prokaryotic Cells
� Fungi
� Protist
� Bacteria
� Ribosomes
Eukaryotic Cells
48
Cell Unit Review
Name
Be prepared to identify the components of a controlled experiment (IV, DV, constants and control).
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
1. Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells—what do they have in common, how are they different?
2.
Briefly describe the discoveries of Hooke, van Leuwenhoek, Schleiden, Virchow and Schwann.
3.
State the three parts of the cell theory.
4.
What are the major differences between a plant and animal cell? How do they look different when you see them under a
microscope?
FUNCTION
Stacked, flattened membranes that package and distribute proteins to the cell membrane.
Cell Part
Nucleolus
Organelle that converts light energy into chemical energy, site of photosynthesis, found only in plant cells
Membrane bound organelle containing digestive enzymes, breaks down and recycles worn out cell parts
Ribosome
Vacuole
Clear fluid surrounding the organelles; where all cellular reactions take place
Folded series of membranes forming a network of interconnected channels which transport materials
throughout the cell
Long strands of DNA found when the cell is not reproducing
Converts chemical energy into energy usable by the cell; site of cellular respiration; Powerhouse of the cell
Label the following cells:
49
Name
Plasma Membrane Demonstration
To remain alive and function optimally, cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems must maintain a biological balance with their
surrounding environment. Cells maintain this balance, or homeostasis, by controlling what moves into and out of the cell. Though
cells can exist within a range of environmental conditions, there is a limit to how much cells can adjust. The balance between the
inside of the cell and the cell’s environment is controlled by the plasma membrane. The plasma membrane is chemically composed
of lipid (fat) molecules with protein molecules embedded in the lipids. The proteins in the plasma membrane allow certain
substances to enter the cell and block the passage of other molecules. You will observe live yeast cells in three different
environments. Neatly sketch the cells as they appear under high power. Color and label the cells completely.
Yeast Cells & Water
Magnification
Unheated Yeast Cells & Congo Red
Heated Yeast Cells & Congo Red
Magnification
Magnification
1. What is the difference in appearance between the unheated and heated cells with Congo red?
2. What is the purpose of viewing the yeast cells with water?
3. If the plasma membrane controls what enters and exits the cell hypothesize what you think happened when heat was
added to the yeast cells?
4. Under normal conditions, is the yeast plasma membrane permeable or impermeable to Congo red?
5. After heat is added, is the yeast plasma membrane permeable or impermeable to Congo red?
6. Why was methylene blue used to observe the cheek cells in the previous microscope lab and not Congo red?
7. Based on the result of the demo and the fact that scientists know that heat can change the shape of the proteins,
describe the specific effect that heat had on the plasma membrane of the yeast?
8. Even though fever is a type of immune response, why is high fever very dangerous?
50
A PLASMA MEMBRANE MODEL
Name
Background: A cell model is used, substituting a plastic bag for the plasma membrane of a cell. The movement of chemicals can
be observed due to color changes occurring both in and out of the cell. A positive indicator of starch in the presence of iodine will
result in a blue-black color. Do all chemical substances pass in and out of a cell membrane with equal ease? Do chemical
substances move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration as they pass in and out of a cell? Using a plastic
bag as a model of a living cell membrane you will answer these questions.
Objectives: In this investigation, you will: use a model of a living cell membrane, determine if starch and iodine can pass across
the plastic “membrane”, determine if the plastic “membrane” is permeable to starch and/or iodine
Table 1
Color Changes
Color of starch inside bag
Before
After
Color of iodine outside bag
Analysis
1. The plastic bag represents what part of an actual cell? __________________________________________
2.
As previously noted, iodine solution plus starch forms a blue-black color when mixed together.
a. What color was the starch at the beginning of the experiment?____________________________
b. What color was the starch at the end of the experiment?__________________________________
c. Did Iodine move into the bag?______________________________________________________
d. What evidence do you see to support your answer?_____________________________________
3.
Was the iodine on the outside lighter in color before or after the experiment?____________________
a. Did starch move out of the bag?____________________________________________________
b. What evidence do you see to support your answer?_____________________________________
4.
A membrane is permeable to a substance if that substance can move through the membrane. It is impermeable if that
substance cannot move through the membrane. If a membrane allows some substances to pass through but does not allow
other substances to pass through, it is described as selectively permeable.
a. Is the plastic bag permeable or impermeable to iodine?__________________________________
b. Is the plastic bag permeable or impermeable to starch?__________________________________
5.
The cell (plasma) membrane can best be described as ______________________________________.
6.
At the beginning of the experiment, was iodine in HIGH or LOW concentration:
a. inside the bag?______________
7.
b. outside the bag?_______________
Based on your results, the iodine moved from an area of ___________ (high or low) concentration to an area of
_____________ (high or low) concentration.
8.
How might the size of the membrane openings (pores) compare to the size of:
a. the iodine molecules?____________
9.
b. the starch molecules?_____________
The structure of the plasma membrane (channel size) determines why some chemicals can or cannot pass through. Explain
why this is an important protective mechanism of the cell.
51
Plasma Membrane Worksheet
Name
Directions: Label the parts of the plasma membrane. Color each part a specific color. Use the key to show which color is for
which part.
KEY
Phospholipid Bilayer
Phosphate Head
Lipid Tail
Carbohydrate Chains
Proteins
Protein Channel
1.
What is the function of the plasma membrane?
2.
The plasma membrane is made up of a double layered sheet called a
embedded in it.
3.
The phosphate head is
4.
The lipid tail is
5.
Use the terms hydrophilic and hydrophobic to explain the structure and alignment of the phospholipid bilayer.
6.
What is passive transport?
7.
List the types of passive transport.
8.
What is active transport?
with
which means
which means
.
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Name
The Movement of Molecules: Diffusion and Osmosis
Passive Transport
Oxygen and carbon dioxide passively diffuse between the capillaries and air sacs in your lungs. Remember, molecules
always move with the concentration gradient during passive transport from high concentration to low concentration.
Predict which direction each molecule will travel in the following situations by writing “move in”, “move out”, or
“remain constant”..
Environment
2 O2
14 CO2
13 O2
6 CO2
2 O2
10 CO2
Cell
13 O2
6 CO2
2 O2
14 CO2
8 O2
10 CO2
O2 Will
CO2 Will
The solute sugar cannot passively diffuse through the plasma membrane. In this case, only the water will travel
through the membrane. This type of diffusion is called osmosis. Water will always move with the concentration
gradient during passive transport from high concentration to low concentration. Write the type of solution (hypo-,
iso-, hypertonic) and predict which direction water will travel in the following situations.
Environment
2 sugar
14 water
8 sugar
6 water
5 sugar
4 water
Cell
Type of Solution
Inside the Cell
Type of Solution in
the Environment
Water will
8 sugar
6 water
2 sugar
14 water
2 sugar
10 water
1. The diffusion of water across a membrane is called
.
2. What property of the plasma membrane prevents sugar from passing freely, but allows water, C O2, and O2 to pass?
3. What would happen to the cells of a freshwater fish placed in salt water?
4. How would a plant cell and animal cell respond differently when placed in a hypotonic solution? Explain. (HINT:
Think about the differences between plant and animal cell structure)
53
Name
Osmosis Problems: For each problem, use colored pencils to draw a diagram of the cell and its surroundings using
one color for the water and a different color for the solute (include a key or legend). Label the inside of the cell as
either hypotonic, hypertonic or isotonic. Label the environment of the as either hypotonic, hypertonic, or isotonic.
Using an arrow, indicate which direction water will flow, either inside the cell or out. Then state whether the cell will
increase, decrease, or stay the same.
1.
A Euglena is a fresh water protist. The solute concentration inside the Euglena is always greater than the solute
concentration in the surrounding water.
Euglenas have contractile vacuoles that continuously push water out of the cell. Why is a contractile vacuole
important to the survival of this organism?
2.
Red blood cells are approximately 0.25% salt. Red blood cells are placed in a 2% salt solution.
3.
Red blood cells are approximately 0.25% salt. Red blood cells are placed distilled water.
4.
A stalk of celery is placed in a container of salt water.
When celery is placed in salt water it becomes limp and rubbery. Explain why.
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Name
THE EFFECT ALCOHOL CONCENTRATION ON THE WATER CONTENT OF CELLS
DATA SHEET
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN DIAGRAM
Title:
Hypothesis:
Independent Variable (IV):
Levels of the IV:
 IV:

(Draw in one column for each level)
Identify which level is the control
Number of trials:

Dependant Variable (DV) with Units:

DV:
Constants (C) (at least 3):

C:
DATA TABLE
Alcohol
Concentration
Initial Water
Content (g)
Final Water
Content (g)
Difference
(g)
55
Cell Unit Review
Name
CELL TRANSPORT
1. What part of the cell controls the transport of materials into and out of the cell?
2. Label the following on the diagram below: phospholipids bilayer, phosphate head, lipid tail, channel protein, marker protein &
location of H2O
3.
What is meant by the phrase selectively permeable and why is the cell membrane considered to be selectively permeable?
4.
Compare and contrast active and passive transport.
5.
How are osmosis and diffusion different? How are osmosis and diffusion alike?
Use the diagram below to answer questions 5 – 10.
6.
7.
Which microscope field contains a hypertonic solution in the enviornment?
What is happening to the cells in this field and why?
8.
9.
Which microscope field contains an isotonic bathing solution?
What does the term isotonic mean?
10. Which microscope field contains a hypotonic solution in the environment?
11. What is happening to the cells in this field and why?
56
Name
Limitations on Cell Size: Surface Area to Volume
Pre-Lab
Answer the following questions using pages 241-243 in your textbook.
1. What are the two reasons cells must divide instead of growing indefinitely?
2.
What impact does the surface area of the cell have on cell transport?
3.
What impact does the volume of the cell have on cell transport?
4.
As a cell increases in size, which increases more rapidly, surface area or volume?
5.
What is the formula for Surface Area?
6.
What is the formula for Volume?
7.
What is the formula for the Ratio of Surface Area to Volume?
8.
Plant cells tend to be cubes. If a cell has a length of 1 mm. . . .
a. What is the volume of this cell? (be sure to include units)
9.
b.
What is the surface area of this cell? (be sure to include units)
c.
What is the surface area to volume ratio?
If this cell doubles in size to a length of 2 mm. . . .
a. What is the volume of this cell? (be sure to include units)
b.
What is the surface area of this cell? (be sure to include units)
c.
What is the surface area to volume ratio?
d.
What affect does growth have on the surface area to volume ratio?
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Name
Limitations on Cell Size: Surface Area to Volume
Data Sheet
DATA TABLE:
Cube Dimension
L, W, H (mm)
Surface Area (mm2)
Volume (mm3)
Surface area /
volume ratio
mm Absorbed
1.
2.
3.
POST-LAB QUESTIONS:
1. Which agar cube has the greatest surface area?
2. Which agar cube has the greatest surface area to volume ratio?
3. What happens to the surface area to volume ratio of a cell as the cell grows?
4. What happens to the surface area to volume ratio if you divide the cell in half?
5. What evidence is there that iodine is being absorbed by the agar cubes?
6. From our last unit on cells, explain how cells transport substances.
7. If the NaOH were some vital substance, such as oxygen or nutrients, and the agar cubes were cells,
which cell would be the most efficient?
8. What happens to the cell’s ability to transport substances and get rid of waste as it grows?
9. According to the results of your lab, what would be the disadvantages of the cell getting larger?
10. What process do cells undergo to maintain a large surface area to volume ratio?
58
Name
Mitosis Online Microscope Lab
Eukaryotic cells, with a few exceptions, undergo the process of cell division. During cell division, both the DNA and cytoplasm
(including organelles) are copied or replicated. Each new daughter cell that forms when a cell divides contains all of the
replicated parts of the original parent cell. This lab is designed to familiarize students with the stages of the cell cycle, a sequence
of events undertaken by cells as they grow and divide. Specifically, students will compare and contrast the stages of mitosis in
which a parent cell's replicated chromosomes are equally divided between two identical daughter cells.
Go to the site http://bio.rutgers.edu/~gb101/lab2_mitosis/index2.html. Read the “Introduction to the Lab” and click “begin
assignment”. At the next page titled “Mitosis”, follow the directions for Part I and then proceed to Part 3.
1.
Why is the root tip and blastocyst an excellent system for observing mitosis?
2.
What differences can you see when you compare the nucleus of a dividing cell with that of a non-dividing cell?
3.
What is the period before and after cell division called?
4.
Mitosis is a continuous process that may last from 30 minutes to several hours. The process of mitosis involves the division of
the cell's
. Mitosis is divided into four stages: ____________________, ____________________,
____________________, and ____________________.
Follow the directions for Part 3. When you have correctly identified one of the stages, draw that stage in the correct space below.
Try to go in order for identifying the stages.
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase/Cytokinesis
Follow the directions for Part 4. When you have correctly identified one of the stages, draw that stage in the correct space below.
Try to go in order for identifying the stages.
Interphase
Prophase
Anaphase
Metaphase
Telophase/Cytokinesis
5. What differences do you see in mitosis in plant and animal cells?
59
Cell Unit Review
Name
CELL DIVISION
1. The size of some living cells is 0.01 cm. Assuming this is a plant cell that is cubical, calculate the surface area and volume of
the cell. What is the surface area to volume ratio?
2.
3.
What happens to the surface area to volume ratio if the cell doubles in size?
How is surface area to volume ratio related to the rate of diffusion in a cell?
4.
Explain how the following terms are related: DNA, chromatin, chromatid, chromosome, centromere, gene
Draw and label the correct stages of the cell cycle in the diagram to the right.
5. Which phase is the longest in the cell cycle?
6. Which of the phases of mitosis is the longest?
Cell Cycle
7.
8.
9.
Mitosis begins
Which phase causes one nucleus to become two?
Which phase causes one cell to become two cells?
Discuss the cell cycle. Differentiate the cell cycle of bacterial cells, cancer cells, nerve cells, and “normal” cells.
10. Identify the phases of mitosis below. Label centrioles, chromosomes and spindle fibers.
11. Why do organisms undergo mitosis?
12. Explain what happens when a cell loses the ability to control growth.
60
Name
LIVING TOGETHER: Symbiotic Relationships
Use the following terms to describe the relationships among the animals in the video:
PR = PREDATION
MU = MUTUALISM
CO = COMMENSALISM
PA = PARASITISM
Also use these symbols:
0 = NEUTRAL
_____1.
+ = BENEFITS
– = HARMED
Sandborn deer and egrets
_____2. Monkeys and spotted deer
_____3. Gobi and shrimp
_____4. Hermit crab and ragworm
_____5. Octopus and hermit crab
_____6. Hermit crab and anemone
_____7. Ants and caterpillar #1
_____8. Ants and caterpillar #2
_____9. Monkeys, birds and fleas
_____10. Birds and lice
_____11. Bumblebees and mites
_____12. Moths and mites
_____13. Mouse and beetles
_____14. Beetles and fleas
_____15. Birds and tortoises
_____16. Birds and ticks
_____17. Fish and cleaning attendants
_____18. Fish and remora
_____19. Oxpecker and giraffe
_____20. Animals and tapeworms/ roundworms
_____21. Protozoans in the gut
22. How are the fluke larvae transferred from the snail to the vertebrate host?
61
Making a Food Chain
Name
All organisms that live in an ecosystem depend on _________________ for life processes and cell work. The _______
is the ultimate source of energy for life on earth. _____________________ use the ____________ to produce food
through _________________, but __________________ must __________________ others to get food. Energy
__________ through ecosystems from
to
.
Closely observe the illustration below showing a portion of a community.
1. Closely study the community pictured
to the left. List all the organisms you
can find.
\
2. _____________________ are organisms that break down organic matter. List examples that would be found in
this ecosystem:
3. At the bottom of the page on the left side, write the name of an organism from the list above that is an
autotroph. Below the name of the organism, label it “producer”.
4. Next draw a short arrow from this organism leading to another organism from your list that would eat the
producer. Label this organism “primary consumer”. You have drawn the first two trophic levels of a food chain.
5. Extend your food chain to three trophic levels by adding an arrow and a third organism that might consume the
second. Label this organism “secondary consumer”.
6. Extend your food chain to four trophic levels by adding an arrow and a fourth organism that might consume the
third. Label this organism “tertiary consumer”.
7. Extend your food chain to show five trophic levels. Your fifth level should include a decomposer.
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8. What is an herbivore? Which organism from your food chain is an herbivore?
9. What is a carnivore? Which organism(s) from your food chain is(are) a carnivore?
10. What is an omnivore? List an example from the pictured ecosystem of an omnivore.
11. What is a detritovore? How is a detritovore different from a decomposer?
12. Why are the arrows drawn from the organism being consumed to the consumer?
13. Draw a box around your food chain. Now add additional organisms and link them using arrows to create a food
web based around your food chain.
Study the ecological pyramid below.
__________ Kcal of Energy
__________ Kcal of Energy
__________ Kcal of Energy
__________ Kcal of Energy
14. Number the trophic levels (1-4) of the pyramid on the lines provided.
15. Label each trophic level according to the terms: producer, primary consumer, secondary consumer, tertiary
consumer on the lines provided.
16. Which trophic level contains all the herbivores?
17. Which trophic level contains the largest population of individuals?
18. Which trophic level contains the smallest number of individuals?
19. What would happen if the populations of the organisms in 17 and 18 were switched?
20. Organisms use a lot of energy to carry out life functions. Therefore, only about 10 percent is stored in their
bodies and passed to the next trophic level. Assume 90,000 kcal (kcal is a measure of energy) is available in the
first tropic level. Write the amount of energy available at each trophic level on the lines provided.
63
64
“Antarctic Food Web Computer Simulation” DATA SHEET
1.
Name
a. Define producer.
b. DRAW and LABEL the organism that you predict is the producer in the food web.
c. What name is given to the tiny organisms on top of the water that capture solar energy and transform it into chemical
energy?
2.
a. What are four typical fish species in the Antarctic?
b. Predict how these fish species are different from fish species found in the Gulf of Mexico.
3.
a. What is the main food source for squid?
b. Describe this predominant species of the Antarctic ecosystem.
4.
Name two adaptations seals have that enables them to live in this environment.
5.
Name two adaptations penguins have that enables them to live in this environment.
6.
What is a baleen (the structure)?
7.
In the space below, name the members of the food chain. Label the trophic levels below each organism.
8.
Complete the following data table.
Phytoplankton
Leopard Seal
Energy Required
Energy Provided
Life Span
Offspring Per Year
9.
How does the leopard seal data compare with the phytoplankton?
10. OFFSPRING PER YEAR for cod is decreased. This would cause fewer than normal fish to be produced in this ecosystem.
a. What organism initially increased in population?
b.
What organism was the first to show a decrease in population?
c.
List in order of decreasing population, the four remaining species of organisms.
d.
Why was the krill population last to show a decrease?
65
11. Commercial fishermen, off the coast of Antarctica, begin killing leopard seals because of their believed impact on the fish
population in the area. What condition did you change and why?
12. a. What affect did this have on the other populations of organisms?
b. Why did the penguin population eventually decrease even in the absence of large numbers of predators?
13. A larval form of sea worm ingests a diet of krill egg, which would normally control the population of krill. A small change in
the water temperature killed most of the sea worm population resulting in an explosion of krill. What did you change and
why?
14. a. What affect did this have on the other populations of organisms?
b.
Why was the leopard seal population last to decrease in number?
15. There is an international ban on whaling that is supported by all nations except Japan and Norway. Looking at this screen,
predict the effects of lifting (removing) the ban on this entire food chain. What condition did you change and why?
17. Why are the squid and crabeater seal populations shown at the same level in the population pyramid?
18. What affect did this have on the other populations of organisms?
19. Based on the results of the last simulation, describe a situation in our own ecosystem that would be similar?
66
Biomes and Aquatic Communities
Biome
Seasons
Average
Climate
(Temp &
Precipitation)
Name
Dominant
Producers
Dominant Consumers
Other Information
Tropical
Rainforest
Savanna
Desert
Temperate
Deciduous
Forest
Temperate
Grassland
Taiga
Tundra
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AquaticCom
Dominant Producers
Dominant Consumers
Information
Oceans
Coral Reef
Estuary
Lakes and
Ponds
Rivers and
Streams
Use page 99 in your textbook to label the geographical locations of the seven biomes listed above. USE COLOR!
Complete the following questions.
1. Hoover, Alabama is located in the ______________________________ biome which covers most of the Eastern United States.
2. Climate is a very important factor in determining the characteristics of a given biome. What two factors determine a region’s
climate? __________________________ and _________________________
3. Pretend that you are standing at the equator and you walk to the North Pole. Place the following biomes in order as you would
walk through them: Taiga, Temperate Grasslands, Tropical Rainforest, Tundra, Desert
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Name
The Absorption of Chlorophyll
A pigment is a substance that absorbs and reflects light of particular wavelengths. For example, the yellow-green color of
a leaf is due to a pigment in the leaf called chlorophyll. When white light (which contains all of the colors of the spectrum) shines
on chlorophyll the chlorophyll absorbs most of the red, orange, blue, and violet light and reflects most of the green and yellow.
That is why your see a yellow-green color. Think of a pigment as a sponge that soaks up all of the other colors of the spectrum
except the ones your see.
A spectrophotometer is an instrument that is used to measure the amount of light absorbed by a pigment. Below is a
graph showing the percentage of light energy reflected for the absorption spectrum for chlorophyll. The highest peaks represent
colors that chlorophyll absorbs the mot; therefore, they are the least visible.
Use the graph to the right to answer the following questions.
1.
Which of the colors absorbed by chlorophyll b is least visible?
2.
What is its approximate wavelength?
3.
What percentage of light energy absorbed does this peak represent?
4.
What percentage of this color is being reflected?
5.
What percentage of light energy absorbed by chlorophyll does the
orange spectrum peak represent?
6.
Why are there no peaks in the range between 5100 angstroms and 6100 angstroms?
7.
Are your able to see light in the yellow-green part of the spectrum? Explain your answer.
8.
List the colors in the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll in order of their visibility from most visible to least visible.
The graph to the right was derived from the chlorophyll absorption
spectrum. Use the bar graph, which shows the percentage of light
energy reflected by chlorophyll, to answer the following questions.
9.
Which color in this spectrum in most visible?
10. What is the approximate percentage of light energy reflected for
this color?
11. What percentage of light energy absorbed does this represent?
12. If everything above 50% of light energy reflected is visible to
the human eye, is red light part of the mixture of colors seen in
light reflected by chlorophyll?
13. What is a pigment?
14. What is a spectrophotometer?
69
Name
Photosynthesis Molecular Modeling Activity
You will be creating a model of each molecule involved in the process of photosynthesis. The equation for this is as follows:
6CO2
+
6H20
Carbon Dioxide
light
Water
C6H12O6
+
Glucose
6O2
Oxygen
A. Empty the contents of your bag into the glass culture dish. Separate and count all of your molecular pieces. Report any
missing. In your bag, you will find: 18 atoms of Oxygen (blue), 12 atoms of Hydrogen (white), 6 atoms of Carbon (black), 36
covalent bonds (white tubes) The atoms of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen represent matter. The covalent bonds represent
energy.
B. Now let’s get to know the molecular pieces. Look at one atom of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Each protruding spike on
these atoms represents a bonding site. All spikes must be bonded for the energy levels of the atoms to be filled.
1) How many bonds must hydrogen form?
2) How many bonds must oxygen form?
3) How many bonds must carbon form?
C. Using the structural diagrams shown at the top of the page, create a model of each reactant molecule involved in
photosynthesis. Remember, all bonding sites must be filled.
4) How many hydrogens are in your reactants?
5) How many oxygens are in your reactants?
6) How many carbons are in your reactants?
D. During photosynthesis, the reactants are broken down and the matter is recycled to create the products. Simulate the
photosynthesis process by taking your reactants apart and creating the products using the structural diagrams above.
7) How many hydrogens are in your products?
8) How many oxygens are in your products?
9) How many carbons are in your products?
E. Disassemble your models. Separate and count all of your molecular pieces. Report any missing.
10) When you compare the number of atoms of each element in the reactants and the number of atoms of each element in the
products, what pattern do you see?
11) What important law does this illustrate?
12) How many bonds are found in each of the following molecules?
CO2 ______
H2O ______
C6H12O6 _______
O2______
13) If chemical energy is stored in the bonds of molecules, which of these molecules has the most potential energy?
14) Where does the energy stored in the bonds of glucose originate?
70
Name
Stomata Microscope Activity
1. What is the purpose of leaves?
2. What are stomata?
3. What is transpiration? How do stomata control the rate of transpiration?
4. When would stomata be open? Why?
5. When would stomata be closed? Why?
6. What is the function of guard cells?
View each leaf peel under low power on the microscope. Draw each peel in the appropriate locations.
Textbook Image
Microscope Image
Magnification ____
7. In which situation would more stomata be open, the light or dark? Explain why.
8. Why do you think stomata are found on the bottom of leaves?
9. Certain plants called CAM plants, such as cacti, keep their stomata closed during the day and open them at night.
What is the advantage to this? Why do plants like this need this adaptation?
10. What other adaptation would CAM plants need to be able to carry out photosynthesis?
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Name
Cellular Respiration Molecular Modeling Activity
You will be creating a model of each molecule involved in the process of respiration. The equation for this is as follows:
C6H12O6
+
6O2
Glucose
6CO2
Oxygen
+
Carbon Dioxide
6H20
Water
A. Empty the contents of your bag into the glass culture dish. Separate and count all of your molecular pieces. Report any
missing. In your bag, you will find: 18 atoms of Oxygen (blue), 12 atoms of Hydrogen (white), 6 atoms of Carbon (black), 36
covalent bonds (white tubes) The atoms of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen represent matter. The covalent bonds represent
energy.
B. Now let’s get to know the molecular pieces. Look at one atom of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Each protruding spike on
these atoms represents a bonding site. All spikes must be bonded for the energy levels of the atoms to be filled.
1) How many bonds must hydrogen form?
2) How many bonds must oxygen form?
3) How many bonds must carbon form?
C. Using the structural diagrams shown at the top of the page, create a model of each reactant molecule involved in respiration.
Remember, all bonding sites must be filled.
4) How many hydrogens are in your reactants?
5) How many oxygens are in your reactants?
6) How many carbons are in your reactants?
D. During respiration, the reactants are broken down and the matter is recycled to create the products. Simulate the respiration
process by taking your reactants apart and creating the products using the structural diagrams above.
7) How many hydrogens are in your products?
8) How many oxygens are in your products?
9) How many carbons are in your products?
E. Disassemble your models. Separate and count all of your molecular pieces. Report any missing.
10) When you compare the number of atoms of each element in the reactants and the number of atoms of each element in the
products, what pattern do you see?
11) What important law does this illustrate?
12) How many bonds are found in each of the following molecules?
CO2 ______
H2O ______
C6H12O6 _______
O2______
13) If chemical energy is stored in the bonds of molecules, which of these molecules has the most potential energy?
14) Where does the energy stored in the bonds of glucose go?
15) How does this molecular modeling activity compare to the one you previously completed? Explain fully!
72
Name
THE EFFECT OF SUGAR ON YEAST RESPIRATION RATE
Title:
Hypothesis:
Independent Variable (IV):
Levels of the IV:
 IV:

(Draw in one column for each level)
Identify which level is the control
Number of trials:

Dependant Variable (DV) with Units:

DV:
Constants (C) (at least 3):

C:
DATA TABLES
Time (min)
Data Table 1
Carbon Dioxide Concentration
(ppm = parts per million)
Glucose
Sucrose
Lactose
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Sugar Tested
Respiration
Rate (ppm/s)
Data Table 2
Glucose
Sucrose
Lactose
Data Table 3
Class Averages
Sugar
Respiration
Tested
Rate
Glucose
Sucrose
Lactose
73
Cycles of Matter, Section 3-3
Name
_______
Biogeochemical Cycles (connects _________________, ________________, and ________________________) is the
process in which elements, chemical compounds, and other forms of matter are passed from one organism to another and
from one part of the biosphere to another. In most organisms, more than 95% of the body is made up of _______________,
_________________, __________________, and _______________. Unlike the one-way___________ of
_______________, _____________ is _______________ within and between ecosystems. Matter can _________________
through the _______________________ because biological systems do not use up matter, they ____________________ it.
Water Cycle: Water moves between the ocean, atmosphere, and land. Water also moves from the biosphere into organisms
and then back to the biosphere. Plants absorb water through their __________ and lose it from their _________ in a process
known as ______________________. Water can also enter the biosphere by changing from liquid for to atmospheric gas
through a process called ____________________. As warm, moist air rises, it cools and condenses the water vapor into
___________ that return the water to the Earth’s surface in the form of _______________________. Water from
precipitation enters rivers and stream and is carried to oceans or lake, or it can seep into the ______________ and enter a
_____________ through the roots where the cycle will repeat.
Nitrogen Cycle: Nitrogen is needed by organisms for growth and repair. Nitrogen is found in ____________________
which are used to build proteins found in skin, muscles, hair/fur, and enzymes. We cannot use nitrogen as it occurs in the
atmosphere, ____; certain types of _________________ in the soil convert the nitrogen gas into ammonia (NH3) in a
process called _________________________________. Producers can the use the ammonia and the consumers will eat the
producers and reuse the nitrogen. Other bacteria will return nitrogen to the biosphere to begin the cycle again through
__________________________.
74
Carbon Cycle: Carbon is found as ______________ _________________ in the atmosphere and ocean. Photosynthetic
organisms take in ___________ and convert it to glucose (____________). Heterotrophs or consumers obtain carbon when
they eat wither autotrophs or other heterotrophs. Carbon is returned to the biosphere when organisms undergo
_________________ (give off CO2) and are decomposed. Other ways that carbon moves through its cycle are:
- Geochemical processes such as _______________________________________
- Mixed biogeochemical processes that store carbon underground in __________ and _________________.
-Human activities such as ___________________________________________.
Phosphorus cycle: Phosphorus is important to living organisms because it forms part of molecules such as ________ and
_______. Phosphorus is different from carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen because it does not enter the
______________________. Phosphorus remains in _____________ and _____________________ and in
__________________________ and is released into rivers and streams when these materials wear down. Plants and marine
organisms use these phosphates. When animals eat the plants, they use the phosphates and then return it to the soil when
they decompose.
Draw the Phosphorus cycle in the space below.
75
The Flow of Matter and Energy Unit Review
Ecology
1. List and define the three symbiotic relationships.
2. How do energy and matter flow through food chains and food webs? (autotrophs, heterotrophs, consumers, herbivores,
omnivores, carnivores, trophic levels, etc.)
3. Draw a five trophic level food chain. Label each trophic level. Label each organism as an autotroph or heterotroph.
4. If 2500kCal of energy is available at the 3rd trophic level, how much is available at the first trophic level?
5. What type of trends (population, biomass, energy) are reflected in ecological pyramids?
6. How does the change in the size of a population in a food chain affect the size of other populations in the food chain?
7. In what ways does matter (water, nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon) cycle through ecosystems and how are organisms involved in
the cycling?
8. What are all organisms dependent on other organisms (biotic factors) as well as their environment (abiotic factors)? Give
specific examples of interdependence.
9. What is meant by energy transformation (conversions)? Name forms of energy and give examples of energy transformations.
10. How do the climatic conditions determine the biodiversity in an area?
11. Compare and contrast the tropical rainforest with the desert. Discuss the environmental factors that affect photosynthesis and
the relationship this has on the diversity of the region.
12. How are the movement of matter and the movement of energy through an ecosystem different?
Photosynthesis
13. What are the reactants of photosynthesis and explain where producers get each of them.
14. What are the products of photosynthesis? What happens to each of them when they are produced by autotrophs?
15. What organelle is responsible for photosynthesis?
16. What type of energy conversion occurs during photosynthesis?
17. Discuss the relationship between wavelength, frequency, and color.
18. Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in almost all autotrophs. What is the role of chlorophyll in photosynthesis?
19. How do environmental conditions affect the rate of photosynthesis?
20. What are stomata? What structure regulates the opening and closing of stomata?
Cellular Respiration
21. What changes in matter and energy occur during the respiration reaction? Where in the cell does respiration occur?
22. Draw and animal cell. Show the reactants of respiration; explain where they come from and where they end up in the cell.
Show the products of respiration and what happens to them after they are made by the cell.
23. What is the goal of cellular respiration?
24. What is oxygen’s role in cellular respiration? Compare and contrast aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
25. What is the ONLY energy source that can directly power cells?
26. Describe at least three types of cell work.
27. Explain the recycling of matter in the ATP cycle and the associated flow of energy.
28. How do respiration and photosynthesis represent the cycling of matter?
29. Draw the energy flow diagram. Summarize the flow of matter and energy.
76
PROTEIN BEAD ACTIVITY
Name
Act Now: This chain represents enzymes, which are proteins that catalyze thousands of chemical reactions in our cells.
Amino Acid
Threonine
Tyrosine
Tyrosine
Lysine
Proline
Methionine
Methionine
Bead
support: This represents keratin, which is a protein that gives structure or support to our fingernails and toenails.
Amino Acid
Phenylalanine Serine
Aspartic Acid
Cysteine
Glutamic Acid
Glutamic Acid
Valine
Bead
breathe: This represents hemoglobin, which is a protein located on our red blood cells. It helps transport oxygen throughout our
body.
Amino Acid
Asparanine
Histidine
Serine
Serine
Histidine
Histidine
Asparanine
Bead
Health: This represents antibodies, which are proteins that help the body fight off disease.
Amino Acid
Lysine
Isoleucine
Glutamine
Tyrosine
Arginine
Bead
Threonine
Proline
Journey: This represents hormones, which are proteins that travel throughout our body to help regulate metabolism.
Amino Acid
Alanine
Serine
Pheylalanine
Threonine
Arginine
Glutamine
Glycine
Bead
Strength: This represents actin, which is a protein that helps muscles contract.
Amino Acid
Asparganine
Histidine
Phenylalanine Alanine
Isoleucine
Bead
Histidine
Asparginine
1. Proteins are large molecules (polymers) made up of smaller subunits (monomers) called ____________________.
2. Consumers get the amino acids necessary to build proteins from their diet. What kind of food do we get amino
acids from?
3. How many different amino acids are there?
4. The amount of possible proteins is exponential, with a value of approximately 2050,000 proteins, a tremendous
number. How is it possible to have so many different proteins when there are so few different amino acids?
5. How are your six protein chains different from each other?
6. You know from reading “The Blue People of Troublesome Creek” article that proteins control traits. List three of
the proteins you built and describe the trait it controls.
7. Normal hemoglobin has 146 amino acids with a glutamic acid as the sixth amino acid in the chain. Sickle cell
hemoglobin has the same number of amino acids, but had valine as the sixth amino acid in the chain. The Sickle
cell hemoglobin is dysfunctional and is not able to carry oxygen like a normal hemoglobin protein. What does this
tell you about the order of amino acids that make up a protein?
77
Name
Protein Molecular Modeling Activity
Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids are the four major groups of organic macromolecules found
in organisms. PROTEINS are the main structural components of cells in tissues such as skin, hair, muscle and blood.
Other proteins serve as enzymes. Enzymes are catalysts that speed up the rate of cellular reactions.
Proteins are made up of repeating units called amino acids. Amino acids always contain nitrogen, in addition
to carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. There are only 20 different amino acids known to exist. Just like an unlimited
number of words can be built from the 26 letters of the alphabet, an unlimited number of proteins can be built from
these 20 amino acids. A different number and/or order of amino acids results in a different protein.
All amino acids have a similar basic structure. The general structural formula is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Generalized structure of an amino acid molecule
In your bag you will find the following molecular pieces:
Nitrogen (red)- NITROGEN MUST FORM ONLY 3 COVALENT BONDS- TWO BONDING SITES WILL BE EMPTY
Carbon (black)
Hydrogen (white)
Oxygen (blue)
Covalent Bonds (white tubes)
Procedure:
1. Examine the structural formula for an amino acid (Fig. 1). Create a model of an amino acid using the molecular
pieces that are provided. LEAVE THE R PORTION EMPTY. Note that the amino acid has an amino group (NH2)
on one end and a carboxyl group (COOH) at the other. R stands for radical (an atom or group of atoms). The
atoms in the R position determine the uniqueness of each amino acid.
2. The structural formula for four amino acids are shown in Figure 2. Notice that the only difference between each
amino acid is the atom or group of atoms in the R position.
Figure 2 Structural formula of selected amino acids
3. Study the structural formulas in Figure 2 and answer the following questions:
a. What is the molecular formula for glycine? (add the correct subscripts) C H O N
b. What is the molecular formula for alanine? (add the correct subscripts) C H O N
c. Are the molecular formulas for all amino acids the same? ______________________
4. Construct two different amino acids - you may add on to the model that you made in #1 to create one of these two
models. Make the second from scratch. Consult with your partner to ensure that between both of you, you have
models of each of the four amino acids shown in Figure 2.
78
Amino acids must be joined together by chemical bonds in order to create a protein. Proteins may contain as few as
50 or as many as 5000 or more amino acids.
The chemical reaction that joins amino acids together is called a condensation reaction, or dehydration
synthesis. These are appropriate names for this reaction, because one molecule of water is formed by the removal of a
hydrogen atom from the amino group of one amino acid and an OH group from the carboxyl group of another amino
acid. This reaction is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3 Dehydration synthesis reaction involving two molecules of the amino acid glycine.
Combine the two amino acid molecules that you built by removing the proper –H and –OH as needed to form a
dipeptide (combination of two amino acids). Once this is done, rejoin the –H and –OH atoms.
a. What chemical substance is formed when the –H and –OH is joined? ________________________
6. Combine your dipeptide with your partner’s dipeptide to make a protein.
5.
Interpretations:
7. Dehydration means, “water loss.” Synthesis means, “to put together.” Explain why the chemical process
responsible for building a protein molecule is called dehydration synthesis.
8.
What type of molecule is needed to form protein molecules?
9.
How might a human muscle protein differ from a horse muscle protein?
10. What purpose is served by the loss of an –H and –OH end from two molecules as they join together during
dehydration synthesis?
11. Six amino acids are undergoing dehydration synthesis to form a protein. How many water molecules will be made
during this process?
12. The hemoglobin protein controls the shape of red blood cells. Normal hemoglobin has 146 amino acids with a
glutamic acid as the sixth amino acid in the chain. When normal hemoglobin is present, red blood cells are round.
Sickle cell hemoglobin has the same number of amino acids, but had valine as the sixth amino acid in the chain.
You know from reading, “The Blue People of Troublesome Creek,” article that proteins control traits. Based on
this knowledge, explain how the difference in amino acid sequence of hemoglobin causes sickle cell anemia.
79
PROTEINS AND TRAITS, WHAT IS THE CONNECTION?
Name
At your table you will find a small plate (petri dish) that is filled with starch agar. Remember that agar is a gelatinous material
made from seaweed. Starch has been added to the agar during preparation.
Procedure—Preparing the Starch-Agar Plates
A. Have one member of your group put the Q-tip into his or her mouth and saturate it with saliva.
B. Once the Q-tip is saturated with saliva remove it from your mouth and then open your petri dish and gently write or draw
something onto the surface of the agar without telling your group what it is.
C. Close the agar plate and let it incubate at room temperature for 20 minutes.
D. Dispose of the Q-tip in the trash can at the front of the room.
E. While you are waiting for the incubation, continue with the rest of the instructions.
WHAT IS A PROTEIN? (Use pages 47-51 in your textbook)
1. A protein is a large molecule (macromolecule) made up of smaller molecules called
2. How many amino acids are found in nature?
3. List three roles of proteins.
.
4. What is the relationship between proteins and traits?
5. Name a protein and describe the trait it controls.
PEAS, PEAS, PEAS
At your desk you will find two peas, one labeled A and one labeled B. Observe the peas & answer the following.
6. Name any three physical traits of the peas.
7. Pay special attention to the shape of the two peas. What two variations of shape do you observe?
8. Based on what you have learned in class, what do you hypothesize is the reason that these two peas have
different shapes?
ANALYSIS OF STARCH-AGAR PLATE
9. Why did we add iodine to the starch-agar plates?
10. Why did some of the area of the agar turn blue/black?
11. How were you able to see the word or drawing that was created by the saliva (why didn’t this area turn
blue/black)?
12. What name is given to biological chemicals that speed up, slow down, start or stop cellular reactions?
13. What property of saliva is evident by this exercise? What is the name of the enzyme responsible for this?
CONCEPT MAP
14. On the back of this sheet, create a concept map that shows the relationship between the following concepts:
enzymes, proteins, traits, amino acids, variation.
80
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES: THE SEARCH FOR THE GENETIC CODE
Name
WHAT CONTROLS THE PRODUCTION OF PROTEINS? Since proteins control traits, then whatever controls protein
production is responsible for all of the traits of cells and subsequently organisms. The search for the genetic material
was a long one. Many scientists contributed to what we now know about genetics and the control of protein
production. Your goal today is to analyze the research that led to what we now know about genetics. Use pages
286-294 of your textbook to complete the questions.
EXERCISE 1: Fred Griffith and Transformation
1. What did Griffith hope to learn from his experiment?
2. What happened to the mice that were injected with the disease-causing bacteria?
3. What happened to the mice that were injected with the heated disease-causing bacteria?
4. What happened to the mice that were injected with the heated disease-causing bacteria and harmless bacteria?
5. Griffith described his discovery as transformation. Why was this an appropriate description?
6. Griffith hypothesized that his “transforming factor” could be a
.
Griffith’s experiment prompted a lot of study in the scientific community. What was the genetic substance that
passed on information, that determined an offspring’s visible traits, that was able to “transform organisms”, and
also that accounted for the incredible diversity to be found among living things? Some scientists thought it must be
a protein, because proteins are present in large quantities in the cell and carry on numerous functions. Proteins are
made of 20 different subunits called amino acids that can be joined in a great variety of combinations. Other
scientists, noting that large amounts of DNA were also present in cells, thought that DNA was the molecule of
heredity. However, it seemed too simple a molecule, with only six subunits: deoxyribose (a sugar), phosphate, and
four nitrogenous bases (adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine). What was the molecule of heredity? Was it protein
or was it DNA?
EXERCISE 2: Oswald Avery
7. What did Avery treat the heat-killed bacteria with?
8.
What happened when Avery destroyed the carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins in the bacteria?
9.
What happened when Avery destroyed the DNA in the bacteria?
10. What was Avery’s contribution to what we know about the molecule of heredity?
EXERCISE 3: Hershey and Chase
11. What is a bacteriophage? What two molecules make up the bacteriophage?
12. What chemical difference between DNA and protein did Hershey and Chase take advantage of in their
experiment?
13. What were the results of Hershey and Chase’s experiment?
14. What very important conclusion did they draw?
The function of DNA as the storage site and transmitter of information for traits was now known. But, what was its
structure? How were the subunits arranged in the molecule so that DNA could be the bearer of vast amounts of
information and code for the incredible diversity seen in living things?
81
EXERCISE 4: Chargaff
Erwin Chargaff added an important piece to the puzzle with his experiments showing the proportions of nitrogenous
bases found in DNA were the same in every cell of an organism in a given species, but that the proportions varied
from species to species. Examine his results in the following table.
COMPOSITION OF DNA IN SEVERAL SPECIES
Source
Purines
Pyrimidines
Adenine
Guanine
Cytosine
Thymine
Human
30.9%
19.9%
19.8%
29.4%
Ox
29.0%
21.2%
21.2%
28.7%
Salmon Sperm
29.7%
20.8%
20.4%
29.1%
Wheat germ
28.1%
21.8%
22.7%
27.4%
E. coli
24.7%
26.0%
25.7%
23.6%
Sea Urchin
32.8%
17.7%
17.3%
32.1%
15. Note the proportions of purines and pyrimidines in DNA. If you add the percentage of purines and you add the
percentage of pyrimidines for each species what do you find?
16. What pattern do you see among the four nitrogenous bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine)?
17. If purines can bind to pyrimidines, does this data suggest a WAY in which the bases might combine?
EXERCISE 5: Rosalind Franklin
18. What technique did Rosalind Franklin use to study the DNA molecule?
19. What three things does Franklin’s X-shaped photograph show about DNA?
20. Rosalind Franklin died of ovarian cancer before the Nobel prize was awarded for her work—subsequently she is
not recognized as a Nobel laureate (you cannot win the Nobel prize if you are not alive). Do you think there is a
relationship between her work and her death? Explain your answer.
The Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids is one of the classic papers in scientific literature in the twentieth century. It
represents the culmination of forty years of intense scientific research and bridged the gap between earlier discoveries
about traits and patterns of inheritance of traits and our modern understanding of how genes code for proteins and
how proteins result in traits. In 1953, it was known that DNA was the molecule responsible for conferring traits within
an organism and for the passing on of characteristics from generation to generation. What was not yet known was
how this was done. In order to understand how, it was crucial to know the structure of the DNA molecule. In this
article James Watson and Francis Crick proposed a structure for deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA. Watson, Crick and
Maurice Wilkins (Rosalind Franklin’s supervisor) were awarded the Nobel prize in medicine in 1962 for their discovery.
EXERCISE 6: Watson and Crick
21. What other scientist contributed to Watson and Crick’s model of DNA?
22. How are the two stands of the DNA helix held together?
23. How did Chargaff’s data contribute to Watson & Crick’s model of DNA? Explain fully!
24. Watson and Crick did not do a classical controlled experiment (independent variable, dependent variable, etc.)
to develop their theory about the structure of DNA. What type of evidence did they use to draw their
conclusions?
82
BUILDING THE DNA MODEL
1.
2.
3.
4.
Name
What is the full name of DNA?
DNA is made up of small subunits called ___________________.
What are the three parts of a DNA nucleotide?
Write the name of the two nitrogen bases in blue. What type or group of nitrogen bases are these?
5. Write the name of the two nitrogen bases in yellow. What type or group of nitrogen bases are these?
6. How many different DNA nucleotides are there?
7. How is each nucleotide the same? How is each one different?
8. What molecules alternate to form the backbone of DNA?
9. What type of bond holds these molecules together?
10. Write out Chargaff’s base pairing rules (write which bases join together).
11. What type of bond joins the nitrogen bases?
12. What was the term Watson and Crick used to describe the shape of DNA?
13. Why is the double helix a good description of the DNA molecule?
14. What nitrogen bases would be on a strand complementary to the strand GGACTGTTA?
15. Assume that a DNA double helix contains 100 base-pairs. If there are 45 cytosine bases, how many adenines are
there?
16. What process, which occurs before cell division, will produce a copy of this molecule?
83
Name
DNA v. RNA
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Review the structure of DNA.
Describe the structure of RNA.
Compare and contrast DNA and RNA.
Name, describe, and give function of the three types of RNA.
I. Review the structure of DNA.
1.
DNA is a polymer called a
.
2.
The repeating units (monomers) of DNA are called
.
3.
Each DNA nucleotide is made up of three parts. Name them.
4.
Sketch a DNA nucleotide. Label each part.
5.
List the DNA nitrogenous bases.
6.
How do the bases pair?
7.
What kind of bond holds these bases together?
8.
What is the shape of the DNA molecule?
9.
Where in the cell would you find DNA?
II. Describe the structure of RNA.
1.
RNA is a polymer called a
.
2.
The repeating units (monomers) of RNA are called
.
3.
Each RNA nucleotide is made up of three parts. Name them.
4.
Sketch a RNA nucleotide. Label each part.
5.
List the RNA nitrogenous bases.
6.
How do the bases pair?
7.
What kind of bond holds these bases together?
8.
What is the shape of the RNA molecule?
9.
Where in the cell would you find RNA?
III. Compare and contrast DNA and RNA. Complete the following table.
Nucleic Acid
Type of Sugar
Bases Possible
Shape (# Strands)
DNA
RNA
Location in Cell
IV. Name, describe, and give function of the three types of RNA. Complete the following table.
Type of RNA
Location in Cell
Function
Below sketch a model of each of the three types of RNA found on page 300 of your textbook.
84
85
Name
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
1.
Explain how proteins that are all composed of the same 20 amino acids differ among organisms.
2.
Define codon.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
On which nucleic acid would you find the codons listed in the table?___________________
How many amino acids are shown on this table?___________________________________
How many codons are shown on the table? _______________________________________
Name one amino acid that has only one codon.____________________________________
Name one amino acid that has four codons._______________________________________
Write the name of the amino acid coded by each of the following mRNA codons.
A. CCU_________________________
B. ACG_________________________
C. GAG_________________________
D. UCU_________________________
List all possible codons for each of the following amino acids.
A. Asparagine_______________________________
B. Lysine___________________________________
C. Threonine________________________________
D. Valine___________________________________
Write the name of the amino acid coded by each of the following DNA codons.
A. TTT___________________________
B. GTA___________________________
C. CCT___________________________
D. TAG___________________________
List all possible DNA codons for each of the following amino acids.
A. Cysteine________________________________________
B. Proline_________________________________________
C. Methionine______________________________________
D. Tyrosine _______________________________________
Name the nucleic acid that carries the amino acids to the mRNA.__________________________
Define anticodon.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14. Give the tRNA anticodon that will bind to the following mRNA codons.
A. UCU__________________________
B. GAG__________________________
C. CAC__________________________
D. ACG__________________________
Review questions
1. Identical molecules are the result of this process._____________________________
2. What protein is responsible for unzipping DNA prior to replication and transcription?_______________________________
3. In DNA, name the base that pairs with adenine.______________________________
4. In RNA, name the base that pairs with adenine.______________________________
5. What base always pairs with guanine?_____________________________________
6. Name the base found in DNA that is not found in RNA._______________________
7. mRNA is coded from what portion of a DNA molecule?_______________________
8. An anticodon is found on what nucleic acid?________________________________
9. What nucleic acid does the anticodon bond to?_______________________________
10. At what cell structure does protein synthesis take place?______________________
11. A protein (polypeptide) consists of a long chain of these.______________________
86
87
Name
MUTATIONS
The following is the base sequence on one strand of DNA:
TACTAGAAACCACAAAGGACT
1.
What is the base sequence of the complementary DNA strand?
2.
What mRNA molecule would the original DNA strand code for?
3.
What amino acid sequence would this mRNA code for? Use your codon chart.
4.
If the 7th nucleotide were changed from an A to a G, what mRNA molecule would the mutated DNA code for? Write the
entire strand.
5.
What amino acid sequence would this mRNA code for? Use your codon chart. Write the entire sequence.
6.
Compare the proteins in #3 and #5.
7.
What type of mutation is this?
8.
If the 7th, 8th, and 9th nucleotides (AAA) in the original DNA strand were deleted, what mRNA molecule would the new DNA
code for? Write the entire strand.
9.
What amino acid sequence would this mRNA code for? Use your codon chart. Write the entire sequence.
10. Compare the proteins in #3 and #9.
11. What type of mutation is this?
12. If the 4th nucleotide (T) in the original DNA strand were deleted, what mRNA molecule would the new DNA code for? Write
the entire strand.
13. What amino acid sequence would this mRNA code for? Use your codon chart. Write the entire sequence.
14. Compare the proteins in #3 and #13.
15. What type of mutation is this?
88
Name
GENE EXPRESSION
Objective: The learner will recognize that the order of nucleotides in DNA determines the order of nucleotides in mRNA and the
order of amino acids in proteins.
You will be given a little critter. It is your job as a molecular biologist to:
 identify two different proteins in this organism
 identify the traits that those proteins control
 determine the amino acid sequence of the proteins
Once you have the amino acid sequence of the protein you are to propose a possible mRNA strand that would code for this protein
and then determine the sequence of bases on the original DNA molecule. Finally, you are to imagine what might be some possible
variations of traits if these proteins are changed (different traits, deficiencies, diseases, etc.)
Task 1: Look at your critter and choose one physical trait. Make up a name for a protein that would control this trait and explain
how this protein contributes to the expression of this trait. For example, in humans melanin is a structural protein that adds
pigment to hair and skin. The more melanin that is present, the darker the skin tone. Different amounts of melanin result in
variations of skin tones and the lack of melanin results in albinism.
Name of Protein:
Trait Controlled by Protein:
How the Protein contributes to the expression of the trait:
Task 2: Next, pretend that you have analyzed this protein and identified the amino acid sequence of the protein. Choose a
sequence that consists of 7 amino acids. Remember to begin your protein correctly.
Amino Acid Sequence of Protein:
Task 3: Using the amino acid sequence in Task 2, propose a possible messenger RNA (mRNA) strand that would have resulted in
this protein. Be sure to end your mRNA strand correctly.
mRNA sequence:
Task 4: Using the mRNA sequence above, give the DNA sequence that would have been the original gene for the protein.
DNA sequence:
Task 5: Now propose a point mutation to the DNA strand above. Give the mRNA sequence and the resulting amino acid
sequence. Explain how the trait with the mutated gene would differ from the trait with the original gene.
Mutated DNA sequence:
Resulting mRNA sequence:
Resulting amino acid sequence:
How does the new amino acid sequence differ from the original sequence?
How did your trait change as a result of the change in protein?
89
Now you are to look at your critter again. This time imagine all of the cellular processes and reactions that have to occur in order
for this organism to function.
Task 1: Select one process and choose one possible enzyme that allows that process to occur. Make up a name for the protein
(enzyme) that would control this trait (process) and explain how this protein contributes to the expression of this trait (process).
For example, in humans, amylase is an enzyme (protein) that breaks down starch. Amylase is found in saliva and begins the
digestive process in the mouth by hydrolyzing starch molecules into maltose (a disaccharide).
Name of Protein:
Trait Controlled by Protein:
How the Protein contributes to the expression of the trait:
Task 2: Next, pretend that you have analyzed this protein and identified the amino acid sequence of the protein. Choose a
sequence that consists of 7 amino acids. Remember to begin your protein correctly.
Amino Acid Sequence of Protein:
Task 3: Use the amino acid sequence in Task 2 to propose a possible messenger RNA (mRNA) strand that would have resulted in
this protein. Be sure to end your mRNA strand correctly.
mRNA sequence:
Task 4: Using the mRNA sequence above, give the DNA sequence that would have been the original gene for the protein.
DNA sequence:
Task 5: Now propose a frameshift mutation to the DNA strand above. Give the mRNA sequence and the resulting amino acid
sequence. Explain how the trait with the mutated gene would differ from the trait with the original gene.
Mutated DNA sequence:
Resulting mRNA sequence:
Resulting amino acid sequence:
How does the new amino acid sequence differ from the old amino acid sequence?
How did your trait change as a result of the change in protein?
90
The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology Study Guide
Name
1. Based on what you know about proteins, explain why the blue people of Troublesome Creek were blue.
2.
Give an example of a trait. Give two examples of variations of this trait.
Be able to determine the IV, DV, constants and control in an experimental design scenario and based on your analysis of
experimental data, be able to formulate a conclusion.
3.
DNA and RNA are polymers called ________ _________, and are made of monomers called _______________.
4.
A nucleotide is composed of a ______________, a ______________ group, and 1 of 4 ___________ ________.
5.
A protein is a polymer composed of monomers called ________________ _________________.
6.
7.
A special type of protein that speeds up or slows down a chemical reaction is called a(n) _________________.
(HINT- they often end in -ase).
What is the complementary base sequence for the following DNA molecule? GGTACGTAC
8.
State/diagram the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology.
9.
Describe the goal of the three processes that are highlighted in the Central Dogma. Where in the cell do each of these
processes take place? Be familiar with all of the steps in each of these three processes.
10. What is a gene?
11. Explain why all individuals (except identical twins) are different. You must refer to DNA and proteins in your response.
12. Compare and contrast the DNA molecule and the RNA molecule.
17. RNA’s job is to direct the production of proteins. Explain the role that mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA play in producing protein.
18. The genetic code on mRNA is read in sets of three bases called a _________________. Each of these sets has a
corresponding three base sequence on tRNA molecules called a(n) ______________________.
19. What indicates the start of a protein on an mRNA molecule? What indicates the end of a protein on an mRNA molecule?
20. A permanent change in a cell’s DNA is called a ____________.
21. Differentiate between the following gene mutations: point and frameshift.
22. List three things that can cause mutations.
23. Fill in the missing information. You will need to use a mRNA codon chart:
DNA
mRNA
GAC
tRNA
Amino Acid
GAC
UGC
CCC
Cysteine
Glycine
91
Name
DNA: What it looks like, and when . . .
Match each of these definitions to one of the following terms: Gene, Chromatin, Non-replicated Chromosome, Replicated
Chromosome, Chromatid, Homologous Chromosomes. In the space provided, make a sketch of each of the forms of DNA.
____________________ Form of DNA during interphase, consisting of DNA and its
associated proteins. DNA must be in this form for replication
and transcription.
____________________ Form of DNA during prophase and metaphase of mitosis, consisting
of two copies of DNA and its associated proteins.
____________________ Form of DNA during anaphase and telophase of mitosis, consisting
of a single copy of DNA and its associated proteins. Humans have 46
of these lengths of DNA in each of their body cells.
____________________ One of the identical halves of a replicated chromosome.
____________________ A pair of chromosomes that are the same size and shape and
code for the same traits (not necessarily variations). One is
inherited from the male parent, and one is inherited from the female
parent.
____________________ A section of a chromosome that is the code for a single protein.
92
Name
Diploid vs. haploid
(2n)
(1N)
The circles below represent the nuclei of two cells. The structures inside the cells represent
chromosomes. Analyze the nuclei below and then propose answers for the following questions.
Cell A
The nucleus of a somatic cell of
Drosophilia (the fruit fly). This is
a DIPLOID nucleus.
Cell B
The nucleus of a gamete cell of the same
Drosophilia. This is a HAPLOID nucleus.
1. Generally, the prefix “di” means ___________________________.
2. In a diploid cell the chromosomes seem to exist in ________________________.
3. If the diploid number of an organism is 10, then a single diploid cell of this organism will contain chromosomes will
have how many different shapes?__________________
NOTE: A SOMATIC cell is a general name that can be used for an BODY CELL of an organism.
4. Based on the data on this page, the general chromosome number for a somatic cell for most organisms is
________________. THIS IS NOT ALWAYS THE CASE.
NOTE: From a general standpoint, REPRODUCTIVE CELLS, EGG AND SPERM, are called GAMETES.
5. When compared to diploid cells, haploid cells contain ____________ the number of chromosomes plus there is only
____________ member of each chromosome pair.
6. A normal human has a diploid chromosome number of 46. How many chromosomes would be in a gamete cell?
7. Based on the chromosomes in a normal human’s gamete, how many different shapes would be present?
8. What would happen to the chromosome number for a particular species in each generation if sperm and eggs were
diploid? Remember: sperm + egg = zygote
9. The two chromosomes shaped like moons in Cell A are said to be HOMOLOGOUS. Based on the diagram above, what
characterizes homologous chromosomes?
10. In what type of cells, would you find homologous chromosomes?
93
Name
COMPARISON OF MEIOSIS IN MALES AND FEMALES
Sperm Formation
“Spermatogenesis”
1
Egg Formation
“Oogenesis”
2
94
Name
COMPARISON OF MEIOSIS IN MALES AND FEMALES
ANALYSIS QUESTIONS
1. Label A-H with the appropriate phase of meiosis
2. What are phases A-D collectively known as?
3. What is separating in Meiosis I?
4. What are phases E-H collectively known as
5. What is separating in Meiosis II?
6. At each phase (A-H) in the diagram, write 2N or 1N to indicate whether the cells in that phase are diploid
or haploid.
7. What is the diploid number of the organism whose cells are pictured in the diagram?
8. What is the haploid number of the organism whose cells are pictured in the diagram?
9. Based on the diagram, what is the outcome of meiosis (number and type of daughter cells)?
10. In which phases do sperm and egg formation differ? Explain the difference.
11. What does the cell labeled 1 become?
12. What does the cell labeled 2 become?
13. Based on the diagram above, do you think that more egg or sperm is produced in nature? Explain your
answer.
14. Why is reduction division a good description of the meiosis process?
15. In which phases from the diagram are homologous pairs present?
16. In which phases from the diagram are replicated chromosomes present?
17. In which phases from the diagram are non-replicated chromosomes present?
18. Are the sex cells (gametes) that are produced by meiosis identical to one another? Explain.
95
Name ________________________________
REEBOPS-MARSHMALLOW MEIOSIS
1.
How many chromosomes does Mom Reebop have?
2.
How many chromosomes does Dad Reebop have?
3.
What is the dipoid number of chromosomes for Reebops?
4.
What do the chromosomes of the same length represent?
5.
During which phase of meiosis do these chromosomes pair up?
6.
In the space below, draw what the cell containing your chromosomes would look like in this phase of meiosis. Be sure to
illustrate the correct number of chromosomes (as indicated in #3). Label each chromosome the same as your slips of paper.
7.
How many pink chromosomes does Mom Reebop have now?
8.
How many blue chromosomes does Dad Reebop have now?
9.
Is this the diploid or haploid number for Reebops?
10. If the blue chromosomes represent the male parent, what cell does the pile of blue chromosomes represent?
11. If the pink chromosomes represent the female parent, what cell does the pile of pink chromosomes represent?
12. What is this process called?
13. What would we call the new cell created by this process?
14. Count the chromosomes in the new cell. How many does it have?
15. Is this the diploid or haploid number?
16. Write the code (genotype) for your Reebop and describe his/her characteristics (phenotype).
96
Cell Division Study Guide
1. What is happening to the cell in interphase?
2.
Name
4.
Draw a picture of a replicated chromosome.
Label the sister chromatids and the centromere.
Draw a picture of a non-replicated chromosome.
How do they differ?
What does diploid mean? What type of cell in your body are diploid?
5.
What do you call each pair of chromosomes in a diploid cell? Is each chromosome similar or identical? Explain.
6.
What does haploid mean? What type of cell in your body is haploid? What are the two examples of gametes?
7.
What type of cell undergoes meiosis to produce gametes? Where are these cells found?
8.
Define mitosis. List the 4 phases of mitosis.
3.
9.
If the diploid number of chromosomes in an animal cell was 24, how may chromosomes would you find in the egg cell of this
animal?
10. If the diploid number of replicated chromosomes is 24, how many chromatids would there be? How many centromeres?
11. In meiosis, the parent cell (germ cell) has a diploid number of chromosomes, and the resulting daughter cells have a _______
number of chromosomes.
12. What is separating in meiosis I?
Draw a picture of a germ cell with a
diploid number of 4 in prophase I of meiosis I.
How is this different than prophase of mitosis?
13. Draw a picture of a germ cell with a diploid
number of 4 in metaphase I of meiosis I.
How is this different than metaphase of mitosis?
14. Draw a picture of a germ cell with a diploid
number of 4 in anaphase I of meiosis I.
How is this different than anaphase of mitosis?
15. Draw a picture of a germ cell with a diploid
number of 4 in telophase I of meiosis I.
How is this different than telophase of mitosis?
16. What is separating in meiosis II?
Remember, meiosis II is very similar to mitosis, except for the number of daughter cells produced, and the genetic content of each
daughter cell. Be familiar with all of the phases of meiosis II.
17. When a sperm (1N) fertilizes a egg (1N), what is the chromosome number of the resulting zygote (haploid or diploid)?
18. How many chromosomes do humans have in a somatic cell? In a gamete/sex cell?
19. Fill in the chart:
Mitosis
Meiosis
Chromosome # of parent cell
diploid
# of daughter cells
Chromosome # of daughter cell
haploid
Genetic content of daughter cell
identical
20. What is spermatogenesis? How many sperm cells are produced from each germ cell?
21. What is oogenesis? How many eggs are produced from each germ cell?
22. What is nondisjunction? List and describe the three chromosome disorders caused by nondisjunction.
23. How does meiosis cause genetic variation?
97
Name
Phenotypes and Genotypes
Characteristics:
Round seed (R)
Wrinkled seed (r)
Green pod (G)
Yellow pod (g)
Yellow Seed (Y)
Green Seed (y)
Axial flowers (A)
Terminal flowers (a)
Colored seed coat (C)
White seed coat (c)
Long stem (L)
Short stem (l)
Inflated pod (I)
Wrinkled pod (i)
I. Write the genotype for the alleles described.
1. a. Homozygous round seed _____
b. Heterozygous round seed _____
c. Wrinkled seed _____
5. a. Homozygous green pod _____
b. Heterozygous green pod _____
c. Yellow pod _____
2. a. Homozygous yellow seed _____
b. Heterozygous yellow seed _____
c. Green seed _____
6. a. Homozygous axial flowers _____
b. Heterozygous axial flowers _____
c. Terminal flowers _____
3. a. Homozygous colored seed coat _____
b. Heterozygous colored seed coat _____
c. White seed coat _____
7. a. Homozygous long stem _____
b. Heterozygous long stem _____
c. short stem _____
4. a. Homozygous inflated pod _____
b. Heterozygous inflated pod _____
c. Wrinkled pod _____
II. Write the phenotypes for the following genotypes.
1. LL
2. Gg
3. rr
4. Ii
5. ii
6. Aa
7. gg
8. yy
9. Yy
10. GG
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Cc
Rrii
GgYy
CCLL
IiAa
IIAA
llcc
LLCC
RRLl
GGyy
98
Name
Kara and Phil Chromosome Activity
Answer the following:
1. Give the genotypes and phenotypes for both Kara and Phil.
Kara
Genotype
Phenotype
Genotype
Phil
Phenotype
2. Was Kara’s father freckled? Why or why not? Explain your answer.
3. Was Kara’s mother freckled? Why or why not? Explain your answer.
4. Were Kara’s parents colorblind? Explain your answer.
5. Were any of Phil’s brothers or sisters blonde? Explain.
6. When Phil has children of his own, will they have normal color vision? Explain.
7. If Phil and Kara have a child, what is the chance (probability) that their first child will have brown hair?
Complete a Punnett square and give phenotypic and genotypic ratios.
99
Name
Cooperative Group Problems
As a team you are to solve the following problems. BE CERTAIN that each person in your group understands how to:
 Write genotypes (understands the difference between homozygous dominant, heterozygous, and homozygous recessive)
 Complete Punnett squares (can give correct gamete possibilities and zygote combinations)
 Correctly give and state the genotypic and phenotypic ratios
Characteristics:
Round seed (R)
Wrinkled seed (r)
Green pod (G)
Yellow pod (g)
Yellow Seed (Y)
Green Seed (y)
Axial flowers (A)
Terminal flowers (a)
Long stem (L)
Short stem (l)
For problems 1-5 give (a) Parental genotypes (b) Punnett square (c) Genotypic and Phenotypic ratios
1. Cross two plants that are heterozygous for green pods.
2.
Cross a plant that is heterozygous for axial flowers with a plant that has terminal flowers.
3.
Cross a homozygous long stem plant with a short stem plant.
4.
Cross a plant that is heterozygous for round seeds with a plant that has wrinkled seeds.
5.
Cross two short stem plants.
6.
When a long stem plant is crossed with a short stem plant, some of the offspring have short stems. What are the genotypes of
the parents and the offspring? What is the phenotypic ratio of the offspring?
7.
Three fourths of the plants produced by a cross between two unknown pea plants have axial flowers and one fourth have
terminal flowers. What are the genotypes of the parents?
8.
What cross would result in ½ the offspring having green pods and ½ the offspring having yellow pods?
100
Name
Individual Monohybrid Practice Problems
In fruit flies, long wings (L) are dominant over short wings (l). Predict the outcome of the following monohybrid crosses. Give the
(a) Parental genotypes (b) Punnett square and (c) Genotypic and Phenotypic ratio of the offspring
1. Cross a homozygous long winged fly with a homozygous short winged fly.
2.
Cross two heterozygous long winged flies
3.
Cross a heterozygous long winged fly with a short winged fly.
In the following experiment, parents of known phenotypes but unknown genotypes produced the listed offspring. Give the most
probable genotype for each parent.
Parent Genotypes
Parent Phenotypes
# Offspring w/ # Offspring w/
Long Wings
Short Wings
4.
Long Wings x Short Wings
124
121
5.
Long Wings x Long Wings
51
16
6.
Short Wings x Short Wings
0
82
7.
Long Wings x Short Wings
34
0
8.
In humans, normal pigmentation is due to a dominant gene (A). Albinism, lack of pigmentation, is due to a recessive gene (a).
An albino man marries a normally pigmented woman. They have 9 children, all of which are normally pigmented. What are
the most likely genotypes of the parents and the children?
9.
A normally pigmented man whose father was albino marries an albino woman, both of whose parents were normally
pigmented. They have three children, two normally pigmented and one albino. List the genotypes of the grandparents, parents,
and children.
10. A brown rabbit that is crossed with a gray rabbit produces all brown offspring. When these F1 rabbits were crossed among
themselves they produced 47 brown rabbits and 15 gray rabbits in the F2 generation. Which of these characteristics is
dependent on the dominant gene? List the genotypes of the parental generation. List the genotypic and phenotypic ratio of the
F1 and F2 generations.
11. How many of the brown rabbits in the F2 generation in the previous problem would be expected to be homozygous?
12. In guinea pigs, short hair (F) is dominant to long hair (f). The parents of a long haired pig were both short haired. The long
haired pig mates with a short haired pig whose father was short haired and whose mother was long haired. They have one
baby guinea pig that is long haired. What are the most probably genotypes of the guinea pigs mentioned?
101
Complete the following problems on a SEPARATE SHEET OF PAPER.
DIHYBRID CROSSES
1.
2.
3.
4.
An organism has the following genotype AABb. It is crossed with an individual with the genotype Aabb. What type of
gametes can be produced by these individuals?
In rabbits, black coat color is due to a dominant gene B, brown coat color is due to a recessive gene b. Short hair is due to a
dominant gene S, long hair to its recessive allele s. In a cross between 2 heterozygous black, short haired rabbits, what would
be the appearance and ratio of the offspring (BbSs x BbSs).
In horses, black color is dependent upon a dominant gene B, and chestnut upon its recessive allele b. The trotting gait is due
to a dominant gene T and the pacing gait to its recessive allele t. If a homozygous black pacer is mated to a homozygous
chestnut trotter, what will the appearance of the F1 generation be? What are the genotypic and phenotypic ratios for the
offspring from this cross?
If two F1 individuals from above were mated, what kinds of offspring could they have and in what proportion?
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
The color of the flowers of a snapdragon plant illustrates incomplete dominance. Two alleles are present for color, Red (R) and
white (W). However, when a red flowered plant is crossed with a white flowered plant a pink flowered plant is the result.
1. Write the genotype that would result in a A) Red flower
B) White flower C) Pink flower
2. Cross a red flowered plant and a white flowered plant. Give genotypic and phenotypic ratios.
3. Cross a red flowered plant and a pink flowered plant. Give genotypic and phenotypic ratios.
4. Cross two pink flowered plants. Give genotypic and phenotypic ratios.
CODOMINANCE
In Andalusion fowl, the gene for black plumage (CB) is codominant to the gene for white plumage (CW). The heterozygous
genotype results in expression of the black and white feathers and is referred to as blue plumage.
1. Write the genotype that would result in A) black plumage B) white plumage
C) blue plumage
2. Cross a fowl with black plumage with a fowl with blue plumage. Give genotypic and phenotypic ratios.
3. Cross two fowls with blue plumage. Give genotypic and phenotypic ratios.
4. Cross a fowl with blue plumage with a fowl with white plumage. Give genotypic and phenotypic ratios.
MULTIPLE ALLELES
In humans, there are different alleles which code for blood type. Two are dominant and code for specific antigens on the blood
cells. IA is the allele for antigen A, IB is the allele for antigen B, and i is the recessive allele which codes for no antigen.
1. Using the alleles above write all possible genotypes for a person with
A) Type A Blood
B) Type B Blood
C) Type AB Blood
D) Type O Blood
2. One parent has type A blood and the other parent has type B blood. What are their genotypes if they produce offspring with the
following ratios?
A) All AB
B) ½ AB and ½ B
C) ½ AB and ½ A
D) ¼ AB, ¼ A, ¼ B, ¼ O
SEX-LINKED INHERITANCE
In humans, the gene for normal blood clotting (H) is dominant to the gene for hemophilia (h). The trait is sex-linked, meaning it is
found on the X chromosome. Complete the following crosses, giving the genotypic and phenotypic ratios for the offspring. Be sure
to include the words male and female.
1. Give the genotypes for A) Normal female B) Carrier Female
2. Cross a hemophiliac female and a hemophiliac male.
3. Cross a carrier female and a normal male.
4. Cross a carrier female and a hemophiliac male.
5. Cross a normal female and a hemophiliac male.
C) Normal Male
D) Hemophiliac Male
102
GENETIC DISORDERS WEBQUEST
Name
ACHONDROPLASIA
CRI DU CHAT
Most common cause of _____________________
French translation –
Mode of Inheritance -
Mode of Inheritance -
Characteristics -
Characteristics -
CYSTIC FIBROSIS
DUCHENE MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
Mode of Inheritance -
Mode of Inheritance -
Characteristics Characteristics -
Treatments –
Result of Mutant CFTR Gene -
Protein Affected -
KLINFELTER’S SYNDROME
MARFAN SYNDROME
Mode of Inheritance -
Mode of Inheritance -
Characteristics -
Characteristics -
US President thought to have Marfan Syndrome?
Are these individuals male or female?
103
PHENYLKETONURIA
TAY SACH’S
Mode of Inheritance -
Mode of Inheritance -
Characteristics -
Characteristics -
How is it Diagnosed (in infants) -
Prevalence / Incidence –
Treatments -
Treatments –
TRISOMY 21
Common Name Mode of Inheritance Characteristics -
TRISOMY 18
TRISOMY 13
Common Name -
Common Name -
Mode of Inheritance –
Mode of Inheritance –
Characteristics -
Characteristics -
Life expectancy –
Life expectancy -
TURNER’S SYNDROME
Mode of Inheritance Characteristics -
Treatments –
Are these individuals male or female?
104
Name_________________________________
Go to the website http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/units/disorders/karyotype/
Read the paragraph at the top of the page. When you are finished, click “What is a
Chromosome?” Use this website to fill in the following information.
A single human cell contains ____ meters of DNA. The DNA is packages into compact
units called _______________ by wrapping the DNA around ____________. Normally,
humans have _____ of chromosomes in each cell, _____ from the mother and _______
from the father. There are two _______ ___________________ that determine if a
person is male or female. Males have the chromosomes ______ and females have the
chromosomes ______.
Go back to the main page by clicking the back button at the top. Then click “How do
scientists read chromosomes?” Use this website to fill in the following information.
To _____________ a set of human ___________________, scientists first use three
key features to identify their ___________________ and _____________________:
1.
2.
3.
Go back to the main page by clicking the back button at the top. Then click “Make a Karyotype”. Use this website to
fill in the following information.
A ____________ is an organized profile of a person's _________________. In a karyotype, chromosomes are
arranged and numbered by _______, from largest to smallest. This arrangement helps scientists quickly identify
chromosomal alterations that may result in a ___________ _________________. Complete the “Try it Yourself”
Activity.
Call you teacher over to initial ____ once it is complete.
How many chromosomes are shown? _________
How many pairs are there? _________
What do we call these pairs? _______________
Is this individual male or female? ___________
105
Name
A karyotype is an organized profile of a person's chromosomes. In a karyotype, chromosomes are arranged and numbered by size
from largest to smallest. This arrangement helps scientists quickly identify chromosomal alterations that may result in a genetic
disorder. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Twenty-two of these pairs are called _______________ and the twenty-third
pair is the ___________ chromosomes. However, due to __________________________ during meiosis, some individuals may
have too many or too few chromosomes. _____________ is when a person has an extra chromosome and _________________ is
when a person is missing a chromosome. Genetic disorders can also be caused by chromosome mutations such as insertions,
deletions, inversions, and translocations.
Each of the karyotypes below shows a type of chromosomal mutation. For each karyotype, circle the chromosomal pair with the
mutation and fill out the information below.
Sex of Individual __________
Sex of Individual __________
Type of chromosomal mutation
Type of chromosomal mutation
Genetic disorder
Genetic disorder
Sex of Individual __________
Sex of Individual __________
Type of chromosomal mutation
Type of chromosomal mutation
Genetic disorder
Genetic disorder
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CYTOGENETICS REPORT FOR G-BANDED KARYOTPE
Cytogeneticists Name (s)
Supervisors Initials
(after completing the chart)
Patient Name
Age
Case Study ID
Why is the patient being referred for karyotyping?
Source of Cells for Karyotyping
___Blood
___Amniocytes
___Chronic Vili
___Other (specify)
Total Number of Chromosomes Observed
Gender
Chromosome Findings
___ No observable chromosomal abnormalities
___ Monosomy (chromosome # _____)
___ Trisomy (chromosome # _____)
___ Deletion (chromosome # _____, arm _____)
___ Insertion (chromosome # _____, arm _____)
___ Inversion (chromosome # _____, arm _____)
___ Translocation (chromosome #s _____and _____)
Patient Diagnosis
Select a chromosome from the cytostorage area. Sketch the chromosome labeling the p arm, q arm, and centromere. Draw a
chromosome and label the p arm, q arm, and centromere.
Centromere type: ___ metacentric ___ submetacentric
___ acrocentric
Briefly explain how a karyotype is prepared.
There are only three autosomal trisomic conditions (Patau, Edward, and Down Syndrome) where a fetus will survive to birth. Why
do you think this is so?
107
Name
Interpreting Information in a Pedigree
Organizing information is often the key to solving a problem. Tracing the hereditary characteristics of individuals over many
generations can be especially confusing unless the information is well organized. One way to organize hereditary information is
by using a pedigree. A pedigree is a diagram that shows the occurrence and appearance, or phenotype, of a particular genetic
trait from one generation to the next in a family. Genotypes for individuals in a pedigree can usually be determined, too.
In a pedigree:
Each generation is represented by a Roman numeral.
Each person in a generation is also numbered.
Each person can be identified by a generation numeral and an individual number (example I-1, II-4, III-1).
Each male is represented by a square. Each female is represented by a circle.
Each darkened symbol on a pedigree represents individuals who have the trait being studied.
Each non-darkened symbol on a pedigree represents individuals who do not have the trait being studied.
Procedure
The following pedigree traces the dimples trait through three generations of a family. Although Jane and John Smith have
dimples, their daughter, Clarissa, does not. John’s dad has dimples, but his mother and his sister, Grace, do not. Jane’s dad, Mr.
Renoldo and her brother, Jorge, and her sister, Emily, do not have dimples, but her mother does.
1.
How are marriages symbolized? ____________________________________________
2.
How are offspring symbolized? ____________________________________________
3.
Does individual I-3 have dimples? __________ Does II-2?____________ Does III-1?___________
4.
Is having dimples a dominant or recessive trait?
5.
6.
Write the name of each person below the correct symbol in the above pedigree.
Write the genotype of each person below their name in the above pedigree.
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The gene responsible for normal skin pigmentation (A) is dominant over the gene for albinism (a), or lack of pigmentation. Use
each of the following pedigrees to study how the albino trait is passed from generation to generation. Indicate the genotype for
each individual.
7.
9.
8.
10.
11. Make a pedigree based on the following passage about cleft chin.
Andy, Penny, and Scott have cleft chins, but their father and mother, Mr. and Mrs. Adams, do not. Mrs. Wood, Mrs. Adams’
sister, has a cleft chin, but their parents, Mr. and Mrs. Crenshaw, do not. Mrs. Wood’s children, Deidra and Darlene Wood,
have cleft chins, but their sister, Dixie, like her father, does not have a cleft chin.
12. Write the name of each person below the correct symbol in your pedigree.
13. Write the genotype of each person below their name in your pedigree.
14. Does individual I-2 have freckles? __________ Does II-4?____________ Does III-4?___________
15. Based on this scenario, is having freckles a dominant or recessive trait?
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Name
Data Sheet
“Human Pedigree Analysis: Alcaptonuria”
Test Tube #
Initials
Relationship
1
PGF
Paternal Grandfather
2
MGF
Maternal Grandfather
3
M
Mother
4
MA
Maternal Aunt
5
MU
Maternal Uncle
6
B
Brother
7
PGM
Paternal Grandmother
8
MGM
Maternal Grandmother
9
F
Father
10
PA
Paternal Aunt
11
PU
Paternal Uncle
12
S
Sister
Results
Possible Genotype
Pedigree
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1.
Pre-lab questions
What is the name of the disease we will be studying in this lab?
2.
How does the disease reveal itself?
3.
Which form of the trait is coded for by a dominant allele?_____________ Recessive?____________
4.
What happens to the urine of individuals with the disease?
5.
During the procedure, how will you know if an individual has Alcaptonuria?
6.
What are the two possible genotypes for an individual that tests negative for Alcaptonuria?
7.
What is a pedigree?
8.
What sex is represented by a circle? By a square?
Post-lab questions:
1. Is alcaptonuria a sex-linked trait? How can you tell?
2.
Why were you not able to distinguish the difference between the AA genotype or Aa genotype when using this biochemical
test?
3.
There is one family member whose genotype cannot be absolutely determined (see question # 2). What is that family
member’s initials and explain why this family member's genotype cannot be determined using the pedigree at the present time.
4.
Since you are afflicted with alcaptonuria, what is the chance that your first child will have alcaptonuria if your spouse is:
a) afflicted with alcaptonuria-
b) heterozygous-
c) homozygous dominant-
5.
What is the chance that your brother’s first child will have alcaptonuria if his spouse is:
a) afflicted with alcaptonuria-
b) heterozygous-
c) homozygous dominant-
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Name
DNA Fingerprinting
Mr. I.M. Megabucks, the wealthiest man in the world, recently died. Since his death, three women have come
forward. Each woman claims to have a child by Megabucks and demands a substantial share of his estate for her
child. Lawyers for the estate have insisted on DNA typing of each of the alleged heirs. Fortunately, Megabucks
anticipated trouble like this before he died, and he arranged to have a sample of his blood frozen for DNA typing.
Below you see DNA fingerprints from Megabucks, Mothers X, Y, and Z and each of their children. Your job is
to analyze the data and determine whether any of the children could be Megabucks' heir. Remember that every person
has two of each chromosome, one inherited from his mother and one inherited from his father. Half of every person's
DNA comes from his mother and half comes from his father so some of the DNA bands showing in the fingerprints of
the children will come from their mothers, and the rest will come from their fathers. The question is could that father
be Megabucks?
Procedure
1. For the first child, identify the bands in the DNA profile that came from the mother. (Remember that not all of the
mother's DNA is transmitted to the child; just one of each pair of chromosomes is transmitted.) Mark the bands
that came from the mother with a M. Circle the remaining bands.
2. Compare the remaining bands with the DNA profile from Megabucks. If he is the father, then all of the circled
bands in the child's profile should have a corresponding band in his profile. Use a straightedge to help you line up
the bands accurately. (Remember that only half of the father's chromosomes are transmitted to a child, so not every
band from the father would match the child's profile.)
3. Repeat the analysis for the other alleged heirs.
4. Circle any children that could possible by Megabuck’s heir.
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Heredity Review Sheet
Name
Joey wanted to find out if the temperature of water affected the amount of sugar that would dissolve in it. He put 50 ml of water into four
identical jars. He changed the temperatures of the jars of water until he had one at 0 degrees C, one at 50 degrees C, one at 75 degrees
C, and one at 95 degrees C. He then dissolved as much sugar as he could in each jar by stirring.
1. What is the independent variable?
2. What is the dependent variable?
3. What is the control?
4. What are two constants?
You must be able to analyze an experiment and formulate a conclusion based on the given data.
5. Why is every child produced from a set of parents genetically different?
6. What is responsible for determining the sex of an offspring?
Be able to view a karyotype of determine the sex of the offspring and be able to determine if the offspring is chromosomally normal
or abnormal.
7. The mode of inheritance Mendel illustrated in his pea plant experiments is that of Complete Dominance. Describe this mode
of inheritance.
8. Define the following terms: genotype, phenotype, homozygous, heterozygous, and allele
9. What processes are represented by using a punnett square?
A homozygous black dog and a homozygous white dog are mated. All white dogs are produced. These dogs are then mated
with each other and they produce offspring with the phenotypic ratio of 3:1 (white to black).
10. What is the mode of inheritance?
11. Write the genotype of the black dog.
A homozygous black dog and a homozygous white dog are mated. Dogs with equally expressed white and black fur are
produced.
12. What is the mode of inheritance?
13. Write the genotype of the black dog, the white dog, and the dog with both black and white fur.
A homozygous black dog and a homozygous white dog are mated. All gray dogs are produced.
14. What is the mode of inheritance?
15. Write the genotype of the black dog, the white dog, and the gray dog.
Normally, only the male dogs of a particular breed lack a tail. This is a recessive trait. If you mated a female dog that was
heterozygous for a tail with a male dog that has one, you get ¾ of the offspring with tails and ¼ without tails. Again, the only
dogs without a tail are the males.
16. What is the mode on inheritance?
17. Write the genotype of the female homozygous tailed dog.
18. Write the genotype of the male dog that lacks a tail.
Use the pedigree to answer the following questions.
19. How many children do individuals I-1 and I-2 have?
20. What is the sex of individual II-3?
21. Do they have the trait that is being studied?
22. What is the relationship between I-3 and III-1?
23. Is this trait a dominant, recessive, or a sex-linked trait. Explain how you know this.
24. Write the genotype of I-4.
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Name
Cloning in FocusWeb Quest
Log on to: http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu/units/cloning and explore
this module to find the answers to the questions below.
1. Compare and contrast the following methods of Cloning:
Embryo Twinning
Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer
Similarities
Differences
2. How does Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT) differ from the natural way of making an embryo?
3. “Click and Clone” to create a mouse clone. Write the steps involved in cloning your mouse below.
What color coat will your mouse clone have?
4. Briefly explain the medical reasons for cloning.
5. List reasons, other than medical, for cloning.
6. What was the first organism cloned? How was it done? In what year did this take place?
7. What was the first organism to be cloned using nuclear transfer?
8. How were the first cows cloned?
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9. What organism helped prove that cloning could be done using cells from males (up to this point all cloning
experiments had been carried out using cells from females)? What was the organism’s name?
10. In what year was the first human clone created and what stage of development did it reach before it stopped
growing?
11. Give at least two reasons why a clone might not necessarily be a carbon copy of the donor organism.
Name the two animals (they are the same species) that serve as an example.
12. Test your knowledge in “Is it Cloning or Not?”. What was your score and prize?
13. List and briefly explain the risks of cloning.
14. Choose one of the questions raised in “What Are Some Issues In Cloning?”. Write the question and your response
to it below.
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Name
Fossil Dating
1.
Where are most fossils found?
2.
When looking at rock layers, are the lower layers older or younger than top layers?
3.
What type of fossil dating is this?
4.
Define radioactive dating.
5 . Define half-life.
6 . You have been given the opportunity of spending half of a large sum of money every four hours. What is the half-
life of your money?
7 . You are given 5,000 dollars to spend at the mall. The half-life of your money is 3 hours. How much money will
you have left after 18 hours?
8 . A student begins an experiment with 100 grams of Sodium-24 (half-life is 15 hours). How much of the Sodium-24
will remain after 75 hours?
9 . The fossil of a fish similar to a bass is found near a creek bank. The bone mass of a live bass normally contains 20
grams of Carbon-14, while the bone mass of the fossil contains 0.625 grams of Carbon-14. If the Half-life of
Carbon-14 is 5,730 years, how old is the fossil?
1 0 . You discover a fossil on an archeological dig. You find that of its original amount of Carbon-14, only 12.5 percent
remains. How old is the fossil?
1 1 . 40 cc's of Iodine-131 (half-life is 8.07 days) tracer are injected into the thyroid gland for a glandular analysis.
How much of the Iodine will remain after 40.35 days?
1 2 . Cobalt-60 has a half-life of 5.27 years. Why would a physician choose radioactive Iodine-131 as a glandular tracer
rather than radioactive Cobalt-60?
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Geologic Timescale
Timeline Activity
Objective:
To create a time line of the Geologic Time Scale including the important events in the history of life.
Procedure:
1. Obtain a legal size sheet of paper (35.5 cm in length) and a ruler.
2. Refer to the Geological Time Scale handout on the next page of your lab manual. Calculate the duration of each
period in the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic Era (do not include the Precambrian period). Record the duration
of each time period on the Geological Time Scale handout.
3. Using the duration of each period, calculate how many centimeters each period should be represented on your time
line. Round to the nearest tenth and record this information on the Geological Time Scale handout.
16 million years = 1 centimeter (cm)
Divide your timeline into the appropriately sized sections according to your scale. Label each period and include
the year it began and ended.
5. Using brackets above or below your timeline, label the sections of the timeline with the correct eras.
6. Write the events listed below next to the correct period on your timeline. Use the Geological Time Scale handout
as a reference.
4.
Important Events:
 First humans
 First reptiles
 First jawed fish
 First organisms come onto land
 First mammals
 First dinosaurs
 First primates
 First birds
 First jawless fish
 First seed plants
 First mammal-like reptiles
 First amphibians
 First sharks
 First angiosperms
 First vascular plants
 Dinosaurs extinct
 Current time
 Most modern animal phyla arise
 Age of the fish
 Marine algae abundant
 Gymnosperms dominate (will be written twice)
 Angiosperms dominate
 Age of the reptiles
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THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
Era
Period
Age
Duration
(Millions
of Years)
(Millions of
Years)
Length
on
Paper
(mm)
Cenozoic Quarternary
Tertiary
Mesozoic Cretaceous
1.8
65
144
Jurassic
206
Triassic
245
Paleozoic Permian
290
Carboniferous
363
Devonian
409
Silurian
439
Ordivician
510
Cambrian
543
Precambrian
600
Important events
in the
History of Life
Current time; ice ages; humans appear
Major radiation of mammals, birds, &
pollinating insects; Angiosperm dominance
increases; Origins of many primate groups
including apes; Apelike ancestors of humans
appear
Flowering plants (angiosperms) appear;
many groups or organisms, including
dinosaurs, become extinct at end of period
(Cretaceous extinctions)
Gymnosperms continue as dominant plants;
dinosaurs abundant and diverse; first birds
appear
Cone-bearing plants (gymnosperms)
dominate landscapes; first dinosaurs; first
mammals (very small); “Age of Reptiles”
Extinction of many marine & terrestrial
organisms (Permian mass extinction);
radiation of reptiles; origins of mammal-like
reptiles & most modern orders of insects
Extensive forests of vascular plants; first
seed plants; origin of reptiles; amphibians
dominant
Diversification of bony fishes; first
amphibians & insects; first sharks; “Age of
Fishes”
Diversity of jawless fishes; first jawed
fishes; diversification of early vascular
plants
Marine algae abundant; colonization of land
by plants & arthropods (insects); first
jawless fish
Radiation of most modern animal phyla
(Cambrian explosion)
Diverse soft-bodied invertebrate animals;
algae
2,200
Oldest fossils of eukaryotic cells
2,700
Atmospheric oxygen begins to accumulate
3,500
Oldest fossils of cells (prokaryotes)
3,800
Earliest traces of life
4,600
Approximate time of origin of Earth
Information taken from: Campbell, Neil, and Jane Reece. Biology. 6th ed. Glenview: Benjamin Cummings, 2002.
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Name
How do Human Genes Compare with Those of Other Primates?
Scientists use the amino acid sequences in proteins to determine the evolutionary relationships of living species. In this activity
you’ll compare the amino acid sequences among groups of primates to determine primate evolutionary history. Listed below are
DNA sequences for five primates. Find the complementary mRNA strand and use your codon chart to determine the correct amino
acid sequence. You may abbreviate the amino acid names to the 1 st three letters (special abbreviations: Asparaginine = ASN,
Aspartate = ASP). Then use these sequences to answer the following questions.
Baboon DNA:
AA:
TTA TGT TGT CCG CTA CTT CAT CTA CTA TCG GGG CCG CCG TTA TTA
ASN THR THR GLY ASP GLU VAL ASP ASP SER PRO GLY GLY ASN ASN
Chimp DNA:
TCG TGT TGT CCG CTA CTT CAT CTT CTA TGT GGG CCG CCG CGC TTA
AA:
SER THR THR GLY ASP GLU VAL GLU ASP THR PRO GLY GLY ALA ASN
Lemur DNA:
CGC TGT TCG CCG CTT TTT CAT CTT CTA TCG GGG CCG TCG GTA TTA
AA:
Gorilla DNA:
AA:
Human DNA:
AA:
ALA THR SER GLY GLU LYS VAL GLU ASP SER PRO
GLY SER HIS ASN
TCG TGT TGT CCG CTA CTT CAT CTT CTA TCG GGG CCG CCG TTA TTA
SER THR THR GLY ASP GLU VAL GLU ASP SER
PRO GLY GLY ASN ASN
TCG TGT CGC CCG CTA CTT CAT CTT CTA TGT GGG CCG CCG CGC TTA
SER THR ALA GLY ASP GLU VAL GLU ASP THR PRO GLY GLY ALA ASN
For each primate, count the number of amino acid that are different from the human sequence. Record the numbers in the data
table below. Then calculate the percentage difference by dividing the numbers by 15 and multiplying by 100. Record the numbers
in the data table below.
Primate
# of A.A. that differ
from human
Percent difference
from human
Baboon
Chimpanzee
Lemur
Gorilla
1.
What term refers to a change in a DNA molecule?
2.
Are the differences between the DNA sequences of primates examples of gene or chromosome mutations? Explain.
3.
Are these point or frameshift mutations? Explain.
4.
What may have caused these mutations (HINT: think of causes of mutations that were discussed in our Heredity unit)?
5.
The thirteenth codon in the lemurs DNA is ______ and codes for the amino acid ____________, but in the humans DNA the
thirteenth codon is ______ and codes for the amino acid ____________, Propose a change in the lemur DNA that would not
have changed the amino acid.
6.
The protein above is believed to have evolved at a constant rate. If humans and lemur diverged 200 million years ago, what is
the percent change in the protein per 100 million years?
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Name
Natural Selection Simulation Data Sheet
Color
Starting #
Round 1 #
of survivors
Round 2 #
of survivors
Description of “Habitat”:
1.
Why did certain color chips “survive” in greater numbers than others did?
2.
Observe the fabrics and chips of at least two other groups. Are the color patterns of the survivors the same as yours? What
explains these similarities or discrepancies?
3.
Write a general statement in paragraph form describing your results using the following terms: variation, habitat, predator,
prey, survivor, reproduce, adaptation.
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Natural Selection Worksheet
Name
Use your definitions to complete the following paragraph explaining natural selection. Choose from the following
words: overproduction, variation, compete, survive, offspring, reproduce, advantage
Darwin used the term natural selection to describe the process where organisms with certain traits have a better chance
of surviving to reproduce. He observed that when organisms have ____________________, not all of the young
survive to adulthood and ____________________. Because of _______________________, there is not enough food,
water, and places to live. Offspring must ______________________ for resources. Some will
_______________________, some will not. Even offspring of the same species have ____________________ of
traits. Some traits are an ___________________ which helps the organism survive and reproduce. Those offspring
with traits favorable to the environment have a better chance to survive and pass on their genes to the next generation.
Using Darwin’s ideas about evolution, classify each statement as an example of overproduction (O), competition (C),
variations (V), or natural selection (NS). Write the correct letter in the space provided.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
____A female cod fish produces more than one million eggs in one mating season.
____Each puppy in the liter was a different color than its mother.
____As the plants in the lake died, there was less food available for the fishes living in the lake.
____As a result of air pollution, the color of peppered moths slowly changed from gray to black.
____The smaller, weaker members of the tiger population died from starvation.
____The deer population increased so much one year that many deer starved.
____Older zebras often fall prey to lions because they cannot run as fast as younger zebras.
____Brown moths are not as easily seen as white moths on the bark of trees. Therefore, they are not eaten as
often as white moths of the same species.
Select the type of evidence each of the following statements describes.
Genetic
comparisons
Embryological
development
Vestigial
structure
Analogous
structure
Type of Evidence
Homologous
structure
Evidence
A modified structure seen among different groups of
descendents
In the earliest stages of development, a tail and gill slits can be
seen in fish, birds, rabbits, and humans
Exemplified by forelimbs of bats, penguins, lizards, and
monkeys
The appendix and the eyes of sightless species
Human DNA and chimpanzee DNA is almost identical
Bird and butterfly wings have the same function but different
structures
A body structure reduced in function but may have been used
in an ancestor
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Name
ADAPTATIONS: THE BEAK OF THE FINCH LAB
DATA SHEET
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN DIAGRAM
Title:
Hypothesis:
Independent Variable (IV):
Levels of the IV:
 IV:

(Draw in one column for each level)
Identify which level is the control
Number of trials:

Dependant Variable (DV) with Units:

DV:
Constants (C) (at least 3):

C:
DATA TABLE
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Name
The Evolutionary History of the Vertebrates
1. Place the major groups of vertebrates in the order they first appear in the fossil record.
2. Define ectothermic and endothermic.
3. What is the vital role of oxygen in organisms?
4. What is the function of blood?
5. What is the function of a heart and circulatory system?
6. Why do vertebrates need water?
Fish
7. Are fish endotherms or ectotherms? What other classes share this characteristic?
8. Explain why ectotherms are particularly adapted to a water environment.
9. What organ does fish use for respiration?
10. Draw the heart of the fish. Label and indicate the number of chambers.
11. Do fish have internal or external fertilization? What other classes share this characteristic?
Amphibians
12. What unique transformation occurs in amphibians as they move from life in the water to life on the land?
13. What organ is responsible for removing oxygen from air?
14. Draw the heart of the amphibian. Label and indicate the number of chambers.
15. Explain how the fertilization mechanism of amphibians makes them dependent on water for survival.
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Reptiles
16. Water retention is not a problem in an aquatic environment; however it is the most difficult obstacle for life on land.
Describe at least three adaptations of terrestrial vertebrates that made life on land possible.
17. Draw the heart of the reptile. Label and indicate the number of chambers.
18. What is the greatest advantage of internal fertilization? What other classes share this characteristic?
19. What is the adaptive advantage of an amniotic egg? What other classes have an amniotic egg?
Birds and Mammals
20. Explain why reptiles are limited to a warm climate and birds can adapt to cold and hot climates.
21. Explain why the energy demands (food) of the endotherms are much higher than the energy demands of the ectotherms.
22. Birds have the most efficient mechanism for obtaining oxygen. Describe the respiration in birds.
23. Draw the heart of the bird and mammal. Label and indicate the number of chambers.
24. As the number of chambers increases, how does transport of oxygen to tissues and organs become more efficient?
25. What are the three types of mammals?
26. What is the function of the placental in placental mammals?
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Unit 5 Evolution Study Guide
Name
Be sure to refer to all notes and activities from this unit. Also be able to read an experimental scenario and pick out the following
parts: independent variable, dependent variable, constants and control
1. Be familiar with the progression of the events on the timescale from simple organisms to complex organisms. Put the
following groups of organisms in the correct evolutionary order according to the geologic time scale: Algae, jawed fish,
mammals, amphibians, bacteria
2.
Define homologous structure. What is an example?
3.
Define vestigial structure. What is an example?
4.
Define analogous structure. What is an example?
5.
Homologous and vestigial structures show that these organisms descended from a common ancestor. Explain this.
6.
Compare the embryological development of vertebrates and molecular comparisons
7.
8.
The preserved remains of ancient organisms are ________________.
Describe Relative Dating v. Radiometric Dating.
9.
What type of information do both types of dating techniques tell you about the age of a fossil?
10. Define half-life. Describe how half-lives are used to determine the age of fossils.
11. This diagram shows that the chimp is more closely related to the mouse than it is to the pigeon. What would we expect to
find about the DNA of these organisms? Which organisms might have similar DNA?
12. Define evolution.
13. Define adaptation.
14. Define natural selection.
15. How are mutations related to evolution?
16. What are the principles of natural selection? Be able to apply these principles to a real life situation. Know how the words
variation, overproduction, and natural selection fit into these steps.
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17. In what order did birds, mammals, fish, reptiles, and amphibians evolve?
18. External fertilization requires water. Which of the five main vertebrate groups use external fertilization?
19. Internal fertilization allowed reptiles to move onto land and increased the likelihood that fertilization will occur. What other
vertebrate groups, besides the reptile, use internal fertilization?
20. Unlike amphibians, reptiles have an egg that is shelled with membranes to protect the embryo. What is this type of egg called?
21. Define ectothermic. Which of the five main vertebrate groups are ectothermic?
22. Animals who are endothermic control their own body temperature. To generate heat you must have a highly efficient
respiratory and circulatory system. Which two vertebrate classes show these characteristics?
23. What is the purpose of a placenta? List two mammals that DO NOT have a placenta.
24. Mammal is to hair/fur as bird is to _______________.
25. List characteristics of each group of vertebrates (fertilization, reproductive cycle, endothermic or ectothermic, etc.)
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Name
FETAL PIG DISSECTION ANSWER SHEET
FIGURE 1
1.
To which kingdom, phylum and class does the pig belong?
2.
One the drawing above label: dorsal surface, ventral surface, anterior end, posterior end, head, neck, thorax, abdomen, tail,
umbilical cord, hoof.
3.
What two external features indicate that the pig is a mammal?
4.
What is the length of your fetal pig? What is its age?
5.
What is the sex of your fetal pig? What structure is present on the posterior region of females?
ABDOMINAL CAVITY
Label the structures indicated by the
lines in the drawing below: stomach,
liver, diaphragm, mesentery, appendix
(ceacum), gallbladder, rectum, large
intestine, small intestine, anus, pancreas,
spleen
Figure 2
127
THORACIC CAVITY
6. What are the major organs that occupy the thoracic cavity?
7.
Label the structures indicated by the lines in
the drawing below: pulmonary vein,
pulmonary artery, aorta, superior vena cava,
inferior vena cava, right ventricle, left
ventricle, right atrium, left atrium
8.
How does the structure of the trachea keep it from collapsing?
9.
10.
11.
12.
What organ in the fetal pig removes nitrogenous wastes from the blood?
Once these wastes are concentrated what is the liquid product called?
In the pig, where is liquid waste stored until it is eliminated from the body?
Label the female urogenital structures: kidney, urethra, bladder, ureter, ovary, Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, urogenital
opening. Label the male urogenital structures: kidney, urethra, bladder, ureter, scrotal sac, testis, vas deferens and penis
Figure 3
Figure 4
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Name
Complete the following table
ORGAN
SYSTEM
FUNCTION
Bladder
Diaphragm
Esophagus
Gall Bladder
Heart
Kidney
Large Intestine
Liver
Lungs
Larynx
Ovary
Pancreas
Penis
Spleen
Stomach
Small Intestine
Testis
Trachea
Ureter
Uterus
Vagina
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